ECE 4103 - Foundation Engineering I

1
Subsurface Exploration
• 3.1 Introduction
• 3.11 Purpose of Subsurface Exploration
• 3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program
• 3.13 Exploratory Borings in the Field
• 3.14 Procedures for Sampling Soil
• 3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling
• 3.19 Observation of Water Tables
• 3.20 Vane Shear Test
• 3.21 Cone Penetration Test
• 3.27 Preparation of Boring Logs
• 3.29 Subsoil Exploration Report
• Plate Loading Test of Soil at Site

2
Subsurface Exploration
3.1 Introduction:

• The design of foundations of structures such as buildings, bridges, and dams

generally requires a knowledge of factors such as:

a) The load that will be transmitted by the structure to the foundation

b) Requirements of the local building code.

c) Behavior and stress-related deformability of soils that will support the

foundation system.

d) Geological conditions of the soil under consideration.

• To a foundation engineer, the last two factors are extremely important

because they concern soil mechanics.

3
Subsurface Exploration
3.1 Introduction:

• Foundation engineering is a clever combination of soil mechanics,

engineering geology, and proper judgment derived from past experience.

• To a certain extent, it may be called an art.

• When determining which foundation is the most economical, the engineer

must consider the structure load, the subsoil conditions, and the desired
tolerable settlement.

• In general, foundations can be divided into two categories:

1. Shallow foundations - Spread footings and mat (or raft) foundations

2. Deep foundations - Piles and drilled shafts

• In Shallow foundations the depth of embedment can be equal to or less than

three to four times the width of the foundation

4
Subsurface Exploration
3.1 Introduction:

• A spread footing is simply an enlargement of a load-bearing wall or column

that makes it possible to spread the load of the structure over a larger area
of the soil.

• In soil with low load-bearing capacity, the size of the spread footings is
impracticably large.

In that case, it is more economical to construct the entire structure over a

concrete pad. This is called a mat foundation.

• Piles and drilled shafts are structural members used for heavier structures
when the depth requirement for supporting the load is large.

They transmit the load of the superstructure to the lower layers of the soil.

They are used when top layers have poor load-bearing capacity and when
the use of shallow foundations will cause considerable structural damage
or instability. 5
Subsurface Exploration
3.1 Introduction:

6
Subsurface Exploration
3.11 Purpose of Subsurface Exploration

• The process of identifying the layers of deposits that underlie a proposed

structure and their physical characteristics is generally referred to as
subsurface exploration.
The purpose of subsurface exploration is to obtain information that will aid the
geotechnical engineer in:

1. Selecting the type and depth of foundation suitable for a given

structure.
2. Evaluating the load-bearing capacity of the foundation.
3. Estimating the probable settlement of a structure.
4. Determining potential foundation problems (e.g., expansive soil,
collapsible soil, and so on).
5. Determining the location of the water table.
6. Predicting the lateral earth pressure for structures.
7. Establishing construction methods for changing subsoil conditions.

• Subsurface exploration may also be necessary when additions and alterations

to existing structures are expected.
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Subsurface Exploration
3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program

• The Subsurface exploration comprises several steps, including:

Site Investigation

Reconnaissance

Collection of
Preliminary
Information

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Subsurface Exploration
3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program
Collection of Preliminary Information
• It involves obtaining information regarding the type of structure to be built
and its general use.

• For the construction of buildings, the approximate column loads and their
spacing and the local building-code should be known.

• The construction of bridges requires determining the lengths of their spans

and the loading on piers and abutments.

• A general idea of the topography and the type of soil to be encountered near
and around the proposed site can be obtained from:
 Geological survey maps
 Soil reports
 Agronomy maps
 Hydrological information, including records of stream flow, information
on high flood levels, tidal records, and so on. 9
Subsurface Exploration
3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program
Reconnaissance
Engineer should make a visual inspection of the site to obtain information about:

1. The general topography of the site, the possible existence of drainage ditches,
abandoned dumps of debris, and other materials present at the site.

Evidence of creep of slopes and deep, wide shrinkage cracks at regularly

spaced intervals may be indicative of expansive soils.

2. Soil stratification from deep cuts, such as those made for the construction of
nearby highways and railroads.

3. The type of vegetation at the site, which may indicate the nature of the soil.

4. High-water marks on nearby buildings and bridge abutments.

5. Groundwater levels, which can be determined by checking nearby wells.

6. The types of construction nearby and the existence of any cracks in walls or
other problems. 10
Subsurface Exploration
3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program
Site Investigation

The site investigation phase of the exploration program consists of:

• Planning

• Making test boreholes

• Collecting soil samples at desired intervals for subsequent observation and

laboratory tests.

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Subsurface Exploration
3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program
Site Investigation
The site investigation phase can be divided into two sub-phases:

1. A preliminary site investigation

2. A detailed site investigation

A preliminary site investigation:

• Few borings are made or a test pit is opened to establish in a general manner
the stratification, types of soil to be expected, and possibly the location of the
groundwater table.

• One or more borings should be taken to rock, or competent strata, if the initial
borings indicate the upper soil is loose or highly compressible.

• This amount of exploration is usually the extent of the site investigation for small
structures. 12
Subsurface Exploration
3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program
Site Investigation

A detailed site investigation:

• Where the preliminary site investigation has established the feasibility of the
project, a more detailed exploration program is undertaken.

• The preliminary borings and data are used as a basis for locating additional
borings, which should be confirmatory in nature, and determining the additional
samples required.

13
Subsurface Exploration
3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program
Determining the depth of boring:
To determine the approximate minimum depth of boring, use the rules established
by the ASCE:
1. Determine the net increase in the effective stress, Ds’ ,under a foundation
with depth as shown. (Refer to CH. 10 at Soil Mechanics).
2. Estimate the variation of the vertical effective stress, s’o , with depth.

3. Determine the depth, D = D1 at

which Ds’ = 0.1× q ( q = net stress
on the foundation).
4. Determine the depth, D = D2 , at which
Ds’ ÷ s’o = 0.05
5. Choose the smaller of D1 and D2 as the 14
approximate minimum depth of boring
required, unless bedrock is
encountered.
Subsurface Exploration
3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program
Determining the depth of boring:
• If the preceding rules are used, the depths of
boring for a building with a width of 30 m will be
approx. the following (Sowers and Sowers (1970)):
• Sowers and Sowers used the following rules to
determine the boring depth for hospitals and
office buildings:
Type Rule
For light steel or Db = Depth of boring (m)
narrow concrete S = Number of stories
buildings a=3
For heavy steel or Db = Depth of boring (m)
wide concrete S = Number of stories
buildings b=6

15
Subsurface Exploration
3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program
Determining the depth of boring:
Notes:

• In the case of deep excavations, the depth of boring should be at least 1.5
times the depth of excavation.

• Sometimes, subsoil conditions require that the foundation load be transmitted

to bedrock.
The minimum depth of core boring into the bedrock is about 3 m. If the
bedrock is irregular or weathered, the core borings may have to be deeper

• If various soil strata are more or less uniform and predictable, fewer boreholes
are needed than in non-homogeneous soil strata.

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Subsurface Exploration
3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program
Determining the Spacing of boreholes:
• There are no hard-and-fast rules for borehole spacing.

• Table 3.4 gives some general guidelines. Spacing can be increased or

decreased, depending on the condition of the subsoil.

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Subsurface Exploration
3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program
Example:

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Subsurface Exploration
3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program
Solution:

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Subsurface Exploration
3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program
Solution:

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Subsurface Exploration
3.12 Subsurface Exploration Program
Solution:

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Subsurface Exploration
3.13 Exploratory Borings in the Field
• Auger boring is the simplest
method of making exploratory
boreholes.
• There are two types of hand
auger: the posthole auger and
the helical auger.
• Hand augers cannot be used
for advancing holes to depths
exceeding 3 to 5 m.
• Portable power- driven helical
augers are available for
making deeper boreholes.
• The soil samples obtained
from such borings are highly
disturbed. Hand tools: Portable power-
(a) posthole auger driven helical augers
(b) helical auger
22
Depths 3 to 5 m
Subsurface Exploration
3.13 Exploratory Borings in the Field

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Subsurface Exploration
3.13 Exploratory Borings in the Field
• In some noncohesive soils or soils having low
cohesion, the walls of the boreholes will not
stand unsupported.
• In such circumstances, a metal pipe is used as a
casing to prevent the soil from caving in.
• When power is available, continuous-flight augers
are probably the most common method used for
advancing a borehole.
• The power for drilling is delivered by truck- or
tractor-mounted drilling rigs.
• Boreholes up to about 60 to 70 m can easily be
made by this method.
• Continuous-flight augers are available with either
a solid or hollow stem. Continuous-flight augers
(a) Solid-stem augers
(b) Hollow-stem augers
Depths 60 to 70 m
continuous-flight augers with casing 24
Subsurface Exploration
3.13 Exploratory Borings in the Field
• The tip of the auger is attached to a cutter head
(Fig. 3.11).

• During the drilling operation (Fig. 3.12), section

after section of auger can be added and the hole
extended downward

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Subsurface Exploration
3.13 Exploratory Borings in the Field
• Wash boring is another method of advancing
boreholes.
• In this method, a casing about 2 to 3 m long is
driven into the ground.
• The soil inside the casing is then removed by
means of a chopping bit attached to a drilling rod.
• Water is forced through the drilling rod and exits
at a very high velocity through the holes at the
bottom of the chopping bit.
• The water and the chopped soil particles rise in
the drill hole and overflow at the top of the casing
through a T connection.
• The washwater is collected in a container.
• The casing can be extended with additional
pieces as the borehole progresses.

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Subsurface Exploration
3.13 Exploratory Borings in the Field
• Rotary drilling is a procedure by which rapidly rotating drilling bits attached to
the bottom of drilling rods cut and grind the soil and advance the borehole.
• Rotary drilling can be used in sand, clay, and rocks (unless they are badly
fissured).
• Water or drilling mud (slurry of water and bentonite) is forced down the drilling
rods to the bits, and the return flow forces the cuttings to the surface.
• Boreholes with diameters of 50 to 203 mm (2 to 8 in.) can easily be made by
this technique.
• Rotary drilling with air is becoming more common.

27
Subsurface Exploration
3.14 Procedures for Sampling Soil
• Two types of soil samples can be obtained during subsurface exploration:
Disturbed and undisturbed.

• Disturbed, but representative samples can generally be used for the

following types of laboratory test:
1. Grain-size analysis
2. Determination of liquid and plastic limits
3. Specific gravity of soil solids
4. Determination of organic content
5. Classification of soil

• Disturbed soil samples, cannot be used for:

1. Consolidation
2. Hydraulic conductivity
3. Shear strength tests.
• Undisturbed soil samples must be obtained for these types of laboratory
tests. 28
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling
• Can be used in the field to obtain soil samples that are generally disturbed, but
still representative.
• A section of a standard split-spoon sampler is shown in Fig. 3.15a.

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Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling
• When the material encountered in the field is sand (particularly fine sand below
the water table), recovery of the sample by a split-spoon sampler may be
difficult.
• In that case, a device such as a spring core catcher may have to be placed
inside the split spoon (Figure 3.15b).

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Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling
• The sampler is driven into the soil by hammer blows to the top of the drill rod.
• The standard weight of the hammer is 622.72 N, and for each blow, the hammer
drops a distance of 0.762 m (30 in.).
• The number of blows required for a spoon penetration of three 152.4-mm (6-in.)
intervals are recorded.
• The number of blows required for the last two intervals are added to give the
standard penetration number, N, at that depth.
• This number is generally referred to as the N value.
• The sampler is then withdrawn, and the shoe and coupling are removed.
• Finally, the soil sample recovered from the tube is placed in a glass bottle and
transported to the laboratory.
• Drive the next length of casing and repeat the process until required depth is
reached.

• This field test is called the standard penetration test (SPT).

• Figure 3.16a and b show a split-spoon sampler unassembled before and after
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sampling.
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling

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Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling

Drilling Machine 33
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling
• The degree of disturbance for a soil sample is expressed as

where
AR = area ratio (ratio of disturbed area to total area of soil)
Do = outside diameter of the sampling tube
Di = inside diameter of the sampling tube

• When the area ratio is 10% or less, the sample generally is considered to be
undisturbed.

• For a standard split-spoon sampler:

34
• Hence, these samples are highly disturbed.
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling
• It is important to point out that several factors contribute to the variation of
the standard penetration number N at a given depth for similar soil profiles.
• Among these factors are the SPT hammer efficiency, borehole diameter,
sampling method, and rod length.
• The SPT hammer energy efficiency can be expressed as:

Where:
W = weight of the hammer ≈ 0.623 kN
h = height of drop ≈ 0.76 mm
So, Wh = 0.623 × 0.76 = 0.474 kN-m

• In the field, the magnitude of Er can vary from 30 to 90%.

• The standard practice now in the U.S. is to express the N-value to an average
35
energy ratio of 60% ≈ N60.
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling
• The field penetration number as a function of the input driving energy and its
dissipation around the sampler into the surrounding soil can be standardized
as:

where
N60 = standard penetration number, corrected for field conditions
N = measured penetration number
hH = hammer efficiency (%)
hB = correction for borehole diameter
hS = sampler correction
hR = correction for rod length

Variations of hH, hB, hS, and hR are summarized in Table 3.5.

36
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling

37
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling

Correlations for N60 in Cohesive Soils

w = Natural M.C. (%)

Consistency Index (CI)
LL = liquid limit
See Table 3.6
PL = plastic limit

Undrained shear strength of pa = atmospheric pressure

clay (cu) pa ≈ 100 kN/m2

Overconsolidation ratio, s’o = effective vertical stress in

OCR MN/m2.

Overconsolidation ratio,
OCR

The preconsolidation
pressure s’c 38
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling

39
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling
Correlations for N60 in Granular Soils:
• In granular soils, the value of N60 is affected by the effective overburden
pressure s’o.
• For that reason, the value of N60 obtained from field exploration under
different effective overburden pressures should be changed to correspond to
a standard value of s’o. That is:

Where:
(N1)60 = value of N60 corrected to a standard value of s’o = pa
CN = correction factor
N60 = value of N obtained from:

40
 Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling

Correlations for CN in Granular Soils

s’o = effective
overburden pressure Eq. 3.17
Eq. 3.13
pa = atmospheric
pressure

Eq. 3.14 For N.C. Fine Sand Eq. 3.18

Eq. 3.15 For N.C. Coarse Sand Eq. 3.19

Eq. 3.16 For O. C. Sand Eq. 3.20

41
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling
• Table 3.7 shows the comparison of CN derived using various relationships.
• Considering the uncertainties involved in conducting the standard penetration
tests; the magnitude CN estimated by using any one of the previous
relationships is approximately the same,.
• Hence, it is recommended that Eq. 3.13 may be used for all calculations.

42
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling

43
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling

44
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling
Correlation between N60 and Relative Density of Granular Soil
• Kulhawy and Mayne (1990) modified an empirical relationship for relative
density that was given by Marcuson and Bieganousky (1977), which can be
expressed as:
Eq. 3.21

where
Dr = relative density
s’o = effective overburden pressure
Cu = uniformity coefficient of sand
OCR = preconsolidation pressure (s’c) ÷ effective overburden pressure (s’o)
pa = atmospheric pressure
• Meyerhof (1957) developed a correlation between Dr and N60 for clean
medium fine sand as:
0.5
 
 
 N 60 
Dr    Eq. 3.22
 
17  24 s 'o  
45

  p 
  a 
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling
Correlation between N60 and Relative Density of Granular Soil
• Cubrinovski and Ishihara (1999) also proposed a correlation between N60 and
the relative density of sand (Dr) as:

Eq. 3.23

where
pa = atmospheric pressure
D50 = sieve size through which 50% of the soil will pass (mm)

46
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling
Correlation between N60 and Relative Density of Granular Soil
• Kulhawy and Mayne (1990) correlated the corrected standard penetration
number and the relative density of sand in the form

Eq. 3.24

where
CP = grain-size correlations factor = 60 + 25 logD50
CA = correlation factor for aging = 1.2 + 0.05 log (t ÷ 100)
COCR = correlation factor for overconsolidation = (OCR)0.18
D50 = diameter through which 50% soil will pass through (mm)
t = age of soil since deposition (years)
OCR = overconsolidation ratio
• Skempton (1986) suggested that, for sands with a relative density > 35%:
( N1 ) 60
2
 60 Eq. 3.28
Dr
Note: (N1)60 should be multiplied by 0.92 for coarse sands and 1.08 for fine
sands. 47
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling
Correlation between Angle of Friction and Standard
Penetration Number
• The peak friction angle, f’, of granular soil has also been correlated with N60 or
(N1)60 by several investigators.
• Some of these correlations are as follows:
1. Peck, Hanson, and Thornburn give a correlation between N60 and f’, which
can be approximated as (Wolff, 1989)

 ' (deg)  27.1  0.3N 60  0.00054 [ N 60 ]2 Eq. 3.29

2. Schmertmann provided the correlation between N60, s’o , and f’.

Mathematically, the correlation can be approximated as:
0.34
 
  where
1  N 60  N60 = field standard penetration number
 '  tan Eq. 3.30 s’o = effective overburden pressure
  s 'o   pa = atmospheric pressure in the same unit as s’o
12.2  20.3   f’ = soil friction angle
  pa   48
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling
Correlation between Angle of Friction and Standard
Penetration Number
3. Hatanaka and Uchida (1996) provided a simple correlation between f’ and
(N1)60 that can be expressed as:

f '  20( N1 ) 60  20 Eq. 3.31

• The following qualifications should be noted when standard penetration

resistance values are used in the preceding correlations to estimate soil
parameters:
1. The equations are approximate.
2. Because the soil is not homogeneous, the values of N60 obtained from a
given borehole vary widely.
3. In soil deposits that contain large boulders and gravel, standard
penetration numbers may be erratic and unreliable.

• The primary sources of error in standard penetration tests are inadequate

cleaning of the borehole, careless measurement of the blow count, eccentric
hammer strikes on the drill rod, and inadequate maintenance of water head in
the borehole. 49
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling
Correlation between Angle of Friction and Standard Penetration Number

50
Subsurface Exploration
3.15 Split-Spoon Sampling
Correlation between Modulus of Elasticity and Standard
Penetration Number
• The modulus of elasticity of granular soils (Es) is an important parameter
in estimating the elastic settlement of foundations.
• A first order estimation for Es was given by Kulhawy and Mayne (1990)as:
Es
 N 60 Eq. 3.32
pa
where
pa = atmospheric pressure (same unit as Es)

51
Subsurface Exploration
3.19 Observation of Water Tables
• If water is encountered in a borehole during a field
exploration, that fact should be recorded.

• In soils with high hydraulic conductivity, the level of water

in a borehole will stabilize about 24 hours after completion
of the boring.
• The depth of the water table can then be recorded by
lowering a chain or tape into the borehole.

• In highly impermeable layers, the water level in a borehole

may not stabilize for several weeks.
• In such cases, if accurate water-level measurements are
required, a piezometer can be used.
• A piezometer basically consists of a porous stone or a
perforated pipe with a plastic standpipe attached to it.
• Fig. 3.22 shows the general placement of a piezometer in a
borehole.
• This procedure will allow periodic checking until the water
level stabilizes.
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Subsurface Exploration
3.20 Vane Shear Test (VST)
• The VST may be used during the drilling operation to determine the in situ
undrained shear strength (cu) of clay soils—particularly soft clays.
• The VST apparatus consists of four blades on the end of a rod, as shown in
Fig. 3.23.
• The height, H, of the vane is twice the diameter, d.
• The vane can be either rectangular or tapered.
• The dimensions of vanes used in the field are given in Table 3.8.
• The vanes of the apparatus are pushed into the soil at the bottom of a
borehole without disturbing the soil appreciably.
• Torque is applied at the top of the rod to rotate the vanes at a standard rate of
0.18˚/sec.
• This rotation will induce failure in a soil of cylindrical shape surrounding the
vanes.
• The maximum torque, T, applied to cause failure is measured.

T  f (cu , H , and D)
T
cu  Eq. 3.34
53
K
Subsurface Exploration
3.20 Vane Shear Test (VST)
• According to ASTM (2014), for rectangular
vanes:

Eq. 3.35

• If h/d = 2

• For tapered vanes:

Eq. 3.38

• The angles iT and iB are defined in Fig. 3.23.

54
Subsurface Exploration
3.20 Vane Shear Test (VST)

• Field VST are moderately rapid and economical and are used extensively in
field soil-exploration programs.
• The test gives good results in soft and medium-stiff clays and gives excellent
results in determining the properties of sensitive clays.
• Sources of significant error in the field VST are poor calibration of torque
measurement, damaged vanes and improper control rate of vane rotation. 55
Subsurface Exploration
3.20 Vane Shear Test (VST)
• The undrained shear strength values obtained from field vane shear tests
cu(VST) are too high, and it is recommended that they need correction.
cu ( corrected )  l cu (VST ) Eq. 3.39
where l = correction factor.

• The most commonly used correlation for l is that given by Bjerrum (1972), as:
l = 1.7 - 0.54 log (PI%) Eq. 3.40.a

• Morris and Williams (1994) provided the following correlations:

l = 1.18e-0.08(PI) + 0.57 (for PI > 5) Eq. 3.40.b
l = 7.01e-0.08(LL) + 0.57 (LL in %) Eq. 3.40.c

56
 Subsurface Exploration
3.20 Vane Shear Test (VST)
• The field vane shear strength can be correlated with the preconsolidation
pressure and the overconsolidation ratio of the clay.
• Mayne and Mitchell (1988) derived the following empirical relationship for
estimating the preconsolidation pressure of a natural clay deposit:

Eq. 3.41

Where: s’c = preconsolidation pressure (kN/m2)

Cu(field) = field vane shear strength (kN/m2) (not corrected)

• The OCR, also can be correlated to cu(field) according to:

Eq. 3.42 Where: s’o = effective overburden pressure.

• The magnitudes of b developed by various investigators are:

Mayne and Mitchell (1988) Hansbo (1957) Larsson (1980):

57
Subsurface Exploration

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Subsurface Exploration

59
‫متعدد الجوانب‬

Subsurface Exploration
3.21 Cone Penetration Test
• The cone penetration test (CPT), is a versatile
sounding method used to determine the engineering
properties of materials in a soil profile.
• The test is also called the static penetration test, and
no boreholes are necessary to perform it.
• A 60˚ cone with a base area of 10 cm2 is pushed into
the ground at a steady rate of about 20 mm/sec and
the resistance to penetration (called the point
resistance) is measured.
• The cone penetrometers measure:
(a) the cone resistance (qc) to penetration
developed by the cone (the vertical force
applied to the cone, divided by its horizontally
projected area)
(b) the frictional resistance (f𝑐), which is the
resistance measured by a sleeve located above the
cone with the local soil surrounding it.
• The frictional resistance is equal to the vertical force
applied to the sleeve, divided by its surface area—
actually, the sum of friction and adhesion. 60
Subsurface Exploration
3.21 Cone Penetration Test
• Fig. 3.27 shows the sequence of a cone penetration test in the field.
• A truck-mounted CPT rig is shown in Fig. 3.27a.
• A hydraulic ram located inside the truck pushes the cone into the ground.
• Fig. 3.27b shows the cone penetrometer in the truck being put in the proper
location.
• Fig. 3.27c shows the progress of the CPT.

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Subsurface Exploration
3.21 Cone Penetration Test

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Subsurface Exploration
3.21 Cone Penetration Test
Advantages:
• Borehole is not necessary
• Almost continuous data (reading every
10mm)
• Elimination of operator error
(automated)
• Reliable, repeatable test results

Disadvantages:
• Inability to penetrate through gravels
and cobbles
• Newer technology = less populated
database than SPT
• Lack of sampling

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 Subsurface Exploration
3.21 Cone Penetration Test

Correlation between Relative Density (Dr) and (qc) for Sand

(Kulhawy and pa = atmospheric pressure

Mayne, 1990) s’o = effective vertical stress
Eq. 3.50

OCR = overconsolidation ratio

pa = atmospheric pressure
Qc = compressibility factor
Kulhawy and
Qc values are:
Mayne (1990)
0.91 (Highly compressible sand)
Eq. 3.51 1 (Moderately compressible sand)
1.09 (Low compressible sand)

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 Subsurface Exploration
3.21 Cone Penetration Test

Correlation between (qc) and Drained Friction angle (f’) for Sand

(Kulhawy and Mayne, 1990)

Eq. 3.52
For N. C. quartz sand

Venice Lagoon (Italy), Ricceri et al. (2002)

Eq. 3.53 For soil with classifications of ML and SP-
SM

Lee et al. (2004)

Eq. 3.54
(s’h) = horizontal effective stress

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 Subsurface Exploration
3.21 Cone Penetration Test

Correlation between (qc) and N60

N60 = standard penetration resistance

Eq. 3.55 D50 = the mean grain size (in mm)
Table 3.9 shows the values of c and a.

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 Subsurface Exploration
3.21 Cone Penetration Test
Correlation of Soil Type

Eq. 3.46

Eq. 3.47
67
Eq. 3.48
 Subsurface Exploration
3.21 Cone Penetration Test
Correlations for Undrained Shear Strength (c u), Preconsolidation
Pressure (s’c), and O.C.R for Clays
so = Total vertical stress
NK = Bearing Capacity Factor

Eq. 3.56
According to Mayne and Kemper (1988):
NK = 15 (for electric cone), NK= 20 (for mechanical cone)
Based on Anagnostopoulos et al. (2003):
NK = 17.2(for electric cone), NK= 18.9(for mechanical cone)
Based on Anagnostopoulos et al. (2003):
Eq. 3.57 Cu = fc ÷ 1.26 For mechanical cone

Based on Anagnostopoulos et al. (2003):

Eq. 3.58 Cu = fc For electrical cone

Eq. 3.59 s’c and qc are in MN/m2

Eq. 3.60 so and s’o are total and effective stress, respectively.
68
Subsurface Exploration
3.21 Cone Penetration Test

69
Subsurface Exploration
3.27 Preparation of Boring Logs
• The detailed information gathered from each borehole is presented in a graphical form
called the boring log.

• As a borehole is advanced downward, the driller generally should record the following
information in a standard log:

1. Name and address of the drilling company

2. Driller’s name
3. Job description and number
4. Number, type, and location of boring
5. Date of boring
6. Subsurface stratification, (obtained by visual observation of the soil brought out by
auger, split-spoon sampler)
7. Water table elevation and date observed, use of casing and mud losses, and so on
8. Standard penetration resistance and the depth of SPT
9. Number, type, and depth of soil sample collected
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Subsurface Exploration
3.27 Preparation of Boring Logs
• This information should never be left to
memory, because doing so often results
in erroneous boring logs.

• After completion of the necessary

laboratory tests, the geotechnical
engineer prepares a finished log that
includes notes from the driller’s field log
and the results of tests conducted in the
laboratory.

• Figure 3.44 shows a typical boring log.

• These logs have to be attached to the

final soil-exploration report submitted to
the client.

• The figure also lists the classifications of

the soils in the left-hand column, along
with the description of each soil (based
on the Unified Soil Classification System).

71
Subsurface Exploration
3.29 Subsoil Exploration Report
• At the end of all soil exploration programs, the soil and rock specimens
collected in the field are subject to visual observation and appropriate
laboratory testing.

• The basic soil tests were covered in Soil Mechanics Course.

• After all the required information has been compiled, a soil exploration report
is prepared for use by the design office and for reference during future
construction work.

• Although the details and sequence of information in such reports may vary to
some degree, depending on the structure under consideration and the person
compiling the report.

• Each report should include the following items:

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Subsurface Exploration
3.29 Subsoil Exploration Report
1. A description of the scope of the investigation
2. A description of the proposed structure for which the subsoil exploration has
been conducted
3. A description of the location of the site, including any structures nearby,
drainage conditions, the nature of vegetation on the site and surrounding it,
and any other features unique to the site.
4. A description of the geological setting of the site
5. Details of the field exploration—that is, number of borings, depths of borings,
types of borings involved, and so on
6. A general description of the subsoil conditions, as determined from soil
specimens and from related laboratory tests, standard penetration resistance
and cone penetration resistance, and so on
7. A description of the water-table conditions
8. Recommendations regarding the foundation, including the type of foundation
recommended, the allowable bearing pressure, and any special construction
procedure that may be needed; alternative foundation design procedures
should also be discussed in this portion of the report
9. Conclusions and limitations of the investigations
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Subsurface Exploration
3.29 Subsoil Exploration Report
The following graphical presentations should be attached to the report:

1. A site location map

2. A plan view of the location of the borings with respect to the proposed
structures and those nearby
3. Boring logs
4. Laboratory test results
5. Other special graphical presentations

The exploration reports should be well planned and documented, as they will
help in answering questions and solving foundation problems that may arise later
during design and construction.

74
Subsurface Exploration
Plate Loading Test
of Soil at Site

75
Subsurface Exploration
Plate Loading Test
of Soil at Site

76
Subsurface Exploration
Plate Loading Test of Soil at Site
OBJECTIVE:
To perform plate load test to obtain a load-settlement curve of a soil at a particular depth
so as to estimate the ultimate bearing capacity of a foundation.

APPARATUS:
1. Test plate of square size (300 mm or 450 mm or 600 mm or 750 mm)
2. Hydraulic jack (50 T capacity)
3. Hydraulic pump (50 T capacity)
4. Pressure gauge (to read 50 T load with a sensitivity of 0.5 T)
5. Proving ring or load cell (50 T capacity)
6. Four dial gauges (with sensitivity of 0.01 mm and a travel of 50 mm)
7. Loading columns
8. Dial gauge supporting channels
9. Dial gauge stands
10. Magnetic bases for dial gauges
11. Loading platform equipment (girders, plates, sand bags etc) or Truss with anchors
12.Tripod (to erect the platform or truss frame)
13.Pulley block (to lift the girders or truss frame)

77
Subsurface Exploration
Plate Loading Test of Soil at Site
PROCEDURE:

1. Excavate the test pit. The test pit size should be 5 times the size of test plate
and depth equal to the depth of foundation.

2. The loading platform should be erected over the test pit such that, the vertical
line drawn through the center of gravity of the load passes through the
centroid of the base of the test pit.

3. Position the test plate centrally at the base of the pit.

4. Ensure that the ground surface below the test plate is perfectly horizontal so
that no stress concentration takes place below the plate during loading.

5. If the ground surface is slightly uneven a thin layer of sand is spread

underneath the test plate.

6. Position the hydraulic jack over the plate so that when hydraulic pressure is
built up the jack pushes against the loading platform.
78
Subsurface Exploration
Plate Loading Test of Soil at Site
PROCEDURE:

7. Position minimum of two dial gauges diagonally at the corners (preferably 4 at

all corners of the test plate) to record its settlement of the plate.

8. The dial gauges should be positioned such that the plunger of the dial gauges
is at its beginning of rebound, so that it will get released as the plate settles
and the reading changes (difference in reading provided the plate settlement.
(See fig-1 for plate load setup)

9. The load is applied on the plate by applying pressure into the jack.

10.Since the pressure built up in the jack (say 1 or 2 T) is much less than the load
on the platform, the pressure in the jack will push the test plate down.

79
Subsurface Exploration
Plate Loading Test of Soil at Site
PROCEDURE:

11.This is a case similar to the expansion of a system between two supports. Due
to the expansion the weaker support (ground) yields.

12.Apply a seating load of 0.7 T/m2 (before the actual loading is started).

13.Record the initial readings of the dial gauges.

14.The load is applied through the hydraulic jack in convenient increments.

15.The load increments may be one fifth of the expected safe bearing capacity
or one-tenth of the ultimate bearing capacity or any other smaller loads.

16.The applied load is read and recorded.

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Subsurface Exploration
Plate Loading Test of Soil at Site
PROCEDURE:

17.Plate settlement should be observed for each load increment after 1, 4, 10,
20, 40 and 60 minutes and thereafter at hourly interval until the settlement
rate becomes < 0.02 mm per hour.

18.Enter the readings in the tabular form. (See fig-2)

19.After recording settlement readings, the next load increment is applied and
the dial gauges readings are noted under the new load.

20.Loading increments and settlement values are recorded under each load;
until the maximum load is reached.

21.The maximum load to be applied corresponds to 1.5 times the estimated

ultimate load or to 3 times the proposed allowable bearing pressure.

81
Subsurface Exploration
Plate Loading Test of Soil at Site
OBSERVATIONS AND CALCULATIONS

• The load intensity and settlement observation of the plate load test are
plotted.

• Fig-3 shows a set of typical load settlement curves.

• The ultimate bearing capacity is taken as the load at which the plate starts
sinking at a rapid rate (when the curve drops down to a vertical line).

• The failure of dense sand or stiff clays is not pronounced (see Fig. 3)

• In such cases a plot of load and settlement, both being taken in logarithmic
scales, gives two straight lines.
•
• The intersection of these lines is the ultimate bearing capacity of soil (Fig.4).

82
Subsurface Exploration
Plate Loading Test of Soil at Site

Fig. 1: Plate Load Test Setup

83
Subsurface Exploration
Plate Loading Test of Soil at Site

Fig. 2: PLT Observation Sheet

84
Subsurface Exploration
Plate Loading Test of Soil at Site

85

Fig. 3: PLT load-settlement curve

Subsurface Exploration
Plate Loading Test of Soil at Site

Fig. 4: PLT load-settlement logarithmic curve 86