Table of Contents

UNIT 1: STATISTICAL GRAPHS, DIAGRAMS AND MAPS..........................................................................2

UNIT 2: BEARINGS, DIRECTIONS, DISTANCES AND AREAS ON A MAP..............................32
UNIT 3: MAP WORK INTERPRETATION......................................................................................42
UNIT 4: THE UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM..................................................................53
UNIT 5: THE ORIGIN OF THE EARTH...........................................................................................64
UNIT 6: INTERNAL LANDFORM PROCESSES.............................................................................72
UNIT 7: SOILS...................................................................................................................................98
UNIT 8: WEATHER AND CLIMATE OF THE WORLD...............................................................104
UNIT 9: NATURAL VEGETATION OF THE WORLD.................................................................154
UNIT 10: POPULATION GROWTH IN THE WORLD..................................................................172
UNIT 11: URBANISATION IN THE WORLD................................................................................182
UNIT 12: AGRICULTURE IN THE WORLD.................................................................................186
UNIT 13: FORESTRY IN THE WORLD.........................................................................................202
UNIT 14: FISHING IN THE WORLD..............................................................................................205
UNIT 15: MINING............................................................................................................................210

UNIT 1: STATISTICAL GRAPHS, DIAGRAMS AND MAPS

1.1. Definition of statistics and importance of statistical graphs and diagrams in
geography
1.1.1 Definition of Statistics
statistics refers to the science of collecting, analyzing, interpreting and presenting various
data. It is a science of how data are collected, analyzed and interpreted.
1.1.2: Importance of statistical graphs and diagrams in geography
 Statistical graphs and diagrams help students to summarize huge and a wide
range of information for future analysis. Diagrams and graphs hold huge
information in accurate way.
 The geographers can identify and interpret the relationship existing between
various variables. For example, the relationship between the increase of prices
for commodities and increase in cost of fuel.
 Facilitate easy understanding of various geographical variables and clearly
show the trend and variations of production, trade, among many others.

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  Statistical diagrams and graphs enable the learners to acquire various skills
such as analytical skills, interpretation and presentation of geographical data.
Such skills can be used in other areas after school.
 Most of statistical diagrams and graphs enable the students and geographers
to save time as data is being recorded down.
1.2. Line and curve graphs
There are several types of line and curve graphs. The following are the main line graphs:
1. Simple line and curve graph
2. Group or comparative line graph
3. Compound line graphs
4. Divergence graphs
1.2.1. Simple line and curve graphs
A line graph is a graph shows plotted points connected by a series of short straight
lines while simple curve graph in which plotted points are joined by a single smooth
line.
line graphs plotted points are observable while curve graphs points are not noticeable.
simple line graph, the line suspends without touching the two-vertical axis while in a simple
curve graph the smooth line drawn touches the two-vertical axis.
Construction of a simple line graph
These are steps followed while constructing simple line graph:
 The independent variables are indicated on horizontal axis. (Independent
variables mean that when there is a change in the independent variable or
variables, this results into a direct reaction of the dependent variables.)
 The dependent variables are represented on the vertical axis. (Dependent
variables are items that are reliant on the independent variables. That is to say;
these are measurable responses from the reaction caused by a change in the
independent variables).
 The vertical axis should start from Zero. While the top part be slightly greater
than the maximum value to be indicated or recorded on it.
 The length of the horizontal line is determined by the number of the
independent values in relation to the scale.
 Draw two vertical lines on both sides and exact numbers of values of constant
relationship recorded on the two axes. However, this is not a must be done
condition.
 When plotting points in correspondence to both independent variables and
dependent variables, it is appropriate to put the dot in the middle of the two
vertical lines as shown below
Worked example
The table below show the temperature recorded at station B

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 Use the data presented in the table above to answer the following
questions that follow:
a. Construct a simple line graph to portray the above statistical data.
b. Draw a simple curve graph to illustrate the above statistics
shown on the table

Advantages of simple line and simple Disadvantages of simple line and simple
curve graphs curve graphs
 They are simple to draw or construct.  There is no accurate interpretation
 When neatly drawn, they provide a because of some points are plotted
good visual impression. basing on estimation of values.
 They are easy to interpret.  There are difficulties in determining
 Less time is needed to construct the appropriate scale especially when
them. large figures or values are used.
 Simple errors or error free because of  The curve graphs are less accurate in

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 the simplicity nature of the methods. comparison to simple line graphs.
 Simple calculations are involved.  It is not easy to use the simple line
 They can be used together with other and curve graphs to compare various
statistical methods and diagrams such categories of data.
as dot maps in a super-imposition
manner.

1.2.2. Group or comparative graphs

This form of statistical method is used to portray more than one dependent variable. It uses
several lines of which each represents a given specific variable of individual item.
Construction of group or comparative line/curve graph
Below are steps or guidelines to be followed while drawing a Group or comparative/ multiple
line/curve graphs:
1. Several lines are constructed on the same graph.
2. The lines drawn representing individual variables or items should be easily
distinguishable from one another. It is advised to use varying colours.
3. Avoid congesting the graph with many lines. The recommendable maximum number
of lines is five. However, if the data given is having more than five independent
variables that determine number of lines to be drawn.
4. The lines/curve should not cross each other unless the data given requires it. If it
happens therefore, strictly varying colours or shading must be used.
5. Lines should not touch the vertical axis.
6. Names of variables being represented should be written directly on each line.
Worked example:

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Advantages of group/comparative line Disadvantages of group/comparative
graph line graph
 It is a simple method as it does  The presence of many variables
not involve a lot of calculations. on the same graph makes their
 It gives a clear impression of the interpretation more difficult.
different variables presented on  The values for each period are
one graph. not easy to determine.
 It can be used to show
comparison of different items.

1.2.3. Compound line graph

A compound line graph is also known as a cumulative line graph. It is the type of
graph where a variety of variables are presented as subsequent lines. Therefore, a
compound line graph displays cumulative totals. It is drawn in a way that lines are
super-imposed above each other; creating several segments or components.
Construction of a compound line graph
The following are the steps that must be followed while constructing a compound line
graph:
1. Make a cumulative table representing progressive or cumulative totals of the
provided variables.
2. Select the appropriate scale for both dependent and independent variables.
3. Follow the steps used when a simple line graph is being drawn. It should be
the variables with large or biggest values to begin.
4. The lines constructed for each variable should connect onto the two vertical
lines on both sides.
5. Super-impose other lines on top of the first line beginning from each segment
or component. Indicate the name of the variable in each section shaded.
6. The lines drawn must begin from or attached to the vertical axis as earlier
emphasized.

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7. Since plotting of points is dependent on the calculated values in a cumulative
manner, lines therefore, must not cross each other. In case they do so, then,
the data given, or the calculated cumulative totals will be having a problem.
8. If the statistical data is in large numbers, it is very advisable to convert the
value of each variable into percentage. Thereafter, calculate the cumulative
totals. Such calculations should be indicated.

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Advantages of compound line Disadvantages of compound line
graph graph
 They are easy to interpret.  When large numbers are used,
 They provide a good visual selecting a suitable scale
impression. becomes more challenging.
 They are simple to draw.  It or they involve calculations
 Less space is used. such as determining the
 They can be used to present a cumulative totals.
variety of variables.  The use of cumulative totals
 They are suitable for while constructing the
comparison purposes. compound line graphs makes
it difficult to find precisely
the actual values of the
variables

1.2.4. Divergence line graphs

Divergence line graphs are statistical graphs that directly portray variations
in values. When there is a rise in values; a plus sign (+) is used in the figure
while a fall or decrease in values is portrayed using a negative sign (-). This
type of graph is used while dealing with variables whose values are highly
changing spatially and temporally.

Construction of a divergence line graph

There are six steps to follow when one is drawing a divergence line graph.
These are:
1. Draw two vertical lines (axis) and leave a reasonable space for the
baseline; on which the independent variables are to be indicated.

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2. Draw a basement line for independent variables; joining the bases of
the two vertical lines. The length of the horizontal line is determined
by the number of independent variables and the horizontal scale used.
3. Determine the average values of all the values indicated in the table.
This is obtained using the following formula:

4. Deduct the average value from each value. The positive and negative
signs should be indicated or shown.
5. The figures or values with positive sign (+) are plotted above the
Zero line or average line. While the negative values are plotted below
or beneath the zero or average line.
6. While determining the scale, the vertical scale should be determined
basing on the calculated divergences. The horizontal scale is chosen
normally depending on the independent variables provided.

Worked example:
Table 1.7: The table of monthly pineapple production in different
areas

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Advantages of divergence line graph Disadvantages of divergence line graph
 It is easy to construct  It involves several calculations for
 It provides a good visual impression. example the total value, getting
 It is easy to interpret average or finding divergences.
 It is an appropriate method of  The actual figures are not shown, only
representing items that need divergences are indicated instead.
comparative analysis.  There are some difficulties while
 It requires limited space. determining the scale mostly when
the divergences are composed of
bigger values and very low ones.
 It consumes for construction.

1.3. Bar graphs

A Bar graph is a graph that represents the categorical data by using rectangular bar.

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 Bar graphs differ from line graphs because the lines used under bar graphs join to form
single and individual rectangular bars.
The following are different types of bar graphs: Simple bar graphs, Group bar graph,
Compound bar graphs, Divergence bar graphs and Age-sex graphs.
1.3.1. Simple bar graphs
A simple bar graph is created following the same procedures as a simple line graph.
However, instead of using a line to represent the variables, parallel bars are used. The
independent variables are indicated on the horizontal axis and dependent variables shown on
the y-axis or vertical line. This form of statistical graph is constructed when a single set of
statistical data is used.
Construction of a simple bar graph
The following are the main steps followed to construct a simple bar graph:
1. Create a frame of both vertical and horizontal axes. That is, drawing the X and Y
axes. The length of these two lines will be determined by the scales used and the
figures to be plotted.
2. Indicate the independent variables on the X axis and dependent variables on Y axis.
3. Select appropriate scale: Both vertical and horizontal scales.
4. The horizontal scale will automatically determine the size of the bars. It is
recommended that the size of each bar should not exceed 1 cm or go below 1cm in
width. Too small and huge bars make the graph lose its primary appearance.
5. use tiny dots to mark the required points. This is because with bar graphs, dots are
not supposed to be seen.
6. The volume, percentage or value of the dependent variable is represented by the
height of each independent bar.
7. The bars should be attached only when a single or similar dependent variable is being
dealt with.

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The data used to construct the above simple bar graph deals with single dependent
variables like rainfall and that is why the bars are attached to each other. However,
the separated bars are used to represent independent variables as shown on the figure
below.

Advantages of simple bar graphs Disadvantages of simple bar graphs

 They are easy to interpret.  They can easily be manipulated to
 They summarize a large amount provide false impressions.
of data in a visual form.  When large figures are used,
 They can be super-imposed on determining a suitable scale is
other statistical diagrams. That is, more challenging.

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 they can be used together with  Time consuming especially when
other methods. several variables are dealt with.
 They are easy to construct.  They do not provide an adequate
 They do not involve complicated explanation.
calculations.  Simple bar graphs do not show
key assumptions, causes, impacts
and patterns.

1.3.2 Group bar graph

Group bar graphs also known as multiple bar graphs. Group or multiple bar graph, is a
statistical technique used to represent data that is made up of several dependent variables, that
can hardly be shown using simple bar graph. A group of bars is constructed following the
steps involved in the drawing of a simple bar graph. The only difference is that group bar
graph is constructed by attaching a set of bars representing individual variables.
Construction of a group bar graph
The following are the main steps involved in construction of a group bar graph:
1. The way of constructing a group bar graph is the same as that of simple bar graph.
2. The bars are drawn in the form of a set and touching each other for each independent
variable. This implies that bars are grouped but separated from another group by a
space.
3. The bars are drawn in a vertical manner.
4. The independent variable that has the largest values should be started with and
drawn on the left and continuing in a descending order towards the right.
5. The arrangement of the first group should be maintained throughout.
6. The width of all bars must be similar. That is, ensure that all bars display equal size.
7. Shade differently each individual bar and maintain the same shading or colouring up
to the last group of bars.
8. A suitable title as adapted from the title of the table used should be indicated on the
top of the graph. In the title, the type of the statistical method used must be stated.

Worked example:
Table 1. 11: Table of Irish potatoes production in ’000 tons in selected areas

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Advantages of group bar graph Disadvantages of group bar graph
 It is easy to interpret.  It requires a large space.
 It favours comparative analysis  It is challenging while
of the statistical data being dealt determining the scale.
with.  It may be difficult to interpret
 It is simple to draw when it is congested.

1.3.3 Compound bar graph

Compound bar graphs are also called cumulative or divided bar graphs.is graph
which combines two or more types of information in one chart that stacked on top of
one another.
A compound bar graph used when there is more than one variable and a variety of
the items are to be portrayed using one bar.
Construction of a compound bar graph
The following are the main steps followed to construct compound bar graph:
1. It is constructed by using cumulative progressive totals.
2. It requires selecting a suitable scale that can favor the plotting of both big and
small values.
3. The plotted data are displayed in percentages by starting with the greatest
value and ending with the smallest figure.
4. The width of each bar is determined basing on the scale used.
5. The number of bars will be determined by the number of variables to be
represented in each set of bars.

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 6. The varying sheds or colors are used for each individual segment or
component of every bar.

1.3.4. Divergence bar graphs

is statistical graph that shows the fluctuation of individual items from the
mean.
Construction of divergence bar graphs
The steps to be followed while constructing divergence bar graph are:
1. Construct the two vertical axis lines.
2. Join the two vertical lines with the horizontal line at the base line.
3. Draw the average line which is known as a zero line at the center of
the two vertical lines. Write the average against this line at the end
points where “0” is indicated.
4. Find the total of all the value of the variables and divide it by the
number of the items to get the average. Subtract the average obtained
from each value, to get the divergences or deviations.
5. Select the suitable scale basing on the divergences calculated.
6. Plot the negative values below the average line and the positive ones
above the same line.
Worked example:
Table1. 13: Coffee production in ‘000 tons for country X from 2010 to 2017

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 600+560+700+800+ 700+900+600+ 500
Calculate the average value = 670
8
Table1. 14: Divergences from the mean

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Advantages of divergence bar graphs Disadvantages of divergence bar graphs
 They provide a good visual  There are several calculations
impression. involved.
 They are appropriate for comparison  The method is only limited to a
purposes. single item or commodity.
 They are easy to construct.  Determining the scale especially
 They are easy to interpret. when the values have wider
 They use limited space. amplitude is challenging.
 The plotting of values is only based
on divergences.

1.3.5. Age and sex graphs

An age-sex graph is also known as a population pyramid. It is a type of bar graph that
represents the structure of the population of a country or area basing on age and sex.
The left side of the population pyramid should indicate the Male and the right for Females. It
is usually in age groups of five years for example 0 - 4 years; 5 - 9 years; 10 - 14 years and so
on. The age groups are indicated or plotted in the middle.
Construction of an age-sex graph
When drawing an Age-sex pyramid, the following steps should be observed:
1. It is constructed on two X- axis; one to portray male and another for females.
2. Males are represented on the left and females on the right. The bars representing each
sex are separated by a space.
3. The data provided should be grouped using the interval of 5 years as follows; 0 - 4; 5
– 9; 10 – 14; 15 – 19; 20 – 24; 25 – 29; 30 - 34 and so on.

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4. After forming the age groups; the lowest group which forms the youngest is indicated
on the base of the graph.
5. The left horizontal line should have figures for males and the one on top right
showing the figures for females.

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 Advantages of an age-sex graph Disadvantages of an age-sex graph
 It displays of the composition of  It is only used to represent the
population both age and sex. population structure.
 It portrays the general shape of the  It is only used alone and hardly
population structure that facilitates super-imposed on other methods.
analytical purpose.  There is loss of important
 the age-sex pyramid can indicate information due to the use of
factors affecting an area or region it figures that are in age-cohorts.
presents.  It cannot show the population
 It gives a good visual impression distribution (does not describe or
that attract the reader or interpreter. show the trend of the population
growth).
 It is only used in population
geography.

1.4. Statistical charts

Divided statistical charts may either be divided circles or rectangles. Divided circles are also
known as Pie charts. These are graphs that have a shape of a circle, with varying segments
that portray a percentage, value or degree of a given component in relation to the general total
to be represented. The chart is called a ‘Pie’ chart because when looked at, each segment
that forms it, displays a shape of piece of ‘Pie’. It is constructed basing on the degrees.
The following are the main types of divided circles:

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 1. Simple divided circles
2. Proportional divided circles
1.4.1 Simple divided circles
A circle is drawn to represent statistical total data given. The circle is then divided according
to the value of the variables.
Construction of a simple divided circle
The following are steps that are followed in constructing a simple divided circle:
1. Draw a circle of a reasonable size. Avoid using small or very big circles.
2. Determine the degrees proportional to the quantity, value, amount, of the item or
component to be portrayed.
3. Start with the component with the biggest degree. Place this to the right of 12
o’clock.
4. Arrange the smallest portions or segments to be plotted in one part. That is, start
from the biggest to the very tiny segment.
5. Labeling on a pie chart should take a horizontal order. Where need be, write the
words or names outside the chart using a pointing arrow for the small segments.
6. Shed each segment differently and use the key for referral purpose. If colours are
available, use them.
7. The segments or components should not go beyond 8 in number. Beyond this figure,
the chart becomes over crowded or jam-packed.
Worked sample:
Table 1.18: The exports of country X (1)

The data presented above can be used to construct a simple divided circle. The
presentation of the data displayed in table 1.18 above is done using a simple divided
circle. This requires calculating the values of each data in degrees. These calculated
degrees can be also converted into percentages.

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Advantages of a simple divided circle/pie Disadvantages of a simple divided
chart circle/pie chart
 they provide a good visual  They deal with degrees and
impression. sometimes percentages. Therefore,
 They are effective and reliable exact figures may not be easily
when two or more variables are to noted by the reader.
be comparatively analyzed.  Pie charts can easily be displaying
 they are easy to interpret. incorrect information. Hence, the

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  They don’t require specific skills to reader may make erroneous
be understood as it is the case for conclusions.
divergence graphs, among many  They are constructed without
others. basing on a specific scale.
 They involve simple calculations  They provide errors due to lack of
which make them easy to draw. accuracy, especially when tiny
 Pie charts can be super-imposed on degrees are plotted. The thickness
other statistical methods such as of the pencil affects the perfection
maps. of the method.
 They can be used for a wide range
of purposes in geography and other
disciplines.

1.4.2. Proportional divided circles

Proportional divided circles are also called comparative divided circles. They are used
when more than one variable is dealt with. They are used for comparison purpose.
Construction of proportional divided circles
Steps involved in the construction of comparative divided circles are described here under:
1. The number of the circles to be constructed will depend on how many variables are
being dealt with. For example, if one is comparing imports and exports, then the
comparative divided circles will be two.
2. In case the totals of the independent variables are the same, therefore, the circles to be
drawn will be of the same size.
3. The circles will have varying sizes, if the totals of the independent variables differ.
4. Circles should be constructed near each other to facilitate the comparison.
5. Find the square root of each total of the independent variable.
6. The size of each circle should be proportional to the totals. Therefore, determine the
radius of each circle that is obtained by use of the square root of each total.
7. While dividing each circle into wedges or portions, follow the steps involved in
drawing a simple divided circle.

Worked example:
The table below shows the exports and imports valued in Rwandan francs for selected
regions

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The proportional divided circle was constructed below using the data provided in table
above. The variation of totals implies that the proportional divided circles will be of
differing sizes.
Therefore, the radius for each circle is determined as follows: Calculation for exports:
Area = the totals of exports

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Imports=3cm

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 Advantages of proportional divided Disadvantages of proportional divided
circles circles
 Comparative divided circles capture  They are not constructed on a scale
the attention and interest of the which affects the effectiveness and
reader because of the wonderful exactness of the data.
visual impression they offer.  Small degrees sometimes are hard
 They are suitable statistical to plot, and such provides
graphical methods for the data that erroneous effects in the
require comparative analysis and interpretation of data.
interpretation.  When small degrees are involved,
 They provide an instant visual writing or labeling becomes hard
interpretation of the data and over-crowding of the chart
represented. occurs.
 There are simple calculations  The determining of the radius,
involved. degrees and finding the totals,
makes the method time consuming.

1.5. Statistical diagrams

1.5.1. Dot maps
A dot map is a map type that uses a dot symbol to show the presence of a feature or
phenomenon found within the boundaries of a geographic area. In addition, with dot maps,
there is an attempt to show the pattern of distribution within the area by placing the dots
where the phenomenon is most likely to occur. In a one-to-one dot map, each dot represents a
single recording of a phenomenon. Care must be taken to place the dot in its correct
position on the map.

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Construction of dot maps
There are several conditions that must be put into consideration while drawing the dot maps.
These include the following:
1. Determine the value of each dot. Take note of the nature of quantity. The value of
dots on the maps will depend on the smallest quantity (value) or the biggest figure.
If the lowest figure on the table is 2500 for Z and highest 5000 (K) then the value of
dot can be: 5000 = 5 dots (K)
1000
2500 = 2.5 dots = 3 dots (Z)
1000
Therefore, in area K there were five dots and 3 dots in place Z. It is very important to
note that, the dot value should not be unnecessarily exaggerated. Too big or too small
dot value provides wrong impression which interrupts with the analytical results of
the data.
2. In case there are halves or fractions, it is necessary to round off that whole number of
dots. For example, if you calculated and found that there are 3.5, 4.6, and 5.1 dots,
then it is advisable to round up these figures to read 5 instead of 4.5.
3. The size of a dot should be reasonable. Not too big or very tiny. It should be able to
enable the reader to be able to use his/her eyes to count the dots.
4. All dots used on the map should have equal size. 5. Plot all dots using a pencil so that
in case of a mistake, it becomes easy to correct it.

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 Advantages of dot maps Disadvantages of dot maps
 Dot maps provide a good visual  There is a risk of giving false
impression. impression especially when dots
 They are suitable for the are evenly spread.
representation or portrayal of the  It involves more calculations such
data of spatial distribution such as determining the population
as population distribution. density, dot value, etc.
 They don’t involve difficult or  They provide unclear impact due
challenging calculations. to the congestion of data in
 It is very easy for the reader to densely populated areas.
immediately compare the  Drawing with free hand dots of
distribution of what is equal size is difficult and
represented, e.g. population challenging.
distribution.  Identifying and locating are
exposed to personal subjective
decision.

1.5.2. Isoline maps

An isoline or isopleth map is a map with continuous lines joining points of the same value.
For instance, the lines joining equal altitude (contour lines), temperature (isotherms),
barometric pressure (isobars), wind speed (isotachs) and wind direction (isogon), etc.

Construction of isoline maps

The construction of an isopleth map is done as follows:
1. Obtaining an outline base map and the appropriate necessary geographical data.

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2. Marking in the points and their values on the map.
3. Deciding on a suitable interval of units.
4. Drawing curved lines joining all places with equal values; always starting with the
highest value.
5. Making sure that the lines do not cross or touch each other.
6. Numbering the isopleth lines.

Advantages of isoline maps Disadvantages of isoline maps

 They are useful in showing the  With isoline maps, the
distribution of geographical interpretation may not be easy
phenomena at a large scale. especially when the isopleth lines
 They are useful in illustrating the are not clearly shaped.
distribution of even and uneven  It may be difficult to calculate
phenomena. isoline interval on the map.
 It is easy to obtain values on any  Isopleth maps are not suitable to
point of the map. present the population
 Isoline maps are used for distribution.
comparing variables.  In drawing isoline maps; the
 They provide a clear impression administrative boundaries are not
of population density. taken into account.
 Isopleth lines may be difficult to
draw, especially where there are
points to join.

1.5.3. Shading or choropleth maps

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Choropleth maps are thematic maps in nature described by a series of varying
shading patterns, each representing proportionally the measurement of a given
statistical variable being portrayed on the map. The choropleth map provides an easy
way to visualize how a measurement varies across a geographic area or it shows the
level of variability within a region. A choropleth map is a map which shows regions
or areas with the same characteristics.

Construction of choropleth maps

A choropleth map is made as follows:
1. Drawing a base map showing administrative units such as provinces or
districts.
2. Calculating the average densities, ratios or percentages for each administrative
unit.
3. Choosing and drawing grades or scales of densities to be used.
4. Indicating on the map the grade of shading or coloring to be used for each
administrative unit.
5. Shading or coloring the map but leaving boundary lines
6. Dividing the range of values into groups.
7. Including a key showing individual boxes.
8. Showing increases or decreases in population density, average crop yields

The data presented above are used to construct a choropleth map showing the
population density of Rwanda in 2012

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Advantages of choropleth map Disadvantages of choropleth map
 Most often choropleth maps represent  Choropleth map is suitable for
the typical value for the region not mapping discrete phenomena.
spread uniformly within the region.  In most cases it is not easy to use
 Choropleth maps are used for absolute numbers in choropleth map.
phenomena that have spatial variation  To make phenomena comparable for
that coincide with the boundaries of administrative units it should be quite
the spatial area used for map. often standardised.

1.5.4. Flow maps

Flow maps are statistical methods used to represent diagrammatically the movement of
goods from one area to another. They are commonly used to represent the flow of imports
and exports. They are again used in other ways, such as the flow of traffic by water, air or
rail.

Construct of a flow map

1. The line drawn show the direction of flow.
2. The width of the line represents the quality of goods imported or exported.
3. Write the amount of goods directly on/alongside the line of lines.
4. The drawn lines are colored to avoid congestion. In this case, a key can be of a good
help.

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 5. Determine the width of the lines by using a suitable scale.
6. Lines should not be too big or small. It is advisable to use a scale expressed in
millimeters but not in centimeters.
Worked example
Study the table below showing exchange of agricultural products in ‘000 tons from one
district to other districts in Rwanda. Table1.30 showing exchange

Advantages of flow maps Disadvantages of flow maps

 They are the only suitable method  They take a lot of time to draw.
for portraying the movement of  They hardly provide immediate
goods. interpretation.
 They are easy to interpret.  They are more challenging to draw.
 They can be used together with
other maps and statistical diagrams.

1.5.5. Wind rose

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A wind rose is another statistical tool used to portray diagrammatically the average
occurrence and direction of wind associated with a specific area. The wind rose is used by
meteorologists to summarize data about the wind in relation to specific speed, location, and
time.
There are two types of wind rose namely simple and compound wind roses. It is important
mentioning that there are two types of wind rose namely simple and compound wind rose.
Construction of a wind rose
1. Draw a circle of any convenient size. This marks the central point of wind rose.
2. Show or indicate the calm days inside the circle.
3. Construct a wind rose following the main 8 points of a compass can also be applied.
4. The days are indicated by the length of the columns commonly known as arms.
5. Determine a suitable scale of your convenience.

Construction of compound wind rose

1. Apply all the steps involved while constructing a simple wind rose.
2. The width of the columns represents the speed of the wind. When there is a rise in the
speed of wind, the width of the column is expected to increase too.
3. Divide the columns into segments following the Beaufort Scale.
4. Draw a key to represent the different segments of each column.

Advantages of wind roses Disadvantages of wind roses

 They are easy to interpret.  There are challenges involved
 They provide a good visual while determining the scale for
impression because of the way the columns.
they display polygon shape and  They do not emphasize seasonal
colours. patterns and the movement of
 The reader can have clear and winds.
faster information replaced  They require the reader to have
 They portray a wide variety of skills and specialty in
aspects such as, wind direction, interpretation.
speed, and frequency.

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 End unit assessment
Landslides and floods hit several parts of Rwanda between 7 and 8 May 2016 after a
period of heavy rainfall. Government officials say that at least 49 deaths have been
recorded so far. Some of the victims drowned in flood water, others died after houses
collapsed under the heavy rain and landslide.
The worst hit areas are the districts of Gakenke and Muhanga. As many as 34 people
have died in Gakenke, 8 in Muhanga, 4 in Rubavu and 3 in Ngororero. Around 26
injuries have also been reported. Reports from the Ministry for Disaster Management
and Refugee Affairs reported that over 500 houses have been destroyed. Therefore,
use the statistical information presented above to do the following:
a) Extract statistical raw data mentioned in the story.
b) Use appropriate statistical diagrams, graphs and charts to display the
portrayed data in (a) above.
c) Identify and describe the geographical phenomena that are highlighted in the
news print.
d) Explain how you would use the data collected and statistical diagrams,
graphs and charts constructed to advise the people and the government on the
environmental challenges to be addressed.
e) Assess the environmental challenges s to be addressed in the area and show
measures of controlling them.

UNIT 2: BEARINGS, DIRECTIONS, DISTANCES AND AREAS ON A MAP

2.1. Location of places using the grid reference
A grid is a series of straight lines drawn vertically and horizontally on topographical maps.
Where the lines cross each other and form the squares of equal size. The lines running from
north to south (vertical lines) are called Eastings. This is because their numbers increase
towards the east from the south western corner. This corner is known as the grid origin and
it is from it that all readings start. There are those drawn horizontally, and their numbers
increase towards the north. These are called the Northings.
The value of the easting (vertical gridline) is read first, followed by the value of the northing
(horizontal Gridline). The values of the Eastings and northings are known as coordinates.The
coordinates are expressed as a single continuous figure without decimal points or commas,
for example, 646 504 and not 64, 65, 04. They are plain numbers, without units of
measurement.
The coordinates are given in two ways:

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  Four figure grid reference
 Six figure grid reference
2.1.1 The four-figure grid reference
The four-figure grid reference has four digits. It gives the grid square in which a position is
found.

2.1.2 The six-figure grid reference

This reference has six digits. It is more exact than the four-figure grid reference.

2.2: Stating directions and bearings on topographic map

2.2.1. Direction

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Direction or orientation is important for finding the way and its relative position or direction
of something. All directions are based on the cardinal points of the compass shown below:

Direction is the relative position of a place from another using the points of the compass. The
main cardinal points of a compass are north, east, south and west. The first letters of these
directions (in capital) are used in place of the full names. These are N—North, E—East, S—
South and W—West.
2.2.2. Bearing
Bearing is way of giving the direction of one place in relation to another by using degree. It
is more accurate than direction because it has 360 points compared to the 16 points of a
compass. Instead of saying, for example, that place A is north east of place B, we use
degrees. So, we would say that place B is situated at 045° from place A.
The bearing of a point is the number of degrees in the angle measured in a clockwise
direction, from the North line to the line joining the centre of the compass with the point.

A bearing is used to represent the direction of one-point relative to another point. For
example, the bearing of A Form B is 245˚. The bearing of B from A is 065˚. Bearing is also
the direction to something measured as an angle relative to the north. It increases towards the
East, with North=0 degrees, East=90 degrees, South=180 degrees, and West=270degrees.
2.2.3. Measuring true bearing
True bearing (TB) is a bearing where the true-north line is taken as 0˚. It is the
measurement of the angle between the true-north line and the line joining the two places in
question.
A true bearing is measured using a protractor from True North, as shown below:

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  Draw a north-south line through the starting point.
 Use a straight line to join the two places given.
 Draw an arrow from the True North line to the line joining the two places in a
clockwise direction. Then measure the angle with a protractor.

In this case, the bearing of B from A is 135 degrees. It is therefore, very important to
understand how to use the protractor.
I. Centre the protractor over the starting point and orient 0˚with true north.
II. Draw a line on the map from the starting point towards the destination.
III. Read the bearing where the line intersects the protractor. Remember that line
is the direction of travel to your destination.
2.3: Measure the distance on the maps: straight line and curved line
A map is a representation of the actual ground on a piece of paper. It is usually drawn to
scale. Distance on the map is measured between two points, e.g. between a school and the
museum or any other feature. Then, the distance measured on the map is converted into the
actual distance on the ground.
The distances can either be straight or curved. To measure the distance requires:
 To identify the two places and then calculate the length between them in either
centimetres or millimetres;
 To convert the length into the units required such as Kilometres of the actual area
(ground) referring to the map scale.
A map scale refers to the relationship (or ratio) between distance on a map and the
corresponding distance on the actual ground. The map scale tells you about the
comparative size of features and distances displayed on the map. The following methods
show how distance can be measured.
2.3.1. Straight line distance
The shortest distance between two points is sometimes known as “the crow flies’.
 Use a ruler and measure the distance between two points in centimeters.
 Convert the centimeter reading to kilometers by multiplying by 0.5 km if the map
scale is (1:50 000) to obtain the kilometers on the ground.

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  For example, the distance as the crow flies from A to B is 9.5 cm on a map; therefore
9.5 cm x 0,5 km = 4.75 km on the ground.
2.3.2 Curved Distances
In map reading, there are times when curved or straight areas are used while determining the
distance. Below are the explanations of how curved distances can be determined or
calculated:
Place the straight edge of paper along the feature to be measured e.g. road;
Make a mark where the paper intersects the road;
Hold the paper steadily with the point of a pair of dividers.
Rotate or swivel paper following the line/road being measured.
Mark where paper insects with the line/road.
Write down the reading after measuring the line/ road.
Check the scale of the map. - Now multiply the distance between the two points by
the scale on the map.
The answer above needs to be converted to the unit for the actual ground distances
(km).
NB – An alternative method is where a piece of string is used to measure the curved /
winding line. Make sure that the string is not elastic.
Formula: Actual Distance on the ground = Map distance/Scale.
2.4. Calculate the areas on topographic maps: regular and irregular shape
2.4.1. Calculate areas of regular shapes
Getting the area of a regular body on maps is simple. This is because the body may be a
square, rectangle, triangle or a circle. Once the distances are obtained, the formulae used in
mathematics are used.
 Square and rectangle: multiply the length by the width.
 Triangle: half base multiplied by height.
 Circle: Pi multiplied by square of radius.

2.4.2. Calculate areas of irregular shapes

The following methods are used to calculate the irregular shapes:
a) The use of grid squares

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 On topographical maps of the scale 1:50,000, there are grid squares measuring
2 cm by 2 cm. On the ground, these measure 1 km by 1 km. This means that
they have an area of 1 km2.
To calculate the area of irregular shapes, the following steps are done:
 Count all the full squares inside the irregular body.
 Count all the half squares inside the irregular body
 and divide them by two.
 Add the total of the full squares and the half squares.

b) The use of strip method

Here, strips of equal width are drawn on the irregular body.
c) Use of rectangles and triangles
The irregular body is divided into a rectangle and triangles.
2.5: Representation of relief on the map
2.5.1. Altitude
Altitude is the height above sea level. It is the height of a point in relation to the seal level.

2.5.2. Contours
a. Contour lines
Contours are lines that join places of the same height above the sea level. A contour is
represented in brown lines on the topographical maps. The height of the contour is indicated

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on each contour line. The difference between one contour line and the next is called contour
interval.

b. Uses of contours and identifying the shape created by the patterns of contours
i. Contours help to recognize land features ii. Contours help to recognize the shape of
the land
 spacing (density) of the contours
 Planning housing estates, freeway indicates the slope (gradient) of the
routes and reservoirs; land;
 Organizing outdoor recreational  contour lines that are close together
pursuits; denote steep slopes;
 Managing hazards such as flooding,  contour lines that are far apart denote
landsides, gentle slopes;
 when there are no contour lines, it
means the land is almost flat;
 when the contour lines spaced further
apart as the height of the slope
increases, the
 Slope is convex; when the contour
lines spaced closer together as the
height of the slope increases, the
slope is concave (broad spacing to
narrow spacing).

iii. Recognizing land features on a map involves identifying the shape created by the
patterns of contours
2.5.3. Hill shading
Hill shading is the method of adding light and dark area or shading to a map to highlight the
location of hills or mountains. The thickness of the shade depends on how steep the slope is.

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Steep relief has darker shading compared to gentle slopes. This method does not show the
exact height of the relief feature. Refer to the figure below.

2.5.4. Hachures
Hachures are short lines on a map that indicate the direction and steepness of a slope.
Hachures that represent steep slopes are short and close together while hachures that
represent gentle slopes are longer, lighter, and farther apart.

2.5.5. Pictorial representation

In this method, certain symbols are used to show relief on maps. It does not give the heights
above sea level. Only a small variety of landforms can be shown using it. The pictures may
further hide important details.

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2.5.6. Colouring/ Layer Tinting
Colouring or layer tinting is a method of showing relief by colour. A different colour is used
for each band of elevation. Each shade of colour or band, represents a definite elevation
range.

2.6. Calculation of the vertical interval and the amplitude of relief /spot heights
2.6.1. Vertical interval and amplitude of relief
The dark lines with reading are index contour lines while thin lines represent intermediate
contours. The difference in height or altitude between two places is known as the vertical rise
or the vertical interval (V.I.).

How to calculate the vertical interval?

There are several steps that are followed when the vertical interval is being determined.
These include the following:
1. Locate 2 index contour lines that are labeled with a specific elevation.
2. Now calculate the difference between the two-selected index contour line selected
from a map. To take the difference, subtract the higher elevated line with the lower
elevated line reading.

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 3. Now count the number of non-index lines contour lines between the 2 index contour
lines selected for the contour interval calculating in the 1st step.
4. The number of lines obtained in the above step is taken and added with 1. For
example: if the number of lines between 2 index lines is 4. Then add 1 to 4 that
becomes 5.
5. The final step is the measure of the difference between 2 index lines (step 2) and the
number of lines in between two index lines plus 1 (step 4).
6. The final answer we get after dividing is the contour interval of the specific
topographical map
2.6.2. Spot heights and trigonometrical stations
A spot height is shown as a dot and the actual height in metres. Spot heights are mainly used
where drawing of complete contours is difficult. This happens on such features as mountain
peaks and hilltops. Trigonometrical stations are also known as triangulation points. Surveyors
mark those using triangles or circles with a dot at the centre.
End unit assessment
Mugisha and Mucyo are traders in Kigali and they export goods made in Rwanda and import
some missing commodities not locally produced. Sometimes goods delay as they are being
transported from Mombasa port. Suppose you want to travel with these traders, explain how
you would use a map to find out the distance from Kigali to Mombasa.
Imagine someone comes from Europe to visit Rwanda, specifically in Muhoza sector,
Musanze district (see the map below). At Kigali airport someone gives him a map with a
scale of 1:50 000. He/ she needs to know the bearing of Muhoza from Kigali.
1. Show how you would find the bearing of Muhoza if this visitor asked for guidance.
2. What is the relative position of Muhoza from Kigali?
3. Basing on your general knowledge, describe physical features that make Musanze to
be known and hence attracting many people all over the world. In addition, explain
the environmental hazards that use to happen in its area of northern part of Rwanda.

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UNIT 3: MAP WORK INTERPRETATION
3.1. Interpretation of physical aspects from maps/photographs
Physical features are also called natural features. They include the following:
 Relief which comprises rocks, slopes, soils, valleys, plains, plateau, hills and
mountains.
 Drainage features like rivers, dams, lakes, seas and oceans.
 Vegetation cover like forests made of several types of trees, crops and ground
vegetation, wetland vegetation.
 Climate which is defined through various parameters like rainfall, temperatures,
relative humidity, cloud cover, wind speed and direction, atmospheric pressure, sun
shine.
3.1.1. Interpretation of geological features
The main geological features commonly represented on a map/photography include rocks,
cliffs and boulders.

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3.1.2. Interpretation of slopes from a map/photograph
The main types of slopes are: gentle, steep, regular, irregular, convex and concave slopes.
 Gentle slopes: Spaced contours are used to indicate gentle slopes. In that case the
land may be a plain or plateau.
 Steep slopes: Very close contours are used for steep slopes. The closer the contours,
the steeper the slope. In that case the landform may be a mountain.

 Regular slopes: Regular slopes are also called constant or even slopes. The contours
have constant spaces. The slopes can be either gentle or steep slopes.
 Irregular slopes: These are uneven or inconstant slopes. They are represented by
unequally spaced contours. They can be either gentle or steep slopes. These slopes
are found mostly in rugged, mountainous or hilly areas.

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 Convex slopes: Convex slopes are gentle at the top and steep at the bottom of the hill
or mountain. The contours are closely spaced at the bottom section (steep slopes) and
widely spaced at the top section (gentle slopes).

 Concave slopes: They indicate that the land is steeper on the upper part and gentler
on the lower part. They are drawn using closely packed contours on the upper part of
where the slope is steep. The contours are widely spaced on the lower part where the
slope is gentle.

3.1.3. Interpretation of drainage and landforms from a map/photograph

i. Interpretation of drainage features from a map/photograph
The lake, sea and ocean occupy a very large area. They are seen in blue color on a color
photograph and in dark color on black and white photograph. However other

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conventional symbols may be applied on a map to represent a lake, sea and ocean; the
most important thing is to put in legend/key the used symbols.

The rivers originate from mountains or hills and flows on steep slope to end in the
depression that are usually found in valleys or low-lying areas. The streams and rivers are
seen on a photograph/map as lines and they have different patterns or arrangements
which can be detected easily on a map or photograph.

ii. Interpretation of landforms:

 Valley: A valley is an elongated depression sloping towards a drainage basin like a
sea, lake or swamp and which may contain water or not. The valley is normally
represented on a topographic map by using the contours having “V shape”.

 Plain: Most of the plains are in low-lying areas but some of them may be raised but
the slopes remain gentle. On the topographical maps, a plain is represented by widely
spaced contours. The river passing in plain areas may also be shown on the map.

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 Plateau: A plateau is an extended landform which is bordered by steep slopes. On
the map, a plateau is shown as a wide area surrounded by one or two contours having
the same height on both sides.

 Mountain: A mountain is an extended landform with steep slopes. On the map, a

mountain is shown as a wide area with very close contours surrounded by one or two
wider contours showing the depression areas surrounding the mountain.

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3.1.4. Interpretation of soils on the map
Tiny brown dots called stipples are used to represent a surface covered by sand or mud while
Surfaces covered by lava flows are shown by symbols that look like inverted V’S.

3.2. Interpretation of human aspects on maps

Human aspects on a map reflect human activities of a given area represented on a map. These
include agricultural development, mining, industry, settlement, etc.
3.2.1. Agricultural activities
Crop plantations are drawn on a topographical map by using light-green shading. A letter
may be used over the shade to indicate the name of the crop growing in each area. For
example, C for coffee; T for tea.

3.2.2. Mining and quarrying activities from a map

Mining refers to all the processes by which minerals are obtained from the earth’s crust.
Minerals may be in gaseous, liquid or solid form. Quarrying is the digging of stones, sand or
soil from the ground. These are used, for example, in construction. Mining and quarrying
activities on a map are shown by symbols as represented on the figure below.

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3.2.3. Industrial areas
Industrial area is a geographically localized set of specific industries. Such areas are subject
to important production, marketing and other interrelationships.

3.2.4. Settlements
Settlement refers to a place where people live. It also means the process of settling in such a
place. Settlement on the map can be shown by dots or rectangles which may be black or grey
in colour.
Dots indicate rural semi-permanent settlements while rectangles show permanent buildings
like those built of stone or bricks, with iron or tile roofing. The dots or rectangles are spaced
in relation to the concentration of settlement. Nucleated settlements are represented by the
dots and rectangles close to one another while they are much spaced for scattered settlement.
The settlement is also represented according to its shape, for example ring or linear. The
shapes of settlement may be influenced by communication networks like roads, railways,
landforms like valley, plain, plateau, mountain among others.

3.3. Relationship between physical and human aspects on maps photographs

Physical aspect of an area plays a key role in the activities people do. It also has an influence
on the number of people who settle in an area. For instance, the relief affects human activities
in the following ways:
 Mountainous places are less populated because of steep slopes being unfavorable for
settlement and for mechanized agriculture.
 Places that are poorly drained like swamps and marshes are also not suitable for
settlement.
 Some plains and plateaus have good soils. These allow growing of crops and keeping
of livestock. It is also possible to use machines in farming. There is no need to make

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 terraces to stop soil erosion. Therefore, more food is produced, and more people live
there.
 The depressions or valleys areas are also suitable for agriculture.
 Fishing is done in seas, oceans and lakes.
3.3.1. Drainage patterns
A drainage pattern is a network formed by rivers and their tributaries on the landscape.
The main drainage patterns which can be seen on a topographic map/photograph are as
follows:
 Trellised (rectangular) drainage pattern: is drainage pattern which are formed
when tributaries join the main river that form right angles.
 Dendritic drainage pattern: is drainage that look like the tree with their branches.it
means the tributaries join the main river at acute angles.

 Radial drainage pattern also known as centrifugal pattern is formed by the

streams which diverge from a central higher point in all directions.

 Centripetal drainage pattern: This pattern is formed by a series of streams which

from different direction converge in a central lowland which may be a
depression/basin/lake.
 Annular drainage pattern: this pattern is formed when tributaries join the main
river at the sharp angles but series of curves. The stream follows circular course of
upland. Eg: volcanic cone, dome mountain

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 Barbed drainage pattern is formed when the tributaries flow in the opposite
direction to their master streams.

 Pinnate drainage is developed in a narrow valley banked by steep ranges.

 Herringbone drainage pattern also known as rib pattern (like the limbs of human
beings) is developed in mountainous areas where broad valleys are flanked by
parallel ridges having steep hillside slopes.

 Parallel drainage patterns comprise numerous rivers which are parallel to each
other and follow the regional slope. It develops an area with alternative soft rock and
resistant rock.

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3.3.2. Settlement patterns
Settlement refers to a place where people live. It also means the process of settling in such a
place. The settlement patterns of a given area are influenced by both physical and human
factors like topography, road network, community services, cultural and economic factors,
etc. This results into several types of settlement patterns as follows:
 Nucleated settlement
 Linear settlement
 Sparse or scattered or disperse settlement
 Isolated settlement
 Ring settlement
 Planned settlement
3.3.3. Vegetation
Human activities are related to vegetation. The distribution of vegetation on a
photograph/map in each area is linked with human activities taking place in that
part/dwelling. Below are some of the examples that show the interrelationship between man
and vegetation.
 In areas with dense forests: The main activities are timber harvesting. The timber is
used to make furniture and paper

 In savannah grasslands: the main activities are livestock keeping and agriculture.
This is because; in these areas soils are fertile.

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  Desert vegetation: Agriculture is only possible in oases. Very few animals can
survive in the dry areas like the camels, goats and sheep and reared under nomadic
pastoralism.

 In tundra and taiga forests: The low rainfall and temperature affect human
activities. Only hunting, fishing and mining are the main activities done in these
regions.
3.3.4. Communication networks
Communication networks facilitate the movement of people and commodities from one
place to another over a given distance.
The communication networks represented on map/ photograph are most of time influenced by
both physical and human factors. Some of them are discussed below:
 Relief: Steep slopes make the construction of roads and railway lines expensive. On
the other hand, valleys have swamps; they contain water logged soils that are too soft
to allow the movement of heavy objects like lorries and trains.
 Climate: Too much rainfall results into floods and landslides and these disturb land
transport. On the other hand, accumulation of fog and clouds reduce visibility hence
affecting air transport.
 Vegetation: Thick vegetation cover makes construction of road and rail networks
difficult because it requires uprooting big trunks of trees. Areas with thick vegetation
are invested with wild animals that pose danger to the people.

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  Drainage: Navigable rivers, lakes, seas and oceans provide natural route-ways used
for transportation.
 Economic activities: The economic activities (mining, agriculture, industries, etc)
taking place in given areas influence the construct of communication networks.
End unit assessment
1. “As it is difficult to reach all parts of the world; the photographs and maps help to
explore different physical and human features on the earth.”
a. Identify physical features on topographic map of Rwanda.
b. Identify the human features on thematic maps of Rwanda.
2. Show different signs and symbols to be used in representing physical and human
features on maps/photography.
3. Discuss the relationships existing between settlement patterns and physical
features in your district and present them on a sketch map using signs and
symbols.
4. From the photographs taken at different places in Rwanda, prepare a sketch map
of captured physical and human features by using conventional signs and
symbols.

UNIT 4: THE UNIVERSE AND THE SOLAR SYSTEM

4.1. The universe
4.1.1. Definition of the universe and Components of the universe.
The universe refers to all of space including everything that exist in it. The exact size of the
universe is not known. Astronomers estimate that it contains about 100 billion galaxies. The
origin of the universe is explained through the Big Bang Theory, which happened about 13
billion years ago.
4.1.2. The components of the universe
The Universe contains many components, which vary considerably in size. The smallest
components are atomic particles followed by atoms (mostly free hydrogen and helium),
molecules, dust, space rocks, comets, asteroids, moons, dwarf planets, planets, solar systems,
stars, black holes, nebulae, and galaxies.
The table below shows the components associated with the universe.

Component Description
Galaxy  Galaxy is a group of billions of stars,
with gas and dust held together by the
same gravitational force.
 The planet Earth is in the Milky Way
Galaxy; that displays a spiral
arrangement therefore, named spiral
galaxy.
 There are three types of Galaxy.
Namely; Spiral galaxy (e.g. Milky
Way), irregular galaxy and elliptical

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 galaxy.
Cluster  This is a group of stars which are
bound together due to gravitation.
Stars and Sun  A star is luminous (gives out light)
heavenly body. Stars have high
temperature.
 The sun is also a star. The sun is the
luminous heavenly body that emits its
own light and it is at the Centre of the
solar system.
Planets and Earth  A planet is a heavenly body that
revolves around a star.
 The Earth is one of the eight planets
of the solar system. It is the only
planet where life is possible.

4.2. Solar system: sun and planets

The term solar system is defined as the arrangement of the sun and planets that revolve
around it (Sun). The solar system is therefore made up of the following: the sun, planets
including the earth, the moon and other heavenly bodies such as asteroids, comets,
meteorites, meteors, etc.

4.2.1. The sun

The sun as earlier studied, is one of the billions of stars that make up the Milky Way galaxy.
It is one of the smallest stars in our universe. However, it is 109 times bigger than Planet
earth. It forms the center of the solar system the largest is yu scuti. Its gravitational force
keeps planets in their orbital position. All the 8 planets revolve around.

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Characteristics of the Sun The influence of the sun on the Earth
 It makes or emits its own light/heat.  It holds the earth in its orbital
 It has the diameter of 139,200 km. position.
 Its temperature ranges from 4000-  The sun is the source of the energy
9000 degrees Celsius. that is used by the earth.
 Its mass stands at 1.98892 x 1030  It engines of the hydrological cycle.
kilograms.  Supports life on earth through many
 It has a density of 1.4 grams per cubic ways such as creation of suitable and
centimeters. favourable temperatures.
 The sun is made up of hydrogen and  The sun influences the general
helium. climate at the hand of the solar
 It takes 25 days to turn once on its radiation received.
axis.  Contributes to the formation of tides
that support in one way or the other
support ecosystem and man’s
activities.

4.2.2. Characteristics of different planets and their positions

The term planet means the rock solids that are in oval or spherical shape floating in space and
rotating on its axis and revolving round the sun. Planets are grouped into categories as shown
below:
Groups Planets
Inner planets / Terrestrial planets  Mercury
 Venus
 Earth
 Mars
Outer planets / Jovian planets)  Jupiter
 Saturn
 Uranus
 Neptune

Pluto is known as a dwarf planet. It never developed fully.

It is very important to know that Pluto was removed from the list of planets in 2006, because
of the following reasons:
Its size is too small to be classified as a planet.

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 It has no uniform revolution round the sun.
Its revolution is not circular but spherical in nature.
Its movement is too slow when compared with the rest of the planets of our solar
system.
NO Planets Position in Characteristics of planets
relation to the
sun
1 Mercury 58 million km  It is the smallest and nearest planet
from the sun.
 Completes its revolution in only 88
days.
 Its diameter is 4,880km.
 Its total mass is estimated to be
3.30e23kg (3.3 x 1026grams.
 It is characterized by great
escarpments.
 Its surface has craters.
 Its magnetic field is small of about
1% in comparison to that of our
earth.
 Has no natural satellites.
2 Venus Between 1 0  It is the second planet from the earth.
7-108  It shares some characteristics with
million km the earth especially in terms of
chemical composition and gravity.
This explains why it is referred to as
the twin planet of our planet.
 It experiences hot temperatures. It
reaches 4620c
 It orbits an average distance of 108
million km around the sun.
 To complete its revolution around
the sun it takes 225 days.
 Its atmosphere is poisonous.
 Rotates backwards from other
planets.
 It has the radius of 6,052 km.
 Its gravity is 90 % of the earth.
 Its mass is 4.87 x 1024kg.
3 Earth 150 million  It orbits an average distance of
km 108,208,000 km.
 It is the third planet from the sun.

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  The only planet known to support
life (flora and fauna).
 It is 93 million miles from the sun.
 It has one natural satellite called
moon.
 It has the diameter of 7,926 miles.
 It is the fifth largest planet in the
solar system.
 Its greatest part is covered by water,
71% of its surface is covered by
water.
 It completes its revolution within
365 days.
 It completes its rotation on its axis
within 24 hours.
4 Mars 228 million  Is slightly cooler.
km  It is the 7th largest planet in the solar
system.
 It has the diameter of 4,222 miles.
 It takes 686.98 earth days to
complete its revolution around the
sun.
 Its rotation on its axis takes 24.6
earth hours.
 It has hard, rock and completely dry
surface.
 It has two satellites.
5 Jupiter 778 million  It is the largest planet in the solar
km system.
 It has 63 satellites.
 It is composed of hydrogen and
helium.
 It has the diameter of 88,729 miles.
 It takes 9.84 earth hours to complete
its rotation on its axis.
 Its revolution around the sun takes
11.862 earth years.
6 Saturn 1,427 million  It is composed of liquid and gas
km  It has rings composed of billions of
ice particles.
 It is 550.9 million miles from planet
earth.

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  It takes 10.2 earth hours to complete
its rotation.
 It is the second largest planet in our
solar system.
 Its diameter is 74,600 miles.
 It takes 29.456 earth years to
complete its revolution around the
sun.
7 Uranus 2,870 million  It is the 3rd largest planet in our solar
km system.
 Its surface is not solid.
 It has a diameter of 36,600 miles.
 It is composed of hydrogen, helium
and methane.
 To complete its revolution around the
sun it takes 84.02 earth years.
 Its rotational period on its axis is
17.9 earth hours.
 Average temperature is -353oF
8 Neptune 4,497 million  It is 1.14 times the surface of the
km earth.
 It completes its revolution within
164.8 earth years.
 It is the farthest planet in our solar
system.
 It takes the eighth position
 It has a mass 1.023 x 1026kg

4.3. Earth: Peculiar elements of the earth

The peculiar elements of the earth are outer parts of the earth.
They include the following:
1. Hydrosphere or water bodies
2. Lithosphere or Land and rocks
3. Atmosphere or Gasses
4. Biosphere or flora and fauna
 Hydrosphere: This stands for all the waters found on the earth surface.It covers 71%
of the earth’s surface.It includes: Lakes, Seas,Oceans,Wetlands ,
Rivers,Wells,Streams,Clouds. –
 Biosphere: This is known as ecosphere. It is a part of the earth that includes the
totality of life on the earth (Animals, Plants and Man).

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  Lithosphere: This is the solid part of the exterior area of the earth.It is made up of
the crust and a small percentage of the upper mantle (Land ,Rocks, Soils and
Minerals).
 Atmosphere: It describes the zone occupied by air or gasses that surround the
earth.This zone is composed of gasses such as: Nitrogen,Oxygen, Argon ,Water
vapour, Carbon dioxide, Helium and Methane.
4.4. Earth’s movements
4.4.1. Rotation of the Earth
Rotation of the Earth is defined as the movement of the Earth spinning on its own axis. This
movement of the Earth on its own axis is in an anticlockwise direction. The earth takes 24
hours to complete 360˚. At the equator the earth rotates at a speed of 1676 km and zero km at
the poles per hour.
The effects of rotation of the earth
As the Earth turns around its axis, it affects some processes on the earth’s surface and other
associated celestial phenomenon. Some effects of the earth rotation are:
i. Rotation causes day and night
Earth’s rotation on its axis creates day and night. The one half of the Earth that faces
the sun has day time, while the opposite half facing away from the Sun has night
time.
ii. Rising and falling of ocean water (tides)
During the rotation of the earth, gravitation force pull of the sun and the moon acts
on the ocean water to produce tides which may be high or low.
iii. Deflection of wind and ocean current (Coriolis Effect)
Rotation causes winds to be deflected to the right in the Northern or to the left in
southern whenever they cross the Equator. This deflection is called the Coriolis
Effect.
iv. Time difference between longitudes
One round of the Earth is completed after turning 360. This implies that the earth
takes 24 hours to complete rotation. Therefore, for the earth to cover 15o it is
calculated as follows:

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 v. Temperature difference
Due to the spherical shape, the parts of the Earth located in the tropical areas
between 23.5˚ North and South of Equator, get direct sunlight all the year round.
Regions located in higher latitude get less rays during the year.

4.4.2. Revolution of the Earth

The revolution of the earth is the movement of the earth around the sun. Earth revolves
around the Sun along an oval-shaped path called an orbit. The area of the oval-shaped path is
called Plane of the ecliptic, in which the axis of the Earth is tilted at an angle of 23 0 27’. Earth
takes 365 days and 6 hours or one year to complete one revolution, at a speed of 106,260
km/h around the Sun (30 kilometres per second).
The Leap year is the year with 366 days which come after four years where February has 29
days instead 28 days. This results from adding 6 hours of rotation of each year to make one
year after 4 ordinary years.
The consequences of the revolution
i. Determination of seasonal variation
There are four seasons namely summer, autumn, winter, and spring. The earth’s revolution
leads to change in the sun’s overhead positioning.
This comes along with the occurrence of solstices (winter solstice, summer solstice) and
equinox.
 Solstice; Is period that occurs on 21st June and 22nd December when the sun’s
overhead position is either at the tropical of Cancer or Capricorn.
 Equinox; is period that occurs on 21st March and 23rd September when the sun is
above the Equator, day and night have equal length.
The four seasons:
1. Summer is the hottest of the four temperate seasons. This occurs immediately
after the spring season and before autumn. When it is the summer solstice, the
days are the longest and the nights are the shortest. The day length begins to
decrease as the season progresses towards autumn. When it is summer in the
Northern Hemisphere, it is winter in the Southern Hemisphere, and vice-versa.

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 2. Winter is the coldest season of the year in the polar and temperate zones. It
occurs after autumn and before spring in each year. Winter is caused by the axis
of the Earth in that hemisphere being oriented away from the Sun. when it is
winter in the Northern Hemisphere, it is summer in the Southern
Hemisphere, and vice versa. During winter the days are short and nights have
longer hours. However, this changes as the season progresses towards spring.
3. Spring is seasons of the year that occur between summer and winter. Days
become longer, and weather gets warmer in the temperate zone because the Earth
tilts towards the Sun. In many parts of the World plants grow and flowers
bloom.
4. Autumn, this is a season of the year between summer and winter during which
temperatures gradually decrease. The fall in temperatures brings direct impact on
the growth of vegetation. Therefore, the vegetation begins to decrease. It’s the
season when the days get shorter and colder, and everything turns brown and the
plants begin to shed leaves
ii. Varying length of day and night at different times of the year
The revolution causes variations in the length of the day and night over different latitudes.
When the sun is in the Southern hemisphere i.e. overhead the tropic of Capricorn, the
latitudes in the northern hemisphere receive less hours of the sunlight (daytime) but
more hours of night time; while the Southern hemisphere receives more hours of
heating hence more hours of daytime. During the summer solstice, day time is longer than
night time in areas found in higher latitudes.
iii. Climatic zone.
These are divisions of the Earth’s climate into general climate zones according to average
temperatures and rainfall. The three major climate zones on the Earth are: the Polar,
Temperate, and Tropical climatic zones.
iv. A light year

4.5. The Moon

The moon is the natural satellite that goes around the earth and the people can see shinning in
the sky at night. It is the only satellite of the earth which is about 4.5 billion years old.
4.5.1. Characteristics of the moon
The moon has several characteristics.
These include the following:
 It has a cold surface
 It is a dry globe
 Its surface is dominated with craters
 Its landscape is made up of rocks and dust
 It has no or low gravitational force
 The atmosphere is very limited
4.5.2. Phases of the moon

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As the Moon orbits Earth, it reflects light from different angles, which change shape of the
moon. These change shapes of the moon are called the phases of the Moon.
The phases of the Moon are divided into Primary phases and Intermediate phases.
1.Primary phase includes the following:
The New moon phase: This is a period when the moon is between the Sun and the
Earth. Its sunlight side is turned away from Earth (it is not visible). Occur 1st
The first quarter phase: Is a phase that occurs 7 days after new moon phase when
half shape of the Moon appears to be receiving sunlight.
The full moon phase: The whole side of the Moon receiving sunlight faces the
Earth, 14 days after new moon. This implies that the Earth, Sun, and Moon are almost
aligned in a straight line, with the moon in the middle.
Last quarter phase: A half of the moon appears to be lit by sunlight. The left part of
the moon is facing the direction of the rising sun.it occurs three weeks after new
moon
2.Intermediate phases
 Waxing crescent is a small part of the moon that receiving sunlight seen from the
Earth just as a bright crescent in the direction of the setting sun.
 Waxing Gibbous: This is when the moon appears to be having a small part that
receives sunlight as seen from the Earth.
 Waning Crescent: The Moon appears to be partly but less than one-half illuminated
by direct sunlight. The fraction of the Moon’s disk that is illuminated is decreasing.
 Waning Gibbous: This occurs when more than a half of the lit portion of the moon
can be seen and the shape decreases in size from one day to the next.

4.5.3. Influence of the moon on the earth

1) Eclipses of the moon

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 Eclipse is the obscuring of one celestial body by another, particularly that of the sun or a
planetary satellite.
Types of eclipses
 A lunar eclipse: A lunar eclipse occurs when the moon passes directly behind the
earth into its umbra (shadow). This can occur when the sun, earth and the moon are
aligned.
 Solar eclipse: This is a type of eclipse that occurs when the moon passes between the
sun and earth, and the moon fully or partially blocks rays of the sun from reaching the
earth.
2) Tides
The word “tide” is a term used to define the alternating rise and fall in sea level, produced by
gravitational attraction of the moon and the sun. The moon tries to pull anything on the earth
to bring it closer, but the earth is able to hold onto everything except water.

4.6. Other heavenly bodies

It is important to note that there are other heavenly bodies. These include the ones shown
below:
Asteroids Asteroids are minor planets especially those
of the inner Solar system.
Meteoroids These are small bodies often remnants of
comets, travelling through space.
Meteorite Meteors are pieces of rock or other matter
from space that produce a bright light.
A comet It is a heavenly body or lump of rocks made
up of dust and frozen gasses which orbit the
sun.
Constellations A constellation is a shape displayed by a
group of celestial bodies, usually stars.
Galaxies A galaxy refers to the group of billions of
– Elliptical galaxy stars held together by the same gravitational
– Spiral galaxy force. There are several galaxies both known
– Irregular galaxy and unknown.

Type of galaxy Description

Elliptical galaxy  This is a group of billions of stars
which form a spherical shape

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 characterized by no arms, little gas or
dust clouds.
 This galaxy has no distinctive
features, only that it displays great
brightness.
Spiral galaxy  This is a group of billions of stars,
composed of the old stars with a
central bulge.
 This galaxy has arms made of the
younger stars that display spiral
layout.
 This galaxy is flattened disc that
keeps on rotating. The arms that are
displayed contain huge clouds of gas
and dust radiating outwardly.
Irregular galaxy  This is a galaxy that has no definite
shape.
 It is a very rare galaxy.
 It is very hard to describe its shape as
it has no fixed shape.

End unit assessment

1. Read the story below and use it to answer the questions that follow: Recently John
and Mary went to visit their uncle in Rubavu. In the afternoon of their second day,
they were taken by their cousins to visit the lake shores. Evening came, and the
moonlight was so intense that one could pick the smallest thing at that time. Suddenly,
they saw water extending in a rhythmic manner to the place they had made a camp
fire.”
a) How could you use your knowledge to convince John and her sister Mary that
what happened was connected to the moon, sun and earth’s rotation.
b) Suppose you want to build near the coastline, explain how the knowledge and
the skills acquired from the lesson on tides can guide you.
c) The Indian Ocean experiences many tides, design a project that you would
sell to the Kenyan government to address the effects of tides on the coastal
biodiversity.

UNIT 5: THE ORIGIN OF THE EARTH

5.1. Theories of the origin of the earth
The study of the universe is called cosmology. Cosmologists study the structure and the
changes that take place in the universe. The universe contains all the star systems, galaxies,
gas and dust, and all the matter and energy that exist. The universe also includes all of space
and time.

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The origin of the earth has resulted into many theories that were put forward to explain its
possible origin. Eleven theories about the origin of the earth but are two highlighted below.
1. The Big Bang theory 2. The creation or biblical theory
5.1.1. The Big Bang Theory
This theory was first suggested by a Belgian priest named Georges Lemaitre in 1920. He
hypothesized that the Universe began from a single primordial atom. This theory further
states that in the beginning, there was totally nothing. In about 15 billion years ago a
sudden explosion happened (big Bang) which produced a speck of matter that was
smaller than an atom. From the time of its formation, this small matter has continued
expanding and resulting into the formation of the Earth and all that forms it: the
atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and biosphere. This theory is criticized on one ground;
how can nothing lead to the occurrence of something.
5.1.2. The Biblical or creation theory
The biblical or creation theory is based on the liturgical narrative as expressed in Genesis
chapter one of the Holy Bible. It talks about specific acts of divine creation. The theory is
believed in by Christians. According to the creation theory, at the beginning there was
nothing. The divine power (God) created heaven and earth and all that are in them. The
theory holds that God is the master creator of planet Earth and the universe in general. The
theory further shows that God created two great lights that is; the greater light which He
called Sun and the lesser light which was named the moon. The sun was to provide light
during the day and the moon to provide light at night. The whole creation process took place
in six days.
- On the first day, God created the day and the night.
- On the second day, He created the sky.
- On the third day, He created the land which is the earth, the sea and the plants.
-On the fourth day, He created the sun, moon and stars.
- On the fifth day, He created the sea creatures and the birds.
- On the sixth day, He created land animals of all kinds and human beings.
Therefore, according to this theory, the Earth and universe were all together created by God.

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5.2. Characteristics of the Earth
5.2.1. The shape of the earth is spherical
1. The shape of the earth
Determining the shape of the earth was a point of concern for many centuries. It was first
believed that the earth was flat. Further studies based on modern technology proved that the
shape of the earth is not a perfect sphere, but an oblate spheroid also known as a geoid. This
is because observing the polar areas reveal that they have a flat landscape.

2. Evidences showing that the earth is spherical

There are several evidences to prove the spherical form of the earth:
- The circumnavigation: If one travelled across the world along the straight path without
stopping would come back to the point of origin where the journey started from.
- Images from the space: photographs taken from space by satellites show that the earth‘s
surface is curved (spherical shape).
- The view of other planets: All observations from telescopes reveal that the planetary
bodies are spherical from whichever angle. Therefore, since the earth is one of them, its shape
is also spherical in nature.
- The shadow of the earth during eclipses: The shadow resulting from the eclipse of the
moon (Lunar eclipse) shows that the earth is round.
- The size and diameter of the earth: The earth has an equatorial diameter of 12, 751 km
and its circumference is 40,080 km. These however, are much bigger than those of the polar
areas.
- The International Date Line: if two people started off from the prime meridian and one
went east while another went west, both would meet at the International Date Line which
separates east from west and if they continue moving, each would end up where they started
at the prime meridian.
- The sun rise and sun set: if the earth was flat, the sun would rise and set at the same time
in all countries. But, the sun rises and sets at different times in different places.
- The changing altitude of the sun at different times of day: When the sun rises and sets,
it displays a lower sun ‘s altitude than when it is overhead at mid-day.
- The ship sailing away from or towards the coast: The lower parts of a ship that is moving
away from the coast disappear before the upper parts. On the other hand, on an in-coming
ship, the upper parts appear first before other parts of the ship.

5.2.2. The shape of the earth is oblate

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The earth is slightly flattened at the poles and bulging at the equator. From the outer space,
the earth looks perfectly round and smooth. The oblateness of the earth’s shape is more
pronounced at the equator due to the earth’s rotation.
The following are more details proving that the shape of the earth is not a perfect
sphere:
1. The equatorial diameter is larger than the polar diameter. The diameter of the Earth at
the polar region is 12,713 km, while at the equator it is 12,756 km.
2. The polar circumference is less than that of the equatorial circumference. The polar
circumference is 40,008 km while the equatorial circumference is 40,075 km.
3. Latitudes near the equator are longer than those near the polar areas. For example, 10
latitude near the equator is 111,926 km, while near the north pole it is 109,051 km.
4. Areas at the equator are far away from the centre of the earth hence they have a lower
gravity than the areas at the poles. At the poles, the areas are near the centre of the
central part of the earth.
5. Basing on the images taken by the satellites, it has been found out that the Northern
Hemisphere is smaller than the southern hemisphere.
5.2.3. The Earth’s size: radius, diameter, circumference, volume and mass
 The average radius of the earth is 6,371 km.
 The Earth’s equatorial diameter is 12,756 km while the polar diameter is 12,714 km.
 The Earth’s circumference at the equator is 40,075 km. From pole to pole, its
circumference is 40,008 km.

 The Earth’s volume is 1.08321×1012 cubic kilometres.

 The Earth is the largest of the four inner planets, although it is nothing compared
to the gas giants.
 The Earth’s mass is 5.9736 x 1024 kg.
 The Earth’s density is 5.52 g/cm3. It is the densest planet in the solar system
because of its metallic core and the nature of the content of mantle.
5.2.4 The earth’s gravity
Planets are held in their orbits by the force of gravity. Normally, the gravity of the earth is
approximately 9.8 m/s2.
The influence of the gravity

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The earth’s gravity plays a great role as shown below:
o The density and weight of the materials that compose the interior of the earth are
influenced by gravitational force.
o The earth’s gravity glues all materials that form the earth together, hence forming a
single mass called planet earth.
o The gravitational force leads to the occurrence of disturbances in the asthenosphere
which lead to the mobility of the lithosphere.
o It plays a great role in holding up the organization structure of the solar system.
5.3: The internal structure of the earth and mineral composition
5.3.1. The internal structure of the earth
The layers of the Earth’s interior include the crust, mantle, liquid outer core, and solid
inner core. Continental crust has both felsic and mafic rock zones, while oceanic crust has
only mafic rock. The interior structure of the earth is layered in concentric shells:
 An outer silicate solid crust.
 A highly viscous mantle.
 A liquid outer core that is much less viscous than the mantle.
 A solid inner core.
1) The crust
The crust is the outermost layer of the Earth. Various landforms feature like mountains,
plateaus and plains, rivers, lakes, sea, oceans and human settlements are found on the crust. It
is also referred to as the lithosphere. The crust is divided into two types, the oceanic crust and
the continental crust:
 Oceanic crust (SIMA)
 Continental crust (SIAL).
2) The Mantle The mantle is composed mainly of silicate rocks, rich in iron and magnesium.
The mantle is under the crust. It is composed of rocks that are in a semi-molten state. The
mantle is divided into three main parts, namely the asthenosphere, the upper mantle and the
lower mantle: Asthenosphere, upper mantle and lower mantle

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5.3.2. The mineral composition of the Earth
The mineral composition refers to both the types of minerals within a rock and the
overall chemical makeup of the rock. Earth’s rocks are produced by a variety of
different arrangements of chemical elements. A list of the eight most common
elements making up the minerals found in the Earth’s rocks is described in the table
below.

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 Rocks are classified into three categories: Sedimentary rocks, Metamorphic rocks
and Igneous (magmatic) rocks. Each category has its particular mineralogical
composition as summarized in the table below.

5.4. Superficial configuration of the earth: Continents and Oceans

Superficial configuration refers to the distribution of continents and water bodies
especially oceans and seas.
5.4.2. Oceans
An ocean is a large mass of saline water. It occupies a basin between continents. An ocean is
different from a sea. A sea refers to a relatively large body of the salty water that is
completely or partially landlocked. Examples of seas include the Mediterranean Sea, the
Black Sea, the Red Sea, the Dead Sea, the Caspian Sea and the North Sea.
There are five oceans in the world and they include the following:
 Pacific Ocean: 155 million km2
 Atlantic Ocean: 76 million km2

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  Indian Ocean: 68.5 million km2
 Antarctica Ocean: 20 million km2
 Arctic Ocean: 14 million km2
5.5. Geological time scale
The geological time scale refers to a scheme or chart that indicates age classification of rocks
and associated geomorphological and biological events. The geological time scale is used by
geologists, palaeontologists and other earth scientists to describe the timing and the
relationship between events that have occurred throughout Earth’s history.
Subdivision of geological time
There are three types of subdivisions of geological time. These are: Eras, Periods, and
Epochs. Eras are major units (subdivisions) of geologic time scale based on differences in
lifeforms.
There are 3 major eras indicated on the geological time scale. They include the following:
I. Cenozoic (recent life).
II. Mesozoic (middle life).
III. Palaeozoic (ancient life).

End unit assessment

Read the following discussion between two students and answer the questions asked:
1. Two students Mugisha and Uwamahoro were discussing about the origin of the earth.
Mugisha said that the earth and other celestial bodies came into existence in different
ways: some were formed due to the collision of stars, others by explosion. With
confidence, Uwamahoro said that everything in the universe was created by God.
a) Who is right, who is wrong?
b) Describe two theories of the origin of the Earth

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 2. The physical features of the earth are changing day by day due to natural reasons and
human activities. Suggest ways people can use to conserve the nature for its
sustainability.

UNIT 6: INTERNAL LANDFORM PROCESSES

6.1. Faulting and processes leading to the formation of different faulted features
Forces causing faulting
Faulting is the fracturing of the crustal rocks due to the influence of endogenic forces or
processes. The endogenic forces include faulting, folding, warping, vulcanicity and
earthquake.
Meaning of faulting and fault
Faulting is the process through which the rocks of the earth’s crust crack or fracture due to
tectonic forces as accompanied by the displacement of blocks.
A fault is a fracture in the crustal rocks where the rocks are displaced along a plane called a
fault plane.
Fracture is the crack of crustal rock where there is no relative movement along the fault
plane.
Main parts of a fault
Processes of faulting: the process of faulting is caused by tensional and compressional
forces.
6.2. Types of faults
Faulting leads to numerous types of faults that include the following:
i. Normal faults/consequent fault lines are formed due to the tensional forces that
lead to opposite displacement of the rock blocks. The steep scarp resulting from
normal faults is called fault-scarp or fault-line scarp.

ii. Reverse faults/ obsequent fault lines are formed due to compression forces that
lead to the movement of the fracture rock blocks towards each other. The fault
plane in a reverse fault is usually inclined.

iii. Lateral or strike-slip faults are formed when the rock blocks are displaced
horizontally along the fault plane on side to side.

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iv. Step faults are formed when many parallel faults occur within the crustal layers
of the rocks in a way that the slope of the entire planes of the faults are in the
same direction. The series of blocks are up lifted at different rate, therefore
forming step faults.

v. Anticlinal faults are formed as a result of great compressional forces acting on

layers of rocks. Compressional forces further cause stress leading to the
development of cracks (faults) on the crest of the anticline.

vi. Shear or tear faults/strike or wrench faults

These are formed as a result of horizontal movements caused by the intense stress
coming from opposite directions but acting obliquely to one another. S

vii. Trap door fault is a type of fault produced by tension forces when fracturing
does not cut through the whole crustal rocks (i.e: semi-diplacement takes place).

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6.3. Influence of faulting on landscape and drainage
6.3.1. Influence of faulting on landscape
There are several landforms produced by faulting including: rift valleys, fault scarp,
escarpments, block or Horst Mountains, fault guided valleys, titled block/landscape, Rift
valley lakes and grabens.

1.Rift Valley
Rift valley is a hollow/depression (graben) which may result from both tensional and
compressional forces. It is formed when two faults are developed parallel to each other.

There are various theories put forward to explain the formation of the rift valley and they
include: Tensional theory, compressional theory, differential up-lift theory, crustal
separation theory and relative sinking theory.
a. Formation of the rift valley by tensional forces (Tensional theory by
J.W.Gregory)
A rift valley is formed when tensional forces move away from each other. These
tensional forces produce faults and the block (part of the crustal block in the middle) of
between two parallel faults subsides to form a rift valley. The outer blocks remain standing to
form escarpments.

Phase 1; before faulting

a) Movement of tensional force

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Phase 2:During faulting /creation of normal faults
b) submergence (subsidence) of the central block between the force

b. Formation of the rift valley by compressional forces (Compressional theory by

E.J. Wayland)
Rift valley is formed when horizontal forces act towards each other. These forces
push the crustal rocks or layers towards the centre from all sides. These forces of
compression produce two parallel faults and the pieces of land on either side are lifted
above the general level of the ground to form a rift valley.

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 c. Theory of differential uplift (by Dixey and Troup)
Rift valley is formed when normal faulting produces several normal fault lines
followed by gradual up lift of the faulted area with several step faults.

d. Theory of crustal separation/Plate tectonics theory

The theory suggests that the rift valley was formed as a result of sea-floor
spreading or tectonic movement, where convectional currents within the mantle
rise vertically and then divert from each other horizontally. This results in the
dragging of oceanic or continental plates.

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 Such results in the breaking of crustal layers t are dragged apart together with
continental rafts. As the movement continued, the central block was forced to subside.
Example: along the Atlantic oceanic trench, where the plates continue moving apart.

e. Theory of relative sinking (by Suess)

This happens when there is contracting of the earth followed by the fault blocks that are
slowly settled. Caused by vertical movement to be down word. It makes some blocks
remaining in the original position (standing up) to form horsts. Others, which are settled
faster, form graben or rift valleys. A typical example is the Kamasia ridge in Kenya.

The following are some examples of rift valleys: East African rift valley in Africa; Jordan rift
valley in Asia and Rhineland rift valley in Europe.
2.Block mountain (horst)
A block mountain is an upland bordered by fault scarps on both sides (the block of land
between two faults being uplifted because of compressional forces.

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The following are some examples of Block Mountains: Cyamudongo, Mishahi, Muzimu,
Cyendajuru in the western part of Rwanda; Usambara and Uluguru in Tanzania; Rwenzori in
Uganda; Vosges and Black Forest in Europe and Mount Sinai in Asia.
3.fault guided valley: are valley located along shrike faulting caused by horizontal
movement of the rock which are easily eroded.

4.Fault scarp: An escarpment or cliff/steep slope (a wall of lift valley) formed by a fault
that reaches the Earth’s surface. Most fault scarps have been modified by erosion and mass
wasting that may reduce the vivid evidences of faulting.

5.fault basin or lake: are lake that form in rift valley eg: Lake Tanganyika
6. tilt blocks: these are formed when faulting is followed by vertical earth movement.

6.3.2. Influence of faulting on drainage

 Faulting influences, the drainage pattern in a given area. The different drainage
patterns influenced by faulting include rectangular, parallel and trellised drainage
patterns.
 Most of the time, water passes through the valleys, depressions and fractured areas
hence forming fault guided valleys. A good example is River Rusizi in western
Rwanda.

 Faulting leads to river reversal (change of direction). Example of river reversal due to
faulting include River Katonga and Kafu in Western Uganda that were joining the

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 Congo river basin and reversed towards Victoria basin. The figure below shows how
River Katonga and Kafu changed their flow of direction to Lake Victoria basin as a
result of faulting in Western part of Uganda
 Rift valley lakes are formed when graben or rift valleys are filled by water. Typical
examples include: Lake Kivu, Eduard, Albert, George, Tanganyika in the western
arm/branch of East African rift valley, Turkana, Manyara, Nyasa, Magadi in the
Eastern arm/branch of East African rift valley

 Some of the waterfalls are in faulted areas e.g. Ruzizi, Mururu, water falls in
Rwanda and Mubuku water falls in South Western part of Uganda.
 Faults give rise to the underground water table along fault planes. Typical
examples are Mwiyanike and Nyamyumba in Rwanda.
6.4. Impact of faulting on human activities
6.4.1. Positive impacts 6.4.2. Negative impacts 6.4.2. Negative
impacts
 Faulted sedimentary strata are good  Faulting processes result in
for oil exploration. A good example is destructive earthquakes
oil deposit from Lake Albert in  Faulting processes change the
Uganda. existing landforms to create the new
 Faults give rise to the underground landforms; hence deforming the
water table along fault planes. This already existing beautiful scenery.
water is important for agriculture and  Faulting processes may result in
it is used in industries and domestic volcanic eruption which comes along
activities. with ill-effects.
 Faulting leads to the formation of  Fault scarps form topographic
depression which, when filled with barriers that make the development of

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 water , form lakes like Kivu, Edward, infrastructure such as roads and
etc. railways difficult.
 Faulting creates lines of weaknesses  Faulted areas are barriers to the
in the earth’s crust through which the development of transport and
underground hot water reaches the communication lines.
surface as hot springs and geysers.  Faulted areas discourage the
These are sites for geothermal power settlement, agriculture and livestock,
production. A good example is industrial development,
Nyamyumba hot spring.

6.5. Distribution of landforms associated with faulting

Fault areas are mainly located in the following areas:
 East Africa: Faulted areas in East Africa extend from Mozambique in the South to
the Red Sea in the North and from Malawi through Tanzania and Burundi, then
Rwanda to Uganda and Kenya.
 Western Europe: Many faulted areas are in deep oceanic parts of the Atlantic Ocean
in Western Europe.
 The Rhine Rift Valley extends along the border of North East France and South
West Germany.
 The Western Coast of North America, which includes the San Andreas Fault of
California.
 The Alpine fault region in New Zealand in the Far East.
 The North Western highlands of Scotland and the Guadalquir valley of Spain.
6.6. Definition of folding and its process
Meaning of folding and folds
Folding is a process by which crustal rocks bend due to compressional forces. This results
from horizontal movements caused by the endogenic forces originating deep within the earth.
Folds are the wave-like bends resulting from folding processes. The up-folded rock strata in
arch-like forms are called anticlines, while the down folded structure forming trough-like
feature is called syncline. The sides of a fold are called limbs of the fold.

Processes of folding
The processes of folding are mainly engineered by the presence of compressional forces that
push intensely the crustal layers/rocks towards a common centre.

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6.7. Types of folds
Based on the inclination of the limbs, folds are divided into the following categories:
Symmetrical folds are simple folds whose limbs incline uniformly.

Anticlinal fold: This is a fold that has the convex appearance with the oldest beds at its core.
A syncline fold: This is a fold with younger layers closer to the folded structure. Synclines
are typically a downward fold, termed as syncline (i.e. a trough) but synclines that point
upwards or perched can be found when strata have been overturned and folded.

Asymmetrical folds: These are characterized by unequal and irregular limbs. Both limbs
incline at different angles. One limb is relatively larger,with moderate and regular inclination,
while the other is relatively shorter with steep inclination.

Over fold: This is a type of fold formed where the compressional forces push one limb in
asymmetrical fold over the other limb at a short distance.

Monoclinal folds: These are folds in which one limb inclines moderately with regular
slope while the other limb inclines steeply at the right angle at the slope is almost
vertical. Splitting of limbs gives birth to the formation of faults. Also monoclinal folds are
formed as a result of unequal horizontal compressional forces coming from both sides

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Isoclinal folds are formed when the compressive forces are so strong that both the limbs of
the fold become parallel to each other and not horizontal.

Recumbent folds: These are formed when the compressional forces are so strong that both
the limbs of the fold become parallel as well as horizontal.

Fan folds represent an extensive and broad fold consisting of several minor anticlines and
synclines. Such folds resemble a fan and the resultant feature is called an anticlinorium or
synclinorium.

Open folds are those in which the angle between the two limbs of the fold is more than 90o
but less than 180o . Such open folds are formed due to wave like folding because of the
moderate nature of compressional forces.
Closed folds are the folds in which the angle between two limbs of a fold is acute. Such folds
are formed because of intense compressional forces.

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Dome and basin fold: These are types of folds that display dome-like anticlines instead of
arching. Therefore, the fold assumes a dome shape that looks like an inverted bowl. The
would-be syncline forms basin like appearance instead of having a sinking arch. A typical
example is the Mauritania desert.
6.8. Influence of folding on the drainage and landscape
6.8. 1. Influence of folding on drainage
The following are examples of the influence of folding on drainage:
 Folding led to the formation of many waterfalls in Rwanda and elsewhere in the
World. Some of the waterfalls are located on the upward folded areas. A good
example is Rusumo waterfall.
 Fold Mountains are good catchment areas. A typical example in Rwanda is in
Gicumbi District.
6.8.2. Impact of folding on landscape
There are various landforms resulting from folding. They include:
Rolling plains: These types of landforms result from down warping movement caused by the
folding processes. They have gently sloping anticlines with very wide synclines.
Ridge and valley landscape: The strong compressional forces create a series of
asymmetrical folds. The anticlines form the uplands (ridges) while the synclines form the
valleys.

Fold Mountains: The most common features resulting from the process of folding are the
mountains. The mountains rise to different heights depending on the velocity and intensity of
compressional forces.

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The following are examples of folded mountains:
 Highlands located in the Northern region of Rwanda (various mountains located for
instance in Gakenke, Musanze, Burera);
 Kigezi highlands in South Western Uganda;
Caledonian folds: The folds of Caledonia are found in Scotland, and they affected the
Caledonia and Scandinavian countries during the primary era 210 Geography Senior 5
Student Book (Paleozoic);
Hercynian folds, they include: Mountains in Scotland and the Appalachians in America
Rockies and Andes in America;
Insular arcs of the Pacific Ocean;
Parts of Asia: Japan, Philippines, Kouriles Islands;
Near the Equator: Marianna, New Zealand, Kermadea;
Parts of Europe: Alps;
Parts of South Asia (Saudi Arabia and India);
North Africa: around the Mediterranean Sea

6.8.3. Impacts of folding on the physical environment

The above features formed through folding process influence the human activities
positively and negatively as follow:
Positive effects Negative effects
 Fold Mountains receive heavy  The Foëhn winds associated with

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 rainfall on the windward side hence leeward sides in fold mountain
favouring crop growing while the areas discourage the growing of
leeward side receives little or no crops, hence hindering agriculture.
rainfall. Thus, there is agriculture  Fold Mountains are barriers to the
and livestock keeping on the development of transport and
windward side; communication lines. They hinder
 Fold mountains are a source of air transport due to poor visibility;
clean water, which is used by  The steep and rugged slopes of
human beings; Fold Mountains discourage
 The fold mountainous areas can be settlements, agriculture and
used for lumbering activities; livestock keeping.
 During folding, some valuable  Fold moutains discourages the
minerals are brought closer to the development of mining sector since
earth’s surface. This promotes some minerals can be taken deeper
mining activities. into the ground and become hard to
 Some features resulting from exploit especially in synclinal parts.
folding attract tourists who bring
foreign exchange.

6.9. Meaning, causes and types of warping

6.9.1. Meaning of warping
Warping is the downward movement of crustal rocks caused by the sinking of
convectional currents within the interior part of the earth. This results in a saucer-shaped
basin. A typical example where warping took place in East Africa is Lake Victoria
basin.
6.9.2. Types of warping
There are two types of warping:
 Down warping
 Up warping
When the process of up warping and down warping affects larger areas, the resultant
mechanism is called broad warping.
6.9.3. Causes of warping
Warping is mainly caused by convection currents that result in lateral compression forces of
low intensity or gentle compressional forces. Typical examples are in East Africa where few
areas escaped the down warping and up warping processes.
The process led to the formation of Great East African Basin, crustal warped lakes, extensive
swamps around the lakes, extensive plateaus, reversal of some rivers.
6.9.4. Landforms associated with warping
The process of warping led to formation of numerous landforms which include:
Plateau: it is a large and extensive uplifted part of the earth’s crust which is almost flat at the
top.
Basin: It is a large and extensive depression on the earth’s surface. Most basins are formed
due to vertical downward movement of the earth’s crust.

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Examples of basins include: An inland drainage e.g. Congo; Chad; and Amazon basins.
When a basin is filled by water; it forms basin lakes like Lake Muhazi and Mugesera in
Rwanda, Lake Victoria, etc.
Plains: These refer to flat areas that are located in lowland areas. Typical examples are
generally in coastal regions that were greatly affected by warping process.
6.9.5. Influence of warping on drainage
Warping plays a major role in the drainage system
 Some rivers change their courses due to warping in a given area. A good example is
the case of hydrography of East Africa where some rivers changed direction and
other filled the depressions to form lakes.
 Warping led to the formation of many lakes in East Africa. Good examples include:
Lake Victoria and Lake Kyoga in Uganda, Lake Muhazi and Mugesera in Rwanda.
 Some of the waterfalls are located on the upward warped areas.
 The drainage of Rwanda flows from West to East from the up warped features of
Rwanda.
Positive effects Negative effects
 Upward warping areas receive heavy  The destructive Foehn winds are
rainfall on the windward side common in warped mountain areas.
favouring crop cultivation.  Warped areas are barriers to the
 The water of river flowing from the development of transport and
warped areas is clean and may be communication, where they lead to
used by human beings in various high cost of the construction of roads.
activities;  The steep and rugged slopes of
 The upward areas may be used for warped mountains discourage the
lumbering activities; settlement, agriculture and livestock
 During warping, some valuable keeping.
minerals are brought closer to the  During warping, some valuable
earth’s surface. This promotes mining minerals can be taken deeper into the
activities; ground and become hard to exploit.

6.10. Processes of vulcanicity and volcanic materials

The following are the key terms used in vulcanicity studies:
 Vulcanicity refers to the processes by which the molten materials are either ejected
on the surface of the earth or remain in the earth’s crust.
 Volcanicity refers to the process by which lava through volcanic eruption is ejected
to the earth’s crust.

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  A volcano is a mountain that opens downward to a reservoir of molten rock below
the surface of the earth.
Materials of vulcanicity:
Volcanic materials of various types are ejected through the volcanic pipe known as a vent.
This is situated in the part of fault line that assisted the escape of magma. Volcanic materials
include the following:
 Vapour and gases: Stream and vapour include phreatic vapour and magmatic
vapour. Volcanic gases include carbon dioxide, nitrogen oxides, sulphur dioxide,
hydrogen and carbon monoxide.
 Magma and lava: Generally, magma; molten rock materials which are still below
the earth’s surface. When they reach the earth’s surface, they are known as lava.
However, when it is still in the mantle it is refer to as molten material. Lava and magma are
grouped into two classes. These include the following:
a. Based on silica percentage; lava and magma are divided into two groups: acidic
magma (high percentage of silica) and basic lava (low percentage of silica).
b. Based on light and dark coloured minerals; lava and magma are also classified into
Felsic and Mafic lava.
6.11.Intrusive and extrusive features
Magma found inside the crust may sometimes reach the surface of the crust through fracture,
fissures and consolidate from there. In this case, the features formed are extrusive features.
But when the magma fails to reach the earth’s surface and consolidate inside the crust before
reaching the surface, the features formed are called intrusive features.

6.11.1. Extrusive volcanic features

These features include the following:
Volcano: This is formed when molten materials escape from the mantle and solidify on the
earth’s surface to form a highland known as volcano.
Acidic lava cone: This refers to a cone made of viscous lava normally that is ejected out of
the earth’s crust and solidifying faster as soon as it reaches the Earth’s surface. It always
cools faster than basic lava because it is viscous in nature.

Basic lava cone which is a cone of basic fluid/lava spread over a long distance. Basic lava
cone is characterized by gentle slope. Basic lava cone is also known as shield or basalt
volcanoes. Typical examples include Nyamuragira in DRC and Muhabura in Rwanda.

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Crater: This is a volcanic depression on top of the volcano. There can be a ring crater or
explosive crater in circular shape when a crater is filled by water, it forms a Crater Lake.
Examples of crater lakes in Rwanda are found on Kalisimbi, Muhabura and Bisoke
volcanoes.

A caldera: This is a wide depression that usually forms on top of a volcanic mountain due to
explosive secondary eruption. When a caldera is filled with water, a Caldera Lake is formed.
A typical example of dry caldera is Ngorongoro Caldera in Tanzania.

Ash and cinder cone: These are formed when lava is ejected into the air violently and breaks
into small particles known as Ash and cinder. These fall back and pile up to form alternating
layers of ash and cinder. These have slopes that are importantly concave and asymmetrical in
nature.

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Volcanic plateaus: These are formed when there are various fissures or vents and basic lava
flowing out and spreading to a wide area. This results into the formation of a flat-topped
highland known as volcanic plateau.
There are two types of volcanic plateaus which include: Lava plateaus which are formed by
highly basaltic lava during numerous successive eruptions through several vents without
violent explosions (quiet eruptions). The second type of lava plateau is known as pyroclastic
plateau which is produced by massive pyroclastic flows and is underlain by pyroclastic

rocks.
Volcanic plug: This is also called a volcanic neck or lava neck; it is a volcanic feature
created when the magma solidifies within a vent and later the soft layers of rocks surrounding
it are eroded away. Then, a hard rock in form of a pillar is left standing as a volcanic plug.

Composite cone: This is a volcano associated with various cones. Examples include, Mt.
Kilimanjaro, Mt. Muhabura,..

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Lava and ash cone or strato volcanoes: They are formed when the lava is violently blown
to high heights, breaking into small particles. These fall in the form of Ash. When the
pressure reduces, magma comes out gently to form a layer of lava on top of the ash layer. The
typical examples include: Muhabura, Elgon border of Uganda and Kenya, Longonot in
Kenya.

Dissected volcanoes: This is a volcanic mountain that is greatly and deeply affected by
serious erosion. A typical example is Mt. Sabyinyo between Rwanda, Uganda and DRC.

Cumulo dome/Volcanic dome/Lava Dome: This is formed when lava is so viscous that it
cannot flow away readily. It therefore accumulates around the vent. Hence, a steep sided
volcanic dome with no visible crater is formed. Cumulo dome has convex sides.

Hot spring: This refers to natural outflow of superheated water from the ground. This is
formed when the underground water is in contact with superheated rocks associated with the
magma.
Geysers: These refer to the forceful emission of hot water and steam from the ground to a
high level in the air. This is formed in the same way as hot springs, the only difference is that,
the super-heated water and steam are realized and ejected out at irregular interval. Geysers
are found in Iceland, North Island and New Zealand.
Fumaroles: This is a volcanic feature associated with the emissions of gases from the vents.
These gases are composed of steam that continuously comes out from the Earth’s crust in

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volcanic region. They are formed when the underground water meets the hot magma and
creates steam.
6.11.2. Intrusive Vulcanic features
These features occur beneath the crust and may be exposed to the surface after the overlying
rock is removed by erosion. They include: Lava flow, laccolith, Volcano, Dyke, Lapolith,
sill,…

Batholith: This refers to large dome-shaped intrusion of the magma extending to great depth
within the earth’s crust. Batholiths are formed deeply below the surface. This is when large
masses of magma cools and solidifies. These may later be exposed because of erosion to form
inselbergs.
Laccolith: It is a dome-shaped intrusion of the magma formed when the magma cools and
solidifies in anticline bedding plane.
Lapolith: It is a large saucer-shaped intrusion formed when the magma (molten rocks) cools
and solidifies in a syncline bedding plane. Lopoliths form shallow basins along the rock
bedding plane.
Sills are horizontal intrusions of magma which have solidified along the lines of bedding
planes.
Dykes: These are vertical intrusions formed when magma solidifies in a vertical manner or
within the vent and subsidiary vents.
6.12. Types of volcanoes and their characteristics
A. Classification based on periodicity/ activity of eruptions:
 Active volcanoes: These are volcanoes which constantly eject volcanic lavas, gases,
ashes and fragmental materials. They erupted very recently or are engaged in
eruption. Examples are Nyiragongo and Nyamuragira in DRC, Ol Doinyo in
Tanzania, Lengai, Etna and Stromboli (in Mediterranean Sea).
 Dormant volcanoes: These are the volcanoes which have taken long without
erupting but still show signs of eruption. That is, they are quiet after their eruption for
some time. However, they suddenly erupt violently and cause huge damage to human,
animal and plant life around them. An example is,Vesuvious near Naples in Italy.
 Extinct volcanoes: These are the volcanoes that have taken a long time without
erupting and show no signs of erupting in the future.. A good example is Mount
Sabyinyo in Rwanda.
B. Classification of volcanoes basing on the nature of eruptions

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Based on the nature of eruptions volcanoes are classified into explosive and quiet volcanoes.
These include the following:
Explosive type of volcanoes: They are the volcanic eruptions that occur whereby the
magma is violently ejected out of the Earth’s crust through a central pipe (vent). This
breaks and blows off crustal surface due to violent and explosive gases accumulated deep
within the earth.
Explosive types of volcanoes are classified into the following:
 Hawain type of volcanoes: Such volcanoes erupt quietly due to less viscous lava
and non-violent gas. A good example is Nyiragongo of DRC, Mihara in Japan, Etna
of Italy, Kilauea of the southern Hawaii island.

 Strombolian type: Such volcanoes erupt with moderate intensity. Besides lava,
other volcanic materials like pumice, scoria and bombs are also ejected into the sky.
e.g: Stromboli in Italy.

 Vulcanian type of volcanoes: Such volcanoes erupt with great force and intensity.
The lava is quickly solidifies and hardens. It crusts over the volcanic vents. e.g:
Lipari in the Mediterranean Sea and Sakurajima in Japan.

 Peleean type of volcanoes: They are the most violent and explosive types of
volcanoes. The ejected lava is extremely viscous; a large amount of gas, dust, ash,and
lava fragments are blown out of the volcano crater. e.g: Pellee Volcano of the
Martinique Island in the Caribbean Sea.

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  Visuvious type of volcanoes: They are more or less similar to the Vulcanian and
Strombolian type of volcanoes. The difference lies only in the intensity of the
expulsion of lava and gases. There is a violent expulsion of the magma due to an
enormous volume of explosive gases. A good example is the Plini volcano in Italy
that erupted in 79 AD.

Fissure eruption type or quit eruption type: These occur along the fracture, fault
and fissure and there is slow upwelling of the magma from below and the resultant
lava is spread over the ground surface. An example is the Laki fissure eruption of
1783 in Iceland.
6.13. Influence of volcanicity on drainage
The volcanicity influences the drainage system in a given area in different ways as follows:
 Some seasonal rivers originate from the craters and flow down slope. A typical
example is Susa River in Rwanda.
 Crater or caldera of volcanoes may be filled with water to form lakes. Good
examples in Rwanda are the lakes located on Bisoke, Muhabura and Kalisimbi

 Some rivers may change their courses due to volcanicity. For example, before the
Rwandan volcanoes came into existence, Nyabarongo River was flowing northward

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 and then when volcanoes came in place, the river changed its course and went
southward.
 It leads to the formation of lava dammed lakes. E.g. Burera and Ruhondo.

6.14. Impact of volcanicity on humans

Positive impacts Negative impacts
 Volcanicity is associated with rich  Volcanic eruptions cause heavy
(fertile) volcanic soils that stimulate damage to human lives and property
agriculture; through outpouring of lava, fallout of
 Volcanicity lead to the production of volcanic materials, speeding lava
geothermal heat and geothermal flows etc.
energy;  Too much volcanic materials also
 Volcanicity stimulate the mining of lead to the diversion and blocking of
metal ore deposits (including gold, drainage systems and floods.
silver, copper, tin, iron, lead, wolfram  The poisonous gases produced during
and zinc); the eruptions may cause acid rain;
 Volcanicity leads to the formation of  Sometimes volcanic eruptions are
crater and lava dammed lakes that followed by heavy rainfall. The heavy
stimulate fishing and water transport. rain mixes with falling volcanic dusts
A typical example is in Burera and and gases to cause mudflows or lahar;
Ruhondo lakes in North Rwanda;  Volcanic eruptions may generate
 Industrial materials like building tsunamis and seismic waves causing
stone, Sulphur, pumice and clay are death to human beings;
provided by volcanic features;  It contributes to the deglaciation
 Volcanicity leads to the formation of because of increasing temperature.
waterfalls that facilitate the The melt water results in the
generation of electricity (HEP). Good occurrence of floods and their effects.
examples are Ntaruka and  Large quantities of volcanic dust and
Mukungwa HEP ashes produced during volcanic
 Volcanoes play a great role in the eruptions have been associated with
modification of climate which weather and climatic changes.
supports various human activities reduces visibility.
such as agriculture.  Volcanic eruption affects weather

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  The hot springs are used for patterns.
medicinal purposes.

6.16. Meaning of Earthquake and its related concepts

An earthquake is a sudden and rapid movement or vibration of the earth crust. The study of
earthquakes is called seismology and the movement of the earth are measured by
seismograph or seismometer

Description of the terminologies associated with Earthquakes.

a) Focus or hypocentre: It is the place of origin of the earthquake and it is
always hidden inside the earth. Epicentre: It is a place on the ground surface
which is perpendicular to the focus.
b) Magnitude: It is a measure of the amount of energy released during an
earthquake.
c) Intensity: is a measure of how strong or hard the earthquakes shake the
ground
d) Tremors or temblor is the perceptible shaking of the surface of the Earth,
resulting from the sudden release of energy in the earth’s crust that creates
seismic waves.
e) Measurement of the Earthquakes: The intensity or strength of an
earthquake is measured using either the Richter scale or the Mercalli scale.
The Richter scale range between 0 and 9. But in the real sense, the scale has
no upper limit because it is a logarithmic scale.
The world’s largest and most intensive earthquake recorded had a magnitude of 8.9. The
second method of measuring the intensity of an earthquake was invented by Giuseppe
Mercalli and it is called Mercalli scale. The intensity is estimated basing on the destruction
made by an earthquake. The instrument used in measuring earthquake is seismometer or
seismograph.

6.17. Causes, consequences and measures of earthquakes

6.17.1. Causes of earthquakes
Earthquakes are caused by both natural and human factors as follows:

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Causes of earthquakes Consequences of earthquakes Measures to curb
earthquake effects
Natural causes of earthquakes  Loss of life and  Building
 Natural earthquakes are destruction of property houses in a
caused by natural happen when violent way that they
processes or they are a shaking of the land are more
result of endogenic causes cracks on walls resistant to
forces. Good examples and making the buildings earthquakes.
are the earthquakes to collapse.  During an
which took place in  Outbreaks of fires occur earthquake and
Rwanda in February where the earthquakes when one is
2007 and August 2015. destroy oil and gas inside a
 Volcanic earthquakes pipelines. building, he
are caused by volcanic  Tsunamis are huge and should drop to
eruptions of explosive destructive sea waves the floor and
and fissure types. caused by Earthquakes. wait until the
Generally, volcanic  Landslides occur when shaking is over
earthquakes are confined the Earthquakes happen. ; and it is safe
to volcanic areas. These are sudden to move out of
 Isostatic earthquakes movements of large the building.
are triggered by sudden masses of rock and soil  When one is
disturbance in the downhill. outside, he
isostatic balance at the  Displacement of crustal hould stay
regional level due to an rocks. This is caused by there or move
imbalance in geological Earthquakes. It takes away from
processes. Generally, place vertically and buildings and
earthquakes occurring in laterally, leading to the streetlights.
the active zones of damage of transport and  If trapped
mountains fall in this communication lines under a
category. such as roads, railways, collapsed,
Human causes of earthquakes structure do
The earthquakes may also result not light a
from human activities such as: match or move
 Pumping water from about. Tap on a
underground aquifers, pipe or wall so
oil reserves; deep that rescuers
underground mining; may get to
 Blasting of rocks by locate you.
dynamites for purposes  When the
of the construction (of shaking stops,
dams and reservoirs, look around to
roads); make sure that
 Nuclear explosions; – it is safe to

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 Storage of huge move. Then
volumes of water in big leave the
reservoirs. building.

6.18. World distribution of Earthquakes

The following are the major seismic zones of the world:
 Circum-Pacific Belt or Ring of Fire surrounding the Pacific Ocean.
 Mid-Continental Belt representing epicentres located along the Alpine Himalayan
chains of European and Northern Africa and epicentres of East African fault zone.
 Mid-Atlantic Belt representing the earthquakes located along the mid-Atlantic Ridge
and its off-shoots. The high-quality seismicity maps showed that narrow belts of
epicentres coincide almost exactly with the crest of mid-Atlantic (ridge), the east
Pacific, and other oceanic ridges where plates separate.
 Volcanic regions of the convergent Oceanic plate margins. These include the
volcanoes of the Eastern and Western coastal areas of the Pacific Ocean, island arcs
and festoons off the East coast of Asia and the volcanic islands scattered over the
Pacific Ocean. This volcanic belt is also called “the fire girdle of the Pacific or the
fire ring of the Pacific.
 Zones of subduction are the biggest crash scene on the earth. These boundaries mark
the collision between two of the planet’s tectonic plates. The plates are pieces of crust
that slowly move across the mantle’s surface over millions of years. When two
tectonic plates meet at a subduction zone, one bends and slides underneath the other
curving downwards into the mantle.

End unit assessment

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 1) Discuss the impact of faulted landforms on the East African landscape and
drainage.
2) Explain the significance of folded relief features in the socio-economic
development of East Africa.
3) With specific examples, explain the importance of warping on drainage
systems of Africa.
4) To what extent has vulcanicity shaped the nature of landscape of East
Africa?
5) Critically examine the effects of either Tsunami in Japan or earthquake in
Haiti on the World economic development.
6) Assume that you are appointed Director General of Rwanda Environmental
Management Authority (REMA), what are the measures you will take to
reinforce the conservation of the basin lakes and wetlands found in Eastern
province.

UNIT 7: SOILS
7.1. Soil constituents
Soil is the upper layer of the earth in which plants grow. Soil is made up of water, air, organic
matter or humus (derived from remains of plants and animals); inorganic matter (derived
from non-living materials, for example, minerals) covering on the earth’s crust which contain
inorganic and organic materials.
The soil is a complex of five components:
Inorganic materials: A matrix of mineral particles derived from breakdown of the
parent-rocks through weathering. These particles vary in shape and size.
They include the following:
a. Silica: In this context we can give an example of sand.
b. Silicate: This is predominant in clay and as an example we can talk about aluminium
silicate.
c. Oxides: These are product of metal rust and mineral oxidation, for example iron
oxides.
Inorganic matter provides important plant nutrients; determine soil aeration, soil texture and
drainage. It also gives support to the plants. Inorganic matter makes up 45% of the soil.
Organic matter or humus: It is made up of animal and plant wastes and decomposed
animals and plants living in the soil. Organic matter makes up 5% of the soil. It
provides the soil with important benefits which include the following:
 It enhances the soil’s ability to hold and store water;
 It improves the soil structure;
 It reduces eluviation of soluble minerals from the top soil;
 It helps in soil aeration.
Soil water and moisture: This refers to all the water contained in the soil together
with its dissolved solids, liquids and gases. Soil water is held by capillary and
absorptive forces both between and at the surface of soil particles. The soil water

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 makes up 25% of the soil and it occupies the pore spaces in the soil. Soil water are
useful in the following ways:
 The soil water dissolves various substances for example salts that are
derived from plant or animal remains forming solutions;
 The soil water helps plant to absorb minerals from the soils;
 The soil water washes away highly soluble minerals from the upper to the
lower layers (leaching);
 The soil water brings soluble minerals from the lower to the upper horizons
of soil through capillarity;
 The soil water is very important in the sense that it provides a medium
within which most of the chemical processes of the soil formation take
place;
 The soil water provides a medium through which living organisms and soil
bacteria operate during the decomposition of organic matter.
The soil air: it occupies the pore space between soil particles, which is not filled with
water. The soil is normally lower in oxygen and higher in carbon dioxide content. The
soil air includes gases from biological activity and chemical reactions. The air or
gases make up 25% of the soil. The air in the soil is important in the following ways:
 It facilitates plant growth by supplying oxygen to the root hairs;
 It supports micro-organisms which are found in the soil;
 It helps in the process of weathering known as oxidation which is
responsible for breaking down rocks to form soils.
Biological system or living organisms and bacteria: The living organisms and
bacteria help to decompose the organic matter into humus. This is sometimes
classified together with organic matter/humus.

7.2. Morphological properties, soil profile, soil catena and fertility of the soil
Soil properties refer to the chemical and physical characteristics of the soil and these include
mainly: structure, texture, colour, porosity, pH and consistency.
7.2.1. Soil properties
The main properties of the soil include the following:
Soil structure: This is the arrangement of the individual soil particles. Soil structure varies
in size and shape. On the basis of the shape, the following types of soil structure exist:
granular, prismatic, platy, columnar and blocky.

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Soil texture: This is the proportion of sand, silt and clay within a soil. The soil particles can
be grouped according to size. Particles that are larger than sand are grouped as stones. Soil
texture is important due to the following reasons:
 Soil texture influences the amount of air and water available within the soil. Silt and
clay soils have a high water holding capacity. Sandy soils have a low water holding
capacity.
 It also influences the amount of water and the ability of the roots to pass through it.
 It determines the easiness with which plant roots penetrate the soil.
 It determines the soil’s ability to retain humus from being washed away.
 It influences the aeration of the soil.

Soil colour: It is the property of the soil that is easily identified through seeing. They
include red, yellow, black, grey, white and brown. A soil that is black or dark brown
has high organic matter content. Soils that are reddish brown are well drained whereas
grey soils are infertile.
Soil Porosity/permeability: This refers to the number of pore spaces in the soil. Soils
vary in porosity. Soils with large pores, for example sand are porous while clay is
non-porous.

Soil pH (potential for Hydrogen): Soil pH is measured by a pH scale or chart

numbered from 1 to 14. Soil pH is an indicator of the acidity or alkalinity of soil.

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 Soil consistency: This is the strength which soil materials are held together or the
resistance of soils to deformation.
Soil moisture: This is the water in the soil. It is determined by soil texture and
structure. Soil water helps in the movement of minerals up and down the layers of
soil. Clay soils, for example, keep water for long. They become water-logged. Sandy
soils allow water to pass easily. They are well drained.

Soil temperature: This is the degree of warmth or coldness in the soil. Soil
temperature affects the germination of seeds and plant growth. It also influences soil
moisture, air and availability of plant nutrients.
Soil air: This occupies the pore (or open) spaces that are not filled by water. It is
controlled by drainage and soil texture. Poorly drained soils have little air. This is
because the pores are filled with water.
Soil nutrients: These are chemical elements found in the soil. They help in plant
growth and ensure the soil remains fertile. The three main nutrients are nitrogen (N),
phosphorus (P) and potassium (K).
Soil depth: The depth of soil profile from the top to parent material or bedrock or to
the layer of obstacles for roots.
Soil density: It is expressed in two well accepted concepts as particle density and
bulk density. In the metric system, particle density can be expressed in terms of mega
grams per cubic meter (Mg/m3).
Soil salinity is the salt content in the soil; the process of increasing the salt content is
known as salinization. Salts occur naturally within soils and water.
Salinization can be caused by natural processes such as mineral weathering or by the
gradual withdrawal of an ocean.
7.2.2. Soil profile and catena
a. Soil profile
Soil profile refers to the vertical arrangement of the soil in layers from the ground/
surface to the parent rock/bedrock or mother rock. The layers are known as soil
horizons am marked using letters A, B, C and D.

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i. Horizon O: This layer is also known as the superficial layer. This layer includes
organic litter, such as fallen leaves and twigs.
O1: This is the uppermost layer consisting of freshly fallen dead organic matter
such as leaves, branches, flowers, fruits and dead parts of animals.
O2: This layer lies just below the O1 layer. Here, organic matter is found under
different stages of decomposition.
ii. Horizon A: This layer is also known as the top soil. It refers to the upper layer of
soil, nearest the surface (Horizon O. This horizon is divided into two sub-layers:
A1: This is dark and rich in organic matter, called ‘humus’. This layer has a
mixture of finely divided organic matter and the mineral elements.
A2: This layer is of light colour, with more sand particles and little organic
matter.
ii.Horizon B: This is called the sub soil. It is the layer below the top soil. Its
colour is determined by the parent rock and presence of organic matter. It has
fewer living organisms and is rich in clay deposits.
iii. Horizon C: This is the layer with recently weathered materials. It has low
organic matter. It is the zone of deposition.
iv. Horizon D: This is the parent rock. It contains the rock which is resistant to
weathering.

b. Soil catena: Soil catena is a sequence of different soil profiles that occur down a
slope. It shows the changes that take place in the soil from the top to the bottom of
the slope. Upland areas have deep soils whilst long the slopes, the soils are thin.

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 A soil catena consists of three main divisions called complexes namely: Elluvial
complex, the colluvial complex and the illuvial complex.
 The elluvial complex: This is the upper convex slope where weathered
materials are washed out downwards.
 The colluvial complex: This is the lower concave slope where there is
gradual deposition of eroded material.
 The illuvial complex: This occupies the valley bottoms where fine materials
are washed by seepage out outflow.
Soil catena is important in the following ways:
 The soil catena (elluvial complex) is used for settlement;
 The soil catena is used for rock quarrying for construction especially on free face
which has no vegetation;
 The valley bottoms are used for brick lying, e.g Ruliba Clay Works along River
Nyabarongo in Rwanda;
 The illuvial complex is used for agriculture due to the deep soil profile derived from
deposition;
 The valley bottoms are used for rice growing and growth of vegetables and yams,
7.2.3 Soil fertility
Soil fertility is the ability of soil to support plant growth. Fertile soil is the one
that is rich in nutrients that plants use to grow. Examples of these nutrients are
nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium.
Factors affecting soil fertility
The following are the major factors affecting soil fertility:
 Mineral matter: A matrix of mineral particles derived from varying degrees of
breakdown of the parent-rocks. The fertility of soil depends on the type of mother
rock to which the rock was derived.
 Organic matter or humus: The fertility of soil depends on the amount of organic
matter or humus available in soil. The higher amount of organic matter reflects the
higher level of soil fertility.
 Soil water or soil solution: the required optimum amount of water depends on the
type of crops to be grown in specific area. Some crops such as rice require much
more amount of water while the crops like sweet potatoes, cassava required low
quantity of water.

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  Soil nutrients: these are chemical elements found in the soil. They help in plant
growth and ensure the soil remains fertile.
 Thickness (depth): Thin soils are not good for agriculture. Thick soils are good for
agriculture (above 1 m of depth).
 Soil permeability: This is the ability of the soil to allow water to pass through it.
Permeable soils are much more fertile than non-permeable soils.
 Soil texture: This refers to the size of soil particles. Clay loam soil are much fertile
than other soil.
 Soil acidity and alkalinity: The basic soils are much more fertile than acidic soils.

End unit assessment

1. Conduct a field work study around your school and collect soil samples then study those
samples to identify their constituents.
2. Describe the soil catena using diagram.
3. Distinguish:

a) Soil structure and soil texture

b) Soil colour and Soil PH

UNIT 8: WEATHER AND CLIMATE OF THE WORLD

8.1. The atmosphere
8.1.1. Meaning of the atmosphere
The atmosphere is the envelope of gases surrounding the earth. It contains the gases that
support all forms of life on earth. This envelope of air is dense at the sea level. It thins out
with increase in altitude.
8.1.2. The structure of the atmosphere
The atmosphere is a mixture of various gases surrounding the earth. It provides all gases
that are essential for sustaining all life forms on the earth. Based on temperature variation, the
atmosphere is made up of four layers: These are: troposphere, stratosphere, mesosphere
and thermosphere.

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Troposphere
Climatically, the troposphere is the most important because all the elements of weather and
weather phenomena occur in this layer (e.g. evaporation, condensation, and precipitation of
different forms like fog, cloud, dew, frost, rainfall, snowfall, thunder, lightning,
atmosphere storms. This layer contains about 75% of gaseous mass of the atmosphere, most
of water vapour, aerosols and pollutants.
It is characterized by the following:
 It is the lowest layer of the atmosphere.
 The upper limit of the troposphere is called the tropopause.
 The temperature decreases with altitude at the rate of 6.5°C per km.
 The atmospheric pressure decreases also with altitude.
 It lies between 10 km and 20 km above the sea level.
 All weather phenomena occur in this layer. These are evaporation, condensation and
precipitation. Condensation is the conversion of vapour or gas into a liquid of
different forms. Precipitation is water that falls to the ground as rainfall, snow or hail.
 The height of tropopause is 17 km over Equator and 9 to 10 km over the poles.
Stratosphere: The stratosphere is the layer which is extending from 16 to 50 km above the
sea level. It is characterized by the following:
 There is increase of temperature due to absorption of ultraviolet solar radiation by
ozone layer and lesser density of air.
 There is nearly absence of weather phenomena because of dry air and rare
occurrence of clouds.
 The lower portion of the stratosphere having maximum concentration of ozone is
called ozonosphere, which is confined between the heights of 15 to 35 km from sea
level. Depletion of ozone would result in the rise of temperature of the ground surface
and lower atmosphere. The main causes of ozone destruction are halogenated gases

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 called chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs: chlorine, fluorine and carbon). This results to
global warming, acid rain, melting of continental glaciers and rise in sea level,
skin cancer, poisonous smoke, decrease in photosynthesis, ecological disaster and
ecosystem instability.
 The upper limit of the stratosphere is known as stratopause.
Mesosphere
 The mesosphere extends between 50 km and 80 km.
 Temperature decreases as height increases. In fact, the rise of temperature with
increasing height in the stratosphere stops at the stratopause.
 At the uppermost limit of the mesosphere (80 km), the temperature drops at -80° C
and may go down as low as - 100° C to -133° Celsius at mesopause.
 This layer is characterized by very low air pressure ranging between 1.0 millibar at
50 km altitude representing stratopause, and 0.01 millibars at the mesopause
(between 90 and 100 km).
Thermosphere
It extends from 80 km to 640 km. It is composed of Ionosphere and Exosphere.
The ionosphere consists of the following ionized layers:
 D layer: reflects low-frequency radio waves but absorbs medium and highfrequency
waves. Being closely associated with solar radiation, it disappears as soon as the sun
sets.
 E layer: The E-layer is also called the Kennelly-Heaviside layer. It reflects the
medium and high-frequency radio waves. It is much better defined than the D layer.
It is produced by ultraviolet photons from the sun rays interacting with nitrogen
molecular. This layer also does not exist at night.
 Sporadic E-layer: This layer occurs ttunder special circumstances. It is believed that
this sporadic layer is caused by meteors and by the same processes that cause aurora
lights. This layer reflects very high frequency radio waves.
 E2 layer is generally found at the height of 150 km and is produced due to the
reaction of ultra-violet solar photons with oxygen molecules. This layer also
disappears during the night times.
 F layer consists of two sub-layers e.g. F1 and F2 layers (150 km-380 km) are
collectively called the Appleton layer. These layers reflect medium and high
frequency radio waves back to the earth.
 G layer (400 km and above) most probably persists day and night but is not
detectable.
The exosphere represents the uppermost layer of the atmosphere. The density becomes
extremely low. The temperature reaches 5568° C at its outer limit, but this temperature is
entirely different from the air temperature of the earth’s surface as it is never felt. The
atmosphere above the ionosphere is called the outer atmosphere and it is made of exosphere
and the magnetosphere.
8.1.3. Composition of atmosphere
Basically, the atmosphere is composed of three major constituents, namely: gases, water
vapour, and aerosols.

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 a) Gases
The main gases are shown in the table below:

The following are the most important gases:

1. Nitrogen; which is about 78.1% of the total gases. Nitrogen is for all life forms. It is
an important part of amino acids which make up proteins. Nitrogen (N) is one of
the building blocks of life: it is essential for all plants and animals to survive.
Nitrogen (N2) makes up almost 78.1% of our atmosphere. Humans and most other
species on earth require nitrogen in a “fixed,” reactive form. Life depends on nitrogen,
which is a basic ingredient in amino acids that make up all proteins. While a
substantial percentage of the atmosphere is comprised of nitrogen gas, it must be
processed into a soluble form. This is done via a nitrogen cycle that occurs in the soil.
Then plants and the animals that eat them can obtain dietary nitrogen.
Plants with nitrogen deficiencies look weak. Their leaves, which should be healthy
and green, may look wilted and yellow. Animals and people get dietary nitrogen by
eating protein-rich foods like milk, eggs, fish, beef and legumes. Nitrogen, carbon,
hydrogen and oxygen are found in amino acids, which are the main structures of
every protein.

The nitrogen cycle involves:

 Transfer of atmospheric nitrogen into soils (known as nitrogen fixation);
 Mineralization, nitrification and transfer of nitrogen from soils to plants.
 Denitrification and return of nitrogen to the atmosphere. It helps the oxygen
in combustion; it also helps indirectly in oxidation of some elements.
2. Oxygen: This makes up 20.9% of gases in the atmosphere. The molecular oxygen
(O2) mostly occurs up to the height of 60 km in the lower atmosphere. It is produced
through photosynthesis. This is the process by which green plants use sunlight, carbon
dioxide and water to make their own food. It is one of the main elements that make up
air, and it is necessary for the survival of all plants and animals e.g. animals breathe in
oxygen.

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 a. Carbon dioxide represents 0.03% of the total atmospheric gases. The gaseous
carbon (CO2) plays two significant roles such as helping in the process of
photosynthesis and transparent to incoming shortwave solar radiation.
b. Ozone (O3): It is defined as “a three-atom isotope of oxygen (O3) or merely a
triatomic form of oxygen (O3). It is a life-saving gas because it filters the
incoming shortwave solar radiation and absorbs ultraviolet rays.
c. Water vapour: Liquid water turns into vapour through the process of
evaporation.
d. Aerosols: These are suspended solid particles and liquid droplets.
8.1.4. Importance of the atmosphere
 It protects living things from harmful ultraviolet rays of the sun. The atmosphere
serves as a protective shield against radiation and cosmic rays.
 It helps to regulate the heat during the day and night
 The Earth’s atmosphere protects and sustains the planet’s inhabitants by providing
warmth and absorbing harmful solar rays.
 The atmosphere traps the sun’s energy and sends off many of the dangers of space.
 It provides the various gases that are useful to living things. These include oxygen.
 It provides precipitation that helps to sustain life on earth.
 The atmosphere is made of gases that are essential for photosynthesis and respiration,
among other life activities.
 The atmosphere is a crucial part of the water cycle. It is an important reservoir for
water and the source of precipitation.

8.2 Elements of weather and climate

Definition of weather and climate
Weather can be defined as the state of the atmosphere at any given time. This state is
about temperature, atmospheric pressure, wind speed and direction, moisture, cloud cover,
precipitation, and sunshine. Weather keeps changing all the time. The change is from hour
to hour and day to day.
Climate is an average weather conditions over a long period of time (about 30 years). It is
measured by assessing the patterns of variation in temperature, humidity, atmospheric
pressure, precipitations, wind speed and direction.
The elements of weather and climate: Weather and climate are made up of many elements.
The main ones are temperature, precipitation, wind, atmospheric humidity, clouds, sunshine
and atmospheric pressure.
8.2.1. Temperature
Temperature is the degree of heating and cooling of the atmosphere at a given area and
time. The sun is the source of heat to the atmosphere.
Factors influencing temperature variation
 Latitude or distance from the Equator: The temperature of a place depends on the
amount of sunshine reaching there. The amount of sunshine received decreases as one
moves away from the Equator.

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 Altitude: Temperatures decrease with increasing height from the earth’s surface. This
is at the average rate of 6.5°C per 1km or 1000 metres ascent.
 Distance from the sea: Places on the coast are affected by land and sea breezes.
Therefore, they have low temperature. Places that are far away from the coast have
high temperature.
 Nature of land and water: The contrasting nature of land and water surfaces in
relation to the incoming shortwave solar radiation largely affects the spatial and
temporal distribution of temperature. It may be pointed out that land becomes warm
and cold more quickly than the water body.
The following reasons explain the differential rate of heating and cooling of land and
water:
 The sun’s rays penetrate to a depth of only one meter in land because it is
opaque, but they penetrate to greater depth of several meters in water because
it is transparent to solar radiation.
 There is more evaporation from the seas and the Oceans and hence more heat
is spent in this process. This results in oceans getting less insolation than the
land surface. On the other hand, there is less evaporation from the land
surface because of very limited amount of water.
 The reflection (albedo) of incoming solar radiation is more over oceanic
water surface than over land surface and thus water receives less insolation
than land.
 Oceanic areas are generally clouded and hence they receive less insolation
than land surface. But clouds absorb outgoing terrestrial radiation and
counter-radiate heat back to the earth’s surface.
 Nature of ground surface: The nature of ground surface in terms of colour,
vegetation, and land use practices affects distribution of temperature. Areas under
vegetation absorb more heat from the sun than those without vegetation.
 Nature of ground slope: The slopes facing the sun receive more heat from the sun
because its rays reach the surface more or less straight. These areas have higher
temperature than those not facing the sun.
 Cloud cover: The amount of cloud cover affects temperature. It is observed that night
time temperature during clear sky is much less than clouded nights. Cloudy nights and
days are warmer than cloudless nights and days.
 Ocean currents: The warm Ocean currents flowing from tropical areas to temperate
and cold zones raise the average temperature in the affected areas. For example, the
Gulf Stream raises the average temperature of the coastal areas of north-western
Europe while Kuroshio warm current raises the temperature of Japanese coasts.
 Mountain barriers: Mountains block the movements of air from one place to
another. This has an influence on temperature on both sides of the mountain.
Measurement and recording of temperature
The instrument used for recording temperature is called a thermometer. Temperature
is measured in degrees: Celsius (°C), Fahrenheit (°F) or Kelvin (K).

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 9 5
Where {°F = 0C +32 and 0C = (°F-32)} while 0°C = 273K
5 9
There are three types of thermometers. These are:
 Maximum thermometer (records the highest temperature of the day).
 Minimum thermometer (records the lowest temperature of the day).
 Six’s thermometer (records both maximum and minimum temperature of
the day.

Terms related to temperature

– Mean (average) temperature
The following are types of average temperature:
 Diurnal average (the average temperature within 24 hours of the day)
 Monthly mean temperature: This is the sum of mean daily temperatures for a given
month divided by the number of days of that month.
 Annual mean temperature: This is the mean temperature of 12 months of the year.
 Temperature range
 The difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures of the day
is called daily range of temperature.

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  The difference between the maximum and minimum temperatures of the
month is called monthly range of temperature.
 The difference between maximum and minimum temperatures of the year is
called annual range of temperature.
a. Meaning and forms of precipitation
Precipitation is any form of liquid or solid water particles that fall from the atmosphere to
the earth surface.
The following are main forms of precipitations:
a) Rainfall is occurring when there is enough moisture in the air that condenses
above freezing point. Rain is liquid water, in form of raindrops with diameter
of more than 5 mm with 8,000,000 cloud droplets. This is formed of droplets
that have condensed from atmospheric water vapour and then becomes heavy
enough to fall under gravity. Rain is a major component of the water cycle
and is responsible for depositing most of the fresh water on the Earth.
b) Snow: It is formed when condensation occurs below freezing point (less than
0°C). The fall of snowflakes is called snow-fall. Snowflakes are formed when
air temperature is greater than -5°C but less than 0°C. A snowfall is
‘precipitation of white and opaque grains of ice’.
c) Drizzle: It is defined as the fall of numerous uniform tiny droplets of water
having diameter of less than 0.5 mm. Drizzles fall continuously from low
status clouds, but the total amount of water received at the ground surface is
significant.
d) Fog: This is a cloud layer lying in contact and very close to the surface of the
earth or sea.
e) Frost: It is defined as transformation of gaseous form of water (water
vapour) directly into solid form (the process being called sublimation) at the
ground surface, in the soils and in the air, layer just lying over the ground
surface due to condensation occurring below freezing point.
f) Hail: It consists of large pellets or spheres (balls) of ice. Hail is a form of
solid precipitation wherein small balls or pieces of ice, known as hailstones,
have a diameter of 5 mm to 50 mm. In contrast, ice pellets (sleet; sometimes
called small hail) have a diameter less than 5 mm.
g) Sleet: It refers to mixture of snow and rain. Ice pellets are snow grains,
transparent or translucent grains of ice which are formed when condensation
takes place below freezing point. The diameter of ice pellets is up to 5 mm
and shape of the pallets is highly irregular depending upon the conditions of
condensation.

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 h) Dew: These are droplets of water that are deposited on the ground. As the
exposed surface cools by radiating its heat, atmospheric moisture condenses at
a rate greater than that at which it can evaporate, resulting in the formation of
water droplets. When temperatures are low enough, dew takes the form of ice;
this form is called frost.
i) Rime: It is an opaque thin, white layer of ice that forms when the air
temperature is below the freezing point of water, especially outside at night.
b. The water cycle
The water cycle also known as the hydrological cycle or the hydrologic cycle describes the
continuous movement of water on, above and below the surface of the Earth. The water
moves from one reservoir to another, such as from river to ocean, or from the Ocean to the
atmosphere, by the physical processes of evaporation, condensation, precipitation,
infiltration, surface runoff and subsurface flow. In doing so, the water goes through different
forms: liquid, solid (ice) and vapour.
The following are the main components of water cycle:
1. Evaporation of water from Ocean, sea, lakes, rivers, ponds and transpiration from
the leaves of plants through insolation (solar energy).
2. Conversion of water into water vapour or humidity (first and second phases are
almost the same).
3. Horizontal transport of atmospheric moisture over the Oceans and the continents
by atmospheric circulation (advection).
4. Condensation: The transformation of water vapour into solid form. This takes place
when the dew point is below freezing point to form snowfall, and when dew point is
above freezing point to turn the water vapour into liquid form (i.e. above 0°C
temperature of the air), is called condensation. – Precipitation (either in liquid form as
rain water, or in solid form as snow and ice and other minor forms of dew, fogs etc.).
5. Runoff and infiltration: Eventual transfer of water received at the earth’s surface to
the Oceans via various routes and hydrological processes. Some portion of rainwater
received at the ground surface enters the soil zone through infiltration and thus forms
soil moisture storage. This portion of water reappears as seepage and springs through
flow and interflow.

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 6. Percolation: This is a portion of infiltrated water which percolates further
downward to form groundwater storage. While other portion moves upward as
capillary rise to reach ‘soil moisture storage. Other quantity is routed further
downward through deep transfer and enters the underlying bedrocks.

c. Types of rainfall
Rainfall is precipitation in form of droplets. The following are the major forms of rainfall.
1. Convectional rainfall: It occurs when the earth’s surface is heated by the sun. The warm
air rises, and it is replaced by the cold air. As the air rises, the pressure on it decreases,
expands and cools. Further cooling makes the moisture in it to condense and form clouds.
It later falls as rain.
Two conditions are necessary to cause convectional precipitation:
 Abundant supply of moisture through evaporation to the air. So that relative
humidity becomes highly supersaturated, and
 Intense heating of ground surface through incoming shortwave electromagnetic
solar radiation (that is, insolation heating). After super saturation of the air,
follows condensation and clouds formation (cumulonimbus clouds) and then
rainfall is formed.

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Convectional rainfall has the following characteristics:
 Convectional rainfall occurs daily in the afternoon in the equatorial regions.
 It has a short duration but occurs in form of heavy showers (heavy downpour).
 It occurs through thick dark and extensive cumulonimbus clouds.
 It is accompanied by thunder and lightning.
 It causes a lot of runoff.
 Convectional rainfall supports luxurious evergreen rain forests in the equatorial
regions.
 In temperate regions, it is slow and of longer duration so that most of rainwater
infiltrates into soils.
 Convectional rainfall in hot deserts is not regular, it only occurs suddenly.
2. Orographic rainfall: this type of rainfall occurs when a water body is heated by the sun.
The heating causes evaporation. Moist air from the sea is blown over a hill or mountain side.
The rising causes it to expand and cool. It condenses and forms clouds. Rainfall occurs on the
wind ward side of the mountain. This is the side facing the moist wind. The opposite side
known as leeward side is dry.

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The following conditions are necessary for the orographic rainfall to occur:
 There should be a mountain barrier across the wind direction, so that the moist air is
forced on a barrier (an obstruction) to move upward.
 If mountains are very close and parallel to the sea coasts, they become effective
barriers. Such assists the moisture-laden winds coming from over the Oceans to rise
upward and soon becoming saturated.
 The height of mountains also affects the form and amount of orographic rainfall.
Mountains or highlands near the seas or water bodies of reasonable height play a
great role in formation of rainfall. Even low height coastal mountains are associated
with rainfall formation since the moist air becomes saturated at very low height. On
the other hand, the inland mountains should be of higher height because the air after
covering long distances loses much of its moisture content.
 There should be enough moisture content in the air.
3. Cyclonic or frontal rainfall
Cyclonic or frontal rainfall occurs when air masses of different temperatures meet. One is
warm and the other is cold. The warm air is forced over the cool air. As the warm air rises,
the moisture in it is cooled. It condenses and falls as rain.

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Rainfall associated with ITCZ (Inter Tropical Convergence Zone) results from convergence
of cold and warm air masses from the Southern and Northern hemispheres respectively in the
equatorial zone.
The following are the key conditions for frontal rainfall to occur:
 The moisture content of the air is supposed to be positively correlated with rainfall
 The convergent or divergent air circulation determines the ascent or descent of air
and its adiabatic cooling or heating. This in turn determines the amount of
precipitation.
 Topographic conditions present both favourable and unfavourable conditions for
precipitation (presence of mountain, near coastal land, etc.)
 Distance from the source of moisture determines the amount of precipitation in
different areas.
d. Factors influencing rainfall formation
The spatial and temporal distribution of precipitation over the globe is controlled by the
following conditions:
 Moisture content of the air: The atmospheric moisture depends on evaporation of
water or ice through the input of heat energy. The regions having high temperature
and abundance of surface water, and wide-open Oceanic surfaces for evaporation,
receive higher amount of annual rainfall. Equatorial regions are typical examples of
such places.
 The convergent or divergent air circulation: The convergence of two contrasting
air masses creates frontal activity. In this case, warm air mass is pushed upward by
underlying cold air mass resulting into uplifting of warm and moist air mass. The
overlying warm and moist air is cooled, and precipitation occurs after condensation.
On the other hand, divergent circulation allows descent of air from above and
creates anticyclone condition and atmospheric stability resulting into dry weather.
Such situation develops in the subtropical high-pressure area. Therefore, this explains
why most of the hot deserts of the world are found in this zone.
 Topographic conditions: If the mountain barriers parallel to the coastal lands and
there is onshore moist air, the moist air is forced by mountains to ascend and
condense hence yielding precipitation. The leeward side would be dry while the
windward side would experience rainfall.
 Distance from the source of moisture: Distance from the source of moisture
determines the amount of rainfall in different areas. As the distance from the source of
moisture (oceans, seas, rivers) increases, the moisture content reduces and hence the
amount of precipitation decreases.
e. Measurement and recording of rainfall
Rainfall is measured using a rain gauge. Many different types of rain-gauge have
been designed and used. Most consist of a circular collector and a funnel that
channels the collected rain into a measuring mechanism or into a cylinder where it
may be measured later. The entrance to the gauge through the funnel is narrow to
avoid debris clogging the mechanism and undesirable evaporation in hot weather. To

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 make the rainfall measurement, the observer empties the collected rain into a
graduated glass rain measure.

f. Terms related to rainfall

The data obtained from the weather station can be used to calculate the following:
 Daily rainfall total: This is the amount of rainfall recorded in a day.
 Monthly rainfall total: This is the total amount of rainfall received in a
month. It is obtained by calculating the sum of daily rainfall totals in the
month.
 The mean monthly totals: This is the average rainfall received per month in
a year. It is obtained by adding the total monthly rainfall received over a
given period (preferably 30 years) and dividing by the number of years.
 The annual rainfall total: This is the total amount of rainfall received in a
year. It is obtained by finding the sum of all the monthly rainfall totals for 12
months.
 Mean annual rainfall: This is the average total annual rainfall received in
an area. It is obtained by adding the total annual rainfall received over a given
period (preferably 30 years) and dividing by the number of years.

8.2.3. Winds
(i) Meaning of wind

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 Wind is air in motion above the surface of the earth. It is caused by differences in
atmospheric or barometric pressure. Air moves from areas of high barometric or atmospheric
pressure to areas of low pressure.
(ii) Measurement and recoding of wind direction
The wind direction is measured with help of a wind vane and wind sock.
Wind vane: It consists of a horizontal rotating arm pivoted on a vertical shaft. The rotating
arm has a tail at one end and a pointer at the other. When the wind blows, the arm swings and
points to the direction the wind is blowing from. The wind is named after this direction.

Wind sock: It is common in airstrips. It consists of a cylindrical cloth bag tied to a mast. It
always points towards the direction at which the wind is blowing.

(iii) Measurement of wind speed

The speed of wind is measured using an anemometer. This consists of three or four metal
cups fixed to metal arms that rotate freely on a vertical shaft. When there is wind, the cups

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rotate. The stronger the wind, the faster the rotation will be. The speed of rotation is recorded
on a meter. Wind speed is measured in kilometres per hour. The regions with the same wind
speed are called isotachs.

(iv) Factors influencing the nature and movement of winds

The following are the main factors that affect wind direction:
1. The pressure-gradient force: Air flows from areas of higher atmospheric/
barometric pressure to areas of lower pressure. This is the pressure gradient force that
sets the air in motion and causes it to move with increasing speed down the gradient.
The heating of the earth’s surface is uneven which causes the continual generation of
these pressure differences. The greater the atmospheric/barometric pressure difference
over a certain horizontal distance, the greater the force and therefore, the stronger the
wind.

2. The Coriolis force: Winds are deflected to the right in the Northern Hemisphere and
to the left in the Southern. The Coriolis force is directed at right angles to the
direction of air flow. It does not affect the wind speed, only the wind direction.
However, the stronger the wind, the greater the deflecting force. There is no
deflection of winds at the equator, but it increases to its maximum at the poles.

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 3. Frictional force: The irregularities of the earth’s surface offer resistance to the
wind motion in form of friction. This force determines the angle at which air will flow
across the isobars, as well as the speed at which it will move. It may also alter wind
direction
4. Centripetal Acceleration: Due to inward acceleration of air towards the center of
rotation on the rotating earth, it is possible for the air to maintain a curved path
(parallel to the isobars), about a local axis of high or low pressure. It is known as
centripetal acceleration.
(v) Types of winds
The following are the main types of winds:
 Winds blowing almost in the same directions throughout the year are called
permanent winds or planetary winds.
 Winds which change their directions according to the season are called seasonal
winds (e.g. monsoon winds).
 Winds which change the directions according to the time of the day are called
breezes (sea breezes and land breezes, mountain breezes and valley breezes).
 Winds which blow in a particular locality are called local winds (e.g. Chinook,
Sirocco, Harmattan, Mistral…).
1. Permanent winds or planetary winds
These winds blow from high pressure belts to low pressure belts.
 Easterlies: There are winds which blow from East to West. These are found in
both inter-tropical zone and polar zone. The winds blowing in intertropical
zone are also called trade winds.
 Westerlies: These types of winds blow from West to East. They are found in
the temperate zone between tropics and sub-polar zone.

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2. Seasonal winds or monsoon winds
Seasonal winds are large-scale surface winds which reverse their directions at least
twice a year. Monsoons result from unequal distribution of land and water. They
also result from the seasonal heating of the land and oceans. During winter, there is
high pressure on the land due to low temperature. Therefore, the air blows from
the land (Asia) to the Ocean (Indian Ocean). This situation is reversed during the
summer. High temperature develops over the Ocean, with low pressure over
land. Therefore, winds blow from high pressure areas (over the Ocean) to the
low-pressure areas (over the land).
Therefore, during summer, they blow from the Ocean (water) to the continent (land).
These winds are found in the following areas:
 In Asia: India Pakistan, Bangladesh, Myanmar (Burma), Thailand, Laos,
Cambodia, North and South Vietnam, Southern China, Philippines.
 Northern coastal areas of Australia.
 South-West coast of Africa including the coasts of Guinea, Sierra Leone,
Liberia and Ivory Coast; Eastern Africa and western Madagascar.
 North-East coast of Latin America e.g. East Venezuela, Guyana, Surinam,
French Guyana, and North-East Brazil, Puerto Rico, Dominican Republic in
the Caribbean Island, parts of Central American and South East USA.

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3. Diurnal local winds
These are winds that are caused by daily temperature and pressure variations.
They occur because of the heating and cooling during the day and night, plus the
difference in the pressures over land and water.
 Sea breezes: Land heats up faster than the sea during the day. Air over the
land, therefore, becomes warmer than over the sea. The lighter and warmer air
rises. The cooler and heavier air from the sea moves over the land to replace
the rising air. This movement of air causes a sea breeze.

 Land breezes: At night, the land cools faster than the sea. The air over the
land becomes cooler and heavier than the air above the sea. The warmer air
over the sea is lighter. It rises while the cooler heavier air over the land moves
to replace it. This creates an air current called a land breeze.

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  Valley breezes: The slopes and floors of valleys are heated more at daytime.
The warm air moves up the slope or upwards. This movement creates what is
called a valley breeze or anabatic wind.

 Mountain breezes: During the night, the hill slopes lose heat faster. The
valleys remain warmer. A low-pressure gradient is created in the valley. Air
current moves down the valley to form what is known as a mountain breeze. It
is also called katabatic wind. This explains why some valley floors have frost
at night.

4. Non-periodic/local winds
These fall into two groups depending on their temperature (hot and cold winds). They
are found in different areas of the world.
 Hot local winds: Examples are Chinook, Sharmal, Foehn, Khamsin,
Harmattan, Sirocco, Simoom, Norwester, Santa Anna, Brickfielder, and Loo.
 Cold local winds: Examples are Mistral, Purga, Bora, Bise, Blizzard,
Laventer, Northers and Pampero.

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i. Chinook or Foehn winds: These occur when strong regional winds pass over a
mountain range. They cool as they rise, dropping moisture on the windward side of
the mountain. They descend on the leeward side as cold dry wind. As they go down,
they are heated. They can absorb more moisture. Chinook is the name used in the
United States of America over Rockies. In Switzerland over the Alps, they are called
Foehn winds.

These are other non-periodical local winds:

 Hurricanes: These are revolving tropical storms of the Caribbean Sea and
Gulf of Mexico. They occur in the Eastern parts of the Pacific Ocean along
the coasts of Mexico, Guatemala, Hondulas, Nicaragua, Costa Rica and
Panama. Hurricanes occur from August to October.
 Harmattan: These are warm and dry winds blowing from North-East and
East to West in the Eastern parts of the Sahara desert. These winds are very
dry because of their journey over the Sahara desert. They pick up sand as
they blow.
 Sirocco: This is a warm, dry and dusty local wind. It blows Northwards from
the Sahara Desert and crosses the Mediterranean Sea to Italy and Spain.
 Typhons: The tropical cyclones in the west Pacific and China sea are known
as Typhoons. They occur from June to December. It is an increase low-
pressure system which produces violent winds and heavy rains. The
magnitude and intensity of typhoons generally exceed those of hurricanes.
 Mistral: This is a cold local wind which blows in Spain and France from
NorthWest to South-East. It is more common and effective during winter.
 Tornadoes: Tornado is a rapidly rotating column of air developed around a
very intense low- pressure centre. It is associated with a dark funnel-shaped
cloud with extremely violent winds, i.e. more than 400 km per hour,
accompanied by down pours/heavy rainfall.
 Bora: This is a very cold and dry North-Easterly wind which blows along
the shores of the Adriatic Sea.
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  Blizzard: This is a violent stormy cold wind that carries with it dry snow. It
is common in Siberia, Canada and the USA.
vi. Influence of winds on weather conditions and human activities
Influence of winds on weather conditions
 The way the air moves affects the weather of underlying places. Winds move heat
and cold temperatures from one place to another, transporting conditions from one
geographical zone to another.
 Without wind, weather would not exist. Wind and ocean currents are the vehicles of
water vapour leading to cloud formation which yield rainfall. Heat or/and cool air
masses are moved from one area of the globe to another, creating weather variations
within specific climate zones.
 The wind direction will have an important influence on the expected weather. Wind
direction changes often accompany changes in the weather.
 The wind speed and direction can give the clues to the expected weather conditions.
Influence of winds on human activities
 The winds with high speed cause the destructions of physical and humanmade
environment (e.g. Hurricanes, tornadoes, typhoon, etc.).
 Most of time the tall trees are bent according to the wind directions.
 Exposure of growing plants to hot wind results in dwarfing due to dryness of plant
tissue and reduced growth.
 Wind increases crop water requirements by increasing evapotranspiration due to
removal of accumulated humid air near the leaves.
 Calm to moderate wind favour dew deposition needed under condition of soil
moisture stress.
 Moderate wind aids effective pollination. Heavy wind during flowering reduces
pollination, causes flower shed, increases sterility and reduces fruit set in all crops.
 Wind speed more than 50 km per hour leads to destruction of crops leading to heavy
loss.
 In coastal areas, winds carrying salt sprays can have harmful effect on susceptible
crops.
 Soil and sand particles blown by wind strike the leaves and other plant parts making
punctures, abrasions, scratches and tear the leaves into pieces and strips. It well
marked in maize, sugarcane and banana.
 The turbulence created by wind increase carbon dioxide supply and the increase in
photosynthesis.
 The hot and dry wind makes the cells expanding and early maturity. Therefore, this
results into the dwarfing of plants.
 The coastal area affected by strong winds faces the challenge of high salinity due to
salt particles drawn and deposited on the mainland. This makes the soil unsuitable for
growing plants.
 The crops on the windward slopes yield more.
vii. Air masses
1. Meaning of air masses

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 Air mass may be defined as a large body of air whose physical properties, especially
temperature, moisture content, and lapse rate (of temperature) are uniform
horizontally for hundreds of kilometres.
2. Types of the air masses
Based on geographical location of air masses, Trewartha classifies them into the
following two broad categories:
 Polar air masses. This type is subdivided into continental air masses and
Maritime Air masses.
a. Continental polar air masses: These are characterized by cold
temperatures and little moisture. They are found on the continent mostly in the
polar zones such as Northern portions of the United States. These conditions
usually result from the invasion of cold arctic air masses that originate from
the snow-covered regions of northern Canada.
b. Maritime polar air masses: These are cool, moist, and unstable. Some
maritime polar air masses originate as continental polar air masses over Asia
and move westward over the Pacific, collecting warmth and moisture from the
Ocean.
 Tropical air masses: These are also subdivided into continental and maritime
air masses.
a. Continental Tropical Air Mass: The source region for this type is the
desert Southwest, the high plains and Mexico with relation to the United
States. The air has low dew points and warm to hot afternoon temperatures but
with mild night time temperature. Skies are generally clear in Continental
Tropical Air mass.
b. Maritime Tropical Air Mass: This originates over the warm waters of the
tropics and Gulf of Mexico, where heat and moisture are transferred to the
overlying air from the waters below. The Northward movement of tropical air
masses transports warm moist air into the United States, increasing the
potential for precipitation.
3. Characteristics of the air masses
The basic characteristic features of air masses include the following:
 Air masses can either be cold or warm depending on the source region.
 They can be maritime (originating over oceans) or continental in nature depending
on the trajectory taken.
 Air masses have specific direction of movement from fixed source region.
 Air masses move from one region to another following the pattern of barometric
pressure. (From areas of high pressure to areas of Low pressure.)
 Throughout the air body there is unvarying humidity content with the same
characteristics.
 Air masses usually have uniform temperature characteristics over a long distance.
 Air masses are independent even when they come into contact with each other, do
not merge into each other but retain their identity.
 Air massess are directly connected or associated with the planetary wind systems.
That is, every air mass is related with one or the other permanent wind belt.
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4. Effects of air masses on the environment
 When air masses hover over a surface area with uniform humidity and temperature, it
takes on the characteristics of the area below, and influences the environment of that
area. –
 When two air masses of different properties meet, the cold air pushes the hot air
upwards. The uplifted moist air condenses to yield rainfall or precipitation.
 There is formation of a stationary front especially when neither air mass displaces the
other. This leads to formation of clouds that yield varying kinds of precipitation.
 Maritime air masses are associated with humid conditions. This is because as air
travels over the Oceans it picks moisture that is later dropped in form of precipitation.
Therefore, it produces the warm and humid conditions in the areas they bathe.
 The continental air masses lead to formation of dry weather. This is because the
continents just can’t compete with the Oceans when it comes to moisture. The
continental air masses produce dry, cold weather in the winter and pleasant weather
conditions in the summer.
 When the air is lifted over an obstacle like a mountain, such lifting is known as
orographic lifting. This leads to occurrence of varying weather conditions. The
windward side receives rainfall while the leeward, becomes dry.
5. Cyclones:
1. Meaning of cyclone
A cyclone is a large-scale air mass that rotates around strong centres of low pressure.
This is usually characterized by inward spiralling winds that rotate Anti-clockwise in the
Northern Hemisphere and clockwise in the Southern Hemisphere of the Earth.

2. Areas of cyclones in the world

Most large-scale cyclonic circulations are centred on areas of low atmospheric pressure. The
main cyclones are tropical cyclones which are the typhoon of the Pacific Ocean and hurricane
of Atlantic; cold- polar cyclones and extra tropical cyclones.
There are six general regions of occurrence:
 The Caribbean Sea and Gulf of Mexico.
 The Northwest Pacific from the Philippines to the China Sea.
 The Pacific Ocean west of Mexico.
 The South Indian Ocean east of Madagascar.
 The North Indian Ocean in the Bay of Bengal and
 The Arabian Sea.

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3. Characteristics of cyclones 4. Formation of cyclones (depressions)

 A cyclone is simply an area of Tropical cyclones develop due to two factors

low pressure around which the as explained here under;
winds blow counter clockwise  When two differing air masses of
in the Northern Hemisphere varying characteristics in terms of
and clockwise in the Southern temperature and humidity meet over
Hemisphere. the surface of the Ocean. Or
 Cyclones form and grow near sometimes when there is the local
the front. heating from the surface especially
 Cyclones (lows) are cloudy, of the Ocean water that creates the
wet, and stormy. area of intense low pressure.
 The largest low-pressure  Winds of varying characteristics
systems are cold-core polar move towards this low pressure and
cyclones and extra tropical yet hardly mix up. But instead, start
cyclones which lie on the circulating and spinning in a spiral
synoptic scale. nature around an area of low
 Warm-core cyclones such as pressure.
tropical cyclones and  As earier said, when two varying air
subtropical cyclones also lie masses meet, the warm air rises over
within the synoptic scale. the cold air and the moisture
 Upper level cyclones can exist contained therein undergoes the
without the presence of a process of condensetion and leading
surface low. to rainfall.
 Tropical cyclones form due to  Through the process of condesetion
latent heat driven by latent heat is released and it is this
significant thunderstorm energy that facilitates the rotation
activity. In this case, humidity and spiral nature of the cyclone.
plays a great role in generation  Over the tropical maritime/Oceans,
of this heat that drives the the intense heating creates an area of

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 whole wind system. low pressure and the cold air masses
 Cyclones can transition rush towards this area and setting the
between extra tropical, creation of a tropical cyclone as the
subtropical, and tropical humidity increases and latent heat
phases under the right generated.
conditions.

5. Effects of cyclones on the environment

There are several effects of cyclones on the environment. These are explained hereunder:
 Tropical cyclones are associated with heavy rain, strong wind, large storm surges and
tornadoes.
 They trigger landslides and mudslides. This is because of the heavy rainfall that
comes along with the tropical cyclones.
 They cause destruction of vegetation and wildlife in general. This is because of the
stormy nature of the rainfall associated with cyclones. Therefore, trees break down
and their canopies completely trimmed off.
 They cause severe erosion especially along the coastal regions that are usually most
hit by tropical cyclones. Especially the removal and reshaping of the sand dunes.
Anticyclone:
Meaning of anticyclone
An anticyclone is known as a large-scale circulation of winds around a central region of
high atmospheric pressure. The winds blow clockwise in the northern hemisphere and
counter clockwise in the southern hemisphere.
Areas of Anticyclone
The classification of anticyclones is based on their location or areas where they occur.
They are categorized into four classes which are described hereunder:
 The subtropical Highs: The subtropical highs are large, elongated, very deep anti-
cyclones situated at tropical regions.
 The polar continental Highs: The polar continental highs (anticyclones) are
prominent over Northern continents in winter. The conditions of Alaska, western
Canada and Rocky Mountains are most favourable for their development.
 High within the cyclone Series: Anticyclones with small horizontal extent are
sometimes present between the individual members of the cyclone family.
 The polar highs: These polar highs occur at the end of a temperate cyclone.

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Occurrence of anticyclones
The anticyclones occur in sub-tropical high-pressure, belt extending between the latitudes of
250-350 and in Polar Regions in both Hemispheres.
Characteristics of anticyclones
The ‘highs’ or ‘anticyclones’ are characterized by divergent wind circulation. Whereby,
winds blow from the centre outwardly in clockwise direction in the northern hemisphere and
anti-clockwise in the southern hemisphere. The high-pressure systems are indicative of dry
weather conditions. Therefore, anticyclones are called weather less phenomena.

Effects of anticyclones on the environment

The following are the major effects of Anticyclones on the environment:
 Descending and divergence movements of the anticyclones result into cloudless skies
leading to dry weather conditions. These dry weather conditions may result into
drought in the affected areas.
 The Anticyclones have been one of the causes of hot deserts of the world,
especially in the western parts of the continents near the tropics.

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 The cloudless skies over the areas affected by anticyclones result into the reception
of higher amount of solar radiation on the earth’s surface. This makes the soil to
become drier and vegetation experiences the water shortage.
 The anticyclone makes the temperature range to be higher because the days are
hot, and nights are very cold. This has negative impact on the vegetation and other
living things.
8.2.4. Atmospheric humidity
i. Meaning of atmospheric humidity
Atmospheric humidity is the amount of water vapour in the atmosphere. The water
comes as a result of evaporation and transpiration by plants. It also comes from volcanic
activity through hot springs. The water vapour determines the amount of precipitation in
an area.
ii. Measurement and recording of humidity
Atmospheric humidity is measured using a hygrometer. It consists of a system of levers
linked to a pen and record chart or graph paper. Within it, are threads of human hair.
When humidity rises, the threads absorb moisture and become longer. When humidity
falls, they dry and become shorter.

iii. Types of atmospheric humidity

The following are the main types of the atmospheric humidity:
1. Absolute humidity: Absolute humidity is defined as amount of water vapour per
unit volume of air at a given temperature. It is expressed in gram per cubic meter
volume of air (gr/m3). Absolute humidity changes with changing temperature.
For example, it is 1gr/m3 at - 200C in cold continental area during winter season
while it will be more than 30 gr / m3 at 200 C in maritime equatorial region.
2. Relative humidity: Relative humidity is defined as a ratio of the air’s actual
water vapour content compared with the amount of water vapour air can hold at
that temperature and pressure.
3. Relative humidity is generally expressed as percentage. Relative humidity is
calculated as follows:

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iv. Factors influencing atmospheric v. The significance of humidity to the
humidity environment
The following factors affect humidity:  Humidity drives most of the
 Temperature: An increase in the observable weather phenomena
temperature of the air increases its starting with clouds, fog, rain, storms
ability to hold moisture. and finally to such dramatic weather
 Amount of water available: conditions such as hurricanes.
There is more evaporation over  It facilitates the weather fore casting.
the Ocean than the land. It is not possible to forecast the
Therefore, there is more moisture weather exactly without precise
over the Ocean than the land. knowledge of humidity in all the
 Wind-speed: Evaporation layers of the atmosphere.
depends on the speed of wind.  Correct relative humidity is important
When the winds are light, a thin for our well-being and health.
layer of air just above the surface  It enables the hydrological cycle to
gets almost full of moisture. When operate normally.
the wind speed is high, the air has  Humidity plays a great role in
less moisture. stabilising climate of various areas.
 Area of the evaporating surface: This is because of its regulating ability
Larger areas where evaporation that prevents the occurrence of
occurs increase the rate of extreme levels of temperatures.
evaporation.  It affects many properties of air and of
 Air-pressure: Evaporation is materials in contact with air.
also affected by the atmospheric  Water vapour is a key agent in both
pressure exerted on the exposed weather and climate, and it is an
surface of water. Low pressure on important atmospheric greenhouse gas.
open surfaces of the liquid results This plays part in regulating the
in higher rates of evaporation. Earth’s temperature.
 Composition of water: The rate  Humidity measurements contribute
of evaporation is always greater both to achieving correct

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 over fresh water than over salty environmental conditions that sustain
water. various ecosystems.

8.2.5. Cloud cover

i. Meaning of cloud
A cloud is an aggregation or grouping of moisture droplets and ice crystals that are
suspended in the air. A cloud is made up of water droplets or ice particles suspended in
the air. These particles have a diameter ranging between 20 mm and 50 mm.
ii. Types of clouds and their characteristics
Clouds are classified according to altitude and form. With regard to form, there are:
a. Stratified clouds: These are layered clouds. They look like blankets and cover
large areas. They can give large amounts of rain or snow.
b. Cumuliform clouds: These have bubble-like bodies. They give rain over a small
area.
With regard to altitude, clouds are classified as high clouds, middle clouds and low clouds.
a) High clouds (form above 6,000 m above the sea level). They look like
feathers. They appear in separate groups in fair weather. In bad weather, they
are joined together. The following are examples:
 Cirrus
 Cirrostratus
 Cirro-cumulus
b) Middle clouds (form between 4,000 and 6,000 metres). They are thick
clouds. The following are examples: – Alto-stratus – Alto-cumulus They are
mostly distributed over the whole sky. They appear white or grey.
c) Low clouds (Form below 2,000 metres). They are usually shallow. The
following are examples:
 Stratus: They are dense, low-lying fog-like clouds of dark grey
colour. They are composed of several uniform layers.
 Strato-cumulus: They are generally associated with fair or clear
weather but occasional rain or snow.
 Nimbo-stratus (Ns): They are middle and low clouds of dark colour.
They are associated with rain.
d) Clouds with great vertical extent: They are found between 2,000 and 10,000
metres. They are white but may appear grey or black. They give heavy
rainfall. The following are examples:
 Cumulus: They are very dense, widespread and dome-shaped. They
also have flat bases and are associated with fair weather. These
sometimes are characterised by thunder.
 Cumulo-nimbus: They are thunder-storm clouds. They show great
vertical development/extent and produce heavy rains, snow or
hailstorm accompanied by lightning, thunder and gusty winds. They
appear like mountains or huge towers

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iii. Factors influencing the formation and the shape of clouds
The sun plays a major role in formation of clouds. The first step of cloud formation is related
to the rising of the air into the atmosphere. Such air must be moist or carrying water vapour
that is later condensed to form clouds.
The following are the major factors influencing the rise of air into the atmosphere:
 Sun: The sun heats the earth and thus the air rises, expands, and cools.
 Topography: Clouds are also formed when air encounters mountains or other
topography. The air rises and cools, condensing to form clouds.
 Low pressure: This influences air to move towards the areas of low pressure.
Therefore, different kinds of air of varying characteristics meet but not necessarily
mixing up. The cold air forces the warm and moist air to rise and hence, cool and
condensing to form clouds.
 Clouds can be formed when air rises along the slope of a mountain. This aids the
moist air to reach the atmosphere where it cools down, condensing and as a result,
clouds are formed.
 Warm and cold fronts: Weather fronts cause the rise of the air. Specifically, warm
fronts make the air to condense because the warm air rises above the cold air. This
results into the formation of clouds.

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iv. Effects of clouds on weather
The clouds are much important on weather conditions prevailing in a given area as it is
explained below:
 During the day, the earth is heated by the sun. If skies are clear, more heat reaches the
earth’s surface (as in the diagram below). This leads to warmer temperatures.
 If skies are cloudy, some of the sun’s rays are reflected off the cloud droplets back
into space. Therefore, less of the sun’s energy is able to reach the earth’s surface. This
causes the earth to heat up more slowly. This leads to cooler temperatures.
 Cloudy skies lead to existence of lower temperatures since much of the sun’s isolation
will be blocked from reaching the earth’s surface.
 The clear skies during day, leads to increase in temperature. At night, cloud cover has
the opposite effect. If skies are clear, heat emitted from the earth’s surface freely
escapes into space, resulting in colder temperatures.
 If clouds are present, some of the heat emitted from the earth’s surface is trapped by
the clouds. This heat is reemitted back towards the earth. As a result, temperatures
decrease more slowly than if the skies were clear.
8.2.6. Sunshine
i. Meaning of sunshine
The sunshine is composed of two words: sun and shine; it means the period of shining of the
sun. The sunshine is observed and recorded during the day time.
ii. Measurement and recording of sunshine
This is done using a Campbell-stokes sunshine recorder. The instrument records the duration
and intensity of sunshine.

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iii. Factors influencing the amount of solar radiation
All parts of the world do not receive the same amount of solar radiation because of the
following factors:
 Angle of the sun’s rays: The angle between the rays of the sun and the tangent to the
surface of the earth at a given place, largely determines the amount of insolation to be
received at the place. The angle of the sun’s rays decreases as one moves towards the
poles. Vertical rays bring more solar radiation.
 Length of the day: The shorter the duration of sunshine and longer the period of
night. This results into lesser amount of solar radiation received at the earth’s surface
and vice versa.
 Distance between the Earth and the Sun: The distance between the sun and the
earth changes during the course of a year. This is because the Earth revolves around
the sun in an elliptical orbit. The average distance between the sun and the earth is
about 149 million km. At the time of perihelion (on January 3) the earth is nearest to
the sun (147 million km-maximum insolation) while at the time of aphelion (on July
4) it is farthest from the sun, that is, (152 million Km-minimum inslation) away.
 Sunspots: Sunspots are defined as dark areas within the photosphere of the sun. It is
believed that the energy radiated from the sun, increases when the number of sunspots
rises and consequently the amount of solar radiation received at the earth’s surface
also upsurges. On the other hand, the amount of solar radiation received at the earth’s
surface decreases with decrease in the number of sunspots due to less emission of
radiation from the sun.
 Effects of the atmosphere: As solar radiation travels a long distance from the sun to
the earth’s surface; there are some portions of the solar energy which are lost through
the processes of reflection, diffusion, absorption and scattering.
iv. Influence of sunshine on the environment
The sunshine has both positive and negative effects on the environment as it is explained
below:
Positive effects Negative effects

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  Health benefits: Humans require  Skin Cancer: The ultraviolet
between 1,000 and 2,000 units of radiation present in sunlight can also
vitamin D daily for optimum health. cause damage to the human and
The skin creates vitamin D naturally animal skins. Short exposures to
when exposed to solar radiation, and intense sunlight during the summer
spending 10 or 15 minutes a day months can produce painful sunburns,
outside can give all body to stay while longerterm exposure to ultra
healthy violet can damage cells, altering the
 Needed for photosynthesis: DNA and possibly leading to skin
Sunshine is needed in photosynthesis cancer.
processes for autotrophy green plants  Eye Damage: Solar radiation can
and algae to produce the compounds also prove harmful to the human and
necessary for their survival. animal eyes.
 Disinfection: Exposing bottled water  Damaging the crops and other
to sunlight for six hours or more can vegetation: The excess of daily
kill many harmful pathogens, and sunshine without rain for long-term,
developing nations often use this becomes harmful to crops and other
technique as a low-cost method of vegetation because all water which
treating water supplies against would support the crops/vegetation
common bacterial contaminants. evaporates.
 Production of energy: Sunshine can
produce the energy which may be
used for different purposes.

8.2.7. Atmospheric pressure

Meaning of atmospheric pressure
Atmospheric pressure is the force per unit area that is exerted against the Earth’s
surface by the weight of air above it.
Measurement and recording of atmospheric pressure
The barometer is the instrument used to measure atmospheric pressure. There are two types
of barometers: Mercury barometer and Aneroid barometer.
a. Mercury barometer
It is made of a one-meter-long glass tube. It is closed at one end and filled with
mercury. The open end of the tube is then opened below the surface of mercury in a
bowl. A vacuum is left above the mercury and the column is supported by the air
pressure outside. Air pressure is obtained by observing the length of the mercury
column.

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b. Aneroid barometer
Aneroid barometer is made of a small metal box which contains a very little amount
of air. It expands and collapses under the influence of any change in atmospheric
pressure. See the figure below.

Factors influencing the distribution of atmospheric pressure

The following factors influence atmospheric pressure:
 Altitude: Air pressure at sea level is higher than at the top of a mountain.
This means that pressure decreases with increase in altitude. The pressure at
the ground level is higher than that at the top of high mountains. This is
because air at the ground level has to support the weight of the air above it,
and the molecules in the bottom air must push outwards with a force equal to
that exerted by the air above it.
 Temperature: When air is heated, it expands. When this happens, the
outward pressure of its molecules is spread over a large area. This means the
pressure of the air decreases. The pressure of the air therefore rises when its
temperature falls.
 Latitude: The earth is not a perfect sphere and therefore force of gravity
varies according to latitude. This is at maximum at the poles and a minimum
at the equator. Atmospheric pressure is therefore lower at the equator and
higher at the poles. Therefore, Air pressure increases with latitude.

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  Season of the year: Atmospheric pressure changes with seasons of the year
being high over the cold continental interiors in winter and conversely low
over the heated continents in summer.
 The nature of earth’s surface: During the day, land heats up more than the
water and hence air pressure is lower over land than the sea. Air blows from
the sea to the land as a sea breeze. On the other hand, during the night, the
land cools more quickly than the sea and hence air pressure is lower over the
sea than land. Wind blows in from the land to the sea as a land breeze.
Pressure types
Air pressure is generally divided into two types. These are high pressure (HP: above
1013.25 mb), and low pressure (LP: below 1013.25 mb).
 High pressure systems are also called highs or anticyclones. They are characterized
by highest air pressure in the center of almost closed isobars where pressure
decreases from the center outwardly. The lowest pressure is found at the outer margin
of the high-pressure system.
 Low pressure systems are also called low or simply L or cyclones or depressions.
These are centres of low pressure, having increasing pressure outwardly. This
has closed air circulation from outside towards the central low pressure in such a way
that air blows inwardly in anti- clockwise in the northern hemisphere and clockwise
in the southern hemisphere.

Location of different world pressure belts and their characteristics

There are seven pressure belts on the globe:
 Equatorial low-pressure belt: It is located on either side of the geographical equator
in a zone extending between 5° N and 5° S latitudes. But this zone is not stationary
because there is seasonal shift of this belt in relation to the northward (summer
solstice) and southward (winter solstice) migration of the sun. The equatorial low-
pressure belt represents the zone of convergence of North-East and South-East trade
winds.
 Sub-tropical high-pressure belt: It extends between the latitudes of 25°- 35° in both
the hemispheres. The divergence movement is prevailing over the surface on that
belt. The descending movement of winds results into the contraction of their volume,
increases in density, and ultimately causes high pressure. Therefore, this explains

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 why this zone is characterized by anticyclonic conditions which cause atmospheric
stability and aridity.
 Sub-polar low-pressure belt: It is located between 60°-65° latitudes in both
hemispheres. It may be noted that due to the great contrast of temperature of the
continents and Oceans, during Northern summer, the low-pressure belt becomes
discontinuous and is found in a few low-pressure cells. While in winter season the
pressure increases, and the low-pressure belt becomes less regular.
 Polar high-pressure belt: Temperature remains below freezing point during most
part of the year. This results into the high-pressure systems throughout the year.
Winds blow from the polar high pressure to sub-polar low-pressure cells. These are
called polar winds which are North-Easterly in the Northern hemisphere and South-
Easterly in the Southern hemisphere.

8.3. Factors that influence world climate

The following are the main factors influencing world climates:
 Latitude: The climate of a place is influenced by latitude. Temperature and
precipitation are high near the equator while they are low at the polar zone. This is
because of the amount of sunshine received at these places. The amount of sunshine
received by the ground surface decrease away from the equator.
 Altitude: Temperature decreases with increasing in height from the earth’s surface.
Precipitation on the other hand increases with altitude. Temperatures at the top of
mountains are very low. On the other hand, precipitation and humidity are very high.
 Presence or absence of water bodies: Places near a lake or sea have low
temperatures. This is because of the cooling effect of air currents or breeze from the
water bodies. Areas far away from water bodies have extreme weather conditions.
 Vegetation: Vegetation attracts precipitation and moderate temperatures. Through
transpiration, clouds form near the forests and precipitation occurs. Transpiration is
the evaporation of water from leaves and stems of plants. It rains a lot in the
equatorial dense forests. In the deserts where there are few plants, it is dry and hot.
 Human activities: Pollution from industries affects the climate. Chemicals and gases
that are released into the atmosphere cause acid rain. Cutting down of forests also

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 affects the climate. Where forests are cut down in large numbers, reduced
precipitation is recorded.
 Ocean currents: The warm ocean currents from tropical areas to cold zones raise the
temperature in these areas. For example, the Gulf Stream increases the temperature of
the coastal areas of North-Western Europe. While Kuroshio warm currents raise the
temperature of the coasts of Japan.
 Primary wind circulation also called the primary atmospheric circulation is the
main factor controlling the spatial distribution of climates in the world. This
circulation involves flow patterns of permanent wind systems in latitudinal zones
from the equator towards the poles. This primary wind circulation of Easterlies (trade
winds) and Westerlies divide the world into three major zones. These include
Intertropical zone, mid-latitude zone and sub-polar zones. In these areas winds blow
from high pressure belts to low pressure belts.
The description the three primary wind circulation major zones:
Intertropical zone: This is the zone where winds from subtropical highpressure areas
blow towards. It is an equatorial low-pressure area. Therefore, marks the zone of
convergence that creates Intertropical fronts (ITF) or Intertropical Convergence (ITC).
Then, the air near the equator is heated due to solar radiation, rises upward to yield
enough rainfall in this zone.
Mid-Latitude zone: Mid-latitude zonal circulation extends between 30° and 60°
latitudes in the northern and the southern hemispheres. This zone is under the
influence of subtropical high-pressure belt (300-350 latitudes). This belt separates two
wind systems. Trade winds (Easterlies) and Westerlies. It is also apparent that the
subtropical high-pressure belt is the source of the origin of trade winds. These blow
towards equatorial low-pressure belt. On the other hand, the westerlies blow towards
sub-polar low-pressure belt. This is because winds always blow from high pressure to
low pressure. This movement of winds makes the zone to be drier.
Sub-polar zone: This zone is confined mostly between 600-900 latitudes in both
hemispheres and is characterized by surface polar Easterly winds. Winds blow from
the polar high pressure to sub-polar low-pressure cells. These are called polar winds
which are North-Easterly in the northern hemisphere and South-Easterly in the
Southern Hemisphere. Therefore, sub-polar low-pressure belt becomes convergence
zone; where the front is formed to allow the air to rise upward to yield rainfall around
this belt.

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8.4. Types of climate and their characteristics
The classification of climatic zones is based on temperature and rainfall. There are three
world climatic zones. These are: Tropical, Temperate and Cold zones.
8.4.1. Tropical zones
i. Equatorial climate
Equatorial climate is also called tropical wet climate or tropical rainforest climate. It is
found along the equator extending from 5° to 10° South and North latitudes. Along the
Eastern margin of continents, it spreads to 15° - 25° of latitudes. This type of climate is found
specifically in the following regions:
- The Amazon River Basin in South America
- The Congo Basin and Guinea coast in Africa
- Malaysia, Indonesia and the Philippines Islands in South-Eastern Asia
- Eastern and Central America (parts of Panama, Costa Rica, Nicaragua, Honduras, British
Honduras and Guatemala), some islands in the Western Colombia
- Coastal lowlands of Eastern Brazil
- Eastern Madagascar

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Climatic characteristics of equatorial region
- This climatic region is located within 5° North to 10° South of the Equator.
- The average monthly temperatures are over 18°c. However, many places record average
monthly temperatures of 24° to 27°c.
- The Equatorial regions lie in a belt where the winds are light. It is a low-pressure belt. -
The annual range of temperature is very small (the difference between the highest and the
lowest temperatures) varies from 5°to 8°c.
- The equatorial regions get heavy precipitation throughout the year. Many areas receive
2000 mm of the rain per year. The annual average rainfall in the equatorial climate is nearly
2500 mm.
- There is a large amount of cloudiness.
- Conventional rainfall is received, and it is usually accompanied by thunderstorms.
- High temperatures and heavy rainfall encourage growth of natural vegetation. There are
evergreen dense forests.

Below there is an example of Singapore weather station:

Singapore weather station

ii. Tropical marine climate

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It is found on the East coasts of regions lying between 10° N and 25° N and 10° S and 25° S
of the equator. These areas come under the influence of on-shore Trade Winds. Examples are
East coast of Brazil, the Eastern coastlands of Madagascar, Mexico, Nicaragua, Guatemala,
Venezuela, the lowlands of Central America, West Indies, the coast of Queensland
(Australia) and the southern islands of the Philippines.

Climatic characteristics of Tropical maritime/maritime climate

 The annual temperature range is about 8°c.
 Temperatures reach 29°c during the hot season while it is about 21°c during the cold
season,
 Annual rainfall varies from 1000 mm to 2000 mm.
 Rainfall received is both convection and orographic brought by onshore Trade Winds.
 Humidity is high throughout the year.
 Sea breezes lessen the effects of the heat.
 Tropical maritime climate is good for tree growth. The lowlands have tall and
evergreen trees.
Example; Cameroon weather station

(iii) Tropical continental climate

This climate occurs between 5° N and 15° N and 5° S and 15° S. It is in West, East and
Central Africa, South America, parts of the Deccan plateau (India) and the areas to the north

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and east of the Australian Desert.

Climatic characteristics of Tropical continental climate

 Heavy convectional rainfall is mainly in the summer.
 Annual rainfall is about 765 mm.
 In some regions, the offshore winds are strong and hot. An example is the Harmattan
of West Africa.
 Humidity is high during the hot, wet season.
 Summers are hot (32° C) and winters are cool (21° C).
 The annual temperature range is about 11°C. The highest temperatures occur just
before the rainy season begins. This is in April in the northern hemisphere and
October in the southern hemisphere.

(iv) Savannah climate (Tropical wet-and-dry climate)

This is located between 5° and 20° latitudes on either side of the Equator. It is found in Latin
America. These are the Llanos of the Orinoco Valley including Colombia and Venezuela, the
Guyana Highlands and the Campos of Brazil.
In Africa, it is found in the South of the Congo basin, the Southern part of Democratic of
Republic of Congo, Angola, Zambia, Mozambique, Tanzania, Uganda, Botswana, South-
Western Madagascar, Central Nigeria, Southern Kenya, Togo, Ghana and Ivory Coast.

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Climatic characteristics of Savannah Tropical climate
 High temperature of around 20°c.
 The annual range of temperature is greater than in the equatorial regions. It is over 3°
but not more than 8°c.
 Total annual average precipitation varies from 1000 mm to 1500 mm. Much of the
rain falls during the summer.
 The vegetation is grasslands with scattered trees and bushes.

(v) Tropical desert climate

Most of these deserts lie between 15° to 35° N and S. The hot desert climate is found in the
following deserts: Atacama (the coastal deserts of Peru and Chile in South America), the
Namib and Kalahari deserts of coastal Angola and South West Africa, interior part of
Botswana and South Africa, the great Australian desert, the Sahara and the Arabian deserts,
the Iranian desert, the Thar desert of Pakistan and India, California (USA) and the deserts of
Northern Mexico.

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Climatic characteristics of Tropical desert climate
 Hot deserts have the highest temperatures recorded.
 They have cloudless skies and little or no water vapour.
 The daily ranges of temperature vary between 22° to 28° C. In rare cases, the diurnal
range may be as high as 41.7° C.
 The annual average precipitation is less than 250 mm.
 Relative humidity is high.
 There is little plant cover.
Below there is an example of Khartoum (Sudan) weather station:
Khartoum (Sudan) weather station

(vi) Tropical Monsoon Climate

This is found in areas with seasonal land and sea winds. On-shore summer winds blowing
from over tropical warm Oceans bring about heavy precipitation. Off-shore winds from over
the land make the weather dry during winter.
Monsoon climate is found in the coastal areas of Eastern and Southern Asia. These places
include India, Burma, Bangladesh, Indo-china, Southern China, and Philippines, Taiwan,
Japan and Korea.
In tropical Africa, it is found along the South-West coast of West Africa. These areas include
the coasts of Guinea, Sierra Leone, Liberia, and Ivory Coast.
Other areas are the Northeast coast of Latin America from the mouth of Orinoco River in
Eastern Venezuela through Guyana, Surinam and French Guyana to the North-Eastern part of
Brazil. The North coasts of Puerto Rico and the Dominican Republic in the Caribbean Islands
which have a mild monsoon climate.

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Characteristics of Tropical monsoon climate
 High temperatures (32°c) in the hot season (summer) and low temperatures (15°c) in
the cold season (winter).
 High annual range of temperatures of about 17°c.
 Summers receive high rainfall of up to 2500 mm.
 The winters are dry.
 There is a reversal of winds. In one season they blow from sea to land (onshore).
These bring heavy rainfall. In the other season, they blow away from the sea
(offshore), such come along with little rain.
Cherrapundji (India) weather station

8.4.2. Temperate zone

i. Mediterranean Climate
Mediterranean climate is found between 30°and 40°N and S of the equator. This is on
the western sides of the continents. This climate is found in five regions of the world:
 North of the Mediterranean Sea from Portugal to Turkey and beyond in the Iranian
Highlands, Morocco, Northern Algeria, and Tunisia, and North of Bengasi in Libya.
 The central and Southern California coast in the United States of America,

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  Central Chile.
 The Cape Town area of South Africa, and
 Southern Western coasts of Australia

Characteristics of Mediterranean climate

 The average temperature of the coldest month is between 4.4°C and 10°c. That of the
hottest month is between 21° C and 27°c.
 The mean annual temperature ranges are between 11°and 17°c.
 The average annual precipitation is between 350 and 750 mm.
 There is rain in winter while the summers are dry. Below there is an example of
Algiers (Algeria) weather station:

(ii) Temperate Maritime Climate

This type of climate is found between 40° and 65° N and S of the equator. These are regions
to the West of continents.
It is mainly found in Western Europe including Great Britain, North Western France,
Germany, Denmark, Holland, Belgium and Norway.
In North America, it is found along the West coast up to 60° N of the equator. It borders the
Sub-Arctic climate of Canada and Alaska. In Europe, it extends along the west coast of
Norway to 68° N.
In the Southern Hemisphere, it is found to the Southwest coast of Chile, Southeast coast of
Australia, the islands of Tasmania and New Zealand.

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Below there is an example of Brest (France) weather station

Characteristics of Temperate Maritime climate

 Temperatures are influenced by the warm Ocean currents.
 This climate has cool summers and mild winters.
 The annual range of temperature is about 7° C.
 Average temperatures in summer are between 15° C and 18° C. Winter temperatures
range between 11° and 17° C.
 In Europe, the lowlands receive an average precipitation of 500 mm to 850 mm. On
the windward side, it is between 2500 mm and 3750 mm.

(iii) Continental Temperate climate

This type of climate occupies a large part of the United States of America. In Europe, it is
found in Romania and Bulgaria. It occupies the lower Danube Valley.
In Eastern Asia, it is found in North China bordering the yellow Sea, North and South Korea,
and Northern Honshu in Japan.

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Characteristics of temperate climate
 Temperate continental climates are found on continents in the Northern Hemisphere
between 40o-70o
 Climate in these areas is controlled by the fact that they are not located near Oceans
where temperatures are moderate.
 Temperate continental climates are also called micro thermal climates, because they
are located away from the Oceans. These climatic zones experience the extremes of
temperatures.
 Summers are warm and can be very humid while winters are cold with snowstorms
and blustery winds.
 The annual average temperatures are around 100 C.

8.4.3. Cold zone

i. Polar and Tundra climate
The Tundra climate is found in the northern hemisphere beyond 60° N of the equator. These
are areas to the North of Asia and Canada. It also occurs on the coast lands of Greenland.
Polar climate is found in Greenland, interior of Iceland and in the Antarctica.

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Location Characteristics of Polar and Tundra
climate
The Tundra climate is found in the northern  Characteristics of Tundra climate
hemisphere beyond 60° N of the equator.  The average annual rainfall is
 These are areas to the North of Asia 250 mm.
and Canada.  Precipitation is in the form of
 It also occurs on the coast lands of snow in winter and rainfall in
Greenland. summer.
 Polar climate is found in Greenland,  Humidity is low because of
interior of Iceland and in the low temperatures.
Antarctica.  Winter temperatures are low.
They range from - 29°c to 4°c.
Summer temperatures average
about 10°c.
 Vegetation consists of mosses,
lichens and dwarf trees and
shrubs. It is called tundra
vegetation.

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  Characteristics of Polar climate
 Temperatures are always low.
They are below 0°c, which
leads to snow.
 Precipitation mainly occurs in
summer. It averages between
100 mm and 250 mm.
 Winters are associated with
one continuous night.
Summers are one continuous
day.
 Blizzards are common. These
are snowstorms with high
winds. Visibility is low.
 There is hardly any
vegetation. This is because of
snow and ice cover.

ii. Mountain climate

Location Characteristics of Mountain climate

This type of climate is found in the mountain  High rainfall on the windward slopes.
ranges of the world. These include: It is less on the leeward slopes.
 Mt. Kenya, the Ethiopian Highlands  Orographic rainfall is received.
and the Alpine ranges of Europe.  Pressure and temperature decrease
 Others are the North Western part of with altitude.
Rwanda, especially over volcanic  But if the mountains are high
region, enough, there is a height at which
 the Andes of South America and maximum precipitation occurs and
 the Rockies of North America. above which it decreases.
 It is also characterized by strong local
winds (mountain and valley breezes).

8.5. Influence of climate on human activities

Climate influences the distribution of population. This is because of temperature conditions,
amount of precipitation and length of crop growing season. The relationship between climate
and human activities is summarized below:
Human activities in equatorial regions: Heavy rainfall and high temperatures
support growth of forests. The main human activities are lumbering and agriculture.
Lumbering is the cutting down of trees and making them into timber. Crops such as
coffee do well in this type of climate.

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 Human activities in savanna climate: This type of climate is good for agriculture
and dairy farming. There is enough grass for the animals. Growing of vegetables is
done in this type of climate.
Human activities in desert climate: The high temperatures and low rainfall are not
supportive for agriculture. Animal keeping is also not well developed only camels,
goats and sheep are kept in such type of climate. Furthermore, it is only around the
oases that some farming is done. An oasis is a fertile spot in the desert where water is
found. Growing of crops is done by irrigation. However, mining activities are done in
some deserts for instance gold is extracted in West Australia; diamonds in the
Kalahari and petroleum in Algeria, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Iran and Iraq.
Human activities in temperate climate: This type of climate is suitable for
agriculture and livestock keeping. Most developed countries are in this type of
climate. These zones have high population.
Human activities in polar climate: The main activities in this zone are the fishing
and hunting. Few people are found here.
END UNIT ASSESSMENT
1. With aid of diagram describe the structure of atmosphere.
2. To what extent atmosphere plays a considerable role in regulating/ control negative
effects of solar radiation?
3. Visit a weather station near your school to identify instruments used to measure and
record weather conditions.
4. (a) Briefly describe the characteristics of Rwandan climate,
(b) Explain the factors influencing the climate of Rwanda.
5. “Human activities depend upon climate and weather conditions of an area” with
relevant examples in Africa, support this statement.

UNIT 9: NATURAL VEGETATION OF THE WORLD

Vegetation refers to a community of plants which grow in an area and which gives it distinct
character. Vegetation in biological terms is known as “flora”, that is, all vegetation types
growing on land and in water.
The world vegetation communities are into categories: forests and grasslands. They are
distributed according to the vegetation zones and they include tropical, temperate, tundra,
desert, mountain and aquatic/marsh or mangrove vegetation.
7.1. Tropical forests and their characteristics
9.1.1. Equatorial forests
Location Characteristics of
The equatorial rainforests grow within the  They are evergreen, since the forests

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tropics between 10 °N and 10 °S of the receive heavy rainfall throughout the
equator. Equatorial rainforests are sometimes year with no clear distinct seasons.
called “rainforests”. Equatorial rain forests  They grow buttress roots in order to
cover only a small part of the earth’s surface support their enormous sizes.
which is about 6%. They are situated:  The major tree species in equatorial
 in the Amazon basin in South and are characterized by a long gestation
Central America, period.
 Congo basin in Central Africa,  Equatorial rainforests receive rainfall
Malaysia, Burma, and West African throughout the year with no
coastal belt (Nigeria, Ghana, Ivory distinctive seasons.
Coast, Liberia and Central Africa  The vegetation in equatorial regions
Republic). is comprised of four vertical layers
The conditions necessary for the growth of starting from the canopy of the tree to
equatorial rainforests: the ferns on the ground.
 Equatorial rainforests receive rainfall  Equatorial rainforests are dominated
throughout the year about 2000 mm with valuable tree species such as
per year. mahogany, ebony, green heart and
 The equatorial rainforests grow in redwood.
areas with good fertile soils and well-  The forest floor receives only 2% of
drained soil. the sunlight. This has led to the
 The equatorial rainforests require existence of little undergrowth.
much sunshine to support their dense  The trees are very tall (35 m - 40 m)
growth. with a very dense and thick canopy.
 The equatorial rainforests require The result is that the canopy blocks
about 23-240c temperature most of the sunlight falling on them
depriving the plants under them of
sunlight.
 Most of the trees in Equatorial
rainforests become tall in the search
of light.
 There are broad-leaved evergreen
forests of dense and prolific growth of
flora as well as fauna.
 The major tree species do not grow
in pure stands. Trees of pure stands
are scattered all over the forest.
 Beneath the tree canopy exists a
well-developed layering of understory
vegetation, which is so dense and this
limits light to reach the floor of the
forested area.
 The Equatorial rainforests are
associated with various economic
activities. These include lumbering as

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 a major activity, provision of local
materials which are used in craft
industry, provision of fuel, research
and study, herbal medicine,
agriculture support, etc.

9.1.2. Tropical Monsoon forests

Location Characteristics of Tropical monsoon
forests
The Tropical Monsoon Forests are found  The trees possess trunks that they use
beyond the equatorial region, between 10 0 to store water during the dry seasons.
and 250 North and South of the equator. This  The tropical monsoon forests can
type of vegetation is found in areas such as; grow up to 30 metres in height.
 Burma, Thailand, the Indo-China  Trees possess long tap roots that
region, parts of India, East Java, penetrate into the ground to access
 Parts of Northern Australia, small groundwater. In order to sustain
parts along the South Western coastal plants’ growth, especially during the
areas of West Africa. dry winter season when there is
The conditions necessary for the growth of unreliable rainfall.
tropical monsoon forests:  Tropical monsoon forests shade off
 The tropical monsoon forests receive their leaves during the dry seasons in
heavy rainfall, which is around 2000 order to minimize water loss.
mm per year. This is received mostly  Trees have broad leaves due to
in summer. sufficient rainfall (2000 mm)
 In cooler seasons such as winter, received during the wet season.
very little rainfall is received. This is  Tropical Monsoon forests experience
because these regions lie under the temperatures that reach 280c
offshore trade winds. especially in Summer. –
 The tropical monsoon forest requires  Tropical monsoon forests contain
temperatures of about 270 c. This valuable hard wood tree species such
temperature is moderately enough to as the teak and sandalwood.
support the growth of various plants.  Tropical monsoon forests are
associated with various economic
activities such as lumbering on the
wider area, agriculture, craft industry,
settlement pattern and provide herbal
medicine

9.1.3. Mountain tropical forests

Location Characteristics of Mountain forests
The tropical mountain forests are mainly  Mountain forests grow broad leaves

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located at a high altitude in the mountains. and they are evergreen;
These usually vary largely along the slopes of  Mountain forests grow thick under
mountains such as: growth;
 Himalayas Mountain ranges and  The forests contain giant evergreen
 East African Mountain peaks of trees that grow on the windward
Rwenzori, Mt. Kenya and other good slopes of the mountain;
examples include; Cameroon  The main tree species are
Mountains, and Ethiopia Highlands. characterized by long gestation
The trees grow in plenty between the period;
altitude 1,500 and 3,500 meters.  The mountain forests are
The conditions necessary for the associated with various economic
growth of mountain forests: activities such as lumbering on the
 Mountain forests require much wider area, provision of local
and reliable rainfall; materials, hunting of animals and
 Mountain forests require provide herbal medicine.
adequate temperature for the
growth of tress;
 Mountain forests need deep
fertile soil for the growth of
forests;

9.2 Temperate forests and their characteristics

The temperate forests are categorized into 3 categories that include: deciduous forests,
Mediterranean forests and coniferous forests.
Location Characteristics of Temperate forests
Temperate forests are found in temperate  With high levels of precipitation,
region. humidity, and a variety of deciduous
The conditions necessary for the growth of trees.
temperate forests:  Temperate trees are trees that lose
 Temperate forests need little supply their leaves in Winter.
of sunshine for the successful growth.  Trees shed their leaves in fall and bud
 Temperate forests require enough new leaves in spring when warmer
fertile soil and availability of water temperatures and longer hours of
for growth. daylight return.
 Temperate forests require amount  Temperate forests have tall evergreen
about to 750 mm of rainfall in dry trees dominating the regions.
periods.  They have Redwood trees which are
the tallest in the world, about 360 feet
high.
 The most prominent tree type in
temperate forests is the Douglas fir,
that is growing 280 feet tall.
 Temperate forest mature species of
cedar and spruce trees typically
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 exceed 200 feet in height.
 Temperate forests have epiphytes
species on the branches and trunks of
the trees, especially the broad-leafed
maples.
 Temperate forests have many species
of large ferns which occupy the shady
forest floors.
 Temperate forests can get from 60 to
200 inches of precipitation annually.
 The temperate forests are
associated with various economic
activities. These include tourism
which is supported by the presence of
many different species of birds such
as broad-winged hawks, cardinals,
snowy owls, and pileated wood
peckers that attract very many people
from different parts of the world.
There is also hunting due to different
types of animals such as white-tailed
deer, raccoons, opossums, porcupines
and red foxes. such as mosses and
ferns that live

9.2.1. Mediterranean forests

Location Characteristics of Mediterranean forests
The Mediterranean forests are located mainly  Tree species in the Mediterranean are
in deciduous.
 South West America,  The Mediterranean vegetation is
 Spain, Italy, France, Australia, characterized by open and evergreen
Algeria, Morocco, Tunisia, and woodlands.
 Central Chile.  The Mediterranean vegetation has
 Mediterranean forests grow also well thicket with thin and waxy leaves.
on the tip of South Africa near Cape  There is inadequate undergrowth.
Town.  They are composed of broadleaf
trees, such as the oak and mixed
sclerophyll forests.
 Mediterranean vegetation has dense
foliage composed of broad-leaved
evergreen shrubs, bushes, and small
trees usually of less than 2.5 m (about
8 feet).
 Tall trees grow in regions lying
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 between 30° and 40° North and South
latitudes.
 Trees even fully grown are often
stunted.
 There are woody, evergreen shrubs or
small trees that have developed
various strategies of growth and
usage of available water during the
dry period.
 Mediterranean deciduous tree species
have a long gestation period.
 Mediterranean plants have long
taproots to reach underground water,
called “Xerophytic Plants”.
 Mediterranean trees adapt themselves
to dry summers with the help of their
thick barks and wax coated leaves.
These reduce the rate of transpiration.
 The Mediterranean forests are
associated with various economic
activities such as mining of oil,
tourism, and very limited population
settlement. There is also rearing of
sheep and growing of crops such as
wheat, oats and cultivation of
chestnuts.

9.2.2. Coniferous forests / Taiga Forest

Location Characteristics of coniferous forests
The coniferous forests are located across  The coniferous forests consist of tall
North America, Europe, and Asia. These and softwood evergreen trees.
forests are found within the extent of 50˚ to  There are limited species of trees.
60˚N. The coniferous forest is the The existing trees are evergreen and
largest terrestrial vegetation covering about grow apart.
17% of Earth’s land area. Countries such as  The coniferous tree species grow
Canada, Russia, and Scandinavia are almost tall, straight and contain few
entirely covered by these coniferous forests. branches.
The vegetation is identified by its climate,  The type of trees in these coniferous
which occurs almost exclusively in the high forests grow in pure stands;
latitudes of the Northern hemisphere.  Trees are conical shaped with
Coniferous forests are favoured by the needle-like leaves. These include
following environmental conditions: firs, pine and cedar which are
 The coniferous forests require important variety of trees in these
inadequate supply of sunlight.
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  The coniferous forests need medium forests;
fertile soil with availability of water.  The tree species often grow to a
 The coniferous forests grow well height of over 30m (100ft) tall;
with an average temperature of below  Coniferous tree species grow
430 F during the winter season. shallow roots and can collect enough
water from top soil;
 They have shallow roots used to
absorb the nutrients and water from
the top soil;
 The coniferous vegetation has
adapted to harsh conditions
associated with winter season.
 The coniferous forests are
associated with various economic
activities which include lumbering,
tourism, apiculture (bee keeping),
hunting, herbal medicines, fruit
gathering and Research and study.

9. 2.3. Deciduous forests

Location Characteristics of deciduous forests
Deciduous forests grow well within the  Trees shed their leaves in the dry
latitude of 40° N and 60°N and 30° S and season to conserve water.
50oS of the equator.They can be found in  Deciduous forests are characterized
places like: by the existence of epiphytes which
 the Eastern half of North America, include mosses.
and the middle of Europe.  Trees like sandalwood, teak, ebony,
 There are many deciduous forests in bamboo, etc. are the common trees
Asia. found here.
 Some of the major areas having  Deciduous forests have a short
deciduous forests include Southwest growing gestation.
Russia, Japan, and Eastern China.  Deciduous forests grow in pure
 South America has two big areas of stands.
deciduous forests in Southern Chile  Deciduous forests require low
and sunshine supply.
 In the Middle Eastern coast of  They contain hard wood tree species
Paraguay. such as maple, oak, beech and hazel.
 These are also located in New  The deciduous forests are
Zealand and South Eastern Australia associated with various economic
also. activities which include lumbering,
The conditions necessary for the tourism activity, hunting, herbal
growth of deciduous forests: medicines and fruit gathering.
 Deciduous forests require moderately

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 distributed rainfall.
 Deciduous forests need low sunshine
supply

9.3. Grasslands in the tropical zone and their characteristics

Tropical grasslands are commonly known as savannah vegetation. Tropical grasslands grow
well within altitude of 50 N and 15o N and 50 S and 15o S of the equator. Tropical grasslands
grow well in Africa, South America specifically in Campos in Brazil”. They can also be
found in Guyana, Australia, Eastern Madagascar and India. Tropical grassland is divided into
two groups: Savannah and steppe.
9.3.1. Savannah humid vegetation
Location Characteristics of Savannah humid
vegetation

Savannah humid forests grow well in regions  The tree species are deciduous, and
experiencing the average total rainfall of shade leaves during the dry periods.
1000 mm per year.  The vegetation is mostly composed
 Mambo woodlands of Central of shrub and short grass.
Tanzania is one of the examples of  The species of trees such as baobab
savannah woodlands in East Africa. and acacia are mostly common in the
Other examples of savannah humid area.
forests are found  The grass can grow very tall (about 3
 in Madagascar, Indian subcontinent, to 4 meters high). The common type
 South East Asia and New Guinea. of grass is known as “elephant Grass”
The conditions necessary for the growth of  – Near riverbanks and water holes,
the Savannah humid vegetation: deciduous trees can grow, e.g.
 The savannah humid can grow well Acacia, baobab, etc.
in regions experiencing temperatures  The Savannah vegetation is
ranging between 250 c to 320 c. characterized by undergrowth
 The savannah humid vegetation grow dominated by shrubs and short
well in areas which experience grasses.
rainfall about 750 mm to 1000 mm  Most tree species in the savannah
per annum. woodlands form small umbrella –like
 The savannah humid needs maximum tops such as acacia.
sunshine and light necessary for the  The tree species are deciduous and
plants to make chlorophyll. shade –off leaves during the dry
season.
 The tree species such as the acacia
and baobab are more dominant in
savannah humid forests.
 Shrubs growing in this area have
yellow or white flowers and can grow
over six feet tall.
 The non-thorny trees such as baobab,
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 candelabra, and the Jackal berry are
found in savannah grasslands.
 The Savannah humid vegetation is
associated with various economic
activities such as hunting, herbal
medicine collection, fruit gathering,
rearing of animals and subsistence
farming, settlement, mining and
gazetting of national park and game
reserves.

9.3.2. Steppe/ Savannah dry vegetation

Location Characteristics of Steppe/ Savannah dry
vegetation

Savannah dry covers almost half the surface  The trees and grass grow through
of central Africa and large areas of Australia, direct competition for water, light and
South America, and India. The climate is the nutrients.
most important factor in creating a savannah  The open canopy allows sufficient
dry vegetation. Savannahs are always found light to reach the ground to support an
in warm or hot climates where the annual unbroken herbaceous layer consisting
rainfall is from about 508 to 1270 mm per primarily of grasses.
year. These regions receive rainfall for about  Annual herbaceous plants die
6 to 8 months. This is followed by prolonged completely at the end of the growing
dry period that usually affects fire out-breaks. season or when they have flowered
The conditions necessary for growth of and fruited. These grow again from
Savannah dry/steppe vegetation: seed when the wet season sets in.
 The soil which is dry and porous,  The vegetation consists of tall
with rapid infiltration of water. grasses and scattered trees.
 Dry climatic conditions that support  The grasses are usually two meters
the growth of different grasses due to high or more.
the disparities in rainfall and soil  The trees are mainly found near
conditions. watercourses.
 Availability of the average annual The main types of tree species are acacia;
rainfall of 762-1016 mm. – Some trees lose their leaves in the dry
 The presence soils that are too thin. season.
Trees require the existence of termite  Some plants have thick barks and
mounds where they grow. thorny leaves to reduce water loss.
 The Savannah dry /steppe
vegetation is associated with
various economic activities
including hunting, fruit gathering,
rearing of animals, settlement,
agriculture and gazetting of the
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 national park and game reserves.

9.4 Grasslands in temperate zones

Location Characteristics of temperate grasslands
Temperate grasslands are known by different  Grasslands found here are short and
names in various regions. “Prairies” in North juicy, which is suitable for cattle feed.
America; “Pampas” in South America  The region is known for the growth
(Argentina), “Downs” in Australia “Velds” of maize and wheat in large amounts.
in South Africa and “Steppes” in Europe. This explains why the area is known
These are found in the mid- latitudinal zones as “the bread basket” of the world.
and in the interior part of the continents. The  The perennial temperate grasses
Temperate grasslands are found in Central mostly belong to the family of
Asia from Black Sea to Central Russia, North “Gramineae”.
Central USA and Southern Canada, South-  The steppes form the largest segment
East Australia, Southern Africa and of the temperate grassland biome.
Argentina.  Steppes are divided into: Forest
steppes, Meadow steppes and grass
The conditions necessary for the growth of steppes. –
temperate grasslands:  America Prairies are divided into
 Temperate grasslands require three sub regions: tall grass prairie,
minimum light for the plants to make mixed grass prairie and short grass
their own food. prairie.
 The temperate grassland requires Brief description of Temperate
moderate fertile, fine drained and grassland areas:
humid soil.  Based on the rainfall, the
 Temperate grasslands need average Pampas in South America
sunshine in a dry and cool winter (Argentina) are divided into
time. two types: humid pampas in the
 Temperate grasslands require Eastern part and Sub-humid
moderate rainfall of about 500 mm - pampas in the Western part of
750 mm for the best growth of Argentina.
grasslands.  Velds in South Africa are sub-
divided into three types:
Themed veld (altitude varies
between 1500-2000m), Sour veld
and Alpine veld (2000-2500) of
the Drakensberg mountain.
 Dows grown in Australia are
divided into three types:-
Temperate tall grasslands found
in the Eastern coast of New South
Wales to Victoria and Tasmania. -
Temperate short grasslands found
in the North of the Temperate tall
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 grassland region. - Xerophytic
grasslands developed in the
interior lands of New South
Wales and Queensland where
semi-arid climate prevails.
 Canterbury grasslands are
extended especially over the
Eastern and the Central part of
New Zealand.
 The temperate grasslands are
associated with various
economic activities which
include: hunting, fruit gathering,
rearing of animals, settlement,
agriculture and gazetting of the
national park and game reserves.

9.5. Desert Vegetation

Desert vegetation grows in the Western margins of the continents between 15° – 30° North
and South of Equator. The iggest deserts are: Sahara and Kalahari in Africa, Thar in India,
Arabia desert covering the countries of Saudi Arabia, Iraq, Iran, Syria and Israel, Atacama
Desert (Peru and Chile), Southern California in USA, Sonora in Mexico and Victoria in
Australia. Desert Vegetation is divided into two types, namely hot desert and cold desert
vegetation or Tundra.
9.5.1. Hot desert vegetation
Location Characteristics of Hot desert vegetation
Hot deserts are located between the  Plants in Hot deserts have small
latitudinal belts of 15°-30° North and South leaves, with sunken or restricted
of the equator. These deserts can be found in openings, pale and reflective leaves.
North America, South Asia, South and  There are a few plants with succulent
Central America, Africa and Australia. Hot stems, long roots and leaves.
desert vegetation experiences hot climatic  The desert trees shed off their leaves
conditions throughout the year. The rainfall occasionally primarily to minimize
is unreliable. This is caused by the dry winds on the water loss from the excessive
that blow over the area, leading to arid temperature.
conditions. Such conditions leave behind  Desert vegetation types especially the
very poor vegetation in the desert region. tree species grow long taproots to
The conditions necessary for growth of hot have access to water that is found
desert vegetation: deep in the underground water table.
 The presence of poor quality and  The main vegetation growing here is
infertile soils. mainly thorny acacia, bushes,
 Availability of about 250mm or less euphorbia and turfed coarse grasses.
as total rainfall per year.  Some desert vegetation types grow no
leaves in order to avoid excessive
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  The prevailing of high temperatures water loss through
ranging between 290c and 310c to evapotranspiration.
support the growth of plants
associated with arid areas such s
deserts

9.5.2. Cold desert vegetation

Location Characteristics of cold desert vegetation
The cold vegetation is located in high flat  Plants are widely scattered. – The
areas called plateaus. It is also common in main plants are deciduous, mostly
mountainous areas in temperate regions of having spiny leaves.
the world. Temperate regions lie between the  The cold desert vegetation grows in
Polar Regions and the tropics. Like other areas with large amount of snowfall
types of deserts, cold deserts get very little in winter (and sometimes in
rain or snow and are mainly in the Northern summer).
part of Canada, North Russia, North Sweden  The cold desert vegetation
and Finland islands in Arctic Ocean. experiences short and wet moderately
warm summers.
The conditions necessary for growth of  It experiences the mean average
cold desert vegetation: winter temperature that ranges from -
 Cold desert vegetation needs low 2 to 4º c.
sunshine for its successful growth.  This vegetation receives a mean
 It requires a combination of freezing annual precipitation that ranges from
temperatures, poor soil quality, lack 90 mm to 260 mm.
of moisture and sunlight.  The cold desert vegetation does well
 This vegetation requires soils in areas with good drainage that
associated with relatively high soil facilitates the leaching of most of the
salinity. salts.
 The cold desert vegetation needs  The cold desert vegetation is
very little rain fall (of about 250 mm) associated with various economic
during the summer season and activities that include tourism,
snowfall during the winter. mining and agriculture on small scale
 It requires areas characterized by and establishment of the national
frost conditions. park and game reserves.

9.6 Tundra vegetation

Location Characteristics of the tundra vegetation
The tundra vegetation is found in coldest  There is a limited variety of trees.
regions of the world. The term tundra is  The vegetation arrangement is
derived from a Finnish word “tunturi” which simple.
means “treeless plain”. It is among  The season of growth and
vegetation types that strive in the harshest reproduction is short.
conditions. This vegetation is found in the  The drainage system is nearly

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arctic region on top of mountains where limited.
climate is cold, windy and with limited  The nutrients and energy here is in
rainfall. The tundra vegetation is found in form of dead and organic material.
regions that cover the areas of Alaska, parts  The tundra vegetation is associated
of Russia, Northern Scandinavian countries with various economic activities
and in some parts of Canada. that include tourism which is
The following are the conditions necessary associated with the following tourist
for the growth of tundra vegetation: attractions: Birds like ravens, falcons,
 The Tundra vegetation requires snowy owls and snow geese and
winters that are cold, long and dark. animals such as foxes, wolves and
 It does well in regions that some smaller mammals like the
experience about 6 to 10 months with lemmings and snowshoe rabbits.
monthly temperatures below 32° F or These areas also support hunting, oil
0° c. exploitation and research and study
 This vegetation needs limited
precipitation and the existence of
strong and dry winds.
 It requires snowfall conditions that
support the survival of plants and
animal life. It sometimes acts as a
protection layer on the surface of the
ground.

9.7. Mountain vegetation

Mountain vegetation is categorized into two types; namely, tropical mountain vegetation and
temperate mountain vegetation.
9.7.1. Tropical Mountain vegetation
Location Characteristics of mountain vegetation
The mountain vegetation has a variety of  The vegetation on the mountain slope
vegetation ranging from the tropical to the grows in clearly demarcated zones
temperate types. On a typical Mountain from the foothills to the summit.
slope, various vegetation types show clear  The mountain vegetation is
demarcation zones. The savannah vegetation dominated by tussock grasses and
grows from the foothills, followed by the stands of giant rosette.
layer of tropical rainforests, bamboo forests,  The mountain heath and moorlands
mountain heath and moorland. The rest is grow between the bamboo forests and
bare rock. This type of vegetation is traced in the snow-line or bare rocks.
areas such as: Mt. Kenya, Mt. Aberdares, Mt.  The tree species, mainly of the lower
Kilimanjaro, Mt. Meru, Mt. Elgon, Mt. canopy are the wild olive.
Cameroon, Mt. Ruwenzori, Mt. Virunga, Mt.  Soils in the mountains are mostly
Simien and Mt. Bale. young and fertile which favours the
The conditions necessary for the growth of growth of trees.
the mountain vegetation  Above snow-line, plant life is always
 This type of vegetation requires the impossible. This is attributed to low
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 steep gradient. temperature and the presence of
 It needs well distributed rainfall eroded bare rocks that makes it hard
characterised by humid conditions. for plant growth.
 It grows well in areas which  In mountainous areas, the decrease
generally are associated with strong in temperature with increasing
seasonal differences. altitude leads to the corresponding
 It requires temperature ranges of change in natural vegetation.
about 20° C at 900 m and 4°c in the  The wet temperate forests are suitable
summit region. between 1000 and 2000 mm.
 It requires the annual precipitation  Temperate forests containing
of around 900 mm on the foothills, coniferous trees like pine, deodar,
around 2000 mm at 1500 m and well silver fir, spruce and cedar are found
above 3000 mm between 2000 and between 1500 and 3000 mm.
2300 m on a windward side.  The mountain vegetation is
 It requires fertile soils that are well- associated with various economic
developed with moderately acidic activities. These include gazetting of
soil pH values, such as Andosol. the national park and game reserves,
tourism Above snow-line, plant life is
always impossible.

9.8. Aquatic, marsh and Swamp vegetation

(1) Mangrove vegetation
Location Characteristics of mangrove forests
This is the type of vegetation that grows in  Mangrove vegetation have broad
marshy and swampy areas along the coast of branches and leaves and they are
East Africa. It is found in areas such as the evergreen.
coastal regions of Kenya and Tanzania,  They are associated with saline soils
Deltas of the Ganga, Mahanadi, and Ganga with poor drainage.
Brahmaputra delta in India. The Mangrove  The dominating plants are trees.
vegetation is evergreen and grows along the  The mangrove vegetation grows
coastal margins between 5o N and 5oS of the butters roots.
equator.  This type of vegetation has a long
The conditions necessary for the growth of gestation period.
mangrove forests:  They exist in areas with poor
 They need average temperatures of drainage and sufficient water supply.
the coldest month higher than 20°C. Such areas are waterlogged.
The seasonal temperature range  They grow in areas that are hypoxic
should not exceed 5°C. They can (oxygen deficient) waterlogged soil
tolerate temperatures of 5°C, but the strata, with limited tidal pressures,
development will be affected because strong winds and sea waves.
they are not resistant to freezing.  Mangrove forest species survive
 They need a large tidal range. This under temperatures above 66° F (19°
causes limited erosion and deposition C). They do not tolerate temperatures
of sediments. below 18° F (10° C). However,
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  They need a fine-grained substrate. temperatures below freezing should
However, there could be some not occur for a long time.
exceptions. This is the case in Papua
New Guinea and Kenya, where the
mangroves grow on corals.
 The shores must be free from strong
wave action and tidal current.
 The mangrove vegetation requires
swampy and marshy areas with deep
soils which must be salty in nature.
 The mangrove vegetation requires a
high temperature necessary for
chlorophyll making.

(2) Aquatic plants:

Location Characteristics of aquatic plants
The aquatic plants or vegetation is referred to  They have reduced and shallow roots.
as hydrophytes or macrophytes. These plants The primary function of these roots is
require special adaptation for living to anchor the plant to the ground.
submerged in water, or at the water’s surface.  Plants that normally are submersed,
Aquatic plants can only grow in water or in typically form their flowers raised
soil that is saturated with water. above the water surface.
 Some of the aquatic plants float on
the surface of water with no
attachment to the mud or bottom.
These have inflated portions of
leaves, stems, or special hairs that
enable the plant to remain floating.
 Plants rooted in the mud have
immersed leaves with photosynthetic
stems. They also have relatively
small leaves similar to those of
typical leaves of terrestrial plants
living nearby.
 They have real roots that link with
underground roots. Such have
numerous pores over their surfaces
that allow gaseous exchange.
 The aquatic plants have structures
that anchor as seaweeds to the
substratum, such as the bottom layer
or submerged bedrock.

(3) Marsh vegetation:

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Location Characteristics of Marsh vegetation
A marsh is a wetland that is dominated by  The mash vegetation grows in poorly
herbaceous rather than woody plant species. drained water.
Marshes can often be found at the edges of  The mash vegetation is a common
lakes and streams. In such places they form a characteristic of wetlands areas.
transition between the aquatic and terrestrial  The mash vegetation grows in both
ecosystems. The marsh vegetation is fresh and salty waters.
dominated by grasses, rushes or reeds.  The mash vegetation is found along
Familiar examples of marsh vegetation the rivers and lakes.
include cattails, sedges, papyrus and
sawgrass.

(4) Swamp Vegetation

Location Characteristics of Swamp Vegetation
The swamp vegetation occurs along large  They are characterized by poorly
rivers where they are critically dependent drained soils and different plant life
upon natural water level fluctuations. When a dominated by trees.
swamp vegetation is dominated by forest, it  The latter characteristic distinguishes
is called a wetland. Some swamps have a swamp from a marsh, in which plant
hammocks or dry-land protrusions, covered life consists largely of grasses.
by aquatic vegetation or the vegetation that  They grow in waterlogged areas
tolerates periodic inundation. where there is sufficient supply of
water which allows or stimulates the
decay of organisms and prevents the
accumulation of organic materials.
 They are often found in lowlands
associated with rivers that supply the
water to some lakes.
 The number of plant species in
swamps is small. While the one found
in areas associated with well-watered
conditions and no waterlogged land,is
sifignicantly great.
 All swamp vegetation such as
mangrove, mash, wetlands and
aquatic forests, are associated with
various economic activities. These
include tourism, the hunting of large
invertebrate sand waterfowl,the
fishing of crayfish and mudfish. They
are also used for research and study
purposes. These support art and craft

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 making.

9.9 The factors which influence natural vegetation

There are various factors that influence the growth and distribution of natural vegetation.
There is no single factor that plays a key role alone, but rather a combination of two or more
factors. These factors include:
 Rainfall: the growth of vegetation depends on the amount of the rainfall. For
example, Equatorial rainforests have evergreen and dense vegetation. On the other
hand, places with low rainfall have scattered vegetation. This explains why there is
little vegetation in deserts.
 Temperature: Forests found in cool areas have fewer tree species. Those in hot areas
have more species. The cold mountain tops have heath and moorland.
 Relief and altitude: It has been noticed that with a rise in the altitude, the plants in
the region show a stunted growth. Trees such as pine, silver fir, birch, and juniper fall
in this category of vegetation. These contribute to variations in the vegetative
zonation along the slope.
 Slopes: Areas on the opposite sides of mountains have different vegetation. Steep
slopes have more runoff. Gentle slopes allow water to sink into the soil. Plants use
this water.
 Soil types: This factor provides basis for different types of vegetation. The sandy
soils in the desert support cactus and thorny bushes. Wet, marshy or delta soils
support mangroves and other deltaic vegetation.
 Human activities: These include the settlement, mining, farming and livestock
keeping. For example, vegetation is cleared to create space for building houses. Trees
are cut for firewood and timber. New or artificial vegetation is planted.
 Drainage also determines the vegetation of a place. There are plants that grow best in
areas of good drainage while others grow well in swampy conditions; for example the
papyrus which only grows in swampy areas.
9.10. Importance of the natural vegetation
The following are the significance / importance of vegetation to man:
 Plants that form the vegetation are the main source of food for humans. This food is
in the form of vegetables, fruits, grains, cereals, leaves, seeds and it consists of
carbohydrates, oils, proteins, vitamins and minerals.
 It provides construction materials; for example: trees are used for the construction of
houses, bridges and poles.
 The vegetation helps regulate the flow of numerous biogeochemical cycles in the
atmosphere, most critically those of water, carbon, and nitrogen. It also contributes in
the local and global energy balances.
 The natural vegetation plays an important role in our ecosystem. Whereby, plants are
known as the primary producers since they can manufacture their own food through
the process of photosynthesis using sunlight.
 The natural vegetation provides man with a variety of products which include
flowers, stems, roots, oil and many others. These are used to meet man’s needs such
as themaking of perfumes, cosmetics and aesthetic purposes.

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  The natural vegetation provides food for some domestic and wild animals. Human
beings also get food from some plants.
 The natural vegetation has contributed hugely to the world´s economy, particularly
in the use of fossil fuels as an energy source. It provides thebiomass and some
vegetation residuals are used to produce biogas.
 The natural vegetation provides timber for furniture. Items as beds, chairs and tables
are made from timber. Timber is also used in construction activities.
 The natural vegetation plays a key role in soil formation. Their roots facilitate
weathering. – Dead vegetation becomes humus, which makes the soil fertile.
 The natural vegetation is also a natural resource that provides a number of uses to
man; i.e. the products like ropes, rubber, gum, papers, and wood used in the
manufacturing of books, rope, tyres, and seats come from the natural vegetation.
Some plants have medicinal contents. Herbs are used in the treatment of various
diseases that threaten human lives as well as those of domestic animals.
 The natural vegetation is the source of materials such as cotton, used in textiles and
fabric materials to make for humans.
 The natural vegetation such as forests and grasslands attract tourists. These pay
(money) when they visit to see the animals and a variety of flora. The money is used
to develop the social facilities like schools, hospitals etc.
 The natural vegetation helps clean or purify air through harvesting carbon dioxide
from the atmosphere. Again, trees produce oxygen that human beings and animals
use for their survival.
 Places with forests receive more rainfall. This is through the process of transpiration.
 Areas with forests act as a source of rivers. These are called water catchment areas.
 Many people get jobs. They are employed as researchers, forest guards and forest
officers.
 The natural vegetation makes the landscape beautiful.
 Tree and plant roots hold the soil together. Therefore, forests protect the ground
(soils) against soil erosion, mass wasting and the general impact of heavy rainfall.

The natural vegetation has also the following negative influences on man:
 The natural vegetation associated with some pests such as tsetse flies and ticks which
put the lives of people and animals at great risks, since they cause diseases.
 Some plants are thorny-leaved and they are harmful to human beings and animals.
 The natural vegetation is a home place for dangerous animals which may attack or
harm human beings.
 Some plants are poisonous and may kill human beings and animals when eaten.
End unit assessment
1. Discuss the distribution of the natural vegetation in the world.
2. Describe the relationship between vegetation and land use.
3. Draw a map of the world and on it, show the following vegetation types:
– Savannah humid
– Mediterranean vegetation
– Desert vegetation

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– Mountain vegetation
4. How do the following factors influence the distribution of vegetation in Africa?
– Variation in temperature.
– Variation in relief

UNIT 10: POPULATION GROWTH IN THE WORLD

10.1. Human diversities
Population: The term refers to the number of people living in an area at a given period. The
study of population growth, density, distribution and movement is referred to as demography.
Population The term refers to the number of people living in an area at a given period. The
study of population growth, density, distribution and movement is referred to as demography.
Human diversity: Human Diversity is the difference that occurs between people of the
world. This difference is always noticed when we consider things like race, ways of life,
language, religion and political divisions.
 Race
People of the world are differentiated on the basis of inherited physical characteristics. Races
can be seen in Facial features, Hair type, Climatic factors, Color, Activities.
 Language
Human diversity is seen in language. People speak different languages. For example, people
in Rwanda speak Kinyarwanda, those in Uganda have different languages according to
provide or regions.
 Religion
Very many religions have the world over. Even in a country where people speak the same
language and have the same color, very many religious sects exist between them. These have
made people become different depending on the type of religion.
 Political divisions
Some countries or regions have been separated on political divisions, yet these people are
exactly the same. For example, there are Banyarwanda of Uganda kisoro district,
Banyarwanda of Congo-Kivu zone and Burundi. There are also Sudanese (Nilotics) in
Uganda and Sudan.
All these people and many others have been considered different when real sense they are not
different. They share common features but are differentiated by political divisions.

10.2. World population distribution

10.2.1. Population density
Population distribution is the spread of the people across the world. It describes the pattern
of where people live. There are places which are sparsely, moderately and densely populated.
Population density is a measurement of the number of the people in an area. It is an average
number. Population density is calculated by dividing the number of people by area.
Population density is usually shown as the number of the people per square kilometer. The
World population distribution includes the following categories:

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(i) The densely populated areas: These are the regions with more than 100 people per
square kilometer:
 East and south East Asia: This region includes countries like Singapore, China, India,
Bangladesh, Japan, South Korea, the Philippines and Taiwan.
 Central and Western Europe: This includes countries like Germany, the United
Kingdom, France, Italy, Belgium and the Netherlands.
 The Caribbean countries: These include Jamaica, Trinidad and Tobago, Cuba, West
Indies and El -Salvador, Eastern USA and south eastern Canada.
 Nile valley and delta which is located in Egypt.
(ii) The moderately populated areas: These are the regions which have between 25 and 100
persons per square km. They are usually dominated by agricultural occupations and typical
examples include Australia, Brazil, USA, Argentina and Chile etc.
(iii) The sparsely populated areas: The sparsely populated areas are the regions with few
people per square kilometre. They include Sahara, Atacama, Kalahari and Australian deserts.
There is also sparse population in the high mountain ranges; for example: the Himalayas, the
Rockies, the Andes, the Alps and the dense forests of equatorial regions in the Amazon,
Congo and the outlying islands of Indonesia.
10.2.2. Factors responsible for the distribution of population in the World
The population of the world in general is unevenly distributed. This is attributed to a number
of factors. These factors include the following:
 Reliable and adequate Rainfall
 Soils
 Pests and diseases
 Altitude
 Vegetation
 Relief
 Slave trade that led to the depopulation of various areas of origin and led to increased
population to the areas where slaves were taken.
 Migrations
 Civil wars
 Government policies
 Industrialization
 Energy resources and minerals
 Historical factors
10.3. Population concepts and related effects
I. Optimum population: This is the situation whereby the average population is in
balance with available resources in the country.
II. Under population: This is the situation when the number of population is less than
available resources in the country.
III. Over population: This is when the available resources are less than the number of
population in the country.
10.4. Population problems of developed and developing countries
10.4.1. Population problems of developed countries and their solutions
Population problems of developed Solutions to the population problems of

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countries developed countries
 High proportion of old age population  Most developed countries are now
 Shortage of labour encouraging and promoting vertical
 Congestion in towns expansion through setting up
 Development of slum areas skyscrapers.
 Rural depopulation  Federal and state governments
 Congestion in towns continue to invest many capital and
 Development of slums areas skilled resources in the development
 Rural depopulation of social infrastructures and housing
facilities.
 Most developed countries like USA
continue to strengthen their
immigration operations worldwide as
a means of controlling illegal
immigrants entering the country.

10.4.2. Population problems in the developing countries and their solutions

The developing countries experience various challenges in relation to population as
indicated below:
Population problems in the developing Solutions to the population problems in
countries the developing countries
 Low levels of technological  Rehabilitation
development  Sewage rehabilitation
 Low standard of living  Encouraging the population
 Rapid population growth migration from urban areas to rural
 Lack of diversification of economy areas of the same country.
 Under-nourishment and lack of  Setting up social-economic
hygiene infrastructures such as education,
 Inefficient agricultural sector health and transport networks.
 Weak industrial base  Family planning and education has
 Tradition-bound societies helped in reducing the rapid
 Unfavourable physical conditions population growth.
 Government policy that aims at
establishing house facilities,
especially in town areas, to improve
on the housing facilities.

10.5. Population growth

Population growth
This refers to the increase of the population of the given country at a given period of time. It
is also the rate at which population changes either declining or increasing over time. The
highest rate of increasing is found in developing counties.

10.5.1. Factors influencing birth rate

Birth rate indicates the number of children (live births per 1000 people in a given year.

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Number of the live births
x1000
Total population
Birth rate is influenced by different factors that include:
 Rise standard of living (nutrition,
 Medical facilities improvement
 Natural population increase and migration
 High fertility rate
 Early marriage, polygamy, religion, myths(imiziro) and beliefs.
 The ratio of men to women (greater number of women and low number of males.
 Low level of education.
10.5.2. Factors influencing death rate
Dearth rate
Dearth rate indicates an annual number of people who die per 1000 of the total population. It
The number of death
x1000
is worked out in the same way as birth rates: Total population
Death rate is influenced by different factors as follows:
 Wars and Political instability
 Poor health centers and hospitals
 Ease spread of diseases and hardworking
Fertility rate
This refers to the rate at which children are born to females of child bearing age within a
population group. The acceptable ages between which women can bear children are usually
taken as between 15-45 or 15-49 years of age. It is calculated as:
Total children under 5years
x1000
Femeles of child bearing age
Growth rate
The population of a country is always changing with people dying and others being born.
This causes a continual alteration of the individuals who make the population transactions:
demographic transactions. It is calculated as:
a. Infant mortality rate: this refers to death rate among infants (0-1) year of age per
The number of death per year
x1000
1000 lives, in a given year. It is calculated as: live births per year
b. Population density
Population density is simply the ration between the size of an area of land, and the number of
people living there. It is usually expressed as the average number of persons per square
Total population
kilometer (square km): Area of the country

8. Effects associated with rapid 9. Ways of controlling population

population growth growth

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  It is associated with inadequate water  Intensifying the family planning
supply campaigns
 A danger to depletion of natural  Giving incentives/ benefits of small
resources (fossil fuels) families and dangers of big families.
 Increasing level of pollution, soil  Legalizing abortion fixing legal age
contamination … of marriage.
 High infant mortality rate and poverty  Encouraging monogamy
increases  Education for boys and girls
 Unemployment problems  Encouraging one child per family
 Changes in atmospheric composition  Discouraging early marriage
and consequently global warming
 Degradation of ecosystem
 Emergence of new epidemic diseases
 It could elevate high level of crimes.

10.5.4. Effects associated with rapid population growth

The following are some of the effects of the rapid population growth:
 Available facilities become insufficient for the growing population. It leads to the
falling of living standards.
 It is difficult to provide suitable employment opportunities for all. The result is large-
scale unemployment which also causes the living standards to decline
 Natural resources are over-utilized and their quality degrades. Eventually, they are
depleted.
 The environment is polluted and environmental problems occur.
 Crimes such as robbery, theft, murder and abduction increase and this leads to the
killing of people. In the struggle to search for better life, some people may resort to
stealing and breaking commercial banks.
 It will be more difficult to meet the basic needs such as food, shelter, clothing,
education and health services.
 If the population increases rapidly, there is unemployment problem in the country.
 Due to the rapid population growth, there is deforestation for agriculture and
settlement since more land will be needed.
 Land shortage which results into land fragmentation, conflicts, food shortage and
famine
10.5.5. Ways of controlling population growth
The following are some ways of controlling population growth:
 Family planning
 Raising the level of education
 Increasing employment opportunities for women
 Increasing income
 Increased security in old age
 Enacting child labour laws

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  Balanced economic growth
10 .6 Population structure and the composition
Population structure refers to the composition of the population of a region. It relates to the
age and sex of the population. It shows the population structure of a given region. Population
Pyramid: A population pyramid shows the age and sex structure of a country. In addition, it
is a type of graph that is divided into males and females and then age groups in
correspondence to their totals.
(i) Sex composition Communities differ in sex composition,i.e. the composition of
male and female. Sex ratio is an index linked with the socio-economic conditions
of an area.
(ii) Population age composition The proportions of children and older persons have
much to do with the balance of national expenditures on schools, childcare,
immunization and reproductive health, as against the expenditure on old-age,
social security systems and health care for chronic and degeneration diseases.
(iii) Active and inactive population
A distinction has often been made between the total population and the work
force. While the total population refers to the entire population inhabiting the area,
the work force consists of only those persons who could participate in
economically gainful activities in the event of need. Different countries classify
the work force further into two-subcategories: The economically active population
and the economically non-active population.
The economically active population is that part of manpower which is actually
engaged in the production of goods and services. It consists of both males and
females.
The economically non-active population is that part of work force which is
engaged in activities like household duties in their own homes or at the place of
their relatives, retired personnel, inmates of institutions, students and those living
on royalties, rents, dividends, pensions, etc.
(iv) Standard of living: Standard of living is a grade or level of subsistence and
comfort in everyday life enjoyed by a community, class, or individual. Thus, it is
the degree of wealth and material comfort available to a person or community.
(v) Education: Education managers in developing countries are fighting for the
young people to gain access to quality education and they further advocate for the
acquisition of skills that provide the foundation for lifelong learning.
10.7 Population Policies in the World
A population policy is defined as procedures taken by a country to adjust the way its
population is changing, either by promoting large families or immigration to increase its
size, or by encouraging the limitation of births to decrease the number of people living in
the country.
10.7.1. Population policies in developed countries
 Provision of incentives and favourable conditions for big families. Several social
and economic measures have substantial effects on a desired family size.
 To encourage families to increase birth rates in order to get enough active
population.

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  Provision of pensions and other facilities, e.g. extra- health services, for elderly
people.
 Increase the number of population to improve the utilization of facilities and
resources available in the country.
 Delayed marriage and child-bearing period as a way of addressing the needs of
young women.
 Continuing improving thegirl child education and educational attainment for all,
specifically among girls.
10.7.2. Population policies in developing countries
 Below is a detailed explanation of the population policies witnessed in developing
countries:
 Improvement in population health through access to child health care services,
contraceptive measures and sterilization.
 Eradication of mass epidemic diseases through improving the living standards of the
population.
 Family planning as a dominant component of the population policies and integrating
in schools’ curriculum the avoidance of early marriage.
 Investing in women and providing them with economic prospects and social
identities apart from motherhood.
 Assisting mothers to become economically productive by enabling them to have
enough time in their professional work.
10.7.3. Effects of population policies on population growth
The effects of population policies on the population growth will result in the following:
 The decline of both birth and death rates will lead to the occurrence of an ageing and
(economically) non-active population. This has undesired economic implications.
 Some of the population policies create ground for the resources to be in the hands of
the few, who are rich.
 There will be an increase in literacy and educational levels and high levels of
specialization.
 There will be stagnation in the population growth and therefore, there will be less
young people in the society to supply the required labour.
10.8. Impact of early sex, health risks, HIV/Aids, STDs in the world
10.8.1. Causes of Early Sex Impact of early sex and Possible solutions to
possible prevention measures prevent early sex and
related consequences
 Peer pressure  Unwanted pregnancy at  Sexual
 Pressure from a partner early age resulting in education
 Sexual attraction school dropouts and poor should be
Hormones in the school performance. incorporated in
teenagers tend to be  Increase of infected school
more active. people (by HIV/AIDS curriculum to
 Social and mass media and other transmissible avoid early age
pressure diseases). sex.
 Parental example of  Increase of mortality rate  Peer group
permissiveness which results in a smaller awareness

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  Improper execution of skilled population and between the
sex education programs labour force. governmental
or practices  Poor cognitive and non-
 Alcohol and Drugs development, social governmental
isolation and mental agencies,
problems like anxiety and which should
depression. organise
 Increase of the training on
population growth how to prevent
resulting in poor feeding, unwanted and
malnutrition and the early
existence of street pregnancies.
children.  Promoting
cultural clubs
and
discussions
about sexual
abstinence.
 Sensitize about
sex abstinence
by educating
about the
negative
effects of sex
intercourse
 Use of
condoms in
times of lack
of abstinence.
 Abstain from
sexual
activities or be
in a long-term
mutually
monogamous
relationship
with an
uninfected
partner.

10.8.2. The impact of HIV/Aids and STDs on social economy development of country
and possible prevention measures
HIV/AIDS is made of two abbreviations (HIV and AIDS). They stand for: HIV-Human
Immune deficiency Virus and AIDS is Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome. HIV spreads
primarily by having unprotected sex (including anal and oral sex), contaminated blood
transfusion and hypodermic needles and from mother to child during pregnancy, delivery, or
breastfeeding; whereas STDs are sexually transmitted diseases.
The impact HIV/Aids and STDs on social Possible HIV/AIDS and STDs prevention
economy development of country measures

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  On the level of the household, AIDS  Get tested and treated. It is very
causes the family members to spend important that your partner is also
all their income on healthcare. tested and treated.
 Reducing the resources available for  Use a new condom for every act of
public expenditures such as education sexual intercourse throughout the
and health services. entire sex act (from start to end).
 The tax base is reduced since there  Wrap the condom in a tissue and
are increased expenditures by the throw it in the trash where others
homesteads. won’t handle it.
 The increased mortality in the regions  Have less risky sex. HIV is mainly
affected by HIV/Aids results in the spread by having sex without a
occurrence of a smaller skilled condom.
population and labour force.  Limit your number of sexual
 If the economic conditions are not partners. The more partners one has,
good, a person with HIV/AIDS or the more he is likely to have a partner
STDs may decide to become a sex with HIV or whose HIV is not well
trade worker to earn more money. controlled or a partner with sexually
Poverty increases as a result of transmitted diseases.
HIV/AIDS. This has undesired  Do not engage in unprotected sex
impact on the productivity and it is unless you know your partner is not
worsened by the loss of the lives of infected with HIV or STD.
the economically productive members  Do not have sex with people who use
of the society. In general, HIV/AIDS intravenous (IV) drugs.
adversely affectsthe production and
the productivity in all the sectors of
the economy, most notably
agriculture, manufacturing and
service industry.
 HIV/AIDS morbidity and mortality
have affected negatively the
efficiency and effectiveness of the
labour force in various work places.

10.9. Migration
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another with the intentions
Migration is the movement of people from one place to another with the intentions of settling
permanently or temporarily in a new location.
10.9.1. Types of migration
There are various types of migration. It is very important to note that migration has often
been classified into various categories or types. Below is a detailed description of the main
types of migration:
Internal migration: This is the movement of people within the country. It is further
subdivided into rural-urban, urban-rural, rural-rural, urban-urban migrations.
International migration: This is the movement of people from one country to another. For
example, if a person leaves Rwanda and settles in the USA, this type of migration will be
called international migration or external migration.
Permanent migration: This is the type of migration that involves the movement of people
from one place to another without the intention of coming back to the source area.

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Temporary migration: This type of migration involves the movement of people or person
from one place to another but with the hope of returning back to the source area.
Voluntary migration: This is when people move from one place to another out of their own
will without being forced. It is their choice to move.
Involuntary migration: This is when people are forced to move from the areas of origin.
The good example is the refugees who are forced to leave their homeland because of the war.
10.9.2. Causes of migration 10.9.3. The effects of 10.9.4. The measures to be
migration in the world taken to control migration
 Technology Positive effects to areas of  Governments
factors:The people destination should encourage
may move to places  Simplifies easy urban-rural
where there is exchange of ideas migration in order
advanced and more among people of to develop the rural
sophisticated different areas.
technology.  Provision of cheap  Resettlement
 Economic reason: The labour force to the schemes should be
lust (desire) for virgin receiving areas. established in the
lands for cultivation,  Migrants provide rural areas to cater
the depressed security, for instance for the homeless
economic resources UK immigrants serve and landless people.
from the motherlands, in security firms.  Improvement of the
force people to  Immigrants are a security to control
migrate. source of revenue to high crime rate
 Underemployment central governments especially in the
and unemployment: through the payment of rural areas and
These force people Visa fees, entry fees slummy places.
mostly the youth to and work permits in the  Creation of markets
leave their homes to receiving countries. for the locally
the places and  Immigrants provide produced goods in
countries where the ready market for the rural areas as a
employment produced goods such as way of improving
opportunities are electronics, textiles and the income of
abundant. food stuffs. people.
 Overpopulation Negative effects to areas of  Setting up rural
 Social and religious destination/recipient area electrification to
causes  Migration has led to develop the
 Political policies the spread of diseases industries.
from the origin place to  Improvement and
the receiving areas. provision of clean
 lives and poor water and sanitation
standards of living by facilities in the rural
the people who are areas.
infected with diseases.  Improvement of
 High crime rate, for communication and
instance robbery and transport services in
terrorism in Nigeria, the source areas to
Somalia and Southern boost the
Sudan, which has transportation of
compromised the goods to the market

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 standards of living, centres.
security  Setting up micro-
 Development of finance projects in
Slummy areas with the source areas so
undesirable results; that the provision of
 The large influx of loans to farmers,
immigrants in a given businesses, and
area or country results homesteads can
in the congestion on improve the trading
roads, capacity and small-
 High unemployment scale industries.
cases are being created.

10.10. Case Studies

10.10.1 The population of Nigeria, Gabon and Bangladesh
10.10.2. The population of Germany, USA and China
End unit task
1. Describe the reasons for the rapid increase in the world’s population in the recent
times.
2. Explain why the problems may result in areas of overpopulation and under
population.
3. Describe the relationship between the population growth and the resources in your
country.
4. Explain how physical factors can cause variations in the population density in
different parts of the world.
5. Assess the impact of the population growth on the economy of your country.
6. With a specific reference to any country you have studied, discuss the problems
associated with the rapid increase of population in the Cities.

UNIT 11: URBANISATION IN THE WORLD

A settlement means the arrangements of structures where people stay. It refers to how people
settle in a given place.
Urbanisation is a process of increasing number of people that live in urban areas in a country
or the process of growing of cities and towns, therefore, the societies becoming more urban.
11.1. Rural settlement
11.1.1. Types of rural settlement
There various types of rural settlements and there include:
1. Nucleated settlements
This is where houses are concentrated in one place without proper arrangement. Here you
find very many semi-permanent structures being confirmed in one place without proper
arrangement. This form of settlement is mainly influenced by cultural and social factors.
2. Linear settlement:

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This is where houses are well planned and concentrated along the communication lines like
along the road, railways stations and along the coast. These are mainly influenced by
economic factors.
3. Sparse / scattered settlement:
This is where houses are scattered all over the area. This types of settlement dominates in
area where rainfall is low and where nomadic pastoralism the major economic activities
4. Isolated settlement:
This is a type of settlement which characterizes people who are hunters, shifting cultivators
and food gather i.e. such people who socially isolated by other people.
11.1.2. Factors influencing rural settlement
These factors range from physical, ecological economic, social-cultural and political factors
and they include:
 Climate
 Nature of the soils
 Availability of infrastructures
 Presence of minerals and water supply
 Government policy, forced displacement and planned settlements
 Cultural and social factors, Food supply & Relief
 Historical factors like influence of slave trade were depopulated hence scattered
settlement patterns.
Problems of rural settlements
This problem arises from congestion, social conflicts and lacks of facilities include:
 Land conflicts
 Lack of social facilities like hospitals, schools among others.
 Spread of disease like cholera, and malaria due to poor hygiene compaction.
 They result environmental degradation because of high demand for building
materials.
 Under-utilization of resources
 Limited market because small population in some areas
Solutions of problems
 Encouraging migration from densely populated areas to sparsely populated.
 Establishment of social infrastructures
 Government intervention in all activities
 Encouraging planned settlements
11.1.3. Effects of rural settlements
The concentration of people in rural areas has both negative and positive effects:
Positive effects
 Creation of linkage with urban centers
 Supply raw materials
 Money from rural areas is invested in urban centers
 They provide homesteads that are real homes for urban people
 Industrial products may be sold in these zones
 Environmental problems

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  Social problems like conflicts
Note: Many of negative effects are similar to the rural problems.
Activity: Explain Solutions to the problems affecting rural settlement
11.2. Urbanization in the world
Urbanization refers to a process by which rural areas are changed into urban centers. It is also
expansion of urban, town or a city.
11.2.1. Definition of basic terms: (types/categories of urban centers)
Urban centers are categories according to their major functions and their size in terms of
structures and the number of people living in it. They may include:
 Trading center: this is a focal point where a number of individuals could come
together for trading and exchange.
 Town: A basic unit of local government. It is relatively small urban place.
 Municipality: This is extended built-up area bigger than town in area and population.
 City: this is large than town in terms of population and area and made by a number of
municipalities.
 Agglomeration: This is an urban center that has combined several towns and
municipalities because of their expansion or it is a combination of very many towns.
The numbers of people living in are more than one million.
 Conurbation: A conurbation is the biggest of all the above mentioned urban centers.
It develops when different cities combine together due to their development. (3M
people) An example for a conurbation in Africa includes Johannesburg and Lagos.
The functions of a conurbation range from commercial, cultural, administration and
mining, royal functions residential and ecclesiastical functions.
 Megalopolis: a large urban complex usually involving several cities and where
merging of labor markets has not yet developed.
 Suburb: or suburban, a residential area far apart from the city’s industrial and
commercial zones.
 Slum: area of a city characterized by poverty and inferior living conditions.
11.2.2. Location of major world urban centres and ports
The major world urban centres and ports are considered as megalopolises which are large
urban regions formed by the out-growth of urban center.
 The most known urban regions are developed along the North-Eastern sea board of
USA. This includes: Boston, Massachusetts, New York City, Philadelphia, Baltimore
ending in Washington, D.C. and Northern Virginia
 The urban regions in Eastern Asia which include the urban centres of China, Japan,
Singapore, India, South and North Korea.
 The Western European urban centres including cities of Germany, U.K, France,
Netherlands, Belgium, Italy, etc.
 The South Africa urban centres including: Pretoria, Johannesburg, Durban, Cape
Town, etc.
 The Urban centres in Northern Africa including the cities of Libya, Morocco,
Tunisia, Algeria and Egypt.
11.2.3. Factors influencing urban development in the world
 Industrialization

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  Mining activities, transport
 Government policy
 Port facilities and trading activities
 Historical factors like kingdom headquarters
 Water supply and other infrastructures like electricity, hospitals, schools, ...
 Security and rural-urban migration
11.2.4. Functions of urban centres and ports
 Commercial centers and Administrative urban centers
 Cultural and education urban centers
 Mining urban center and Ecclesiastical urban centers/religious activities
 Royal urban centers/kingdoms and Residential urban centers
11.2.5. Impact of world urbanization on the environment
The effects of urbanization are more of destructive that positive, the major effects include:
 Decline in rural agriculture sectors
 Loss of African culture & Development of slums
 Commercial opportunities and reduces pressure on land in rural areas
 Urbanization results into pollution of land, air and water (Environment degradation)
 Urbanization reduces land for agriculture
 Urbanization results into employment and under employment
 Urbanization forge (creates) unity among different entities through manages friends
and sharing similar experience, markets, industrialization, beauty of the country,
infrastructures.
 Urbanization to some extent has contributed towards economic developed some of the
developing countries.
11.3. Case studies of cities in developed countries: New York City, London, Tokyo
11.3.1. New York
11.3.2. London
11.4. Case studies of the cities in developing countries: Brasilia, Johannesburg, Nairobi
11.4.1. Brasilia
11.4.2. Johannesburg
11.4.3. City of Nairobi
End unit task
1) With reference to Kigali city explain why towns are constantly growing both in
population and area.
2) Analyse the major problems that are shared by both developed and developing
countries cities.
3) Suppose you are one of the urban planners, design a program that would address the
problems caused by urbanization.
4) Describe the different functions of urban centers. Give at least two cities as example
for each function.
5) Kigali is currently experiencing rapid urban development in our region. From the
knowledge acquired in this unit, identify the major factors which are contributing to
that urban development.

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UNIT 12: AGRICULTURE IN THE WORLD
Agriculture is defined as the activity of growing crops and rearing animals for both home
consumption and for sold purposes.
12.1. Types of crop Cultivation
Agriculture is practiced in different parts of the world. It is categorized as a primary activity
since it involves the production of raw materials that can be used by other industries. The
following are the main types of crop cultivation.
12.1.1. Subsistence farming
Subsistence farming is form of primitive agriculture. This type of farming refers to the
growing of crops for domestic consumption. Subsistence farming is commonly practiced in
developing countries in Africa, Asia and Amazon basin in South America.
Characteristics of subsistence farming at small scale
The following are the main characteristics of subsistence farming:
It involves the use of members of the family to provide labor force.
Subsistence farming involves use of rudimentary tools like hoes, pangas to cultivate
and sometimes usage of animals is practiced.
Multi-cropping or intercropping (growing many crops in the same field) is practiced.
The cultivated land is most of time small.
The production is mainly used for home consumption.
There is limited or no use of technology.
Organic manure and mulching are sometime applied on the land to improve its
fertility.
Advantages and disadvantages of subsistence farming
Advantages of subsistence agriculture Disadvantages of subsistence farming
 It is less costly because the  It is difficult to apply machines in
operations involved are easy to subsistence farming such as tractors
control. because of small farming size.
 It provides employment  There is a low productivity because
opportunities to the family members. of the small area coverage.
 Food crops are usually grown and  The farming system leads to land
this ensures food security to the fragmentation.
family members.  Pests and diseases are spread easily
 Little capital is required Multiple since farm lands are near each other.
cropping and intensive farming  It encourages the overuse of land
ensures maximum utilization of land leading to soil exhaustion
 Small farm sizes ensure the ease
control of pests and diseases
The following are main types of subsistence farming:
i. Shifting cultivation / Non sedentary farming
Shifting cultivation, is an agricultural system in which plots of land are cultivated
temporarily, then abandoned and allowed to revert to their natural vegetation while
the cultivator moves on to another plot.
Shifting cultivation is practiced especially in tropical region of Africa (example:
Chipanga in Zimbabwe, Chitemene in Zambia and Masole in DRC), Central America
(Milpa) in Mexico and South East Asia (Ladang in Malaysia).

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 The main crops planted under shifting cultivation are mainly starchy foods such as
cassava, sweet potatoes, maize, millet, yams.
Characteristics of shifting cultivation
 The farmers grow enough food to feed themselves and their families.
 Practiced by remote tribal people residing in forests.
 The land to be cultivated usually is cleared from virgin forests.
 The farmer uses fire in the process of clearing of land for cultivation.
 The pieces of land cultivated are usually very small. They rarely reach
beyond 1-2 hectares.
 The plots of land cultivated are isolated from each other. Such are separated
from one another by patches of forests.
 Traditional tools are used. These include digging sticks, pangas, and simple
hoes. –
 The farmer usually uses family members as labour force.
 The farmer abandons the piece of land when the crop yields decline and goes
to a new part of forest to cultivate.
Advantages and disadvantages of shifting cultivation
Advantages of shifting cultivation Disadvantages of shifting cultivation
 Different crops grown increase  Although burning helps to increase
productivity in terms of food crops. soil fertility, it destroys organic
 Burning involves production of ashes matter and soil bacteria hence
which assist in soil fertility. affecting soil formation.
 It is simple because does not require  Low productivity because the plots
large sums of money to clear the are small and due to poor control of
forest patches. pests and diseases, and soil
 Family labour is used in the management measures.
production process.  This practice involves deforestation
 Burning helps to improve soil fertility that leads to environmental
because it adds potash to the soil. degradation.
 The system can be applied on the
sparsely populated areas.
 It leads to destruction of valuable tree
species, which would otherwise be
used for timber and other wood
products.

(ii) Bush fallowing

Bush fallowing is a system of farming whereby the farmer cultivates one piece of
land for some years and leave it thereafter with the aim of restoring naturally its
fertility. Meanwhile, the farmer will be cultivating another piece of land. Fallow land
is a land that is left dormant between planting seasons in order to allow the soil to
regenerate its mineral base.
Bush fallow farming practically occurs mainly in the humid tropics of Africa, South
and Central America, Southeast Asia, and parts of Oceania.
Characteristics of bush fallowing
 It is mainly practiced by peasant farmers due to lack of agricultural inputs.

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  Simple tools are used.
 The family is the main source of labour.
 Farmers are settled but the farms are the ones which are rotating.
 Bush fallowing is practiced where population density is very low.
 Farmlands are left to fallow after one or two years of cultivation.
 Farming is based on permanent and semi-permanent settlements.
 Farming depends on natural conditions for example rainfall, temperature and
soil.
Advantages and disadvantages of bush fallowing
The following are the main advantages and disadvantages of bush fallowing:
Advantages Disadvantages
 It helps natural restoration of soil  It leads to wastage of land which
nutrient during the fallow period. could have been used for crop
 It ensures continuous sustenance growing.
during period of failure.  Although burning bushes helps to
 The constant move results into less increase soil fertility, it destroys
risk of pests and diseases. organic matter and soil bacteria hence
 Soil erosion is not very serious since affecting soil formation.
the land is left under fallow after few  Slashing and burning can lead to
seasons. environmental degradation as well as
 Many crops are grown in the same loss of biodiversity
field which reduces the risks of pests  There is low production because of
and diseases. use of low technology and simple
tools.
 Burning bushes leads to destruction of
valuable tree species, which would
otherwise be used for timber and
other wood products.

(iii) Small holder

This is a type of farming that is practiced in densely populated areas of the tropics. It is a
more advanced form of subsistence farming where the lands are frequently cultivated and the
community stays permanently in one spot.
Characteristics of small holder farming
 It is practiced in densely populated areas of the tropics.
 Both food crops and cash crops are grown intensively on the same piece of land as
well as rearing of very few animals.
 Farm plots are very small and fragmented.
 As the land is small, crop rotation is practiced to preserve soil fertility as well as
mulching techniques.
 Use of better farming techniques like irrigation farming on small scale, pesticides and
herbicides. Manure as well as artificial fertilizers are applied on the plot.
 Available land is subdivided into small uneconomical plots to be cultivated.
Advantages and disadvantages of small holder farming
Advantages of small holder farming Disadvantages of small holder farming
 A variety of crops are grown and this  There is land fragmentation. This

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 increases production. leads to loss of labour because the
 Constant spraying and addition of farmer has to travel several distances
fertilizers leads to increased yields. to cultivate scattered plots.
 Since food crops are sometimes  Plots are small and cannot allow
inter-planted with cash crops, the plantation farming to be practiced.
farmer earns some money from cash  Rapid population increase cannot
crops. fully be supported by small holder
 Soil erosion is controlled though crop farms.
rotation, mulching and agroforestry. –  Crops grown on smallholder farms
Through research and demonstration can easily be destroyed by natural
schemes, the farmer acquires disasters such as floods, locusts and
knowledge in crop improvement many others. This may lead to
famine.
 Soil may easily lose its fertility
because of repeated cultivation
without giving it time to rest

12.1.2. Cooperative farming and Plantation farming

a. Cooperative farming
This is a system of farming where farmers with similar interests pull their resources together
to increase production and benefits.
Characteristics of cooperative farming
 There is collective ownership of resources such as factories, stores, and means of
transport.
 Labour is provided by the members themselves. Only few technical personnel is
sometimes hired.
 Profits and losses are shared equally by members.
 Credit facilities are available to the members from the funds collected.
 The members are educated and informed about new developments from time to time.
 The farms are either scattered or consolidated into one big unit.
 Land ownership may be on collective basis.
 Marketing of the produce is done collectively.
Advantages and disadvantages of cooperative farming
Advantages Disadvantages
 Cooperative societies help farmers to  Cooperatives may hinder personal
procure all important inputs of initiatives. The group influences and
farming. may discourage hardworking and
 Cooperative farming enables farmers enterprising members.
to consolidate their small units of land  In most developing countries,
for better utilization. processing plants set up by
 A single and poor farmer cannot cooperatives often breakdown.
purchase the machinery but a  Some cooperative famers are unable
cooperative society can easily to compete effectively with the more
purchase various machines. dynamic businessmen involved in the
 Cooperative farming enables farmers marketing and processing of
to live in harmony. Whereby, it production.
creates the brotherhood and love for  Sometimes there is unfair behaviour

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 the members as they work for the of elected or salaried executives
common purpose. leading to lack of confidence of
 Belonging to the cooperative is a farmers towards leaders.
better position to get efficient  The farming operation especially
guidance and training that will crop growing depends on natural
contribute to the increase of factors.
production.

(b) Plantation farming

Plantation farming is a form of commercial agriculture where a single crop is grown on a
large area for profit. Countries that have plantation farming are those usually experiencing
high annual temperatures and receive high annual rainfall. It is very distinctive type of
agriculture which is practiced within the tropics especially in Africa, Asia and Latin America.
Among the most important crops found on plantations are coffee, tea, rubber, oil palm, cocoa,
sugarcane and wheat. Besides, fruits such as pineapples and bananas as well as fibers like
cotton, hemp, jute and sisal are examples of crops that can also be grown under plantational
agriculture.
Characteristics of plantation farming
 A huge labour force is required comprising of skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled
workers.
 A selected crop is grown on large estates covering thousands of hectares and run by a
large company or under government.
 Plantation farming requires heavy capital investment to purchase machinery and
establishment of infrastructure.
 Production is mainly for the market and not for the farmers’ consumption.
 There is specialization of labour.
Advantages and disadvantages of plantation farming
The following are advantages and disadvantages of plantation farming:
Advantages Disadvantages
 Plantation farming offers employment  The cost of setting up a plantation is
opportunities. Many people skilled very high. This discourages small
and unskilled labour are intensively farmers to establish estate farming.
employed.  The agricultural produce such as tea
 Plantation farming stimulates the and coffee are subject to price
development of industries especially fluctuations.
the agro-based industries because  The cultivation of one type of crop
they provide raw materials. (Monoculture) exhausts the soils
 Plantation farming leads to the hence, reducing their fertility and
development of infrastructures such therefore productivity.
as roads.  It is expensive because many people
 The country raises foreign exchange cannot manage.
when the crops are exported.  It can lead to famine because food
 It offers social services to the crop cultivation is neglected.
workers: e.g. medical care,
educational services, recreational
facilities, etc.
 It is a source of income to the

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 government through taxation.

12.1.3. Market gardening, Horticulture and Truck farming

a) Market gardening
A market garden is a form of farming that is relatively small-scale specializing in cultivation
of fruits, vegetables and flowers as cash crops, frequently sold directly to nearby consumers
and restaurants.
Most of market gardens are located near the cities or outside the city suburb areas. This
practice is best developed in densely populated industrial and urbanized countries such as the
Netherlands, U.S.A, Germany, Denmark, Belgium, Canada etc.

Characteristics of market gardening

 Farms are generally small.
 The land is intensively farmed, i.e., getting maximum yield from limited land.
 Vegetation may be grown on the field or under glass.
 Fertilizers and manures are applied to improve on the fertility of the soil.
 It is carried out mostly in urban and semi urban areas.
 The products are sold while still fresh to avoid risk of perishability.
Advantages and disadvantages of market gardening
The following are advantages and disadvantages of market gardening:
Advantages Disadvantages
 This farming practice provides large  It puts traditional farmers out of
profits to the producer, investors or business. Since intensive farming
the owners. allows the production of much greater
 It does not require large tract of land. volumes of fruit off a much smaller
 Farmers have more opportunities to area of land, traditional farmers are
obtain farming skills such as unable to compete.
application of fertilizers, controlling  Sometimes it is very harmful to the
pests, seed selection and irrigation environment due to the use of highly
and nursery management concentrated liquid fertilizers and a
 Under this farming, the Government lot of deadly chemicals.
gets much revenue from taxes.  It encourages use of marginal lands
 Market gardening creates near urban centres which promotes
employment opportunities since most environmental degradation and
of the activities are labour intensive. ecological problems.
 It develops infrastructure since its  Fluctuation in market prices of the
products are sold while still fresh to crops grown hence affecting the
avoid risk of perishability income of the farmers.

b) Horticulture
Horticulture may be broadly defined as the science and art of growing fruits, vegetables,
flowers and crops like spices, condiments and other plantation crops. The word Horticulture
is derived from the Latin word “Hortus” meaning enclosure (garden) and culture meaning
cultivation. Thus Horticulture means culture or cultivation of garden crops. The horticultural
activity involves planting and tending to planted ornamental and food plants.
Characteristics

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  Most of the work on the farm is done manually while machines are used in some
cases where farms are fairly large.
 Modern tools of crop production are used to ensure high yield.
 The farms are relatively small in terms of size and are located where there are good
transportation links with the urban centre where high income group of consumers is
located.
 The land is intensively used in order to obtain maximum produce.
 Irrigation is highly recommended in this farming.
 There is use of greenhouse and artificial heating in colder regions or seasons.
Advantages and disadvantages of horticulture
The following are advantages and disadvantages of horticulture:
Advantages Disadvantages
 The horticulture needs small plots and  Horticulture needs a lot of labour.
not huge plot of land.  The size and significance of the
 It brings immediate income to the horticultural sector is not always
farmers. supported in the farm community and
 Ability to transplant without waiting. by policy makers.
 The study of horticulture has led to  It cannot be applied on a larger scale
cross-bred species of plants that because its maintenance is not easy.
increase the nutritional value of the
fruits or vegetables the plant yields.
 It is environmental friendly because
of using less pesticides and
herbicides.
 It is easy to be managed and
controlled as it is practiced on small
plots.

(c) Truck farming

Truck farming is a horticultural practice of growing one or more vegetable crops on a large
scale for shipment to distant markets. It is usually less intensive and diversified than market
gardening. At first this type of farming depended entirely on local or regional markets. The
common crops grown include apples, asparagus, cabbages, Irish potatoes, string beans,
cherries, and lettuce. Truck farming is another term for market gardening.
Characteristics of truck farming
 It is basically been used when the agriculture field is not relatively close to the city
where the product has to be sold.
 It is basically used for the products like flowers, vegetables, fruits which have a risk
of being spoilt fast.
 This form of farming is used when the product is in accurate quantity and low weight
products like vegetables, fruits, milk etc.
Advantages and disadvantages of truck farming
Advantages of truck farming Disadvantages of truck farming
 Truck farming produce more fruit per  Risk of decay when trucks delay in
unit of land. the way due to traffic jam.
 It requires less resources and less  It puts traditional farmers out of

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 labour. business. This means that traditional
 Truck farming provides fresh fruits farmers are unable to compete with
and vegetable to consumers. truck farming that produce much
 It enable farmers to grow a variety of great volume of fruit and vegetable on
fruits and vegetable in the same plot smaller area of land.
 Trucks used in this farming are able  It is often mechanized hence less
to reach many potential client in jobs. Such rises the rate of
distant urban centers. unemployment.
 It is sometimes harmful to the
environment since there is use of
chemicals and fertilizers.

12.1.4. Collective agriculture and Commune farming

a) Collective agriculture
Collective farming is cooperative organization in which farmers joined together to
collectively grow crops on land worked in common. This form of farming is practiced in
communist countries such as Russia, Poland and Bulgaria. It involves the voluntary or
compulsory grouping of land into large units with the purpose of increasing productivity and
modernizing agriculture.
This form of farming was established by the government to reduce unequal distribution of
land which was a bottleneck to production. Three types of farm units thus, emerged in the
Russia. These are: Soviet Union Collective farms (Kolkhozes), State farms (Sovkhoze) and
small private plots.
Characteristics of collective farming
 Farms are merged to form a larger farm unit either voluntarily or compulsorily;
 The types of crops grown are specified;
 On the farms, there is a use of machines;
 Farms are managed communally or selected committees;
 The proceeds from the sale of farm produce are shared among the members;
 The marketing of the produce is under control of the state;
 Farmers are allowed to take some limited quantity of produce from their own crops
and livestock.
Advantages of collective farming Disadvantages of collective farming
 New techniques in farming are  The farming system did not take
learnt by peasant farmers (e.g. account the peasant’s aspirations.
irrigation, disease control) which  The central government took the
help to increase the production of bulk of the harvest at fixed prices
food and cash crops. far below the prevailing market
 The amalgamation of farms resulted prices.
into large-scale production and  Payment to farmers was very low
therefore increased output. and this contributed to the low
 Farmers receive income in return standards of living.
for the work they do, this has  The use of force provoked
increased their standards of living. uprisings among the peasants,
 The profit obtained depends on particularly the so -called women’s
individual skills, performance, the revolts in Ukraine.
nature of their work and the hours  Collectivization reduces the yield

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 they spent. because the collective farms were
 Collectivization allows the poorly run and managed by
diversification in farming and the inexperienced cadres.
economy.  Land owners that resisted giving up
 The opening of new lands has their land, even as little as two
greatly encouraged and promoted thirds of an acre, were often
the development of infrastructure executed.
such as roads, canals and railways.
 There has been easy provision of
social facilities such as hospitals,
transport facilities, water, electricity
etc.

b) Commune farming
A commune word literally means a large gathering of people sharing common life.
Communes were formed in the late 1950s as Chinese president named Mao tried to force
rural people to live a more communist way of life. The Chinese commune is not merely
an agricultural commune. Instead a standard for “unified management and deployment of
labour power and means of production on a larger scale” The structure of the commune
was such that households were organized into teams, then teams formed brigades, and
brigades formed the commune. Each level of organization was responsible for given
activities.
Characteristics of communes
 Land was collectively owned by the members of the commune.
 Work on the land was done collectively. All members worked together to plough the
land, plant, weed and harvest.
 Preparation of meals for the members of work-team was done in one place and
serving was by cafeteria method and kitchen utensils were owned collectively.
 Returns from the farm were shared equally by all members of the team.

Advantages and disadvantages of communes in China

Advantages Disadvantages
 Through this system, the Chinese  Governmental policies often are
have been able to increase implemented using forceful
agricultural output to feed the approach in all regions. These
larger population with the crops however, may not be suitable for
grown such as rice and wheat. every region.
 Under commune farms,  The system of farming
cooperation and teamwork discourages advanced forms of
among farmers are strongly farming since labour intensive
encouraged. – Communes are techniques are emphasized.
contributed to the growth of  The compulsory grouping of
urban centres such as Shanghai people into large units discourages
and Nanjing as each commune individual initiative
has its own headquarters. –  Decisions such as what to grow,
Under this system, industrial when to grow, how to grow and
development is taking place. where to grow are undertaken by

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  Any surplus produce from the central communities with so many
commune is exported and this people to consult.
earns the country foreign  Yields are sometimes affected by
exchange. harsh climatic conditions
 Communes help to have access especially drought during summer
to modern farming techniques, months and a severe frost during
conservation of the soil and winter.
economic use of land.
 Communes undertake research
to improve agricultural
production under the government
support.

12.2. Factors for increasing the agricultural production and problems affecting the
agriculture in the developing countries
12.2.1. Factors for increasing the agricultural production
Many factors act together to influence the productivity and profitable income from the
agriculture. These factors include some of the following:
 Relief: The farming system adopted depends on the relief of the area. So, relief may
influence the increase of agricultural production in different ways:
a. Lowlands, such as flood plains, are more productive agriculturally.
b. Steep slopes are obstacles to the machinery use and have thinner soils. On the other
hand, gentle slopes are less prone to soil erosion.
c. For some crops like Tea and coffee crops do well in the well-drained soil on hill
slopes, while rice and sugar do well in lowland areas.
 Soil: The type and characteristics of soil in a certain area determine the type of
farming to be practiced.
 Drainage: Market gardening and horticulture prefer swampy areas just because of the
presence of permanent water.
 Climate: Agriculture is highly dependent on climate.
 Capital: This is factor that supports all agricultural practices.
 Technology: Advanced in technology development play a big role in agriculture.
12.2.2. Problems affecting the agriculture in the developing countries
Here are some problems facing farmers in developing countries:
 Harsh climate
 Infertile soil
 Rugged relief
 Lack of information
 Limited capital
 Poor transport system
 Poor market
 Poor technology
 Limited research
 Rapid population growth
 Natural hazards

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  Political instability
12.3. Case studies of crop growing in selected countries
12.3.1. Sugarcane in South Africa and Rubber grown in Liberia
12.3.2. Coffee growing in Brazil and Cotton grown in Sudan
12.4. Livestock farming
12.4.1. Pastoralism
Livestock farming refers to the keeping/rearing of domestic animals such as cows, goats,
sheep and poultry (birds, donkeys). It is practiced for either commercial or subsistence
purposes and it takes several forms. The following are the major types of livestock farming:
nomadism, free range, transhumance, ranching, dairy farming, zero-grazing, aquaculture,
poultry farming, apiculture etc. Some of these are explained below:
Pastoralism is a system of farming where farmers move with their livestock grazing
especially cattle, goats and sheep to graze on natural. The movement of both people and
animals is dictated by the shortage of grass and water in the area. This form of farming is
divided into the following types:
(i) Pure nomadism
This is extensive form of animal grazing on natural pasturage, involving constant or seasonal
migration of the nomads and their animals in search of water and pastures. It is practiced in
West Africa among the Fulani, East Africa among the Maasai and Karamojongs, Ethiopia
among Nuba, the Touareg of Sahara and the Hottentos of Botswana, Mozambique and the
Republic of South Africa. It is also found in Saudi Arabia among the Bedouins, and Central
Asia among the Mongols.
Characteristics of nomadic pastoralism
 Nomadism depends primarily on animal rearing rather than crop growing for survive.
Nomads take milk from the animals for food and skins and hairs for clothing and tent.
 There is either seasonal pattern of movement or steady/regular movement in search
of grasses and water for reared animals.
 Extensive keeping of livestock all year round on a system of free-range grazing.
 It is practiced in the areas of low and unreliable rainfall which are typical dry season.
 Animals are kept for family subsistence and not for sale.
 The ownership of livestock is individual, but the land belongs to the tribe or
community.

Advantages of nomadic pastoralism Disadvantages of nomadic pastoralism

 It can be done in dry areas where  The animals produce little milk
there is no way to grow land. and low value that cannot satisfy
 It is cheap since there is no much large population.
attention required.  This system of farming requires a
 It offers an alternative form of lot of time to move from one
land use for otherwise place to another.
unproductive marginal lands.  This system of livestock keeping
 It ensures food for the family causes soil erosion and
especially when the animals are desertification.
many.  Many animals perish due to
 Some traditional varieties of shortage of veterinary services

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 animals are resistant to diseases
hence adaptability to any
environmental hardships

(ii) Free Range farming

Free range means a method of farming husbandry where the reared animals roam
freely outdoors, rather than being confined in an enclosure for 24 hours each day.
The purpose of this form of livestock farming is to achieve reduced feed costs,
produce higher-quality products. This method of raising animals is carried out on a
relatively large piece of land.
Characteristics of free range farming
 Animals roam freely for a period of the day.
 Animals reared under free-range are usually confined in sheds at night to
protect them from predators.
 Or kept indoors if the weather is particularly bad.
 Mostly grazed on natural pastures.

Advantages of free range farming Disadvantages of free range farming

 Free range farming provides organic  Basing on better conditions for free
and high-quality meat or products. range animals, they do tend to fetch
 Free range farming enables farmers high profits for the farmer.
to save money on commercial animal  There is a high risk from predators
feeds. since animals roam freely in the open-
 Meat of animals kept in free range air setting.
present a deep and pleasant flavour  Animals are probably exposed to the
because of good and healthy setting robbers since they are raised in
environment. remote areas.
 Animals kept in free range are stress  Free range animals require much
free compared to the caged animals attention because they may go beyond
that have higher chances of their place. For example, road,
developing stress and irrational neighbour’s plot etc.
behavior.
(iii) Transhumance
Transhumance is the practice of moving livestock from one grazing ground to another under
seasonal cycle. It involves two movements: The animals are grazed on pastures in the high
parts of the Mountains in warm seasons and lower altitudes the rest of the year.
Characteristics of transhumance
 Transhumance involves constant / seasonal migration of the nomads and their
livestock in search of pasture and water.
 Livestock are moved between mountain pastures in summer and lower areas for the
rest of the year.
 Herders have a permanent home: this means that only the herds and the people
necessary to tend them travel. The whole family lives in tents all the year round,
moving with the herd but with a permanent homestead in a specific area.
 Nomads mainly rely on natural vegetation for their pasture.
 Large number of herds is kept as a sign of pride or prestige.

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 Advantages of transhumance Disadvantages of transhumance
 There is manure deposition on  There is easy spread of diseases
farmers’ crop fields leading to the due to the seasonal movement of
increase of crop productivity. livestock.
 Availability of animals for  There is abusive cutting of trees.
purchase at low cost.  Damage to crop since little
 Availability of milk for farmers attention is given to the animals.
and promotion of local trade.  Increase in conflict between
livestock farmers and crops
farmers

12.4.2. Factory farming, dairy farming and ranching farming

a) Factory farming
The factory farming refers to the type of farming practice which involves keeping of animals
at high stocking densities and modern technology is used to facilitate faster animal growth,
lower illness and death rates, and higher production outputs.
Characteristics of factory farming
 Large numbers of animals are usually held together indoors in closed confined pens
and sheds.
 There are physical restraints to control unnecessary movement of animals.
 Under factory farming, huge amount of antibiotics and pesticides are used to fight
the spreading of diseases and bacteria.
 Factory farms are highly standardized for efficiency.
 Sigle type of animals is reared.
 Feed crops are created highly unified through gene manipulation to help increased
yielding to ensure consistent production every year.
Advantages of factory farm Disadvantages of factory farm
 It not expensive: With  It risks the occurrence of animal
introduction of factory farming, cruelty: Animals could fall could
the prices of food have be subjected to difficult and cruel
dramatically dropped. conditions.
 It is does not dependent much on  Animals in factory farms are also
human labour: Factory farming forced to feed on substances that
always uses modern technology. make them grow faster, get
 It allows for greater availability bigger, and/or become ready to
and variety: It has led to the reproduce earlier than what nature
creation of hybrid varieties of intended. This affects their natural
plant or and animals. growth.
 It has fewer geographic  It can lead to high animal death
limitations: With factory farms, rates: Because animals would be
farmers have greater access to exposed to difficult conditions,
water because of irrigation. they die sometimes because of
 It encourages technological stress, diseases and even heart
development: Since factory attack.
farming is dependent on modern  It can have a negative impact on
technology, it encourages the environment: The hundreds or
scientists and engineers to even thousands of animals in

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 improve existing tools and factory farms produce a large
equipment and even invent new amount of waste that the farms
machines that make food can’t handle.
production faster and more  It can produce low-quality food:
efficient. Since animals in factory farms are
kept in unsanitary conditions, they
develop illnesses that may not be
treated by antibiotics and pass
these on to the people who
consume products obtained from
them.

b) Ranching
Ranching is a modern form of pastoralism that aims at rearing of animals on a large
scale for commercial purpose in balance with the carrying capacity of the farm land.
Under ranching, a piece of land called a ranch is allocated and a limited number of
animals reared there. Ranching is more developed in United States of America, New
Zealand, Western Australia, Argentina, South Africa, Botswana, Zimbabwe, Zambia,
Kenya, Tanzania and Uganda.
Characteristics of cattle ranching
 Livestock ranching is the commercial grazing of livestock over an extensive
area which is associated with a very large land requirement, capital and
human resources.
 Ranches have a continuous vegetative cover such as alfalfa, Lucerne and
clovers.
 One type of animals is kept either for dairy or beef production. Therefore, the
choice of the animals is done very selectively.
 There is little or no movement from one area to another since animals are
confined in paddocks.
 Ranches are scientifically managed through selective breeding, use of hybrid
species, research and control of animal diseases.
 The animals are reared for sale (they are kept for commercial purposes).
Advantages of ranching Disadvantages of ranching
 The production is very high  Cattle ranching is a hard work
due to the high level of job and involves far more
specialization and improved responsibilities and levels of
quality animal breeds. skills.
 It has promoted the  A high capital investment is
development of villages and required to establish and
towns which act as maintain the ranches.
slaughtering, processing and  This type of farming is very
packing centres. limited in tropical areas
 It promotes industrial growth because of abundance of
through the establishment of diseases, insects and high
processing facilities. amount of temperature and
 The high yielding animals rainfall.
increase the income for the  Ranching practice promotes

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 farmers. overgrazing and deforestation.
 Livestock ranching promotes Such contributes to global
development of warming.
infrastructure, for example  This practice requires fencing
roads which link the ranching to keep animals in the ranch
areas and marketing areas. and out of arable areas. This
increases the expenses.

c) Dairy farming
Dairying farming is the specialized rearing of cattle to produce milk and other products like
cheese, butter and cream. Milk is a perfect food, as it has the major nutrients. Several milk
products are consumed by people all over the world. Cheese ranks high in protein and it is a
substitute of meat, while butter is like fat, supplying the deficiency of starchy foods. Dairying
is the most dominant animal-based industry.
Characteristics of dairy farming
 Dairy farming aims at raising cattle to produce milk.
 Dairying on commercial basis has developed in humid temperate regions, because
cool temperate climate is ideal for cow-rearing.
 Capital intensive techniques of production are used.
 Selected cattle breeds which yield a lot of milk are raised. Example, Jersey,
Ayrshire, Alderney and the Friesian breeds.
 Rich and nutritious grasses are planted to supplement the natural pastures to feed the
animals.
Advantages of dairy farming Disadvantages of dairy farming
herding
 Scientific management ensures  Dairy farming is very expensive
high yields per cow, averaging in terms of vaccination and
5,000 litres of milk per cow per feeding.
year.  It has a negative impact on
 It leads to maximum utilization of environment since livestock are
land as the practice does not regularly injected antibiotic.
require much space.  There is loss of local breed due to
 Export of products earns foreign the crossbreeding. In addition, the
exchange. Hence farmers enjoy a loss of their special genetic traits
happy and healthier living that enable indigenous breeds to
standard. adapt to any environmental
 Continuous production ensures a conditions.
high and steady income for the  Cattle in dairy farming always
farmer need food and water, as well as
clean stalls and medicine if sick.
There is additional care related to
milking and birthing calves and
makes the whole work tiresome.

12.5. Factors and problems affecting the livestock farming and ways of
improving the livestock farming
12.5.1. Factors affecting livestock farming

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 The following are the main factors influencing livestock farming:
 Topography
 The main determinant elements of climate are the following
 Moisture
 Soil
 Land Tenancy
 System of ownership
 Labour
 Capital
 Mechanization and Equipment
12.5.2. Problems facing livestock farming
The following are some of problems affecting livestock farming:
 Limited rainfall
 Population pressure
 Shortage of water
 Disease and pest infection
 Institutional problems
 Limited capital
 Many cattle keepers are less knowledgeable
 Most potential grazing areas within the tropics are remote
12.5.3. Ways to improve livestock farming
Livestock can be improved through the following ways:
 Settling the nomads
 Empowering animal keepers through education
 Government support
 Adoption of modern livestock farming methods
 Provision of livestock healthcare
 Encouraging tree planting on pasture land
 Adequate livestock feeds and nutrition
 Introduction of crossbreeding
12.6. Case studies of livestock farming in selected countries
12.6.1. Ranching in Botswana
12.6.2. Dairy farming in Holland
12.6.3. Sheep rearing in Australia
End unit task
Read the passage below and answer the questions that follow. The university of Lincoln is
physically located in the center of the United Kingdom’s agri-business industry. Recently, 25
students had an internship in relation to farm experience in different African countries. In
Gabon, they found farmers burning forests as a way of preparing land for crop growing, in
Kenya farmers grow tea for sale and livestock farmers in the North of Kenya keep large
number of local cattle in an open land where they always move while in Rwanda, most cows
remain inside the stall.
1. Describe the type of crop farming practiced in Gabon.
2. How does the practice mentioned in (1) above affect the environment?

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 3. Analyze the economic importance of crop cultivation cited in Kenya.
4. The above livestock farming mentioned in Kenya faces many problems. Suggest
possible solutions.
5. Pastoralism affects the environment in different ways. Suggest measures to
prevent overstocking and overgrazing in areas of pastoralism.

UNIT 13: FORESTRY IN THE WORLD

A forest is a continuous growth of trees and under growths covering a large tract of the land.
Forestry is the science of developing and managing forests including cultivating them.
Note: Forests are estimated to have covered about 60 total earth’s surface but the area that
was under forests in 2009 was estimated to be less than 25% of the total surface area of the
earth excluding Greenland and the Antarctica continent.
Major forest types of the world and their characteristics
Forest differs according to the species of tree found in them and other general characteristics.
These differences are mainly brought about by variation in climate.
Tropical rainforest, Tropical monsoon forests, Mediterranean forest, Temperate
deciduous forest, Coniferous forests, and Mixed Forests.
13.1: Importance of forest exploitation and problems affecting lumbering
13.1.1. Products from lumbering
There are products or resources obtained from forests and are later used to produce other
products. Such products include those that fall under lumbering products or products from
lumbering. The following are the major products made from lumbering:
Name of the product from lumbering
Timber: This product is extracted from the logs of trees cut from the forests. It is used to
make a wide variety of items for consumption.
Poles: These are averagely sized logs that are extracted from the trees. The tree branches are
trimmed off and logs taken for treatment. They are used as electric poles, telecommunication
poles and enclosing structures among others.
Wood fuel pallets: They are formed from compressed sawdust of the lumbering sawmills or
the waste materials from lumbering. They are used in a similar way as charcoal,
Fuel wood: The big parts of the trees or remains of logs are spilt into pieces of reasonable
size. These small chucks of wood are thereafter used as fuel wood.
Particle board: This is a wooden board made from wood chips, sawmills shavings, sawdust
etc., that are bonded together with the use of suitable binder such as synthetic resin. They are
then compressed with a machine to make a particle board.
Sawn wood: This is wood got from sawing of logs using sawing machines. The barks of logs
are removed, and the logs cut into varying length and shapes. Usually, sawn wood is
extracted from logs to form products that indicates rectangular timber sections and solid
timber beams.
Oriental strand boards: This is one of the products from lumbering also known as flake
board. It is formed by getting wood flakes, mixing them with adhesives and getting them
heavily compressed using machines. These are used in construction.

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Ply wood: These are products obtained from gluing together very thin sheets of wood known
as veneer.
Fibreboards: This is a lumber product made from wood fibres. Wood fibres are obtained
from breaking down hardwood or softwood remains using the defibrator. The wood fibres
processed are further mixed up with resin binder and wax. The mixture is therefore subjected
to intense temperature and great pressure to form panels.
Veneer: This a product got from lumber, where a thin slice of wood (thinner than 3mm) is
peeled from the timber. It is used to make flat panels such as doors.
13.1.2: Importance of forest exploitation in the world
Below is a detailed explanation of the importance of forest exploitation in the World:
 Source of raw materials
 Provision of building materials
 Source of wood fuel
 Source of foreign exchange
 Creation of employment opportunities
 Urban development
 Homeland for flora and fauna
 Recreation
 Source of food
13.1.3: Problems limiting forest exploitation
The lumbering activity is the main activities that foster for exploitation of the forested areas.
However, there are various problems affecting lumbering as mentioned below:
 Inaccessibility of some forested areas
 Trees do not appear in pure stands
 Long gestation period
 Harsh climatic conditions
 Shortage of enough market
 Limited adequate capital
 Political upheavals
 Limited research
 The bulky hardwood
 Stiff competition
 Poor technology used
 Shortage of labour supply
 The existence of buttress roots
 Fire outbreak
13.2: Methods of forest exploitation/lumbering and forest conservation measures
13.2.1: Methods of forest exploitation
The methods of forest exploitation involve the ways of utilizing the forest resources but in a
sustainable way; and at the same time ensuring that sustainable forest management is
practiced, making sure that there is continuous utilization of forests.
I. Preparation: the first stage is to survey the area to be exploited. It is important to
find out where the best stands of timber are, or where the most valuable trees are
most numerous, so that the best parts of the forest can be used.

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 II. Felling: This is the second step in the lumbering process or forest exploitation for
lumber. It involves cutting down trees by the lumbermen. Therefore, the selected and
marked trees in step on are cut down. This means that only the marked trees are felled
down, leaving the young ones to grow to maturity.
III. Bucking: This is the third stage in the forest exploitation/lumbering. It involves
cutting a felled and lumbered tree into logs of varying lengths. This is carried out to
facilitate the easy transportation of logs to the collection centres and at the same time
to make it easy to extract lumber from them. The branches of felled tree are trimmed
off. The parts of the tree that are cracked or not straight are chopped off too.
IV. Yarding or dragging: This is the fourth stage of the lumbering process. It involves
removing logs or the trimmed trunks from the inner part of the forest to the collecting
centres ready for transportation to the extraction points (sawmill areas) also called
booming ground. Sometimes these logs are dragged to the banks of rivers where they
are dropped into the river to float to the collection centres.
V. Loading process: This stage involves loading the logs onto the heavy trucks to be
transported to the booming centers. At the booming place lumber and other assorted
lumber products are extracted from the logs.
VI. Barging: This process involves taking logs to the booming grounds using heavy
trucks. It is commonly practiced using water transport where logs are floated on
watertowards the collection centres. The logs of less density are the ones that float on
water and flow downstream up to the collection points.
VII. Booming ground (Extraction of lumber/other products): This is the final stage
that involves the extraction of lumber and other products from the logs. Here, heavy
and high technology are used. Machines are used to extract lumber from the logs. The
varying products produced are then packed and readied for marketing or export.

13.2.2: Forest conservation measures

Forest conservation refers to all the ways and processes of protecting, managing and
ensuring the sustainable utilisation of forests and their resources.
The following are some of the appropriate measures for forest conservation:
 Mass education
 Reforestation
 Putting strict laws in place
 Forest reserves
 Increased licensing fee
 Intensive research
 Forest products substitutes
 Agro-forestry programs
 Training the Forest officers
 Construction of look-out towers
13.3: Forestry studies in selected countries
13.3.1: Forestry in Gabon
13.3.2: Forestry industry in Scandinavia
13.3.3: Forestry in British Columbia

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Application activity
1. For either Gabon or British Columbia, give a brief description of the state of forestry
in the country.
2. Examine the factors that have favoured the development of the forestry industry in
the Scandinavian region.
End unit task
1. Suppose you are staying near a forested area:
a. Using local examples show how you and your community would benefit from the
forest. b. Assess the impact of forests and forest exploitation on sustainable
development.
2. As a student who has studied and understood the topic of forestry, draw a program that
can enable your community to utilize the forest resources in a sustainable manner.

UNIT 14: FISHING IN THE WORLD

14.1.1. The seven major fishing grounds in the world
Although fish can be caught in seas and fresh waters in any part of the world the world’s
major fishing ground are located in the cool waters of the Northern hemisphere with only the
coast of Peru in the Southern hemisphere.
Therefore, the major fishing grounds include:
 North East Atlantic: This region extends from Iceland to the Mediterranean shores. It
is dominated by European countries which include Norway, Denmark, Spain,
Iceland, United of Kingdom and France.
 North West Atlantic: This region starts from new found land and New England
states. It includes countries like Canada and United State of America.
 North East Pacific: This includes the sea adjoining the Western shores of North
America from Alaska to California.
 North West Pacific: This starts from the Bering sea to the East China sea. It includes
countries like Russia and Japan.
 South East Pacific: The South-East Pacific region spans the entire length of the
Pacific coast of South America from Panama to Cape Horn. This region is located
along the Western coastal areas of South America.
 South West African coasts: This covers the Namibian coast on the western coast and
Cape Province in South Africa. The countries found here include South Africa,
Angola, Namibia and the islands that belong to Argentina.
 North West Africa: This fishing ground covers the coast of Mauritanian up to
Morocco in northwest Africa where it is washed by canary current.
14.2 Methods used in fishing and types of fish
b. Methods used in fishing: There are several methods of fishing:
 Using fishnets, Spearing
 Using baskets, Drifting
 Trawling, Seining, Lining

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a) Using nets: This is a location method which involves a net attacked to a string. This net is
put in water and when fish enters it is caught.
b) Spearing: This involves use of a sharp pointed metal, which is used to pierce fish in water
and then removed.
c) Use of baskets: They are conical shaped baskets made from papyrus vegetation. It has one
end where the fish enters and kept there.
d) Drifting: This is the use of drift nets which hang vertically in the sea. They are filled with
floats on the upper edge and weighs below. The first is caught by their gills in the mesh
making them unable to move either backward or forward.
e) Trawling: A trawl net is a bag shaped net whose mouth is kept open by other boards. Its
mouth has floats at the top and weighs at the bottom.
The net is made stronger at the cod and in which fish are caught. Seining: Sein nets have
features similar to trawl nets with a narrow conical end and wings of netting.
F) Lining: This method is now less popular than before because of the introduction of nets.
However, is used where the sea floor is rugged.
c. Types of fish
There are two kinds of fish species: Salt water fish, fresh water fish.
Salt water fish: are those fish which spend their entire time in the oceans and seas. There are
basically two types of Salt water fish: Pelagic fish and demersal fish
Pelagic fish is a type of salt water fish which lives at or near the surface of the seas and
oceans. Examples include herrings and sardines. Demersal fish: these lives at the bottom of
seas and oceans. An example is cod.
Fresh water fish:
This is a type of fish that are found in fresh water like fishing ponds, rivers in land lakes.
Examples include Tilapia, Nile perch and catfish.
14.3: Factors influencing the development of fishing
Physical factors influencing the development of fishing
The following are the key physical factors affecting fishing in the world:
 Availability of enough plankton
 The presence of extensive and shallow continental shelf
 The nature of the coast line
 Off-shore islands
 The cool climatic conditions
 The presence of various rivers
 Poor soils
 The presence of vast forested areas
 The nature of ocean currents
Human factors influencing the development of fishing
The following are the key human factors affecting fishing in the world:
 Availability of adequate capital
 Availability and accessibility of adequate labour force
 Availability of enough market
 The presence of better forms of transport and communication
 Supportive government policies

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  Political stability/improved security
 Modern storage facilities
 Level of research
 Availability of the required technology
 The existence of several ports
 The presence of fish cooperative organizations or societies
14.4. Importance of fish and fishing
Fishing is one of the oldest occupation of mankind, with increasing human numbers, more
efficient methods are being employed to exploit fish and fishing is becoming increasing
important in the following ways:
 Provision of foreign currency
 Facilitation of infrastructural development
 Urbanization
 Generation of employment opportunities
 Supportof economic diversification
 Sustainable utilization of resources
 Development of industries
 Provision of markets for other products
 Research and study
 Promotion of better international relations
 Acquisition of skills
 Source of proteins
 Medicinal contribution
14.5. Problems affecting marine fisheries and Solutions
Activity: Discuss the problems and solutions affecting marine fisheries
14.6: Future prospects and problems of inland fisheries
14.6.1: Problems affecting inland fisheries of the world
The following are some of the problems influencing inland fisheries of the world:
 Nature of African coasts which are extremely straight and which lack indentations
that may provide good shelters for young fish.
 Small continental shelves that do not allow the penetration of in-light water for the
multiplication of plankton.
 High temperatures which make water warm, leading to the development of fish
species that are too oily and unpalatable.
 Poor methods of fishing and poor fishing vessels that lead to over fishing and reduce
the production and investment.
 Lack of capital to invest in fishing activities. This has resulted in the production for
subsistence.
 Low levels of education, some people don’t know the importance of fish in their diet.
This is further influenced by traditional values and norms that prohibit some groups
of people from eating fish.
 Some of the inland water bodies are so deep at the point that sunlight cannot reach
the bottom of the lake. This has affected fishing operations and contributed to low
quantity of fishes.

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  The use of non-discriminative fishing methods results in over fishing, thus causing
the exhaustion of fish in the water bodies.
 The inland water bodies are becoming dumping places for wastes from industries
and domestic establishments.
 There are limited commercial fish species in most of the inland water bodies. This
has become the hindering block to the supply of specific fish species from inland
water bodies.
 There is a challenge of inadequate capital required to facilitate the fishing operations.
This has contributed to the absence of integration of advanced technology in fishing
and use of skilled labour.
 The inland fisheries are affected by lack of enough modern fish preservation
facilities which influenced the inland fisheries to remain subsistence in nature. – Poor
and less developed forms of transport of fish and fish products from remote areas
which are naturally endowed with fish in abundant levels have limited the access to
the markets.
14.6.2: Future prospects of inland fisheries
Below is a detailed explanation of the future prospects of inland fisheries:
 Formation of co-operatives
 Ban on indiscriminate fishing
 Restocking overfished waters
 Construction of cold storage facilities
 Establishment of research centers
 The countries engaged in fishing should consider enacting strict laws
 New agencies responsible for addressing challenges affecting inland fisheries
should be put in place.
 The water bodies whose fish are threatened by depletion should be protected and
a specific period should be fixed to allow the fish to multiply.
 Massive and general infrastructural development should be given a point of
attention.
14.7: Fish conservation and preservation
14.7.1: Fish conservation
The term fish conservation stands for all ways used to protect fish in the fishing grounds to
avoid their depletion. This ensures that there is sustainable production of fish and fish-
products. There are numerous ways of fish conservation and the following are among them:
 Use of modern fishing methods
 Re-stocking the fishing grounds
 Cross-breeding
 Use of recommendable fishing gear
 Artificial hatching of fish
 Mass education
 Regulated fishing stages
 Provision of plankton artificially
 Enacting strict rules and regulations
 Relocation of predators

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  Harsh punishments against pollution
14.7.2. Fish preservation
The term fish preservation refers to all ways that enable fish and fish-products to be stored for
a prolonged period before being taken to the market or consumed. As fish is perishable, it
needs to be preserved as soon as it is caught to increase its storage life. Below are outlined
methods of fish preservation.
 Salting
 Smoking
 Deep frying
 Sun drying
 Refrigeration
 Fish canning
14.8: Case studies of fishing in selected countries
1. Activity: Describe the geographical location of each country
2. Activity: Discuss the factors influencing the development of fishing industry in each
country
14.8.1: Norway (North East Atlantic)
14.8.2: Japan (North West Pacific)
14.8.3: Peru (South East Pacific)
14.8.4: Morocco (West Africa)
14.8.5: South Africa (South East Atlantic)
End unit task
1. Examine the impact of fishing on the sustainable development of any country of your
choice.
2. For either Norway or South African, assess the influence of physical factors to the
development of the fishing sector.
3. Discuss the economic implication of the fishing sector in the developing world.

UNIT 15: MINING

This refers to all the processed where by minerals are obtained from the earth. It includes
excavation of rocks and ores found near the earth surface, during of tunnels horizontally into
the hill sides and the sinking of vertical shaft as well as the recovery of minerals under water
grounds. Unlike agriculture, fishing and forestry, mining is a robber industry because
minerals once exploited cannot be replaced unless new ores deposits one discovered.
15.1: World distribution of major minerals
The table below shows the minerals, their uses and where they are found.
Mineral Location Major uses
Petroleum Russia, USA, Iran, Iraq, It provides fuel for heat and
Venezuela, Nigeria, China, light, lubricants for
Libya, Kuwait, UAE, machinery and raw materials
Indonesia, Algeria, Mexico for a number of
and UK. manufacturing industries.
Coal USA is the world leading Used in generation of

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 producer of coal (25%) electricity Steel production
Russia follows with (20%), Used in cement
China (19%), Poland (8%), manufacturing Used as a
U.K. (5%), India (4%), West liquid fuel
Germany (4%), South Africa
(3.5%) and Australia (3%)
Iron ore Accordingly, iron This is produced in many The uses of Iron ore include
content can be divided into: countries, but the most the following: Iron ore is
Magnetite-Iron content is important ones are Brazil, mainly used in the
up to 72.4% Hematite: Iron Russia, Australia, U.S.A, manufacturing of steel, used
content is up 70%. China, India, South Africa, in the making of
Limonite: Iron content is Canada, Ukraine, Sweden, automobiles, locomotives,
up 60%. Siderite: Iron Liberia, and France. ships and beams (used in
content is up 48%. buildings, furniture among
others).
Copper USA,Russia, Chile, It is used in the engineering
Democratic Republic of industry; in manufacturing
Congo (DRC),South Africa, ornaments; weapons and
Canada, Indonesia, coins.
Canada,Poland,
China,Mexico, Zambia.
Aluminium Jamaica,USA, Australia, It is used in the making of
Brazil. cooking utensils, It forms
part of the raw materials used
in the manufacturing of ships
and wagon, It is used in
industries especially food
processing equipment.
Tin China,Malaysia, Indonesia, It is used in making plates;
Thailand food cans (nonrust quality);
an alloy with other metals
/Roofing/ utensils,
/ornaments and petrol tanks;
making the packaging
materials/ products.
Lead Peru, Russia, Australia, It is used in the production of
Mexico. metals; solder bearings and
castings; roofing materials;
chemicals;construction
materials.
Zinc Canada, USA, Australia, It is used in Galvanizing iron
Russia, Peru, Japan. and steel, Manufacturing cars
and Machine parts.
Manganese Congo(DRC),India, It is used: As a cleaning
Ghana,South Africa, Russia. agent in steel works. In
making railway lines, In
making rock crushers In the
construction of steel.
Nickel Canada, Cuba, USA, It is used in manufacturing
Australia. machine spare parts, coins.

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Diamond DRC, South Africa, It is used in making cutting
Ghana,Namibia, Brazil. tools and pyramidal gems.
Uranium Australia,South It is used in: Energy
Africa,Canada, Gabon, producing factories.
France
Gold South Africa, USA,Canada, It is used in the making of
Ghana,Mexico, Philippines precious jewellery
It is used as a medium of
exchange in trade in many
countries, store of wealth.

15.2: Methods of mining

These methods depend greatly on the mode of occurrence of the mineral ore, of the value of
the mineral, and the size of deposit. The most common mining methods include the
following:
15.2.1. Opencast or open pit mining
Open cast method can be carried out in two ways: Stripping and hill slope boring
15.2.2. Underground mining
The following are the different underground mining methods:
i. Drift or Adit method: This is whereby the minerals are extracted from the sides of a
hill or a valley.
(ii) Shaft method: This is used to extract minerals found in deep or very steep inclined
seams. Vertical shafts are sunk underground.
(iii) Solution method: This is done from the surface of the earth. Shafts are sunk down
into the mineral deposits. Pipes are installed to link the deposits.
(iv) Drilling method: This method is used in the extraction of non-sold minerals such as
oil and natural gas from the ground.
15.2.3. Alluvial mining
The following are the main alluvial mining methods:
(i) Placer mining: This method is used in cases, where the original bearing rock is broken
down by natural processes and it is transported and redeposited by running water.
(ii) Panning: It involves mixing water with mineral bearing deposits scooped from riverbeds.
The mixture is then lifted into a pan.
(iii) Dredging: In this method expensive equipment referred to as a dredger is used to dig out
the alluvium.
15.3: Factors affecting mineral exploitation.
The factors that influence or affect the mineral exploitation include the following:
 The value of the mineral
 Size of deposits
 Grade of the ore
 Transport costs
 Mode of occurrence of minerals
 Labour
 Capital
 Markets

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  Technology
 Political climate
 Government policy
15.4: The effects of mining to the economies of the world

The mining sector contributes a lot to the socio-economic development of countries. Some of
the contributions are positive while others are negative. Below is a detailed explanation of the
effects of mining to the economies of the world:
15.4.1: Positive effects of mining to the economies of the world
The mining industry has had an influence on the economy in a number of ways, which may
be summarized as follows:
 Employment opportunities: There are thousands of people employed by the sector of
mining either directly or indirectly. These have had their lives improved because of
the salaries they receive.
 Development of transport and communication facilities: Mining has influenced the
establishment of varying forms of transport and communication infrastructures. There
are feeder roads and all whether roads radiating from mining centers to ports and
urban centers. These are also used by other economic sectors such as trading, fishing,
agriculture and Industrialization. For example, the Tazara railway line was
constructed because of copper mining in Zambian copper, St. Lawrence sea way was
developed because of supporting the mining of salt, iron ore, limestone, lead, Zinc
e.tc.
 Source of revenue: The companies that are involved in mining sector, pay taxes to the
government.
 Source of foreign exchange: Mining sector contributes a lot to the earning of foreign
exchange to the countries. Minerals are exported to other countries and such has
enabled them to have huge sums of foreign currencies.
 Urbanization of many areas: Mining operations have encouraged the growth and
development of the urban centers.
 Growth and development of industries: Mining has led to the development of large
manufacturing industries.
 Diversification of the economy: Mining has assisted the countries to have another
alternative economic activity. This implies that the countries are able not to depend on
few economic activities. This means that, on top of other economic sectors such as
agriculture, fishing, industrialization and tourism, the country can utilize the mining
sector too. This is helpful to the economic growth because when one economic sector
fails, at least mining or any other sector can support the economy.
 Improved international relations: The exporting and importing countries always tend
to have a friendly relationship. This means that as one provides mineral ores another
provides market. This interdependence results into having political allies that can
support one another times of crisis.
 Improved standards of living: People earn income in form of wages and salaries
which is used to better and improve their way of living, such as sleeping well,

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 dressing, good shelter, acquisition of education for their children and meeting the
domestic demands such as food, medical treatment among others.
 Acquisition of skills: The people employed by the mining sector, learn a lot of skills
through the staff development trainings.
 Exploitation of other resources such as generation of HEP: Mining has influenced the
tapping of other resources such as using of water falls in power generation such as
Hydro-electric power. This so because of the high need for power in running of the
heavy machines.
 Tourist attraction: The mining operations and installations entice many people from
various parts of world. develops tourism which is one of the sources of foreign
exchange.

15.4.2: The negative effects of mining to the economic development of the countries of
the world
Mining industry has played a positive role in the economic development of the world.
However, it may contribute negatively to the economic development in several ways. The
following are some negative effects of mining on the economic development in many
ways:
 Mining has become the chief cause of pollution in many countries of the world. This is
because of the impurities, fumes from the equipment used and by products associated
with mining operations. Both air, water, land and noise pollution are evident. This has
resulted into serious global warming as a result of environmental degradation.
 The mining sector has made some of the resources to be depleted in areas where it
has taken place for many years. The exhaustion of minerals leaves a handful of
workers unemployed. Such bring a challenge to the government and increases
overdependence ratio.
 There are sometimes great losses incurred by the mining companies. This because
some minerals are of low demand. Such reduces the investment base of the people.
 The prices of minerals are determined by the forces of demand and supply.
Therefore, the fluctuation of prices makes it hard for the economic planners to have a
reliable policy designing system that is workable and functional.
 Mining has become one of the attractive sectors that employ thousands of people.
This has however, left other economic sectors with reduced productivity. Therefore,
leaving mining as a chief supporter of economic development.
 The land suitable for agriculture is wasted or removed when mining is taking place
using Open cast. This has left some areas faced with shortage of food.
 There is increased environmental degradation caused by the high demand for timber
which is used in the mining sector.
 There is increased government expenditure as it tries to address the challenges caused
by the mining sector. Such as rehabilitating depleted areas and filling up the deep pits
left behind by the mining companies..
 Most of the mining sectors are owned and managed by foreign companies. These have
always repatriated the profits and leaving little for reinvestment in the country.

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  Urbanization has partly come into existence because of mining operations in some
areas. This has come along with slum developed, organized crime, and other ill-
effects. All these put together affect the development of the economy.

15.5. Case studies of mining in selected countries

15.5.1: Mining in the United States of America
15.5.2: Mining in Russia
15.5.3: Mining in China
15.5.5: Mining in Nigeria
15.5.6: Mining in South Africa
15.4.7. Mining in Zambia
Activity
Using the geographical documents, text books and internet research on the following:
1. Describe the mining activities taking place in USA, RUSSIA and Middle East.
2. Examine the factors that have favoured the development and growth of mining sector in
China and Nigeria.
3. Assess the contribution of mining sector to the socio-economic development of South
Africa and Zambia
End of Unit task
1. Assess the impact of mining on the environment.
2. Suppose you were living in the area where this photograph was taken, explain the
challenges you are more likely to face.
3. Create a program which aims at addressing the negative impact of mining on the physical
environment.
4. Identify and explain the environmental concerns associated with mining.

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