MAGNETISM

A magnet is a object that attracts certain other materials which are made from magnetic materials.

PROPERTIES OF MAGNETS.

1. Magnets only attract strongly certain materials such as iron, steel, nickel, cobalt which are called ferro-
magnetics.
2. Magnets have north and south poles.
These are places in a magnet to which magnetic materials are attracted. They are near the ends of a bar magnet and
occur in pairs of equal strength.
Note: There can never be a one pole existing on its own (monopole), if a magnet is cut into small pieces each piece
will have its own South and North pole.

Illustration: Poles of a bar magnet

3. If a magnet is supported so that it can swing in a horizontal plane it comes to rest with one pole, the north-
seeking pole or North (N) pole pointing roughly towards the Earth’s north pole, a south-seeking pole or
South (S) pole pointing towards the Earth’s south pole. A magnet can therefore be used as a compass.

Illustration: South an d North poles

4. If the N pole of a magnet is brought near the N pole of a

suspended magnet repulsion occurs i.e. the suspended magnet
moves away. The two south poles also repel. By contrast, N
and S poles always attract. The law of magnetic poles
summarises these facts and states that:

Note: A magnetic material is attracted to both South and North poles of a

magnet by inducing an opposite pole on the near end of the magnetic
material. This means attraction cannot be used to determine whether an
object is a magnet or not. The only reliable test for a magnet is
REPULSION since similar poles would repel each other.

Like poles repel and unlike poles attract

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 Magnetic and Non-magnetic materials

A magnetic material is one which can be magnetized and is attracted to magnets. All strongly magnetic materials
contain iron, nickel, or cobalt. For example, steel is mainly iron.
Strongly magnetic metals like these are called ferromagnetics. They are descried as hard or soft depending on how
well they keep their magnetism when magnetized.

Hard magnetic materials such as steel and alloys called Alcomax and Magnadur are difficult to magnetize but do
not readily lose their magnetism. They are used for permanent magnets.

Soft magnetic materials such as iron and Mumetal are relatively easy to magnetize but their magnetism is temporal.
They are used in the cores of electromagnets and transformers because their magnetic effect can be switched o or off
or reversed easily.

Illustration: Hard and soft magnetic material

In the above diagrams it shows that iron is a soft magnetic material while steel is a hard magnetic material.
Non- magnetic materials can not be magnetized unlike magnetic materials. These include metals such as copper,
brass, zinc, tin and aluminium.
MAGNETIC PROPERTIES OF IRON AND STEEL
Procedure:
A strip of iron and a strip of steel of the same dimensions, both initially unmagnetised are placed side by side in
contact with a pole of a magnet as shown below.

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Observations:
Both strips become magnetized by induction, and on dipping their free ends into iron filings it is noticed that slightly
more cling to the iron than steel. If both strips are held firmly in the fingers while the magnet is removed it is noticed
that practically all the iron filings fall from the iron strip while few fall from steel strip.

Conclusion:
Iron is a soft magnetic material while steel is a hard magnetic material.
INDUCED MAGNETISM

Materials like iron and steel are attracted to a magnet because they themselves become magnetized when a magnet is
nearby. The magnet induces some magnetism in them. The induced pole nearest the magnet is opposite of the pole
of the magnet.

Induced magnetism can be used to from a ‘magnetic chain’ as shown below.

Illustration: Induced magnetism

DOMAIN THEORY OF MAGNETISM

The domain theory of magnetism regards each individual atom or molecule of a magnetic material as a small magnet
with north and south pole, i.e. as a dipole. A close group of atoms (domain) may have the magnetic axis in the same
direction (fig. a). Given that the heads of the arrows represent the north poles, the net effect of the domain is
represented by a single arrow. In an unmagnetism specimen the axes in the domains lie in closed chains, or pointing
in random directions thereby canceling out or giving very small net magnetism (fig. b). When all the domains are
aligned in one direction the specimen is magnetized with the poles near the end (fig. c).

Illustration: Domain theory of magnetism

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MAGNETIC SATURATION

Not all the dipoles and or domains of a magnetic material can be aligned in one direction. This means there is a
maximum aligned of domains and or dipoles of a magnetic material. When no further alignment of dipoles is
possible the material is said to be magnetically saturated.

Methods of Magnetization

There are two methods of magnetization which are the electrical and stroking methods.

a)Electrical method
The best method of making a magnet is to use the magnetic effect of an
electric current.

Procedure: A steel bar is put inside a solenoid (a cylindrical conducting

coil wound with 500 or more turns of insulated copper wire is
connected in series with a 6 or 12 V electrical battery and switched
on as shown below). A short but very large pulse of electric current
through the solenoid produces a strong magnetic field. This
magnetizes the steel bar by aligning the magnetic dipoles in the iron
core.

A rule for poles: The RIGHT- HAND RULE

The polarity of the magnet depends on the direction of flow of the

electrical current. This is determined by the right–hand rule. It states
that if the fingers of the right-hand grip the solenoid in the direction of the current (convectional-flows from positive
to negative terminal) the THUMB points to the North pole.
Illustration: The Right-Hand rule

b)Stroking method
Two methods can be used;

i)Single touch: in this method, a (steel) bar is stroked from one end to end several times in the same direction with
one pole of a magnet Between successive strokes the pole is lifted high above the bar, otherwise magnetism already
induced in it will tend to be weakened.

The disadvantage of the above method is that it produces magnets in

which one pole is nearer the end of the bar than the other.

ii)Divided touch is better than single touch. In this method the

(steel) bar is stroked from the centre outwards with unlike poles of
two magnets simultaneously as below.

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 NB: The polarity produced at that end of the bar (for both methods)
where the stroking finishes is opposite kind to that of the stroking pole.

DEMAGNETIZATION

Anything which tends to disarrange the parallel magnetic dipoles in a

magnet will reduce its magnetism.
 Storing a magnet without keepers will weaken its magnetism
over a period of time.
 Heating a magnet to a high temperature causes greatly increased
vibrations of its atoms which will totally destroy any magnetization of the material.
 Dropping and knocking magnets can disarrange tiny magnetic dipoles.
 An alternating current in an electromagnet can be used to demagnetize magnets. The change in direction of
current disorganizes the dipoles and domains.

MAGNETIC FIELDS

The space surrounding a magnet where it produces a magnetic force is called a magnetic field, and contains
something we call magnetic flux.

Magnetic flux is a vector quantity and, like all vectors, has magnitude and direction. It may be represented by
magnetic filed lines.

Direction of Magnetic Filed Lines

The direction of the field at any point should be the direction of the force on a N pole and it can be determined by;

a) Plotting compass
A plotting compass is a small pivoted magnet in a glass case with non-magnetic metal walls.

Procedure;
 Place a bar magnet on a sheet of paper and draw its outline.
 Position the plotting compass near one pole of the magnet and
mark dots A and B at the end of its needle ie n and s poles
 Position the plotting copass needle pole originally at A now at B
and mark with another dot (C) the position of the other neddle
pole.
 Continue to plot
points in the
direction
indicated by the N pole of the compass needle
until reaching the N pole of the magnet.
 Join up the dots to show the magnetic field lines.

b) Iron filing method

Procedure;
 Place a sheet of paper on top of a bar magnet.
 Sprinkle iron filings thinly and evenly onto the paper.
 Tap the paper gently.

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Observations:
The iron filings should form patterns of the lines of force. Each filing turns in the direction of the field when the
paper is tapped.This method is quick but no use for weak fields.
Typical Field Patterns

a) Single bar magnet

b) Combined magnetic field due to two neighbouring magnets can also be plotted to give patterns like those
shown below.

In figure a, where two like poles are facing each other, the point X is
called neutral point.
At X the field due to one magnet cancels out that due to other and
there are no lines of force.

ELECTROMAGNETS

An electromagnet is a coil of wire wound on a soft iron or Mumetal core.

NB. If an electric current is passed through a wire, a weak magnetic field is produced. The field has three features:

 The magnetic field lines are circular

 The field is strongest close to the wire
 Increasing the current increases the strength of the field

The direction of the

magnetic field produced by
a current is given by
RIGHT HAND GRIP
RULE, as on the figure
above.
A current produces a
stronger magnetic field in a
solenoid than in one
straight wire. The magnetic
field by a current-carrying
coil has these features:

 The field is similar to that of a bar magnet, and there are magnetic poles at the ends of the coil.
 Increasing the current increases the strength of magnetic field
 Increasing the number of turns on the coil increases the strength of the field

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Unlike an ordinary permanent magnet, an electromagnet can be switched on or off. When current flows through the
coil, it produces a magnetic field. This magnetizes the core, creating a
magnetic field about a thousand times stronger the coil by itself. With
an iron or Mumetal core, the magnetism is only temporary, and is lost
as soon as the current is switched off. Steel would not be suitable as a
core because it would become permanently magnetized.

USES OF ELECTROMAGNETS

a) The magnetic relay

When the switch S in the input circuit is closed, a

current flows through the electromagnet. This pulls
the iron armature towards it, which closes the
contacts C. As a result the current flows through the
motor.

b) The circuit breaker

A circuit breaker is an automatic switch which cuts off the current in a circuit if this
rises above a specified value. It has the same effect as a fuse but, unlike a fuse, can be
reset after it has tripped.
In the type shown here, the current flows through two contacts and also through an
electromagnet. If the current gets too high, the pull of the electromagnet becomes
strong enough to release the iron catch, so the contacts open and stop the current.
Pressing the reset button closes the contacts again.

c) Electric bell

An electric bell contains an electromagnet that repeatedly switches itself off and on
rapidly, moving the bell hammer as it does so. The arrangement is called a ‘make or
break’ circuit. When you press the switch, current flows through the electromagnet, which pulls the hammer across
so that it strikes the gong. The movement separates the contacts and switches off the electromagnet. So the hammer
springs back, the contacts close, the electromagnet pulls the hammer across again….. and so on.

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 USES OF PERMANENT MAGNETS

 Loudspeakers
 Generators
 Ammeter
 Electric drill

MAGNETIC SHIELDING

Magnetic materials affect magnetic field in which

it is placed. The lines of force are drawn towards
the magnetic material as shown below. For
diagrams a) and b) the bar magnet induces magnetism in the soft iron materials. In diagram c) the lines of force
moves along the material of the iron ring and do not pass through the space in the middle of the ring. A plotting
compass placed in the middle of the ring does not experience any magnetic effect of the bar magnet. This effect is
called magnetic shielding.

Exercises:

Q1. The diagram below shows an electromagnet and I is the convectional current flowing in the circuit.

a) What is the method used to locate the poles of the bar magnet called?
b) Describe the method identified above in (a).
c) Use the method to label the poles resulting in the iron bar.
d) What factors affect the strength of an electromagnet?

Q2. The diagrams below show the direction of magnetic force between two ends of bar magnets.

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 a) What are the polarities at
(i) a is ----------------------pole
(ii) b is ----------------------pole
b) What is position X called?
c) Describe and explain what would happen when a few iron filings are placed at point X.

d) Complete the field pattern between the poles of bar magnets below by indicating the direction of the
magnetic force.

Q3. The diagram below shows two soft iron nails hanging from the end of a magnet.

a) What is the effect that the magnet has on the nails called?
b) What are the poles at the free ends the nails?
c) What would happen when another nail is brought in very close
to the free ends of the nails? Explain.
d) What is difference between the magnetic properties of iron and
steel?
e) What is likely to happen between the free ends of the iron nails
in the diagram below?

f) What are the polarities at

(i) a is ----------------pole
(ii) b is ----------------pole

Q4. The diagram below shows a method of magnetizing a steel bar.

a) On the diagram above

(i) Show the direction of the current.
(ii) Label the north pole of magnetized steel
bar.
b) Explain how you arrived at your answer to (a) (ii).
c) State two uses of an electromagnet.
d) What would be the effect of using a soft iron bar
instead of steel bar?

Q5.The diagram below shows a method of magnetization.

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 a) Name the method.
b) What pole is induced at B?
c) The diagram below shows a bar magnet that is then cut into halves. Label the poles of the
halves and explain how you arrived at the labeling.

Illustration: Magnetic screening by soft iron hollow box

Q6. a) What is magnetic shielding and the material used in magnetic shielding?
b) State one application of magnetic shielding.

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