Chapter 10

Industrial Applications

An automated production system is one in which a process is performed by a number of machines

without the direct participation of a human worker. The whole automated system is built from
smaller automated units suitably coordinated. Such smaller industrial applications of automation
are presented in this chapter, most of which have the form of a project for development rather than
the scope of a tutorial problem. Some industrial applications met outside a factory environment
are also included. If the reader can create proper industrial automation solutions for all of all these
projects, it means that he/she is ready to work as professional engineer in the field of industrial
automation.

10.1 Cyclic Operation of Traffic Lights

Figure 10.1 shows the time function of traffic light operation at an intersection for two modes
of traffic regulation: normal and night operation. The selection of the operation mode is made
manually through a rotational switch, but may also be automatic by a sensor signal or a remote
signal received from a traffic control center. Write the required program for the operation of the
traffic lights.

10.2 Conveyor System for an Assortment of Objects by Pairs

In the conveyor layout of Figure 10.2, the arrangement of objects in pairs is performed. Each
pair is received by the conveyor M3 and should contain one black (B) and one white (W) object,
labeled either as BW or WB. The conveyor M1 brings objects with a random color. The conveyor
M2 is a specific buffer of four positions, each of which can be placed in a central line M1M3 by
the corresponding activation of relays C1–C4 that drive four pneumatic cylinders (e.g., the activa-
tion of relay C3 brings position 3 in the central line). Each position of the buffer M2 accepts only
two objects. The movable metallic plate binds the forward movement of a single object. After the
pairing of a BW or WB is formed, the metallic plate goes down for 5 s by the activation of relay
C5 and the pair is transferred to M3. Of course, there is a mechanical coupling of the M3 motion
with each position of M2 for the transferring of the pairs. When the position of M2 in central line

381
382 ◾ Introduction to Industrial Automation

Normal operation
Red 10 s
15 s
Green
3s
Yellow

Night operation

1s 1s

+24 V DC

RS

Normal Night
operation operation 0V

Inputs
I2.0 I2.2
PLC
Q0.0 Q0.2 Q0.4
Outputs

h1 h2 h3
+24 V DC

0V

Figure 10.1 Cyclic operation of traffic lights.

4
3 Top view
White

PC1 PC2
Black

2
1
M1 M2 Metallic M3
plate
PC1 PC2

Side view

+24 V DC
Start PC1 PC2

0V

Inputs
I0.1 I0.3 I0.4
PLC
Q2.0 Q2.2 Q2.4 Q2.6 Q3.0
Outputs
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5
+24 V DC
0V

Figure 10.2 Conveyor system for an assortment of objects by pairs.

 Industrial Applications ◾ 383

contains an object, and the next coming object has the same color, then the buffer M2 must be
moved to an empty position or to a position with an object of different color. The arrival of objects
is random but suppose that it is impossible to find more than four objects of the same color. The
conveyor system starts to operate after a momentary signal from the push of a START button and
stops similarly through the push of a STOP button. Write the required program for a PLC.

10.3 Packaging System of Different Balls

Figure 10.3 shows a packaging system of balls in packets of six different items. There are 12 feed-
ing lines, each one with different design. The balls come from all lines in a random way and at
relatively slow rate. The packaging system is controlled by a PLC and operates according to the
following specifications:

◾◾ With the momentary signal START, the machine produces 15 packets of 6 items (90 balls)
and waits for the next start signal.
◾◾ Each ball, coming from the corresponding feeding pipe, falls on an inclined plane only if
the solenoid SLi is energized, and is detected by the photo-switch Fi. After detection, the
solenoid is deactivated in order to block the falling of the same second ball, since the packet
must contain different balls (i = 1–12).
◾◾ Each ball falling on the plane rolls towards to point A and is detected by the photo-switch
F0. The completion of six balls is verified by the permanent activation of photo-switch F0.
◾◾ Just after six balls fall, the other balls stop falling, and after the completion of six balls, the
wrapping is started at point A. The wrapping is performed by rotating the geared motor M
by 360°, and the end of rotation is detected by the proximity switch S0.
◾◾ If during the production of 90 balls, the number of balls from the same feeding line is
greater or equal to 21, then this kind of ball is excluded from the next two sets of 90 balls in
production and is reverted normally in the following set of 90.

Twelve different
colors and designs

Wrapping machine
SL1 SL2 SL3 SL12
S0

F1 F2 F3
M F12

A Oblique plane

F0
Six-pack of balls

Figure 10.3 Packaging system of different balls.

384 ◾ Introduction to Industrial Automation

After making a diagram of the I/O devices connection to a PLC, the required program may be
written in Boolean or Instruction List language.

10.4 Conveyor System for Transferring Granular

Material with Weight Control
Figure 10.4 shows a conveyor system for transferring granular material from a silo to a pro-
cess machine (not shown in this figure). The silo has an electrically driven outlet door, which
is open when the output Q4.0 is energized. The DC motor moves the conveyor belt with
three speeds through the connection of the convenient resistors to the motor coils. A weight

Silo

Granular material

Outlet
door
R0 + ∆R
C1
R0 Weight
C2 analog
C3 sensor
R0 – ∆R
3-Speed
DC motor

+24 V DC

Start Stop

0V

Digital Analog
inputs inputs
I0.0 I0.2 Ch.1 Ch.2
PLC
Q1.0 Q2.0 Q3.0 Q4.0 Ch.1 Ch.2
Digital Analog
outputs outputs

+24 V DC
C1 C2 C3 C4
0V
Low Normal High Outlet
speed speed speed door

Figure 10.4 Conveyor system for transferring granular material with weight control.
 Industrial Applications ◾ 385

transducer measures the weight of the granular material in the indicated position. It is desired
that the conveyor belt operates at normal speed when the measured weight is equal to a pre-
defined value of 1 Kg.
The normal speed is achieved by the activation of output Q2.0 (C2). Due to irregular quantities
of the material falling from the silo, the measured weight may vary. When the measured weight is
less than 1 Kg, the conveyor speed decreases to “low” by energizing the output Q1.0 (C1), which
adds resistance to the motor coils. If the measured weight is greater than 1 Kg, the conveyor speed
increases to “high” by energizing the output Q3.0 (C3), which subtracts resistance from the motor
coils. Obviously, only one of the three outputs connecting the resistors to the motor coils must be
energized each time. The conveyor system starts to operate by momentary pressing the START
button and then the conveyor belt turns on, and the outlet door opens. By pressing the STOP but-
ton at any phase of the operation, the conveyor stops and the door closes immediately. A program
for the PLC implementation may regulate the speed of the conveyor belt automatically according
to the above specifications.

10.5 The Food Industry: A Machine for Production

of Tzatziki Salad
In the food industry, the machine for production of Greek tzatziki (a kind of green salad made
from cucumber, yogurt, and garlic) consists of:

◾◾ Three silos containing the raw materials

◾◾ Three electronic weighing scales with rotating platforms
◾◾ A conical tank vessel for mixing materials
◾◾ A drum blender
◾◾ A dosing pump
◾◾ The conveyor belt for packaging of the produced salad, as shown in Figure 10.5a.

Technical characteristics of the equipment.

1. The outlet doors of silos open for feeding the weighing scales via the activation of the pneu-
matic cylinders C1, C2, and C3, which are extended at the rest state. Each cylinder is retracted
by the activation of the corresponding PLC output.
2. Each raw material falls on the corresponding weighing scale with a slaw rate of 100 gr/s.
The electronic weighing scales have an SPST (NO) output, which is energized at each Kg of
weight according to the graph shown in Figure 10.5b.
3. The existent raw material on each scale after weighing, falls in the conical tank vessel
via the activation of pneumatic cylinders C4, C5, and C6, which at rest state are also
extended.
4. The drum blender and the dosing pump have direct starting motors. At the bottom of the
tank vessel there is a level sensor for viscous material with an SPST output that is NO when
there is no material in the tank vessel.
5. The conveyor belt operates with a direct starting motor (M1) and brings the plastic contain-
ers to be filled at specific positions.
386 ◾ Introduction to Industrial Automation

Mince
cucumber Yogurt Mince garlic
Silos with
feedstock
C1 C2 C3

Digital
balances
Z1 C4 Z2 C5 Z3 C6

Blender
Mixture tank

Level sensor
Dosing pump Balance
SPST output

Closed
Weight
Packaging belt conveyor Open Kg
1 2 3 4
M1
F1 F2
(a) (b)
+24 V DC

Start
LS F1 F2 Z1 Z2 Z3
0V

Inputs
I0.0 I1.0 I2.0 I2.1 I7.1 I7.2 I7.3
PLC
Q1.1 Q1.2 Q1.3 Q1.4 Q1.5 Q1.6 Q3.0 Q4.1 Q4.2 Q5.0
Outputs

C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C6 BL DP M1 H
+24 V DC
0V
(c)

Figure 10.5 Machine for production of tzatziki salad (a), digital balance output (b), I/O device
connections in PLC (c).

Operation specifications. The production procedure includes three phases: weighing the raw
materials, the feeding and mixing phase, and the packaging phase, which are performed sequen-
tially according to the following specifications:

1. The production process starts with a momentary signal START from the push of a button.
Then, the outlet doors of the silos open for feeding weighing scales until the required quan-
tity of material is completed at each scale. After the completion of a material quantity, the
corresponding outlet door closes.
2. When the three required quantities have all been completed on the weighing scales, the
cylinders C4, C5, and C6 are retracted by activation of the corresponding outputs and cause
them to fall in the tank vessel. The three cylinders remain retracted for 5 s in order to be sure
that the viscous yogurt has fallen.
3. At the end of the time interval of 5 s, the rotation of the blender starts and keeps on for
12 min.
4. After the end of the mixing procedure, the dosing pump and the conveyor belt start to oper-
ate simultaneously. The pump and the conveyor are synchronized by construction during
the overall operation.
 Industrial Applications ◾ 387

5. Two photoelectric switches (with SPDT outputs) detect the presence of the plastic con-
tainer below the outlet of the dosing pump. The two photoelectric switches are necessary
due to the small gap between the two successive containers. When there is no plastic
container below the pump outlet, the pump stops and operates only the conveyor until
it brings the container below the pump outlet. Then the dosing pump starts to operate
again.
6. The applied recipe requires 80 Kg yogurt, 20 Kg minced cucumber, and 5 Kg garlic
pulp.
7. The filled containers must be counted. The applied recipe corresponds to approximately
300 filled containers. If for any reason there are fewer than 300 filled containers, then the
indication lamp H turns on.
8. After the emptying of the tank vessel, all parts of the system stop or reset and the machine
is ready for the next START signal.

It is recommended to write the required program in Boolean or IL language and use modular
programming.

10.6 Retentive Reciprocating Movement of a Worktable

Retentive operation in a PLC means that in the case of a power interruption, its energized internal
elements (M, T, C, and O) preserve their state that existed before the interruption. When the
power supply is retrieved, the program of the PLC runs based on the conserved states of these
internal elements. In other words, the PLC operation is continuous from the point that it had
stopped. Suppose that the memory bits M10.0 to M10.7 have retentive property. The mecha-
nism shown in Figure 10.6 has a worktable that performs a continuous reciprocating movement
which (up-down) starts and stops by the same button alternately. The LAD program of the figure
only performs the reciprocating logic without the exiting input and does not satisfy a retentive

LS2 +24 V DC
LAD
Start/ LS2 LS1
stop I0.2 I0.1 Q1.0
0V
Q1.0
Inputs
I0.0 I0.1 I0.2 I0.1 I0.2 Q2.0
PLC
Q1.0 Q2.0
Outputs I2.0

C1 C2
+24 V DC
LS1
0V
M C1 = Up, C2 = Down

Figure 10.6 Retentive reciprocating movement of a workable.

388 ◾ Introduction to Industrial Automation

operation. Write a program for a PLC to achieve the continuous reciprocating movement of the
worktable, and present the retentive property, either by modifying the LAD program suitably or
writing a new one.

10.7 Wooden Plate Stacking, Painting and Transferring Process

Figure 10.7 shows an arrangement for stacking, painting, and transporting wooden plates. After
pressing an ON button, the feeder FD of wooden plates starts to operate. This means that a stack
of 12 plates is created at point A, with each plate being counted by the photo switch F1. Then the
feeder stops and the conveyor belt M operates until it brings the stack from point A to the location
B, with the last detected by F2. Then the spray painting nozzles (PN1 and PN2) are energized for
a time interval of 18 s. At the end of the time interval of 18 s, the painting nozzles are deactivated
and the conveyor belt transfers the stack to location C, the last detected by F3. By pressing the
OFF button at any time instant, the operation of the arrangement stops immediately. Write the
required program for a PLC.

10.8 An Automated Billiard Table Controlled by a PLC

This application is outside the industrial world, but includes operations very common in industrial
processes, such as multi-input counting, signaling, and multiple phases of operation and detec-
tion. Figure 10.8 shows an automated billiard table controlled by a small PLC. The specifications
of operation are the following:

1. During the game, balls fall from the four corners of the table and are detected by four photo
switches F1, F2, F3, and F4, while all are gravity-driven to the ball box. Of course, how many
balls are going to fall at each corner is a quite random event.
2. The table operates with a coin slot machine. In order for a coin to be accepted by the coin box,
it is necessary for button b to be pressed, and all nine balls to be present in the ball box. Also,
the solenoid SL must be energized in order for the coin to be driven to the coin box. If for
any reason the SL is not energized, the coin comes out in the coin return slot.
3. Just after the detection of a coin by the photo switch F5, the SL must be deactivated because
during the game, the slot machine does not accept other coins but returns them to the
player.

+24 V DC

Feeder On Off F1 F2 F3

PN1 PN2 0V
F1 F2 F3
Inputs

I0.1 I0.2 I0.3 I0.4 I0.5

PLC
Q2.2 Q2.4 Q3.0 Q3.2
Outputs

M PN1 PN2 FD
M
+24 V DC
A B C
0V

Figure 10.7 Wooden plate stacking, painting, and transferring process.

 Industrial Applications ◾ 389

F1, F2 F3, F4 F6

H1, H2
(1)

Balls box
SL Coins box
F5
M
(1)=Coins return place

+24 V DC

b
F1 F2 F3 F4 F5 F6
0V

Inputs

I0.0 I1.0 I1.1 I1.2 I1.3 I1.4 I1.5

PLC
Q1.1 Q1.2 Q1.3 Q1.4 Q1.5
Outputs

SL C H1 H2
(M) +24 V DC

0V

Figure 10.8 Automated billiard table controlled by a PLC.

4. With the same conditions in Step 3, two more actions must take place:
a. The motor M starts to operate, the balls are detected and counted by the photo switch
F6 and sent to the table. The motor M stops when the F6 detects nine balls.
b. The red indicating lamp H1 turns on, which means that the game is in progress.
5. When nine balls have fallen in the ball box, the red lamp turns off and the green lamp H2
turns on, which means a new game can be started.

The required program has to be written for the I/O addressing shown in the figure.

10.9 Automated Filling of Two Milk Tanks

In a milk factory, a PLC automatically fills two milk tanks. As shown in Figure 10.9, each milk
tank has two floater switches, up and down, which provide the signals “fill” and “empty” respec-
tively. The specifications of operation are the following:

1. The automatic filling of the tanks is energized/de-energized by pressing the ON and OFF
buttons respectively. The indication lamp H0 shows the operation state.
2. Only one milk tank may be filled at a time. If the two tanks are simultaneously empty, then
the first tank fills first.
390 ◾ Introduction to Industrial Automation

V0

H0 V1 V2

On
S2 S4
Off

Tank no.1
Tank no.2

S1 S3

Figure 10.9 Two milk tanks with automatic filling.

3. When the PLC receives an “empty” signal (S1 or S3), then the electrovalve V1 or V2 opens
immediately and the central electrovalve V0 opens after 5 s. Then, when the signal “fill” (S2
or S4) is received, the electrovalve V0 closes immediately and the electrovalve V1 or V2 closes
after 10 s.
4. All electrovalves close immediately after the press of the OFF button.

Design a diagram with the connection statuses of the I/O devices and the corresponding addresses,
and subsequently, write the required PLC program.

10.10 Modular Programming for a Set of Processing

and Repairing Stations
A production line includes six processing stations and one repairing station, each one of which per-
forms its own process or assembly as the produced device passes through them. Each station operates
according to its automation program Pi if this is called (executed) by the PLC. The sensor S2 detects
possible defects of the produced device. In such a case, the device is forwarded to the repairing station
that operates according to the program P123, while stations 1 to 6 stop operating. When the repairing
procedure has finished and the repaired device is ready to reinsert in the central production line (some-
thing that is expressed by the activation of sensor S4), then the operation of stations 1, 2, and 3 must be
bypassed. This means that only stations 4, 5, and 6 must start their operation or, in other words, the
repaired device does not need processing in stations 1, 2, and 3. Sensor S1 signals the arrival of a device
for processing and assembly. Sensor S3 signals the end of a device processing. The operation of the
conveyor system is not examined here, as also it is considered that a new device does not come before
the end of the previous device processing. It is ideal to develop a modular program for the stations’
operation, called organization block, including all sub-programs Pi, i = 1–6 and P123 (Figure 10.10).
 Industrial Applications ◾ 391

Repairing station
Reinsertion P123

Reject
S4

1 2 3 4 5 6

S1 P1 P2 P3 S2 P4 P5 P6 S3

Figure 10.10 A group of processing and repairing stations.

10.11 Traffic Light Control of a Complex Intersection

At an intersection between three towns, as shown in Figure 10.11, the traffic lights are controlled
by a PLC. Their operation is based exclusively on timers, i.e., there are no traffic sensors. The
green left light flashes every second for 10 seconds. All the other lights operate according to the
bar diagram. The cyclic operation of the lights starts/stops through the rotary switch RS0-1. It is
recommended that the required PLC program be written in Boolean or LAD language.

Output Light 10 s 20 s 20 s +24 VDC

RS0-1 0V
Q1.0 G
Q1.1 R
Inputs
Q1.2 GA I1.3
Q1.3 RA PLC
Q1.4 GP Q1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 1.4 1.5 1.6 1.7

Q1.5 RP Outputs

Q1.6 GR
Q1.7 RR 0V +24 VDC
= Red light = Green light G R GA RA GP RP GR RR

Light color

GA = Green Amiens
Destination place
RP Amiens (A)
Rouen (R)
GP

R
RR
G
RA GR
GA

Paris (P)

Figure 10.11 Traffic light control of a complex crossroad.

392 ◾ Introduction to Industrial Automation

10.12 Combined Operation of Two Conveyor Belts

The two conveyor belts M1 and M2, as shown in Figure 10.12, transfer boxes toward a packag-
ing machine. Each has a photocell sensor for counting the transferred boxes. Write a program
in Boolean language so that the arithmetic difference of transferred boxes remains less than ten.
When this condition is violated, the conveyor belt, having transferred more boxes, must stop until
the difference is null, and then the overall process should start again.

10.13 A Machine with Three Operational States

and an Acknowledgement Signal
A complex machine has three operational states: stoppage, preheating, and operation. If the
machine is in stoppage state, the pressing of a START-STOP button energizes the message
“Preheating-Wait” and the output of heating resistors. By pressing the START-STOP button for a
second time and if the time interval of three minutes has passed, the motor C is energized, while
the message indication and the resistors are de-energized. If during the preheating phase the cancel
button is pressed, the message indication and resistors are de-energized. If during this operation
the cancel button is pressed, nothing happens, while the START-STOP button is pressed the
motor stops immediately. Write a PLC program to satisfy the desired operation specifications
(Figure 10.13).

10.14 Chemical Cleaning Process of Metallic Objects

Figure 10.14 shows a tank for chemical cleaning of metallic objects. The basket with metallic
objects must be immersed inside the tank several times according to the following plan. By instan-
taneously pressing the button b0, the basket must be immersed three times into the tank and to
remain there for 20 seconds each time. Between the three immersions, the basket returns to its
initial (up) position and goes down again without delay through the forward/reverse motor M1.
After the third immersion, the basket returns to the up position and remains there until the next

+24 V DC

PC1 PC2
M2 0V
Inputs

I1.0 I1.3
PLC
PC2 Q0.0 Q0.2 Q0.4
M1 Outputs

C1 H C2
+24 V DC
0V
PC1

Figure 10.12 Combined operation of two conveyor belts.

 Industrial Applications ◾ 393

+24 V DC

Start/stop Cancel

0V

Inputs
I2.0 I2.1
PLC
Q1.0 Q2.0 Q3.0
Outputs

C Preheating
wait 3 min +24 V DC

0V Resistors

Figure 10.13 I/O device connections to PLC for the application of Section 10.13.

LS1
M
H

Up and down
limit positions
b

LS2

Figure 10.14 Tank-elevator system for chemical cleaning of metallic objects.

pressing of the button b0. The indication light H0 is turned on during the cleaning procedure.
After making a diagram of the connection of the I/O devices to a PLC, write the required program
in the LAD language.

10.15 Driving a Step Motor Through a PLC

Step motors are electric motors of specific construction for high-precision positioning applications
in complex machines. In particular, step motors are brushless DC motors that rotate in discrete
steps usually of 1.8° and in both directions, while they can operate in full or half step mode. Step
motors require an electronic circuit called a controller or driver to energize the motor phases in a
timely sequence to make the motor turn. As shown in Figure 10.15, the stepper driver accepts the
following four control signals:
394 ◾ Introduction to Industrial Automation

+24 V DC
b1 b2
RS
0V

Inputs

I0.1 I0.2 I0.3

PLC
Q2.2 Q2.4 Q3.0 Q3.2
Outputs
Driver
+24 V DC
Step
Direction Step motor
Full–half step
Enable

Figure 10.15 The step motor is controlled by the PLC through a driver.

Step. For each pulse applied to the step input of the driver, the motor turns one step ahead. For
a series of pulses the motor turns by an equal number of steps. The frequency of the pulse
waveform defines the rotation speed of the step motor.
Direction. A logic high signal applied to the direction input of the driver determines one direc-
tion, while a logic low signal causes the opposite direction of rotation.
Full half step. The full or half step mode of rotation is determined by a logic high or low signal
respectively.
Enable. A logic high signal applied to the enabled input of the driver enables the motor to rotate
if the previous three signals have been applied. A logic low signal disables the step motor that
cannot rotate, even if the previous three signals are applied.

The above signals can be produced from a PLC equipped with a suitable digital output mod-
ule. Write a program in Boolean language so that the following operations are achieved:

1. With the press of button b1 and the RS switch open, the motor rotates left with a full step.
2. With the press of button b2 and the RS switch open, the motor rotates right with a full step.
3. With the press of button b1 and the RS switch closed, the motor rotates left with a half step.
4. With the press of button b2 and the RS switch closed, the motor rotates right with a half step.

The desired speed of rotation corresponds to a pulse frequency of 25 Hz.

10.16 Stacking Machine of Light Objects

Suppose that a step motor is used in a stacking machine of light objects. The controller of the
step motor has to save the number of objects that have already been stacked each time in its
memory, in order to stack the next object. It is desired to develop such a controller for the
motions in a PLC. Using the program written for the problem presented in Section 10.15,
 Industrial Applications ◾ 395

Step motor

Object

The shaft rotation

moves platform 40 cm
up-down
45 cm

50 cm

Figure 10.16 Stacking machine of light objects.

write a complementary one so that the PLC accomplishes the sequence of the step motor
motions shown in Figure 10.16 and specified as follows:

◾◾ With the first pressing of b0, the platform goes down 50 cm and returns to its upper location.
◾◾ With the second pressing of b0, the platform goes down 45 cm and returns to its upper
location.
◾◾ With the third pressing of b0, the platform goes down 40 cm and returns to its upper location.
◾◾ With the tenth pressing of b0 the platform goes down 5 cm and returns to its upper location.
◾◾ With the eleventh pressing of b0 the platform, as in first pressing, goes down 50 cm and
returns to its upper location.

Suppose that the rotation of motor axis by 1° causes a linear displacement of the platform of 1 mm.
The b0 is an NO button connected to an additive input I1.0 (not shown) of the PLC, while the
outputs are as shown in Figure 10.15.

10.17 A Simple Robotic Arm for Pickup

and Placement of Light Objects
A simple robotic station for receiving and stacking light objects is shown in Figure 10.17. For the
needs of this industrial automation, suppose that all the movements of the robot are achieved with
step motors. The whole system is controlled by a PLC, the I/O connections of which are shown in
396 ◾ Introduction to Industrial Automation

1 Step motor for up-down motion

2 Step motor for joint column rotation

3 Suction cups

Initial position

42 cm 42 cm
Plates have thickness 2 cm
PC

Conveyor

+24 V DC (*) Ramp with variant slope depending on the

PC height of the end-effector from last plate.

PC
0V Up (*)
Step
motor
1
Inputs Down
I0.3
PLC
Q1.0 Q2.0 Q2.2 Q3.1 Q3.2
Outputs
Vacuum 2
Vacuum Step Direction Step Direction
Right
+24 V DC Step
Step motor driver 1 Step motor driver 2
motor
3
Left
0V
Positioning cycle

Figure 10.17 Robotic arm for pickup and placement of light objects.

the figure. Using the programs developed in the previous applications in Sections 10.15 and 10.16,
write a PLC program so that each arrived object (signal from the photocell PC) is grasped by the
robot and placed on the pallet, creating a stack of 20 objects. Particularly at each signal PC, the
diagram of the robot movements shown in the figure must be accomplished, as well as the vacuum
creation for suction cup feeding.

10.18 Heat Treatment Process in a Chamber Furnace

In heat treatment processes, a gas-fired chamber furnace is usually required. The sliding door of
such an industrial furnace, shown in Figure 10.18, is controlled by a PLC. The furnace door, at its
open and closed states, activates the proximity switches PS1 and PS2 respectively, while the normal
state is considered the closed one.
Opening door. The door opens by the momentary pressing of button b0 through the forward/
reverse motor (M) operation. When the sensor PS1 is activated, the door is open and the
motor M stops.
 Industrial Applications ◾ 397

Indication of
H0 non-closed door

b0 Open
PS1 PS2
b1 Close

b2 Emergency
STOP

PC
M

Figure 10.18 Chamber furnace for heat treatment.

Closing door. The door closes automatically after 30 s. The door can also close manually before
the completion time of 30 s, by momentary pressing of button b1. The indication light H0
turns on either during the door movement or by being in the open state.
Emergency actions. If during the door closes, the photocell PC is activated, the door stops
immediately, while the door continues to close if the photocell is deactivated. The move-
ment of the door, either opening or closing, is interrupted permanently by the pressing of
emergency button b2.
After making a diagram of the I/O device connections to a PLC, write the required program.

10.19 Working Time Monitoring of a Machine

under a Three-Shift Schedule
An industrial plant operates in a three-shift schedule. A complex machine of the production pro-
cedure operates intermittently due to the kind of process performed. Its operation also depends
on the mood of the machine operator for its working time. Therefore, it is desired to know (e.g.,
weekly) the total hours of the machine’s operation. For this reason, there are three control panels,
one for each shift work, and three hour-meters that record the hours of the machine operation per
shift work, as shown in Figure 10.19. Each operator can start up the machine only from the control
panel corresponding to his shift work if:

a. The operator turns on the switch with a key

b. The corresponding START button is pressed

Then the machine operates and the hour meter records the time of operation. Any handling
from the other two control panels must cause no action. The machine operation stops either by
the operator by pressing the STOP button, or by a sensor detecting a critical temperature. After
defining the I/O devices and their connections to a PLC, write the required program. Examine
also, if it is possible to have the same operation with only one pair of START-STOP buttons com-
mon for the three shift works.
398 ◾ Introduction to Industrial Automation

Control panel Control panel Control panel

1 2 3
0 0 0
1 1 1
Switch with key

Start-stop
buttons

Hour meter

Figure 10.19 Working time monitoring of a machine.

10.20 Feeding an Assembly Machine with Components in Bulk

Figure 10.20 shows an arrangement for supplying an assembly machine with metallic components
of Π schema that exist in bulk in a bucket. The rotating disk D has four curved blades, and each
one can accept a single component which, due to blade rotation, is thrown on the pickup rail and
simultaneously detected by the proximity switch PS. The component collection by any of the
blades is a completely random event that may or may not happen one or more times. The assembly
machine might need 4, 8, or 12 parts depending on the assembled device, which is selected by the
operator by pressing the corresponding push-buttons b1, b2, and b3.
The specifications of operation are the following:

1. The system is set ready for operation with the switch RS0-1, otherwise nothing can work.
2. Subsequently, the operator must choose the desired number of parts, which is marked on the
control panel.
3. With the condition that the number of parts has been selected, and by pressing momentary
the START button, the disk rotation begins and continues to feed the selected number of
components, and then stops.
Bucket Components Groove
+24 VDC
b1 b2 b3 Start PS
Number of components
RS0-1
0V

4 8 12 Inputs

PS I1.0 I2.1 I2.2 I2.3 I3.0 I4.0

b1 b2 b3 PLC
Q2.1 Q2.2 Q2.3 Q5.0 Q6.0
RS0-1 Outputs
Start
4 8 12 D M
M +24 V DC
0V
Pick-up rail Rotating disk Motor-vibrator

Figure 10.20 Feeder system of an assembly machine.

 Industrial Applications ◾ 399

4. With a new START command, Step 3 is repeated, and so on.

5. If during the disk rotation it is spent without feeding a component for 2 min, then the
vibrator motor M is automatically switched on for 10 s (without stopping the rotation of
the disc), which shakes the bucket and the components, and thus facilitates their collection
by a blade.
6. If during a feeding procedure (after START) a different number of components is selected,
the system does not respond to this change. Only in the non-feeding phase (the disk does
not rotate) can the desired number of components be changed.

If at any time the switch RS0-1 is opened, the system stops and all are reset.
Write the required PLC program in Boolean language.

10.21 A Roller Conveyor System for Wrapping Plastic Membrane

Figure 10.21 shows part of a roller conveyor for transferring a plastic membrane from a produc-
tion machine to a wrapping machine. In this section of the conveyor, a floating folding is created
deliberately, in order to have the potential difference between the rate of production and the rate of
wrapping absorbed. The length of folding is measured with a laser-type photocell (PC) for distance
measurement and should be kept between 40 cm and 50 cm limits through the regulation of the
speed of the motor M1, which performs the wrapping. The analog output 0–10 V of the distance
meter is stored in the memory location MW200 of a PLC. With the START and STOP buttons,
both motors M1 and M2 of the roller conveyor start and stop, respectively. The operating speed of
the M1 is regulated so that when:

Folding < 40 cm  Low speed

Folding > 50 cm  High speed
40 cm ≤ Folding ≤ 50 cm  Normal speed

In addition to the main programming task, tasks also include an additive digital output (not shown
in the PLC) to be activated when the desired limits are violated, and write the overall PLC program.

10.22 Color-Based Separation of Plastic Balls

Figure 10.22 shows a mechanism that separates plastic balls depending on their color and packs them
inside boxes in quantities of 6 or 12 pieces, depending on the position of the selector switch SS. The
color sensor SC detects the color of a ball (yellow or green) by measuring the light rays emitted by the
motionless ball. The recognition time of a color from the SC is 1 s. The activation of coil 1 happens after
the SC signal and allows the ball to drop. After the last pass from the proximity switch SP, coil 1 is deac-
tivated in order to stop the next ball in front of the sensor SC. Coil 2 sets where each ball will fall accord-
ing to its color, and the movable bearing has the position shown in the figure when coil 2 is deactivated.
When the chosen quantity is completed in every box, the corresponding indication is activated,
and remains on until the next ball of the same color falls. The mechanism comes into operation
(or pause) via the switch RS0-1. The removal of the filled boxes is automatically handled by another
machine and is not part of this application. Write the required PLC program in Boolean language.
 400
◾

+24 V DC

START STOP PC

0V

Digital Analog
inputs inputs

I0.0 I0.2 Ch. 1

PLC
Q1.0 Q2.0 Q3.0 Q4.0 Ch. 1
Digital Analog M2 M1
Introduction to Industrial Automation

outputs outputs

C4 40 cm (C1, C2, C3,)

+24 V DC
C1 C2 C3 C4
0V
Low Normal High 50 cm
speed speed speed

Figure 10.21 Roller conveyor for wrapping plastic membrane.

 Industrial Applications ◾ 401

+24 V DC

SS SC SP
RS0-1
0V
Coil 1 SC ‘6’ ‘12’ ‘G’ ‘Y’
Inputs

SP I1.0 I2.1 I2.2 I3.1 I3.2 I4.0

PLC
Q2.1 Q2.2 Q5.0 Q6.0
Outputs
Coil 2
Coil Coil
1 2 +24 V DC
0V
Green balls Yellow balls
Green Yellow
box filled box filled

Figure 10.22 Color-based separation of plastic balls.

10.23 The Shearing Machine of an Unfolded Aluminum Sheet

A machine M unfolds and launches aluminum sheet in a laminate cutting table in order to be
cut by a shearing machine SHM into pieces of a specified length. The machine M can drive the
metal sheet at two speeds; at a low speed by the activation of the relay C1, and at a high speed by
the activation of C2. The length of the metal sheet is measured via a pulse encoder ENC which is
rotating during the sheet motion. The correspondence between pulses and sheet length is 1 pulse =
1 mm. It is desired for the machine to cut two possible lengths: 50 cm and 100 cm (Figure 10.23).
Operating specifications:

1. The length selection is done via the selector switch SS1-2.

2. The pieces of small (large) length are cut at a low (high) speed, respectively.
3. When the desired length is achieved, the machine M stops and the shearing machine operates
for 3 s. After 3 s passes, the cutting procedure continues by starting again the machine M.
4. With the START signal the operation of the whole machine begins, while with the STOP
signal it stops. If during the operation of the machine at any cutting length, someone changes
the position of the selector switch SS1-2, there should be no change.

Write the required PLC program in any desired language.

+24 V DC
SHM Start Stop ENC
SS1–2
ENC 0V
50 cm 100 cm
Inputs

M I1.0 I1.1 I2.1 I2.2 I3.0

PLC
Q4.0 Q5.0 Q6.0
Outputs

C1 C2 C3
+24 V DC
0V
M M SHM

Figure 10.23 Shearing machine of an unfolded aluminum sheet.

402 ◾ Introduction to Industrial Automation

10.24 Inlet and Outlet Rate Monitoring of Transferred

Objects In and Out of a Process Machine
The transportation system of a processing station, which includes two independent conveyor belts
M1 and M2, is shown in Figure 10.24. The first conveyor part inserts objects in the station and
the second part removes the processed objects. Two sensors PS1 and PS2 detect the incoming and
outgoing items respectively. Write an automation program so that the PLC stores the current
counting of processed objects, based on what will regulate the operation of the transportation
system and specifically:

1. The conveyor belt M1 starts to operate via the switch RS0-1.

2. If there are objects, one or more, in the processing station, then M2 also operates.
3. If there are more than five objects inside the station, then the M1 stops, and starts automati-
cally again when objects become less than five.
4. If there are no objects in the station, then M2 stops.
5. If the conveyor M1 has stopped for a period exceeding 30 s, then the current counting is
zeroed, considering that in the existing station the objects have been destroyed.
6. With the switch RS0-1 open, both conveyors stop.

10.25 A Metal Plate Rolling Mill Machine

and Control of Their Thickness
Figure 10.25 shows an arrangement for rolling metal plates. The hot metal is pushed and squeezed
by two driving rollers A and B through which a metal sheet with thickness d = 5 mm (under ideal
conditions) is produced. The compression roller A may apply (simultaneously with the rotation)
three different forces F-1A, F0A, and F+1A via the activation of relays C1, C2, and C3 respectively, and
for which F-1A < F0A < F+1A is valid. The compression roller B may apply two different forces, F0B
and F+1B, via the activation of the relays C4 and C5, respectively, and for which F0B < F+1B is valid.
The thickness of the metal sheet is measured with a suitable analog sensor, the measurement of

+24 V DC
M1 M2
PS1 PS2 RS0–1 PS1 PS2
Processing
station 0V

Inputs

I1.0 I2.1 I2.2

PLC
Q3.1 Q3.2
Outputs

M1 M2
+24 V DC
0V

Figure 10.24 Rate monitoring of transferred objects in a process machine.

 Industrial Applications ◾ 403

+24 V DC
Thickness
Start Stop transducer
F0A F0B
0V
Hot metal
Digital Analog
inputs inputs
I0.0 I0.2 Ch.1 d
PLC
Q1.0 Q2.0 Q3.0 Q4.0 Q5.0 Ch.1 Pressing B
Digital
outputs
Analog
outputs A rollers
Produced
C4, C5 metal plate
+24 V DC
C1 C2 C3 C4 C5 C1, C2, C3
0V
F-1A F0A F+1A F0B F+1B

Figure 10.25 Metal plate rolling mill machine.

which is stored in the word memory MW100 of the PLC. Write the required PLC program in
Boolean language that will adjust the thickness of the produced sheet (the conditions are never
optimal) in accordance with the following specifications:

1. When the measured thickness is d = 5 mm, then the nominal forces F0A and F0B are applied.
2. When 5 < d ≤ 5.1 mm, the applied force is increased in roller B.
3. When d > 5.1 mm, the applied force is increased in both rollers.
4. When d < 5 mm, the applied force is decreased in roller A, while roller B applies the nominal
force.
5. The operation starts by pressing the START button, and initially the nominal forces F0A and
F0B are applied. By pressing the STOP button, both rollers cease to operate.

10.26 An Object Painting and Transporting System

Figure 10.26 shows a painting layout of objects that are transported on the conveyor belt M1.
For the color-dye injection system to function properly, the air pressure inside the tank should be
between the limit values of 3 and 4 bar. The air pressure inside the tank is measured with the help
of the pressure transducer P (the measured value is stored in MW 200–analog input 0–10 V) and
is regulated by a simple ON-OFF control of compressor M2. This means that:
◾◾ If P ≥ 4 bar, then M2 = OFF.
◾◾ If P < 3 bar, then M2 = ON and remains ON until P = 4 bar.
1. The whole layout is put into operation (or pause) via the switch RS0-1.
2. The conveyor belt M1 operates continuously (if RS0-1 = ON) until an object is moved under-
neath the painting nozzle and is detected by the photocell PC, then it stops.
3. On the condition that the pressure is 3–4 bar and the compressor M2 is not operating, the
valve V is energized for 3 s, which results in the spraying of color liquid on the object, i.e.,
painting the object.
4. After the elapse of 3 s, the valve V closes and the conveyor belt M1 starts to operate again,
until the next object arrives and the same process is repeated.
404 ◾ Introduction to Industrial Automation

M2

P
+24 V DC Air
Reset
RS0–1 PC Painting
liquid
0V 0–10 V
Digital Analog
inputs inputs
V
I0.0 I0.2 I0.4 Ch.1
PLC
Q1.0 Q2.0 Q3.0 Q4.0 Ch.1 PC
Digital Analog
outputs outputs

M1
+24 V DC
0V
M1 M2 V H

Figure 10.26 Object pointing and transporting system.

5. When 100 objects have been painted, the indicator H lights turn on and the conveyor belt
stops. The pressure inside the tank continues to be controlled. By pressing the reset button,
the conveyor belt starts again for the painting of the second 100 objects and so on.
The painting layout is controlled by a PLC, and for this operation, the overall automation should
be programmed in a preferable language.

10.27 A Multiple Bottle Packing Station

A bottle packing station can accept bottles from three different bottling lines (M1–M3) that pro-
duce different products, as shown in Figure 10.27. The station packs bottles each time from one
bottling line only, and they are forwarded toward it through the central conveyor belt M0. Slat
chain conveyors M1–M3 of bottling lines operate continuously and transfer bottles regardless of
whether these are packaged or not. The movement of bottles that are not packaged is blocked from
the corresponding movable barriers, whose open position is detected via the limit switches b1–b3
and is caused by the activation of the solenoids So1–So3. In order to avoid an error in the packaging
procedure with products of different type on the same crate, the conveyor M0 operates automati-
cally (without a START-STOP command) if only one barrier is open. If for any reason, two or
three barriers are found opened at the same time, the conveyor M0 should immediately be stopped
and the relative indicator H (meaning wrong packaging) should be activated. In such a case, the
continuation of the packaging process is achieved by the intervention of an operator, which will
remove the wrong bottles and manually will close the barrier that caused the problem.
When a crate has been fed with 12 bottles, then the conveyor belt M4 must be enabled for 4 s in
order for the filled crate to be removed, and a new empty crate to be placed from another machine,
the operation of which does not interest us. During the time interval of 4 s, the conveyor belt M0
remains stopped.
The packaging process starts with the closing of the switch RS0-1. The opening of the latter
results in an interruption of operation only if the current packaging order has been completed.
 Industrial Applications ◾ 405

Big bottle Tiny bottle Big bottle

liquid 1 liquid 2 liquid 2
M1 M2 M3

Packing station
So1 So2 So3

b1 b2 b3
M4

S1 M0
S2 S3
M0

S4 S4=Detects bottles passing to the crate

S1–S3=Detect bottles passing to M0

+24 V DC
RS0-1

Stop S1 S2 S3 S4 b1 b2 b3
0V

Inputs

I1.0 I1.1 I4.1 I4.2 I4.3 I4.4 I5.1 I5.2 I5.3

PLC
Q2.0 Q2.1 Q2.2 Q2.3 Q2.4 Q3.1 Q3.2 Q3.3 Q6.0
Outputs

M0 M1 M2 M3 M4 So1 So2 So3 H

+24 V DC

0V

Figure 10.27 Multiple bottle packing station.

If any operating accident happens, then the pressing of the pushbutton emergency stop causes a
general discontinuation, regardless of the point at which the packaging process is running.
The packaging process refers to the complete execution of a packaging order including a triple
of crates from all the produced products (e.g., n1, n2, and n3), depending on each customer’s desire.
This means that after closing the switch RS0-1, the station will have to pack n1 crates with products
from M1, n2 crates with products from M2, and n3 crates with products from M3.
A PLC program for this industrial application should be parametric to n1, n2, and n3. As a first
approach to the problem however, you are prompted to write the required program that imple-
ments a specific order such as (2, 1, and 3).

10.28 A Barrel-Filling System for Dry Bulk Material

Figure 10.28 shows a dry bulk material barrel-filling system. The filling process involves the trans-
portation of barrels through the conveyor belt, the automatic positioning of the barrels, and their
filling based on a level detection. The sequence of actions to fill a barrel is as follows:
1. Initially, the lights in the standby indicator (after putting PLC in run mode) turn on.
2. The filling process is activated by pressing the START button. Then the conveyor belt
starts to operate (motor) by bringing empty barrels and the run indicator turns on, while
406 ◾ Introduction to Industrial Automation

+24 V DC
Start Stop PC
Level Bulk material silo
switch Run
0V

Inputs Standby
I1.0 I1.1 I2.0 I3.0
PLC
Q4.0 Q5.0 Q6.1 Q6.2 Q6.3 Full
Outputs

+24 V DC Stop
0V Knife gate valve
Start
coil
Motor

Valve

Run

barrel
Standby

Full

Level
switch

Motor
PC

Figure 10.28 Barrel-filling machine for dry bulk material.

the standby indicator turns off. The filling process and the conveyor belt cease to operate
if the STOP button is pressed. Then the run and standby indicators change their status of
indication.
3. When a barrel reaches the proper position, which is detected by the photocell PC, the con-
veyor belt stops. With the barrel in the correct position, and the conveyor belt stopped, the
knife gate valve is energized, and the dry bulk material falls into the barrel.
4. The knife gate valve will be disabled and the filling of the barrel will stop when the level
switch is energized. Then, the indicator full turns on and will remain lit until the filled barrel
is removed from the PC.
5. Once a barrel is filled (level sensor signal), the conveyor belt operates again in order to
remove the filled barrel and to bring the next empty barrel, and so on. The next barrel arrival
is a timely random event.
This automation problem can be further extended by adding the need for the kind of product and
filling recipe selection in the PLC program.

10.29 An Electro-Pneumatic System for Pickup

and Lay Down of Plastic Containers
Figure 10.29 shows a pickup and lay down mechanism of plastic cheese storage containers. The
mechanism includes a special swivel bracket M1 that initially is in a horizontal position, a pneu-
matic valve V for creating suction (vacuum), two proximity switches that detect the horizontal
 Industrial Applications ◾ 407

Injection
M1

machine
molding

FETA
+24 V DC
PS2
PS1 Start Stop
PS1 PS2
0V

Ten FETA Inputs

containers I0.1 I0.2 I3.1 I3.2

PLC
FETA Q2.1 Q2.2 Q3.0 Q4.0
Outputs

FETA M1 M1 M2 V
+24 V DC
Down Up
0V

M2

1st container fell 10th container fell

Start

ON
PS1
OFF

Suction
V

Down
M1 motion
10 times
Repeat

Up
motion
ON
PS2
OFF

M2 3s

One second delay, time interval which must be

measured in order for the next logic action to take place

Figure 10.29 Electro-pneumatic system for pickup and lay down of plastic containers.

and vertical position of the bracket M1, and the conveyor belt M2 for deposition and removal of
container stacks. The sequence of evolved operations is as follows:

◾◾ With the bracket in horizontal position and by pressing the START button, a vacuum is
created (V=On).
◾◾ The plastic container is sucked from the injection molding machine. Following a delay of 1 s,
the bracket (M1) moves downward, and once detected by PS2, the vacuum stops (V=Off).
◾◾ Following a delay of 1 s, the bracket moves upwards.
◾◾ Once detected by the PS1 the vacuum is activated again (V=On), and the same process is
repeated 10 times.
408 ◾ Introduction to Industrial Automation

◾◾ The conveyor belt M2 operates for a time window of 3 s, removing the stack of 10 plastic
containers that has been created.
◾◾ After 3 s passes, the entire process is repeated to create the second stack of containers and
so on.
◾◾ After pressing the STOP button, at any current stage of the operation, the mechanism stops
and the bracket comes to a horizontal position.

The exact sequence of the individual actions is illustrated in detail in the diagram shown in
Figure 10.29. It is recommended that the required PLC program be written in Boolean or IL
language.
Appendix A: Arithmetic
Systems

A.1 Introduction to Arithmetic Systems

Although knowledge related to arithmetic systems is the subject of books with mathematical or
computer content, some basic issues of arithmetic systems are included in this book because it is
absolutely necessary for an understanding of the operation and programming of PLCs. On the
other hand, the reader’s knowledge of arithmetic systems is usually satisfactory from basic com-
puter courses, and it is much more necessary in using PLCs than personal computers. Even the
most numerate user of a PC does not often come into contact with the concept of a “bit” since
there is no such need. In contrast, in the world of PLCs, the programmer of an automation system
starts with the utilization of bits, continued by integers, real numbers, or hexadecimal numbers,
and ends again with the utilization of bits. The basic reason for this is the fact that the majority of
devices that a PLC controls are of a binary status (binary digits or bits, such as 0 or 1, ON or OFF).
Moreover, there are indication devices operating in a BCD code, where they are used, among oth-
ers, in the octal system for the input/output address and corresponding program instructions for
bit to bit operations, etc. Therefore, someone who knows the arithmetic systems and codes better
will have an easier time programming and making use of even the most specialized instructions.
An arithmetic system is a code of symbols which are assigned a quantity. From the moment the
code has been defined and memorized, it can be used to measure any quantity. The decimal arith-
metic system uses ten basic (primordial) symbols or digits, where each digit represents a certain
quantity. When several digits are grouped together, then larger quantities can be measured. The
base of an arithmetic system is called the number of the primordial symbols or digits of the system.
All arithmetic systems use position weighting to express the significance of each digit in a group.

A.2 Decimal Arithmetic System

In a decimal arithmetic system, ten unique digits or numbers are used, from 0 to 9, and hence the
base is 10. The value of a decimal number depends on the amount of digits and the position weight
of each digit. The first position to the immediate left of the decimal point corresponds to units,
which follows that of decades, hundreds, etc., as shown in Figure A.1. Each position value can be
expressed as a power of 10, starting from 100 to the left and 10 –1 to the right of the decimal point.

409
410 ◾ Appendix A

Decimal number 6 0 5 3 . 6 2

1/100
1000

1/10
100
Position value

10
1
Position value as

10–1
10–2
103
102
101
100
power of 10
6000
Multiplication of 0
decimal digit and 50
position value 3
0.7
0.02
Decimal number 6053.62

Figure A.1 Decimal number system.

A.3 Binary Arithmetic System

The binary arithmetic system uses the two digits 0 and 1, so its base is 2. Any number can be
expressed as a combination of digits 0 and 1. In order for an electronic circuit to process numbers,
which is called a “digital circuit”, it is necessary to join the numbers with corresponding electric
voltage signals. Therefore, if a digital device, such as the PLC, were to process decimal numbers,
then ten different voltages would be required, one voltage level for each digit. Consequently, each
decimal number will be expressed by a combination of these ten voltage levels. The implementa-
tion of a digital circuit for processing decimal numbers, due to many electric elements needed for
creating the ten different voltages, will lead to a very complex circuitry. For this reason, to avoid
complex electronic circuits, the binary arithmetic system is the most suitable for developing digital
circuits for processing numbers, since only two voltage levels are required. Assuming that 5 V and
0 V represent the digits 1 and 0 correspondingly, a four-digit binary number (such as 1011) will
be represented electronically by the combination of voltages 5 V, 0 V, 5 V, and 5 V, which can be
recognized by a processor. It is widely known that a combination of eight binary digits (bits) is
called a “byte” and a combination of 16 binary digits is called a “word”.
The position weighting that is assigned to each digit of the binary number, due to the base 2,
will be doubled for each step to the left of the number, with the first right position to correspond
to the value 1 (20). As in the case of the decimal arithmetic system, all the position values of the
binary arithmetic system can be expressed as powers of two, as shown in Figure A.2. The digit of

Binary number 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
2

Position value
128
64
32
16
8
4
2
1

Position value as
power of 2 27 26 25 24 23 22 21 20

Multiplication of binary
128
64
32
16
8
4
2
1

digit and position value +

Decimal number 23910

Figure A.2 Binary system of numbers and their conversion to the decimal system.
 Appendix A ◾ 411

Decimal number Binary number

23910 1 1 1 0 1 1 1 1
2

239
119 Remainder 1
2

119 59 Remainder 1
2
59
29 Remainder 1
2
29
14 Remainder 1
2
14
7 Remainder 0
2
7
3 Remainder 1
2
3
1 Remainder 1
2
1
0 Remainder 1
2

Figure A.3 Conversion of a decimal number to binary.

a binary number with the lowest position value is called the “least significant bit” or LSB, while
the digit with the highest position value is called the “most significant bit” or MSB. In order to
convert a decimal number to a binary one, the procedure illustrated in Figure A.3 is followed. This
means dividing successively the decimal number by 2 and denoting the remainders 0 or 1 as digits
of the binary number.

A.3.1 Negative Numbers
The CPU of various PLCs process the analog values in a binary form only. Analog input modules
convert the analog process signal into digital form, and analog output modules convert the digital
output value into an analog signal. The representation of a digitized analog value depends on the
number of used bits (resolution), which has to include both positive and negative numbers. In the
decimal arithmetic system, negative or positive numbers are denoted with a minus or plus sign
in front of them, which means that each number has two parts: the sign that is a symbol and the
magnitude. Therefore, this method of digitized value representation is not applicable in a digital
device like the PLC.
The simplest method to represent a negative number as a binary number is to use an extra digit,
called a “sign bit”, which usually is the fifteenth bit (MSB) for a 16-bit resolution. If the sign bit is
0 (1), this means that the number is positive (negative), such as the signed binary numbers shown
in Figure A.4.
A second method for the representation of negative numbers in a digital device is to use
the complement of a binary number, and particularly the one’s complement or two’s comple-
ment. When a binary number, has the value 1 the complement is 0 and vice versa, that is called
the one’s complement. For example, the one’s complement of the binary number 0110 is 1001.
412 ◾ Appendix A

Binary Decimal
number number
Magnitude
Sign
0 1 1 1 +7
0 1 1 0 +6
0 1 0 1 +5
0 1 0 0 +4
0 0 1 1 +3
0 0 1 0 +2
0 0 0 1 +1
0 0 0 0 +0
1 0 0 1 –1
1 0 1 0 –2
1 0 1 1 –3
1 1 0 0 –4
1 1 0 1 –5
1 1 1 0 –6
1 1 1 1 –7

Figure A.4 Signed binary numbers.

The magnitude of a negative number represented with regard to one’s complement is the one’s
complement of the corresponding positive number magnitude. Some examples of negative num-
bers represented in one’s complement, are shown in Figure A.5.
The two’s complement of a binary number is the sum of one’s complement plus 1, as expressed
by Equation A.1,

2’s complement = 1’s complement + 1 (A.1)

Binary Decimal 1’s complement

number number
Magnitude Magnitude
Sign
1 0 0 1 –1 1 1 1 0
1 0 1 0 –2 1 1 0 1
1 0 1 1 –3 1 1 0 0
1 1 0 0 –4 1 0 1 1
1 1 0 1 –5 1 0 1 0
1 1 1 0 –6 1 0 0 1
1 1 1 1 –7 1 0 0 0
Sign

Figure A.5 Representation of negative numbers using the complement of a binary number
(one’s complement).
 Appendix A ◾ 413

PLCs use the two’s complement to perform subtraction of two binary numbers, which means
that the subtraction is replaced by an additive operation, as clarified by Equation A.2,

(7)10 − (5)10 = (7)10 + (−5)10 = (0111)2 + (1011)2 = (0010)2 = (2)10

2’s complement
(A.2)

The subtraction operation using the two’s complement facilitates its implementation in a PLC,
since the same digital circuit will perform both addition and subtraction.

A.4 Binary-Coded Decimal Arithmetic System (BCD)

In a binary-coded decimal arithmetic system, each digit of a decimal number is coded via a four-
digit binary number. This definition means that each digit of a decimal number is simply substi-
tuted by the corresponding binary number, as in the following example,
4510

01002 01012

In the past, computer systems had specific units for the execution of the arithmetic operations
between BCD numbers in order to overcome memory storage problems. In some PLCs today, the
BCD arithmetic system is even supported since it is compatible with the operation of some output
devices as an indication display device, or input devices as an arithmetic switch. Figure A.6 shows
an example of converting a BCD number to an equivalent decimal number.

A.5 Octal Arithmetic System

The octal arithmetic system is used by some manufacturers of PLCs, such as Allen-Bradley and
Siemens, for addressing their digital inputs and outputs. The octal system uses the numbers 0
through 7 and hence has a base 8. The position weighting values of the octal system are derived
in a similar way as that applied to the binary and decimal systems. Starting from the first right
position with value the null power of 8 (80), the value at each next x position increases by the x

BCD number 0 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 0 0 1

Position value 8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1 8 4 2 1

Position value as
power of 2 23 22 21 20 23 22 21 20 23 22 21 20

Multiplication of BCD
0 4 0 0 + 0 0 2 1 + 8 0 0 1 +
digit and position value

Decimal number 4 3 910

Figure A.6 Conversion of a BCD number to a decimal.

414 ◾ Appendix A

Octal number 2 5 7
8

Position value 64 8 1

Position value as
power of 8 82 81 80

Multiplication of octal

128
40
7
digit and position value +

Decimal number 17510

Figure A.7 Conversion of an octal number to a decimal.

power of 8. Figure A.7 shows an example of converting an octal number to an equivalent decimal
number and the three first-position values.
The conversion of a decimal number to an octal number is performed by successive divisions
of the decimal number by 8 and denoting the remainders as digits of the octal number. The first
remainder corresponds to the least-significant digit of the octal number. An example of such a
conversion procedure is the following:

215/8 = 26 with remainder 7

26/8 = 3 with remainder 2

3/8 = 0 with remainder 3, therefore the octal number is 3278.

Since the largest one-digit number of the octal system is 7, three binary bits are enough to repre-
sent each of the eight digits of the octal system. The conversion of an octal number to an equiva-
lent binary number is performed by replacing each octal digit by its 3-bit binary equivalent, as
shown in Figure A.8.
The octal arithmetic system is the most user-friendly, since it is harmonized to the 8-bit general
digital structure, independently of the 8-bit or 16-bit or 64-bit structure of memories and micro-
processors. The manufacturers of large industrial PLCs use the octal arithmetic system to address
words and bit locations in their memory as also digital I/O modules usually in groups of 4, 8, and
16 inputs/outputs. Therefore, is easy for a user to know an individual single bit of the memory to
which digital input or output corresponds among the various I/O modules.

Octal number 2 5 7
8

Binary
0 1 0 1 0 1 1 1 1
number 2

Figure A.8 Conversion of an octal number to binary.

 Appendix A ◾ 415

A.6 Hexadecimal Arithmetic System

Another arithmetic system that is widely used in PLCs and PCs is the hexadecimal arithmetic
system, also often referred to as HEX. This system has a base 16, which means that it uses 16-digit
symbols that take decimal values from 0 to 15. But because it will create confusion if a hexadeci-
mal digit consisted of two numbers, the digits from 10 to 15 are represented by the letters of the
alphabet A to F, as shown in Table A.1. For example, the hypothetical number 1516 is not clear
what expresses, because may be the hexadecimal 15 (equivalent decimal value 15) or two discrete
digits, the hexadecimal 1 and the hexadecimal 5, which have an equivalent decimal value of 21.
Although the use of letters in the hexadecimal system seems complicated at first sight, the hexa-
decimal code is the most appropriate for the digital representation of numbers. The reason is that
it is possible with two hexadecimal digits to represent all the decimal numbers from 0 to 255 (0 to
FF), while in a binary arithmetic system 8 binary bits or 1 byte are required.
The position weighting values of the hexadecimal system are derived in a similar way to that
applied to binary and decimal systems. Starting from the first right position with the null power
value of 16 (160), the value at each position of a hexadecimal digit rises to the left of the LSB by
a power of 16. Converting a decimal number to a hexadecimal one becomes with subsequent

Table A.1 The Hexadecimal Digits and Their Equivalents

in Both Binary and Decimal Systems
Hexadecimal Decimal
Binary Number
Number Number

0 0 0 0 0 0

1 0 0 0 1 1

2 0 0 1 0 2

3 0 0 1 1 3

4 0 1 0 0 4

5 0 1 0 1 5

6 0 1 1 0 6

7 0 1 1 1 7

8 1 0 0 0 8

9 1 0 0 1 9

A 1 0 1 0 10

B 1 0 1 1 11

C 1 1 0 0 12

D 1 1 0 1 13

E 1 1 1 0 14

F 1 1 1 1 15
416 ◾ Appendix A

Hexadecimal number 1 2 3 E
16

4096
Position value

256
16
1
Position value as
power of 16 163 162 161 160

Multiplication of

4096
512
48
14
hexadecimal digit and +
position value

Decimal number 467010

Figure A.9 Conversion of a hexadecimal number to a decimal.

divisions of the decimal number by 16, and by denoting the remainders of divisions as the digits
of the hexadecimal number, as in the following example for decimal 4670:

4670/16 = 291 with remainder 14 (=E)

291/16 = 18 with remainder 3

18/16 = 1 with remainder 2

1/16 = 0 with remainder 1, therefore hexadecimal number is 123E16

The conversion of a hexadecimal number to a decimal number is performed by a procedure sim-

ilar to this, which was applied in previous arithmetic systems, such as the one shown in Figure A.9.
Finally, the conversion of a hexadecimal number to a binary number is done with a simple replace-
ment of each hexadecimal digit with its equivalent binary form of 4-bits, according to Table A.1.

A.6.1 Parity Checking
Arithmetic digital data, independently of the utilized arithmetic system and the way that they
are represented, do not stay static at some memory location of a digital device, but instead they
are transported from one point to another. Digital data are transferred continuously, especially in
PLCs, mainly due to the real-time control that PLCs perform (such as from a PLC to a peripheral
device, from a PLC to another PLC via a communication network, etc.). It is very likely for a single
bit of binary data to change value from 1 to 0, due to electromagnetic noise or a transitional phe-
nomenon, or any other imponderable reason. For the proper detection of a possible error during
the transmission or storage of binary data, the parity checking technique is applied which consists
of adding an extra bit, called a parity bit, in the transferred data word.

Even Parity. The parity bit is added to the transferred data is such way that the total number of
units (1) are even. For example, if the byte 01010100 is transmitted, then the parity bit 1 has
to be added and becomes 010101001.
Odd Parity. The parity bit is added to the transferred data in such a way that the total number
of units (1) are odd. For example, if the byte 01010100 is transmitted, then the parity bit 0
has to be added and becomes 010101000.
 Appendix A ◾ 417

When receiving or reading the transmitted data word, the total number of units (1) are checked
if they are even or odd, and thus it is determined whether there was an error in data transmission.
When establishing a communication connection between two PLCs, the user is usually invited to
select an even or odd parity in the corresponding software environment.

A.7 ASCII Code
A digital device, such as a computer or a PLC, should have the ability to process anything, except
for numbers and letters, since this functionality is needed for enabling the programming of the
PLC with text commands (e.g., an instruction AND). As in the case of numbers being represented
based on an arithmetic system in a binary form that can be processed by a PLC, letters should
also be represented in binary format. For this purpose, the coding of the letters of the alphabet
and other symbols used to write text has been provided by the introduction of the ASCII code
(American Standard Code for Information Language). Based on the ASCII code, 7 bits were ini-
tially used to represent the various letters and symbols. Since the number of letters and symbols
surpassed the maximum 128 (27), which could cover the 7 bits, an eighth bit was added. A table
with ASCII codes is not listed here, because it is a well-known issue and they appear in many
books for someone who would like more details.

A.8 Gray Code
Gray code is a binary encoding method that does not use the position weighting of a digit like the
other arithmetic systems do. Gray code defines only the transition from one number to the next
where only one bit changes its status, and for this reason is not applicable in any types of arith-
metical operations. However, it does have some applications in analog to digital converters and in
some input/output devices as the encoders. In binary coding, two or more contiguous bits change
their status to express a decimal number incremented by one; for instance, when going from 7
to 8 (0111 to 1000) there are four bits changing their state. In Gray coding, only one bit changes
its status to express the same increment. For this reason, Gray code is ideal for use in PLCs and
computers. In principle, it is the code that shows the minimum possible error because when only
one bit changes from one state to another, the probability of error is drastically reduced. For the
same reason, the transmission speed of Gray code is comparatively higher than others such as the
BCD code. In Table A.2, Gray 4-bit codes are shown in relation to the equivalent binary codes
for comparison purpose.
In the industrial world, automation technology, robotics, and especially in PLCs, Gray code
is encountered often because the position encoders that base their operation on it may be input
devices of a digital controller or PLC simultaneously. The position encoders (rotary and linear,
absolute and incremental) have all been presented in Section 2.3.7. In general, position encoders
connected to a PLC apply a pulse in an input module, which follows Gray code, i.e., only one bit
changes at each step of a shaft rotation (rotary encoders) or linear movement of a machine carriage
(linear encoders).
This appendix will end with a brief reference to the digital representation form of the num-
bers in PLCs. Generally in computers, the numbers are represented either as fixed-point or
418 ◾ Appendix A

Table A.2 Gray Code and Binary Equivalents

Gray Code Binary Number

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1

0 0 1 1 0 0 1 0

0 0 1 0 0 0 1 1

0 1 1 0 0 1 0 0

0 1 1 1 0 1 0 1

0 1 0 1 0 1 1 0

0 1 0 0 0 1 1 1

1 1 0 0 1 0 0 0

1 1 0 1 1 0 0 1

1 1 1 1 1 0 1 0

1 1 1 0 1 0 1 1

1 0 1 0 1 1 0 0

1 0 1 1 1 1 0 1

1 0 0 1 1 1 1 0

1 0 0 0 1 1 1 1

floating-point numbers. In PLCs, both arithmetic possibilities are offered to a user. Specifically,
most medium or large PLCs support the processing of:

◾◾ Single-precision integers (16-bit numbers with a range of values from –32768 to 32767)
◾◾ Double-precision integers (32-bit numbers with a range of values from –2147438648 to
2147438647)
◾◾ Floating point real numbers of single precision (32-bit numbers with a range of values from
–3,402823E+38 to 3,402824E+38)

It should be noted that the alteration of an arithmetic operation from another one (e.g., for
single-precision integers from the corresponding double-precision integers) is performed using dif-
ferent programing instructions, such as the instructions +I and +D for this example, respectively.
In Chapter 7, instructions have not been included for all kinds of numeric representation for the
same reasons that have been explained regarding the advisability of the instructions included in
Table 2.1.
Appendix B: Analog I/O
Values Scaling

B.1 PLC Analog I/O Values Scaling

During the programming task of an automation application, including the processing of analog val-
ues, it is necessary to address some secondary issues, such as the violation of limits of an analog input,
the scaling-conversion of analog I/O range into units of physical magnitude (also called engineering
units), the overflow or underflow of digital arithmetic limits (>32768 or <−32768), etc. The correct or
incorrect operation of the PLC program depends on proper knowledge of these issues. In the operation
manuals with the technical characteristics of the PLC’s analog I/O modules, one can find the required
information concerning the digital representation of analog values for all the standard analog ranges
that an analog module can accept, the measurement or overload limits of the A/D or D/A converter,
and also the manner of address. Here, reference will be provided only to the analog value scaling that
is illustrated in Figure B.1, and expresses the need for a human operator to use engineering units.
Let’s assume that a temperature transducer has an analog output 0–10 V DC that is connected
to an analog input of a PLC. The output voltage of the transducer is proportional to the tempera-
ture range 100 °C to 500 °C. The transducer measures the temperature of a thermal process, which
should fluctuate from 250 °C to 300 °C by applying the required control. Figure B.2 illustrates the
whole scaling procedure, particularly the linear relation between the input (voltage) and the out-
put (arithmetic value that expresses °C). In the diagram, the maximum voltage 10 V corresponds
to the arithmetic value 32767, but in some PLCs, this may be 27648 or another arithmetic limit,
depending on the existence or absence of an overflow or over-range detection. The input/output
linear relation is expressed by the following equations:
Scaled Output Value = (Input Voltage × Slope) + Offset (B.1)

Max Scaled Value – Min Scaled Value

Slope = (B.2)
Max Input Value – Min Scaled Value

Offset = Min Scaled Value – (Min Input × Slope) (B.3)

What is needed in the sequence, is to determine which voltage values correspond to the tem-
perature limits (250 °C and 300 °C) that are controlled in order not to be violated. The calculation
is based on Equation B.1, which is solved for “Input Voltage”,

Input Voltage = (Scaled Output Value – Offset)/Slope (B.4)

419
 420 ◾ Appendix B

PLC
16 16 16 4
C DO DO DO AI C C
P P P
PS U 1 2
B
Scaling 010010100110
156 kg

230 V 230 V 230 V 0–10 V

Load cell

Indication Scaling to Binary number Voltage Weight

physical unit expressing voltage
0–200 kg 0–200 kg 0-32767 0–10 V 0–200 kg

Figure B.1 The scaling of an analog value is a necessary procedure to convert numeric data
into meaningful units of the corresponding physical variable.

Maximum
Scaling into physical variable value

scaled 500 °C
value

Desired operation zone

300 °C
250 °C

Minimum
scaled 100 °C
value

Low High
0 = 0 V DC 32767 = 10 V DC
limit limit
Minimum input value Maximum input value
Input value

Figure B.2 Diagram for derivation of the scaling formula.

Applying Equation B.4 for the two temperature limit values, it is derived that,

Low Limit = (250 – 100)/(400/32767) = 12287

and

High Limit = (300 – 100)/(400/32767) = 16393

In some PLCs, system function blocks perform the required scaling operation. Otherwise,
based on the above scaling equations, one has to program either the control of the temperature or
any other simpler application as the indication of temperature in a digital panel, and then incor-
porate the required instructions to the whole PLC program of the automation.