Module 1

MATHEMATICS

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 M1.3 – Geometry
GOALS
Simple geometric constructions.
Graphical representation, nature and uses of graphs, graphs
of equations/functions.
Simple trigonometry, trigonometric relations, use of tables
and rectangular and polar coordinates.

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 Geometry
Areas (calculation of areas of 2D solids)
- Rectangle and square.

Rectangle Square

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 Geometry
Areas (calculation of areas of 2D solids)
- Triangle.

It is a geometric figure with 3 sides.

The sum of the angles in a triangle is always equal to 180°,
however the amplitude of the angles in a triangle can vary, which
causes the triangles to be classified by the length of their sides and
corresponding amplitudes.

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 Geometry
Areas (calculation of areas of 2D solids)
- Classification of triangles.

Equilateral
As the name implies, the three sides of the triangle are equal in
length to each other and each angle has an amplitude of 60°.

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 Geometry
Areas (calculation of areas of 2D solids)
- Classification of triangles.

Isosceles
This triangle has two equal sides in length between them and two
angles with the same amplitude.

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 Geometry
Areas (calculation of areas of 2D solids)
- Classification of triangles.

Scalene
This triangle has 3 sides of different lengths from each other, also
having different angles from each other.

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 Geometry
Areas (calculation of areas of 2D solids)
- Classification of triangles.

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 Geometry
Areas (calculation of areas of 2D solids)
- Triangle.

The area of a triangle can be determined using the following

formula (the triangle is considered to be half of a rectangle).

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 Geometry
Areas (calculation of areas of 2D solids)
- Parallelogram.

A parallelogram is a four-sided polygon (quadrilateral) whose

opposite sides are parallel. A parallelogram does not necessarily
have to have all four right angles.

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 Geometry
Areas (calculation of areas of 2D solids)
- Trapeze.

A trapeze is a four-sided geometric figure with a pair of parallel

sides.

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 Geometry
Areas (calculation of areas of 2D solids)
- Circle.

A circle is a closed, flat curve. Each point of the circle is at the same
distance from the center of the circle.

It is denominated of:
- Radius: The distance between the center of the circle to the
curve of the circle.
- Diameter: The diameter is the length of the line through the
center that touches two points on the edge of the circle.

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 Geometry
Areas (calculation of areas of 2D solids)
- Circle.

The perimeter of the circle, or circumference, is defined as the

contour of the circle and can be determined by the following
formula:

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 Geometry
Areas (calculation of areas of 2D solids)
- Circle.

The area of the circle is determined by the following formula:

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 Geometry
Areas (calculation of areas of 2D solids)
- Ellipse.

Like the circle, it is a flat closed and curved figure, but it does not
have the same diameter distance along the figure (the diameter is
variable). This figure is often referred to as "oval".

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 Geometry
Volumes (calculation of volumes of 3D solids)
- Parallelepiped.

The parallelepiped can be described as a solid rectangle that holds

six fixed sides of rectangular shape.

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 Geometry
Volumes (calculation of volumes of 3D solids)
- Cube.

The cube can be described as a body that holds six equal square-
shaped sides. The cube is a special case of the parallelepiped, so
the equation to be applied to determine the volume is the same.

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 Geometry
Volumes (calculation of volumes of 3D solids)
- Cylinder.

The cylinder has the shape of a tube (or barrel) and ends with two
circles of the same diameter.

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 Geometry
Volumes (calculation of volumes of 3D solids)
- Sphere.

A sphere can be described simply as a solid in the form of a ball.

This solid body has a constant radius and corresponds to half the
value of the diameter (D).

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 Geometry
Volumes (calculation of volumes of 3D solids)
- Cone.

The cone can be defined as a solid that has a circle to serve as a

base and where the sides gradually join to a point. The volume of
this solid can be defined by the following equation:

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 Geometry
International System of Units (SI)

It is a standardized and systematized set of definitions for units of

measurement used in almost the entire modern world, in order to
standardize and facilitate measurements. Its adoption by different
countries is important because it facilitates the calculation and
exchange of information not only scientifically, but also
economically and politically.

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 Geometry
Basic concepts of geometry
- Angle (a).

It is defined as the figure formed by two lines that share the point
of intersection, called the vertex of the angle (we can define vertex
as the point that describes the intersections or "corners" of a
geometric figure).
There are two straight lines overlapping the positive side of the x-
axis and originating from the origin of the coordinates.
The amplitude of an angle is the "amount"
of rotation that separates the two lines,
considering that one of the lines runs
around the vertex.
Orthogonal reference

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 Geometry
Basic concepts of geometry
- Angle (a).

The angle of the two half-lines has an amplitude of zero degrees

(0°) and is usually represented by the symbol a (Greek letter
alpha).
The amplitude of an angle can be measured in degrees or
radians.

The angle of rotation in which the amplitude is measured is

associated with an angle:
- When the rotation is clockwise, the direction is negative.
- When the rotation is counter-clockwise, the direction is
positive.

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 Geometry
Basic concepts of geometry
- Angle (a).

At an angle to which a meaning is

assigned, it is called a directed
angle.

An angle is represented in a referential when:

- The origin side of the angle is superimposed on the positive
half-axis of the x's.
- The vertex of the angle coincides with the origin of the
coordinates.
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 Geometry
Basic concepts of geometry
- Classification of angles.

According to the amplitude an angle, one can classify:

A full circle, is the angle that executes full rotation relative to the
origin line of the angle, 360°.

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 Geometry
Basic concepts of geometry
- Pi number (π ).

This number, which is a mathematical constant, can be defined as a

ratio of the circumference to the diameter of a circle. This irrational
number has a value (rounded to the third decimal place) of 3.14.

Rounded to 31 decimal places, the pi value is:

3,141592653589793238462643383279

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 Trigonometry

Trigonometry is a branch of mathematics in which real functions

are studied and where the process of image determination involves
at least one trigonometric relation.

This branch of mathematics began to be developed in ancient

Greece, in the fourth century, V a.c (before Christ) with the main
purpose of solving astronomy problems. Over the centuries its
scope has been extended to other studies and measurements.

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry

Angle of a referencial
Considering an orthogonal reference (with two axes), four
quadrants can be defined:

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Measurement of na angle.

The amplitude of an angle can be measured in degrees or radians:

- The angle of rotation, which corresponds to the complete
rotation on the axis of origin of the angle, is 360 °.
- A zero angle has a value of 0 ° since no rotation is performed on
the axis of origin of the angle (the amplitude is zero).
The different values, in degrees, of the angles are observed,
corresponding to the intersection of the quadrants and considering
the counterclockwise direction.

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Measurement of na angle.

The amplitude of an angle can be measured in degrees or radians.

Radian is defined as being the amplitude of an angle to the center
whose corresponding arc has a length (perimeter) equal to the
radius of the circumference.

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Measurement of na angle.

To perform the change units of the system, the simplest process is

to execute the “rule of three” and consider that 180 °:

For simplicity of writing, we

usually put 2p instead of 2p
radians or 2p rad.

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Radians to degrees.

Example:
What is the value, in degrees, of 5 π ?
4
Knowing that there is the relation 180 ° = p, one can use the “rule
of three”.

Solving:

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Degrees to radians.

In order to change the system of units, the same system used in

the passage from radians to degrees is used. The relation of 180 ° =
p rad is used and a the “rule of three” is applied.

Example:
Determines the value in radians of the angle of 135°.
Knowing that there is the relation 180 ° = p, one can use the “rule
of three”:

Solving:

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Trigonometric Ratios.

In the referential it is represented the circumference of the center O

and with radius r. The angle α has one side coincident with the 1st
quadrant (positive side of the x's axis) and the other side intersects
the radius circle r at the point P (a, b.). Two measures were further
defined:
- a - distance from the y's axis (ordinates) to the intersection of the
point P on the x's (abscissa) axis.
- b - distance from the x's axis (abscissa) to the intersection of the
point P on the y's (ordinate) axis.

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Trigonometric Ratios.

Cosine of α (cos α).

- The cosine of angle α corresponds to the horizontal distance
from point P to the axis of x's, relative to the radius of the circle
r.

Sine of α (sen α).

- The sine of angle α corresponds to the perpendicular distance
of point P to the y-axis in relation to the radius of the circle r.

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 Trigonometria
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Trigonometric Ratios.

Tangent of α (tg α).

- The tangent of angle α corresponds to the perpendicular
distance of point P to the y's axis in relation to the horizontal
distance from point P to the x's axis.

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Trigonometric Ratios.

With the trigonometric circle defined, with the center at the point
O and of radius 1, we have schematically that:

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Trigonometric Ratios.

In a trigonometric circle, angles of different quadrants with vertex

at the origin of the coordinates, the value of the trigonometric
ratios does not depend on the radius of the circle. It can be seen
that according to the sine-angle and a-cosine definitions of angle
α, it is found that:

The tangent and the cotangent of an angle α can take any value
(negative or positive).
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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Trigonometric Ratios.

Co-tangent of α (ctg α)
- It is the inverse of the tangent of α.

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Sign conventions of trigonometric ratios.

The signal of a trigonometric ratio and its inverse depends only on

the signal of the coordinates of the point P associated with the
trigonometric circle.

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Sign conventions of trigonometric ratios.

The signal of a trigonometric ratio and its inverse depends only on

the signal of the coordinates of the point P associated with the
trigonometric circle.

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Sign conventions of trigonometric ratios.

As we have seen previously, in the trigonometric circle, the cosine

is equal to the abscissa of the associated point and the sine is
equal to the ordinate of the associated point. The tangent can be
understood by the ratio of the sine to the cosine.

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Sign conventions of trigonometric ratios.

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Pythagorean theorem.

This theorem states that the square of the hypotenuse (the side
opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the squares of
the other two sides.

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Pythagorean theorem (Example).

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Pythagorean theorem.

Through the Pythagorean theorem and with a trigonometric circle,

one can determine the fundamental equation.

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Polar coordinates.

Polar coordinates are another way of representing the

coordinates in x and y.
In order to study the polar
coordinates, it is enough to apply
basic trigonometry. For example in a
trigonometric circle, where the axis
of the abscissa (x-axis) and the y-
axis are defined, and the point of
interception of the axes as the point
0, we have:
- The point P that can be
expressed as: P (xp,yp).

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Polar coordinates.

Since the point P is inscribed in the circumference, it means that

there must be coordinates that can express the point P in relation
to the axes of x and y.
In order to determine the coordinates of the point P, a line
segment is drawn, starting at point 0 to point P. With this line
segment (designated r), several properties can be obtained, such
as angle between the x-axis and the straight line segment (angle q)
and the distance between point 0 and point P.
With the properties (r) and (q) and with the aid of trigonometry,
one can determine the points xp and yp, in which the point P. is
located.

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Polar coordinates.

Applying the trigonometric relations for our point P, we have:

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 Trigonometry
Basic concepts of trigonometry
- Polar coordinates.

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Trigonometry

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Questions ?
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