Data Communication Techniques And Computer

Networks
Chapter 5: Analog Transmission

5.1
 5.1. ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

We have seen in Chapter 4 that a digital signal is

superior to an analog signal. The tendency today is to
change an analog signal to digital data. In this section
we describe two techniques, pulse code modulation and
delta modulation.

Topics discussed in this section:

Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
Delta Modulation (DM)

5.2
 Figure 5.1 Components of PCM encoder

5.3
 Figure 5.2 Three different sampling methods for PCM

5.4
 Note

According to the Nyquist theorem, the

sampling rate must be
at least 2 times the highest frequency
contained in the signal.

5.5
 Figure 5.3 Nyquist sampling rate for low-pass and bandpass signals

5.6
 Example 5.1

For an intuitive example of the Nyquist theorem, let us

sample a simple sine wave at three sampling rates: fs = 4f
(2 times the Nyquist rate), fs = 2f (Nyquist rate), and
fs = f (one-half the Nyquist rate). Figure 2.4 shows the
sampling and the subsequent recovery of the signal.

It can be seen that sampling at the Nyquist rate can create

a good approximation of the original sine wave (part a).
Oversampling in part b can also create the same
approximation, but it is redundant and unnecessary.
Sampling below the Nyquist rate (part c) does not produce
a signal that looks like the original sine wave.
5.7
 Figure 5.4 Recovery of a sampled sine wave for different sampling rates

5.8
 Example 5.2

Consider the revolution of a hand of a clock. The second

hand of a clock has a period of 60 s. According to the
Nyquist theorem, we need to sample the hand every 30 s
(Ts = T or fs = 2f ). In Figure 4.5a, the sample points, in
order, are 12, 6, 12, 6, 12, and 6. The receiver of the
samples cannot tell if the clock is moving forward or
backward. In part b, we sample at double the Nyquist rate
(every 15 s). The sample points are 12, 3, 6, 9, and 12.
The clock is moving forward. In part c, we sample below
the Nyquist rate (Ts = T or fs = f ). The sample points are
12, 9, 6, 3, and 12. Although the clock is moving forward,
the receiver thinks that the clock is moving backward.
5.9
 Figure 5.5 Sampling of a clock with only one hand

5.10
 Example 5.3

An example related to Example 2.2 is the seemingly

backward rotation of the wheels of a forward-moving car
in a movie. This can be explained by under-sampling. A
movie is filmed at 24 frames per second. If a wheel is
rotating more than 12 times per second, the under-
sampling creates the impression of a backward rotation.

5.11
 Example 5.4

Telephone companies digitize voice by assuming a

maximum frequency of 4000 Hz. The sampling rate
therefore is 8000 samples per second.

5.12
 Example 5.5

A complex low-pass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.

What is the minimum sampling rate for this signal?

Solution
The bandwidth of a low-pass signal is between 0 and f,
where f is the maximum frequency in the signal.
Therefore, we can sample this signal at 2 times the
highest frequency (200 kHz). The sampling rate is
therefore 400,000 samples per second.

5.13
 Example 5.6

A complex bandpass signal has a bandwidth of 200 kHz.

What is the minimum sampling rate for this signal?

Solution
We cannot find the minimum sampling rate in this case
because we do not know where the bandwidth starts or
ends. We do not know the maximum frequency in the
signal.

5.14
 Figure 5.6 Quantization and encoding of a sampled signal

5.15
 Example 5.7

What is the SNRdB in the example of Figure 4.6?

Solution
We can use the formula to find the quantization. We have
eight levels and 3 bits per sample, so

SNRdB = 6.02(3) + 1.76 = 19.82 dB

Increasing the number of levels increases the SNR.

5.16
 Example 5.8

A telephone subscriber line must have an SNRdB above

40. What is the minimum number of bits per sample?

Solution
We can calculate the number of bits as

Telephone companies usually assign 7 or 8 bits per

sample.

5.17
 Example 5.9

We want to digitize the human voice. What is the bit rate,

assuming 8 bits per sample?

Solution
The human voice normally contains frequencies from 0
to 4000 Hz. So the sampling rate and bit rate are
calculated as follows:

5.18
 Figure 5.7 Components of a PCM decoder

5.19
 Example 5.10

We have a low-pass analog signal of 4 kHz. If we send the

analog signal, we need a channel with a minimum
bandwidth of 4 kHz. If we digitize the signal and send 8
bits per sample, we need a channel with a minimum
bandwidth of 8 × 4 kHz = 32 kHz.

5.20
 Figure 5.8 The process of delta modulation

5.21
 Figure 5.9 Delta modulation components

5.22
 Figure 5.10 Delta demodulation components

5.23
 5.2. DIGITAL-TO-ANALOG CONVERSION

Digital-to-analog conversion is the process of changing

one of the characteristics of an analog signal based on the
information in digital data.

Topics discussed in this section:

Aspects of Digital-to-Analog Conversion
Amplitude Shift Keying
Frequency Shift Keying
Phase Shift Keying
Quadrature Amplitude Modulation

5.24
 Figure 5.11 Digital-to-analog conversion

5.25
 Figure 5.12 Types of digital-to-analog conversion

5.26
 Note

Bit rate is the number of bits per second.

Baud rate is the number of signal
elements per second.

In the analog transmission of digital

data, the baud rate is less than
or equal to the bit rate.

5.27
 Example 5.11

An analog signal carries 4 bits per signal element. If 1000

signal elements are sent per second, find the bit rate.

5.28
 Example 5.12

An analog signal has a bit rate of 8000 bps and a baud

rate of 1000 baud. How many data elements are
carried by each signal element? How many signal
elements do we need?

5.29
 Figure 5.13 Binary amplitude shift keying

5.30
 Figure 5.14 Implementation of binary ASK

5.31
 Example 5.13

We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which spans

from 200 to 300 kHz. What are the carrier frequency and
the bit rate if we modulated our data by using ASK with d
= 1?

5.32
 Example 5.14

In data communications, we normally use full-duplex

links with communication in both directions. We need
to divide the bandwidth into two with two carrier
frequencies, as shown in Figure 5.5. The figure shows
the positions of two carrier frequencies and the
bandwidths. The available bandwidth for each
direction is now 50 kHz, which leaves us with a data
rate of 25 kbps in each direction.

5.33
 Figure 5.15 Bandwidth of full-duplex ASK used in Example 4.14

5.34
 Figure 5.16 Binary frequency shift keying

5.35
 Example 5.15

We have an available bandwidth of 100 kHz which

spans from 200 to 300 kHz. What should be the carrier
frequency and the bit rate if we modulated our data by
using FSK with d = 1?

5.36
 Figure 5.17 Bandwidth of MFSK used in Example 4.16

5.37
 Example 5.16

We need to send data 3 bits at a time at a bit rate of 3

Mbps. The carrier frequency is 10 MHz. Calculate the
number of levels (different frequencies), the baud rate,
and the bandwidth.

Solution
We can have L = 23 = 8. The baud rate is S = 3 MHz/3 =
1000 Mbaud. This means that the carrier frequencies
must be 1 MHz apart (2∆f = 1 MHz). The bandwidth is B
= 8 × 1000 = 8000. Figure 5.8 shows the allocation of
frequencies and bandwidth.

5.38
 Figure 5.18 Bandwidth of MFSK used in Example 4.16

5.39
 Figure 5.19 Binary phase shift keying

5.40
 Figure 5.20 Implementation of BASK

5.41
 Figure 5.21 QPSK and its implementation

5.42
 Example 5.17

Find the bandwidth for a signal transmitting at 12 Mbps

for QPSK. The value of d = 0.

Solution
For QPSK, 2 bits is carried by one signal element. This
means that r = 2. So the signal rate (baud rate) is S = N ×
(1/r) = 6 Mbaud. With a value of d = 0, we have B = S = 6
MHz.

5.43
 Figure 5.22 Concept of a constellation diagram

5.44
 Example 5.18

Show the constellation diagrams for an ASK (OOK),

BPSK, and QPSK signals.

Solution
Figure 5.23 shows the three constellation diagrams.

5.45
 Figure 5.23 Three constellation diagrams

5.46
 Note

Quadrature amplitude modulation is a

combination of ASK and PSK.

5.47
 Figure 5.24 Constellation diagrams for some QAMs

5.48
 5.3. ANALOG AND DIGITAL

Analog-to-analog conversion is the representation of

analog information by an analog signal. One may ask
why we need to modulate an analog signal; it is already
analog. Modulation is needed if the medium is bandpass
in nature or if only a bandpass channel is available to us.

Topics discussed in this section:

Amplitude Modulation
Frequency Modulation
Phase Modulation

5.49
 Figure 5.25 Types of analog-to-analog modulation

5.50
 Figure 5.26 Amplitude modulation

5.51
 Note

The total bandwidth required for AM

can be determined
from the bandwidth of the audio
signal: BWAM = 2BW.

5.52
 Figure 5.27 AM band allocation

5.53
 Note

The total bandwidth required for FM can

be determined from the bandwidth
of the audio signal: BWFM = 2(1 + β)BW.

5.54
 Figure 5.28 Frequency modulation

5.55
 Figure 5.29 FM band allocation

5.56
 Figure 5.30 Phase modulation

5.57
 Note

The total bandwidth required for PM can

be determined from the bandwidth
and maximum amplitude of the
modulating signal:
BWPM = 2(1 + β)BW.

5.58