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IBM Lesson 2 - Multiple-Systems-Slides

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Understanding Quantum Information and Computation

Basics of quantum information

Lesson 2: Multiple systems

Contents

1. Classical information
2. Quantum information
• Quantum states
• Standard basis measurements
• Unitary operations
1. Classical information
Classical states
Suppose that we have two systems:
• X is a system having classical state set Σ.
• Y is a system having classical state set Γ .

Imagine that X and Y are placed side-by-side, with X on the left and Y on the
right, and viewed together as if they form a single system.

We denote this new compound system by (X, Y) or XY.

Question

What are the classical states of (X, Y)?

Answer

The classical state set of (X, Y) is the Cartesian product

Σ × Γ = {(a, b) ∶ a ∈ Σ and b ∈ Γ }
Classical states
Question

What are the classical states of (X, Y)?

Answer

The classical state set of (X, Y) is the Cartesian product

Σ × Γ = {(a, b) ∶ a ∈ Σ and b ∈ Γ }

Example

If Σ = {0, 1} and Γ = {♣, ♢, ♡, ♠}, then

Σ × Γ = {(0, ♣), (0, ♢), (0, ♡), (0, ♠), (1, ♣), (1, ♢), (1, ♡), (1, ♠)}
Classical states
This description generalizes to more than two systems in a natural way.

Suppose X1 , . . . , Xn are systems having classical state sets Σ1 , . . . , Σn ,

respectively.

The classical state set of the n-tuple (X1 , . . . , Xn ), viewed as a single

compound system, is the Cartesian product

Σ1 × ⋯ × Σn = {(a1 , . . . , an ) ∶ a1 ∈ Σ1 , . . . , an ∈ Σn }

Example

If Σ1 = Σ2 = Σ3 = {0, 1}, then the classical state set of (X1 , X2 , X3 ) is

Σ1 × Σ2 × Σ3 = {(0, 0, 0), (0, 0, 1), (0, 1, 0), (0, 1, 1),

(1, 0, 0), (1, 0, 1), (1, 1, 0), (1, 1, 1)}
Classical states
An n-tuple (a1 , . . . , an ) may also be written as a string a1 ⋯an .
Example

Suppose X1 , . . . , X10 are bits, so their classical state sets are all the
same:

Σ1 = Σ2 = ⋯ = Σ10 = {0, 1}

The classical state set of (X1 , . . . , X10 ) is the Cartesian product

10
Σ1 × Σ2 × ⋯ × Σ10 = {0, 1}
Classical states
An n-tuple (a1 , . . . , an ) may also be written as a string a1 ⋯an .
Example

The classical state set of (X1 , . . . , X10 ) is the Cartesian product

10
Σ1 × Σ2 × ⋯ × Σ10 = {0, 1}

Written as strings, these classical states look like this:

0000000000
0000000001
0000000010
0000000011
⋮
1111111111
Classical states
Convention

Cartesian products of classical state sets are ordered lexicographically

(i.e., dictionary ordering):
• We assume the individual classical state sets are already ordered.
• Significance decreases from left to right.

Example

The Cartesian product {1, 2, 3} × {0, 1} is ordered like this:

(1, 0), (1, 1), (2, 0), (2, 1), (3, 0), (3, 1)

When n-tuples are written as strings and ordered in this way, we observe
familiar patterns, such as {0, 1} × {0, 1} being ordered as 00, 01, 10, 11.
Probabilistic states
Probabilistic states of compound systems associate probabilities with the
Cartesian product of the classical state sets of the individual systems.
Example

This is a probabilistic state of a pair of bits (X, Y):

1
Pr((X, Y) = (0, 0)) = 2

Pr((X, Y) = (0, 1)) = 0

Pr((X, Y) = (1, 0)) = 0
1
Pr((X, Y) = (1, 1)) = 2
Probabilistic states
Probabilistic states of compound systems associate probabilities with the
Cartesian product of the classical state sets of the individual systems.
Example

This is a probabilistic state of a pair of bits (X, Y):

1
⎛2⎞ ← probability associated with state 00
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜0⎟
⎜ ⎟ ← probability associated with state 01
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎜
⎜ 0 ⎟
⎟ ← probability associated with state 10
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎟
⎝ ⎠
1 ← probability associated with state 11
2
Probabilistic states
Definition
For a given probabilistic state of (X, Y), we say that X and Y are
independent if

Pr((X, Y) = (a, b)) = Pr(X = a) Pr(Y = b)

for all a ∈ Σ and b ∈ Γ .

Suppose that a probabilistic state of (X, Y) is expressed as a vector:

∣π⟩ = ∑ pab ∣ab⟩

(a,b)∈Σ×Γ

The systems X and Y are independent if there exist probability vectors

∣ϕ⟩ = ∑ qa ∣a⟩ and ∣ψ⟩ = ∑ rb ∣b⟩

a∈Σ b∈Γ

such that pab = qa rb for all a ∈ Σ and b ∈ Γ .

Probabilistic states
Example

The probabilistic state of a pair of bits (X, Y) represented by the vector

1 1 1 1
∣π⟩ = ∣00⟩ + ∣01⟩ + ∣10⟩ + ∣11⟩
6 12 2 4

is one in which X and Y are independent. The required condition is true

for these probability vectors:

1 3 2 1
∣ϕ⟩ = ∣0⟩ + ∣1⟩ and ∣ψ⟩ = ∣0⟩ + ∣1⟩
4 4 3 3
Probabilistic states
Example

For the probabilistic state

1 1
∣00⟩ + ∣11⟩
2 2

of two bits (X, Y), we have that X and Y are not independent.

If they were, we would have numbers q0 , q1 , r0 , r1 such that

1
q0 r 0 = 2
q0 r 1 = 0
q1 r 0 = 0
1
q1 r 1 = 2

But if q0 r1 = 0, then either q0 = 0 or r1 = 0 (or both), contradicting

either the first or last equality.
Tensor products of vectors
Definition

The tensor product of two vectors

∣ϕ⟩ = ∑ αa ∣a⟩ and ∣ψ⟩ = ∑ βb ∣b⟩

a∈Σ b∈Γ

is the vector

∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ⟩ = ∑ αa βb ∣ab⟩

(a,b)∈Σ×Γ

Equivalently, the vector ∣π⟩ = ∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ⟩ is defined by this condition:

⟨ab∣π⟩ = ⟨a∣ϕ⟩⟨b∣ψ⟩ (for all a ∈ Σ and b ∈ Γ )

Tensor products of vectors
Definition

∣ϕ⟩ = ∑ αa ∣a⟩ and ∣ψ⟩ = ∑ βb ∣b⟩

a∈Σ b∈Γ

∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ⟩ = ∑ αa βb ∣ab⟩

(a,b)∈Σ×Γ

Example

1 3 2 1
∣ϕ⟩ = ∣0⟩ + ∣1⟩ and ∣ψ⟩ = ∣0⟩ + ∣1⟩
4 4 3 3
1 1 1 1
∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ⟩ = ∣00⟩ + ∣01⟩ + ∣10⟩ + ∣11⟩
6 12 2 4
Tensor products of vectors
Definition

∣ϕ⟩ = ∑ αa ∣a⟩ and ∣ψ⟩ = ∑ βb ∣b⟩

a∈Σ b∈Γ

∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ⟩ = ∑ αa βb ∣ab⟩

(a,b)∈Σ×Γ

Alternative notation for tensor products:

∣ϕ⟩∣ψ⟩ = ∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ⟩

∣ϕ ⊗ ψ⟩ = ∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ⟩
Tensor products of vectors
Following our convention for ordering the elements of Cartesian product sets, we
obtain this specification for the tensor product of two column vectors:

⎛ α1 β 1 ⎞
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎜
⎜ ⋮ ⎟ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ α 1 β k ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜ α2 β 1 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎛ α1 ⎞ ⎛ β1 ⎞ ⎜⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎜ ⋮ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⋮ ⎟ ⎜
⊗⎜ ⎟
⋮ ⎟ =⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜⎟ ⎜ α2 βk ⎟ ⎟
⎟
⎝αm ⎠ ⎝βk ⎠ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⋮ ⎟ ⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ α m 1⎟
β ⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⋮ ⎟
⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝ αm β k ⎠
Tensor products of vectors
Example

⎛α1 β1 ⎞
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎜α1 β2 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜α1 β3 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎜α1 β4 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜α2 β1 ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎛β1 ⎞ ⎜ ⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎛α1 ⎞ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎜β ⎟
⎟ ⎜
⎜α 2 2⎟
β ⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
α2 ⎟ ⎜
⎜
⊗⎜
2⎟
⎟ = ⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎟ ⎜ ⎜α β ⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎜
⎜β ⎟
3⎟ ⎜ 2 3⎟ ⎟
⎝α3 ⎠ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝β4 ⎠ ⎜ ⎜
⎜α 2 4⎟
β ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎜
⎜α3 β 1 ⎟⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜α3 β 2 ⎟⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜α β ⎟
⎟
⎜ 3 3 ⎟
⎝α3 β4 ⎠
Tensor products of vectors
Observe the following expression for tensor products of standard basis vectors:

∣a⟩ ⊗ ∣b⟩ = ∣a⟩∣b⟩ = ∣ab⟩

Alternatively, writing (a, b) as an ordered pair rather than a string, we could

write

∣a⟩ ⊗ ∣b⟩ = ∣(a, b)⟩

but it is more common to write

∣a⟩ ⊗ ∣b⟩ = ∣a, b⟩

(It is a standard convention in mathematics to eliminate parentheses when they

do not serve to add clarity or remove ambiguity.)
Tensor products of vectors
Important property of tensor products

The tensor product of two vectors is bilinear.

1. Linearity in the first argument:

(∣ϕ1 ⟩ + ∣ϕ2 ⟩) ⊗ ∣ψ⟩ = ∣ϕ1 ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ⟩ + ∣ϕ2 ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ⟩

(α∣ϕ⟩) ⊗ ∣ψ⟩ = α(∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ⟩)

2. Linearity in the second argument:

∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ (∣ψ1 ⟩ + ∣ψ2 ⟩) = ∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ1 ⟩ + ∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ2 ⟩

∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ (α∣ψ⟩) = α(∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ⟩)

Notice that scalars “float freely” within tensor products:

(α∣ϕ⟩) ⊗ ∣ψ⟩ = ∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ (α∣ψ⟩) = α(∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ⟩) = α∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ ∣ψ⟩

Tensor products of vectors
Tensor products generalize to three or more systems.

If ∣ϕ1 ⟩, . . . , ∣ϕn ⟩ are vectors, then the tensor product

∣ψ⟩ = ∣ϕ1 ⟩ ⊗ ⋯ ⊗ ∣ϕn ⟩

is defined by the equation

⟨a1 ⋯an ∣ψ⟩ = ⟨a1 ∣ϕ1 ⟩ ⋯ ⟨an ∣ϕn ⟩

Equivalently, the tensor product of three or more vectors can be defined

recursively:

∣ϕ1 ⟩ ⊗ ⋯ ⊗ ∣ϕn ⟩ = (∣ϕ1 ⟩ ⊗ ⋯ ⊗ ∣ϕn−1 ⟩) ⊗ ∣ϕn ⟩

The tensor product of three or more vectors is multilinear.

Measurements of probabilistic states
Measurements of compound systems work in the same way as measurements of
single systems — provided that all of the systems are measured.

Example

Suppose that two bits (X, Y) are in the probabilistic state

1 1
∣00⟩ + ∣11⟩
2 2

Measuring both bits yields the outcome 00 with probability 1/2 and the
outcome 11 with probability 1/2.
Measurements of probabilistic states
Question

Suppose two systems (X, Y) are together in some probabilistic state.

What happens when we measure X and do nothing to Y?

Answer

1. The probability to observe a particular classical state a ∈ Σ when

just X is measured is

Pr(X = a) = ∑ Pr((X, Y) = (a, b))

b∈Γ

2. There may still exist uncertainty about the classical state of Y,

depending on the outcome of the measurement:

Pr((X, Y) = (a, b))

Pr(Y = b ∣ X = a) =
Pr(X = a)
Measurements of probabilistic states
These formulas can be expressed using the Dirac notation as follows.

Suppose that (X, Y) is in some arbitrary probabilistic state:

∑ pab ∣ab⟩ = ∑ pab ∣a⟩ ⊗ ∣b⟩ = ∑ ∣a⟩ ⊗ ( ∑ pab ∣b⟩)

(a,b)∈Σ×Γ (a,b)∈Σ×Γ a∈Σ b∈Γ

1. The probability that a measurement of X yields an outcome a ∈ Σ is

Pr(X = a) = ∑ pab
b∈Γ

2. Conditioned on the outcome a ∈ Σ, the probabilistic state of Y becomes

∑b∈Γ pab ∣b⟩

∑c∈Γ pac
Measurements of probabilistic states
Example

Suppose (X, Y) is in the probabilistic state

1 1 1 1
∣00⟩ + ∣01⟩ + ∣10⟩ + ∣11⟩
12 4 3 3

We write this vector as follows:

1 1 1 1
∣0⟩ ⊗ ( ∣0⟩ + ∣1⟩) + ∣1⟩ ⊗ ( ∣0⟩ + ∣1⟩)
12 4 3 3
Measurements of probabilistic states
Example

Suppose (X, Y) is in the probabilistic state

1 1 1 1
∣0⟩ ⊗ ( ∣0⟩ + ∣1⟩) + ∣1⟩ ⊗ ( ∣0⟩ + ∣1⟩)
12 4 3 3

Case 1: the measurement outcome is 0.

1 1 1
Pr(outcome is 0) = + =
12 4 3

Conditioned on this outcome, the probabilistic state of Y becomes

1
12
∣0⟩ + 14 ∣1⟩ 1 3
= ∣0⟩ + ∣1⟩
1 4 4
3
Measurements of probabilistic states
Example

Suppose (X, Y) is in the probabilistic state

1 1 1 1
∣0⟩ ⊗ ( ∣0⟩ + ∣1⟩) + ∣1⟩ ⊗ ( ∣0⟩ + ∣1⟩)
12 4 3 3

Case 2: the measurement outcome is 1.

1 1 2
Pr(outcome is 1) = + =
3 3 3

Conditioned on this outcome, the probabilistic state of Y becomes

1
3
∣0⟩ + 13 ∣1⟩ 1 1
= ∣0⟩ + ∣1⟩
2 2 2
3
Measurements of probabilistic states
The same method can be used when Y is measured rather than X. Suppose that
(X, Y) is in some arbitrary probabilistic state:

∑ pab ∣ab⟩ = ∑ pab ∣a⟩ ⊗ ∣b⟩ = ∑ ( ∑ pab ∣a⟩) ⊗ ∣b⟩

(a,b)∈Σ×Γ (a,b)∈Σ×Γ b∈Γ a∈Σ

1. The probability that a measurement of Y yields an outcome a ∈ Σ is

Pr(Y = b) = ∑ pab
a∈Σ

2. Conditioned on the outcome b ∈ Γ , the probabilistic state of X becomes

∑a∈Σ pab ∣a⟩

∑c∈Σ pc,b
Operations on probabilistic states
Probabilistic operations on compound systems are represented by stochastic
matrices having rows and columns that correspond to the Cartesian product of
the individual systems’ classical state sets.
Example

A controlled-NOT operation on two bits X and Y:

If X = 1, then perform a NOT operation on Y, otherwise do noth-
ing.
X is the control bit that determines whether or not a NOT operation is
applied to the target bit Y.
Operations on probabilistic states
Example

A controlled-NOT operation on two bits X and Y:

If X = 1, then perform a NOT operation on Y, otherwise do noth-
ing.
X is the control bit that determines whether or not a NOT operation is
applied to the target bit Y.

Action on standard basis Matrix representation

∣00⟩ ↦ ∣00⟩ ⎛1 0 0 0⎞
⎜
⎜ ⎟
∣01⟩ ↦ ∣01⟩ ⎜
⎜0 1 0 0⎟
⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
∣10⟩ ↦ ∣11⟩ ⎜
⎜0 0 0 1⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
∣11⟩ ↦ ∣10⟩ ⎝0 0 1 0⎠
Operations on probabilistic states
Example

Here is a different operation on two bits (X, Y):

With probability 1/2, set Y to be equal to X, otherwise
set X to be equal to Y.
The matrix representation of this operation is as follows:

⎛1 1/2 1/2 0⎞ ⎛1 1 0 0⎞ ⎛1 0 1 0⎞
⎜
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜0
⎜ 0 0 0⎟
⎟
⎟ 1⎜⎜0 0 0 0⎟
⎟ 1⎜⎜0 0 0 0⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟
⎟ = ⎜⎜
⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟ + ⎜⎜
⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ 0 0 0 0⎟
⎟ 2 ⎜
⎜0 0 0 0⎟
⎟ 2 ⎜
⎜ 0 0 0 0⎟
⎟
⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎝0 1/2 1/2 1⎠ ⎝0 0 1 1⎠ ⎝0 1 0 1⎠
Operations on probabilistic states
Question

Suppose we have two probabilistic operations, each on its own system,

described by stochastic matrices:
1. M is an operation on X.
2. N is an operation on Y.
If we simultaneously perform the two operations, how do we describe
the effect on the compound system (X, Y)?
Tensor products of matrices
Definition

The tensor product of two matrices

M = ∑ αab ∣a⟩⟨b∣ and N = ∑ βcd ∣c⟩⟨d∣

a,b∈Σ c,d∈Γ

is the matrix

M⊗N= ∑ ∑ αab βcd ∣ac⟩⟨bd∣

a,b∈Σ c,d∈Γ

Equivalently, M ⊗ N is defined by this condition:

⟨ac∣M ⊗ N∣bd⟩ = ⟨a∣M∣b⟩⟨c∣N∣d⟩ (for all a, b ∈ Σ and b, d ∈ Γ )

Tensor products of matrices
Definition

M = ∑ αab ∣a⟩⟨b∣ and N = ∑ βcd ∣c⟩⟨d∣

a,b∈Σ c,d∈Γ

M⊗N= ∑ ∑ αab βcd ∣ac⟩⟨bd∣

a,b∈Σ c,d∈Γ

An alternative, but equivalent, way to define M ⊗ N is that it is the unique matrix that
satisfies the equation

(M ⊗ N) ∣ϕ ⊗ ψ⟩ = M∣ϕ⟩ ⊗ N∣ψ⟩

for every choice of vectors ∣ϕ⟩ and ∣ψ⟩.

Tensor products of matrices
⎛ α11 ⋯ α1m ⎞ ⎛ β11 ⋯ β1k ⎞
⎜
⎜ ⎟ ⎜ ⎟
⎜ ⋮
⎜ ⋱ ⋮ ⎟⎟⊗⎜
⎟ ⎜ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎟⎟
⎜ ⎟ ⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝αm1 ⋯ αmm ⎠ ⎝βk1 ⋯ βkk ⎠

⎛ α11 β11 ⋯ α11 β1k α1m β11 ⋯ α1m β1k ⎞

⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⋯ ⋯ α1m βkk ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ α 11 βk1 α11 βkk α1m βk1 ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
=⎜
⎜
⎜ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎟
⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎜
⎜ αm1 β11 ⋯ αm1 β1k αmm β11 ⋯ αmm β1k ⎟
⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⋯ ⋮ ⋱ ⋮ ⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝αm1 βk1 ⋯ αm1 βkk αmm βk1 ⋯ αmm βkk ⎠
Tensor products of matrices
Example

α00 α01 β00 β01

( )⊗( )
α10 α11 β10 β11

⎛α00 β00 α00 β01 α01 β00 α01 β01 ⎞

⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎜α00 β10
⎜ α00 β11 α01 β10 α01 β11 ⎟
⎟
⎟
=⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜α β
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜
⎜ 10 00 α10 β01 α11 β00 α11 β01 ⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝α10 β10 α10 β11 α11 β10 α11 β11 ⎠
Tensor products of matrices
Tensor products of three or more matrices are defined in an analogous way.

If M1 , . . . , Mn are matrices, then the tensor product M1 ⊗ ⋯ ⊗ Mn is

defined by the condition

⟨a1 ⋯an ∣M1 ⊗ ⋯ ⊗ Mn ∣b1 ⋯bn ⟩ = ⟨a1 ∣M1 ∣b1 ⟩⋯⟨an ∣Mn ∣bn ⟩

Alternatively, the tensor product of three or more matrices can be defined

recursively, similar to what we observed for vectors.

The tensor product of matrices is multiplicative:

(M1 ⊗ ⋯ ⊗ Mn )(N1 ⊗ ⋯ ⊗ Nn ) = (M1 N1 ) ⊗ ⋯ ⊗ (Mn Nn )

Operations on probabilistic states
Question

Suppose we have two probabilistic operations, each on its own system,

described by stochastic matrices:
1. M is an operation on X.
2. N is an operation on Y.
If we simultaneously perform the two operations, how do we describe
the effect on the compound system (X, Y)?

Answer

The action is described by the tensor product M ⊗ N.

Tensor products represent independence — this time between operations.

Operations on probabilistic states
Example

Recall this operation from Lesson 1:

1
⎛1 2
⎞
⎜ ⎟
⎝0 1⎠
2

Suppose this operation is performed on a bit X, and a NOT operation is

(independently) performed on a second bit Y.

The combined operation on the compound system (X, Y) then has this
matrix representation:

1
⎛0 1 0 2⎞
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎛1 1
⎞ ⎛0 1⎞ ⎜
⎜
⎜1 0 1
0⎟
⎟
⎟
⎟=⎜ ⎟
2 2
⎜ ⎟⊗⎜ ⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎝0 1⎠ ⎝1 0⎠ ⎜
⎜
⎜
⎜0 0 0 1⎟
⎟
2⎟
⎟
2 ⎜ ⎟
⎝0 0 1
0⎠
2
Operations on probabilistic states
A common situation that we encounter is one in which one operation is
performed on one system and nothing is done to another system.

The same prescription is followed, noting that doing nothing is represented by

the identity matrix.
Example

Resetting a bit X to the 0 state and doing nothing to a bit Y yields this
operation on (X, Y):

⎛1 0 1 0⎞
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎛1 1⎞ ⎛1 0⎞ ⎜⎜0
⎜ 1 0 1⎟
⎟
⎟
⎜ ⎟⊗⎜ ⎟=⎜
⎜
⎜
⎟
⎟
⎟
⎝0 0⎠ ⎝0 1 ⎠ ⎜
⎜ 0 0 0 0⎟
⎟
⎜
⎜ ⎟
⎟
⎜ ⎟
⎝0 0 0 0⎠
2. Quantum information
Quantum states
Quantum state vectors of multiple systems are represent by column vectors
whose indices correspond to the Cartesian product of the individual systems’
classical state sets.
Example

If X and Y are qubits, the classical state set for the pair (X, Y) is