Chapter 4

The Theor
Theoryy of the Firm
Firm
under Per
Per fect Competition
erfect

In the previous chapter, we studied concepts related to a firm’s

production function and cost curves. The focus of this chapter is
different. Here we ask : how does a firm decide how much to
produce? Our answer to this question is by no means simple or
uncontroversial. We base our answer on a critical, if somewhat
unreasonable, assumption about firm behaviour – a firm, we
maintain, is a ruthless profit maximiser. So, the amount that a
firm produces and sells in the market is that which maximises its
profit. Here, we also assume that the firm sells whatever it produces
so that ‘output’ and quantity sold are often used interchangebly.
The structure of this chapter is as follows. We first set up and
examine in detail the profit maximisation problem of a firm. Then,0
we derive a firm’s supply curve. The supply curve shows the levels
of output that a firm chooses to produce at different market prices.
Finally, we study how to aggregate the supply curves of individual
firms and obtain the market supply curve.

4.1 PERFECT COMPETITION: DEFINING FEATURES

In order to analyse a firm’s profit maximisation problem, we must
first specify the market environment in which the firm functions.
In this chapter, we study a market environment called perfect
competition. A perfectly competitive market has the following
defining features:
1. The market consists of a large number of buyers and sellers
2. Each firm produces and sells a homogenous product. i.e., the
product of one firm cannot be differentiated from the product
of any other firm.
3. Entry into the market as well as exit from the market are free
for firms.
4. Information is perfect.
The existence of a large number of buyers and sellers means
that each individual buyer and seller is very small compared to
the size of the market. This means that no individual buyer or
seller can influence the market by their size. Homogenous products
further mean that the product of each firm is identical. So a buyer
can choose to buy from any firm in the market, and she gets the
same product. Free entry and exit mean that it is easy for firms to
enter the market, as well as to leave it. This condition is essential

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 for the large numbers of firms to exist. If entry was difficult, or restricted, then
the number of firms in the market could be small. Perfect information implies
that all buyers and all sellers are completely informed about the price, quality
and other relevant details about the product, as well as the market.
These features result in the single most distinguishing characteristic of perfect
competition: price taking behaviour. From the viewpoint of a firm, what does
price-taking entail? A price-taking firm believes that if it sets a price above the
market price, it will be unable to sell any quantity of the good that it produces.
On the other hand, should the set price be less than or equal to the market price,
the firm can sell as many units of the good as it wants to sell. From the viewpoint
of a buyer, what does price-taking entail? A buyer would obviously like to buy
the good at the lowest possible price. However, a price-taking buyer believes that
if she asks for a price below the market price, no firm will be willing to sell to her.
On the other hand, should the price asked be greater than or equal to the market
price, the buyer can obtain as many units of the good as she desires to buy.
Price-taking is often thought to be a reasonable assumption when the market
has many firms and buyers have perfect information about the price prevailing
in the market. Why? Let us start with a situation where each firm in the market
charges the same (market) price. Suppose, now, that a certain firm raises its
price above the market price. Observe that since all firms produce the same good
and all buyers are aware of the market price, the firm in question loses all its
buyers. Furthermore, as these buyers switch their purchases to other firms, no
“adjustment” problems arise; their demand is readily accommodated when there
are so many other firms in the market. Recall, now, that an individual firm’s
inability to sell any amount of the good at a price exceeding the market price is
precisely what the price-taking assumption stipulates.

4.2 REVENUE
We have indicated that in a perfectly competitive market, a firm believes that it
54 can sell as many units of the good as it wants by setting a price less than or equal
to the market price. But, if this is the case, surely there is no reason to set a price
Microeconomics
Introductory

lower than the market price. In other words, should the firm desire to sell some
amount of the good, the price that it sets is exactly equal to the market price.
A firm earns revenue by selling the good that it produces in the market. Let
the market price of a unit of the good be p. Let q be the quantity of the good
produced, and therefore sold, by the firm at price p. Then, total revenue (TR) of
the firm is defined as the market price of the good (p) multiplied by the firm’s
output (q). Hence,
TR = p × q
To make matters concrete, consider the following numerical example. Let the
market for candles be perfectly competitive and let the market price of a box of
candles be Rs 10. For a candle manufacturer, Table 4.1: Total Revenue
Table 4.1 shows how total revenue is related to
output. Notice that when no box is sold, Boxes sold TR (in Rs)
TR is equal to zero; if one box of candles is sold, 0 0
TR is equal to 1×Rs 10= Rs 10; if two boxes of 1 10
candles are produced, TR is equal to 2 × Rs 10 2 20
= Rs 20; and so on. 3 30
We can depict how the total revenue changes 4 40
as the quantity sold changes through a Total 5 50
Revenue Curve. A total revenue curve plots

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the quantity sold or output on the
Revenue
X-axis and the Revenue earned on
the Y-axis. Figure 4.1 shows the
total revenue curve of a firm. Three TR
observations are relevant here.
First, when the output is zero, the
total revenue of the firm is also
zero. Therefore, the TR curve A
passes through point O. Second,
the total revenue increases as the
output goes up. Moreover, the
equation ‘TR = p × q’ is that of a O q1 Output
straight line because p is constant. Fig. 4.1
This means that the TR curve is
an upward rising straight line. Total Revenue curve. The total revenue curve of
a firm shows the relationship between the total
Third, consider the slope of this revenue that the firm earns and the output level of
straight line. When the output is the firm. The slope of the curve, Aq1/Oq1, is the
one unit (horizontal distance Oq1 market price.
in Figure 4.1), the total revenue
(vertical height Aq1 in Figure 4.1)
is p × 1 = p. Therefore, the slope of
Price
the straight line is Aq1/Oq1 = p.
The average revenue ( AR ) of
a firm is defined as total revenue
per unit of output. Recall that if a
firm’s output is q and the market p
Price Line
price is p, then TR equals p × q.
Hence
TR p ×q
AR = q = q =p
55
In other words, for a price-taking

under Perfect Competition

The Theory of the Firm
O Output
firm, average revenue equals the
market price. Fig. 4.2
Now consider Figure 4.2. Price Line. The price line shows the relationship
Here, we plot the average revenue between the market price and a firm’s output level.
or market price (y-axis) for The vertical height of the price line is equal to the
different values of a firm’s output market price, p.
(x-axis). Since the market price is
fixed at p, we obtain a horizontal straight line that cuts the y-axis at a height
equal to p. This horizontal straight line is called the price line. It is also the
firm’s AR curve under perfect competition The price line also depicts the demand
curve facing a firm. Observe that the demand curve is perfectly elastic. This means
that a firm can sell as many units of the good as it wants to sell at price p.
The marginal revenue (MR) of a firm is defined as the increase in total
revenue for a unit increase in the firm’s output. Consider table 4.1 again. Total
revenue from the sale of 2 boxes of candles is Rs.20. Total revenue from the sale
of 3 boxes of candles is Rs.30.
Change in total revenue 30 - 20
Marginal Revenue (MR) = = = 10
Changein quantity 3- 2

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 Is it a coincidence that this is the same as the price? Actually it is not. Consider
the situation when the firm’s output changes from q1 to q2. Given the market
price p,
MR = (pq2 –pq1)/ (q2 –q1)
= [p (q2 –q1)]/ (q2 –q1)
=p
Thus, for the perfectly competitive firm, MR=AR=p
In other words, for a price-taking firm, marginal revenue equals the market
price.
Setting the algebra aside, the intuition for this result is quite simple. When a
firm increases its output by one unit, this extra unit is sold at the market price.
Hence, the firm’s increase in total revenue from the one-unit output expansion –
that is, MR – is precisely the market price.

4.3 PROFIT MAXIMISATION

A firm produces and sells a certain amount of a good. The firm’s profit, denoted
by π 1, is defined to be the difference between its total revenue (TR) and its total
cost of production (TC ). In other words
π = TR – TC
Clearly, the gap between TR and TC is the firm’s earnings net of costs.
A firm wishes to maximise its profit. The firm would like to identify the quantity
q0 at which its profits are maximum. By definition, then, at any quantity other
than q0, the firm’s profits are less than at q0. The critical question is: how do we
identify q0?
For profits to be maximum, three conditions must hold at q0:
1. The price, p, must equal MC
2. Marginal cost must be non-decreasing at q0
3. For the firm to continue to produce, in the short run, price must be greater
than the average variable cost (p > AVC); in the long run, price must be greater
56 than the average cost (p > AC).
Microeconomics
Introductory

4.3.1 Condition 1
Profits are the difference between total revenue and total cost. Both total revenue
and total cost increase as output increases. Notice that as long as the change in
total revenue is greater than the change in total cost, profits will continue to
increase. Recall that change in total revenue per unit increase in output is the
marginal revenue; and the change in total cost per unit increase in output is the
marginal cost. Therefore, we can conclude that as long as marginal revenue is
greater than marginal cost, profits are increasing. By the same logic, as long as
marginal revenue is less than marginal cost, profits will fall. It follows that for
profits to be maximum, marginal revenue should equal marginal cost.
In other words, profits are maximum at the level of output (which we have
called q0) for which MR = MC
For the perfectly competitive firm, we have established that the MR = P. So the
firm’s profit maximizing output becomes the level of output at which P=MC.

4.3.2 Condition 2
Consider the second condition that must hold when the profit-maximising output
level is positive. Why is it the case that the marginal cost curve cannot slope
1
It is a convention in economics to denote profit with the Greek letter π.

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downwards at the profit-
maximising output level? To
answer this question, refer once
again to Figure 4.3. Note that at
output levels q 1 and q 4, the
market price is equal to the
marginal cost. However, at the
output level q1, the marginal
cost curve is downward sloping.
We claim that q1 cannot be a
profit-maximising output level.
Why?
Observe that for all output
levels slightly to the left of q 1,
the market price is lower than Conditions 1 and 2 for profit maximisation.
the marginal cost. But, the The figure is used to demonstrate that when the
market price is p, the output level of a profit-
argument outlined in section
maximising firm cannot be q1 (marginal cost curve,
4.3.1 immediately implies that MC, is downward sloping), q2 and q3 (market price
the firm’s profit at an output exceeds marginal cost), or q5 and q6 (marginal cost
level slightly smaller than q 1 exceeds market price).
exceeds that corresponding to
the output level q 1. This being the case, q 1 cannot be a profit-maximising
output level.

4.3.3 Condition 3
Consider the third condition that Price,
SMC
costs
must hold when the profit-
maximising output level is
positive. Notice that the third SAC
condition has two parts: one part AVC
applies in the short run while the 57

under Perfect Competition

The Theory of the Firm
other applies in the long run. B
E
Case 1: Price must be greater p
than or equal to AVC in the A
short run
O q1 Output
We will show that the
statement of Case 1 (see above) is Fig. 4.4
true by arguing that a profit-
Price-AVC Relationship with Profit
maximising firm, in the short run, Maximisation (Short Run). The figure is used to
will not produce at an output level demonstrate that a profit-maximising firm produces
wherein the market price is lower zero output in the short run when the market price,
than the AVC. p, is less than the minimum of its average variable
cost (AVC). If the firm’s output level is q1, the firm’s
total variable cost exceeds its revenue by an amount
Let us turn to Figure 4.4.
equal to the area of rectangle pEBA.
Observe that at the output level q1,
the market price p is lower than
the AVC. We claim that q 1 cannot be a profit-maximising output level. Why?
Notice that the firm’s total revenue at q1 is as follows
TR = Price ×Quantity
= Vertical height Op × width Oq1
= The area of rectangle OpAq1

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 Similarly, the firm’s total variable cost at q1 is as follows
TVC = Average variable cost × Quantity
= Vertical height OE × Width Oq1
= The area of rectangle OEBq1
Now recall that the firm’s profit at q1 is TR – (TVC + TFC); that is, [the area of
rectangle OpAq1] – [the area of rectangle OEBq1] – TFC. What happens if the firm
produces zero output? Since output is zero, TR and TVC are zero as well. Hence,
the firm’s profit at zero output is equal to – TFC. But, the area of rectangle OpAq1
is strictly less than the area of rectangle OEBq1. Hence, the firm’s profit at q1 is
[(area EBAp)-TFC], which is strictly less than what it obtains by not producing at
all. So, the firm will choose not to
produce at all, and exit from the Price, LRMC
market. costs

Case 2: Price must be greater

than or equal to AC in the LRAC
long run
We will show that the statement of E B
Case 2 (see above) is true by
arguing that a profit-maximising p
firm, in the long run, will not A
produce at an output level
wherein the market price is lower O q1 Output
than the AC. Fig. 4.5
Let us turn to Figure 4.5.
Observe that at the output level q1, Price-AC Relationship with Profit
Maximisation (Long Run). The figure is used to
the market price p is lower than demonstrate that a profit-maximising firm
the (long run) AC. We claim that produces zero output in the long run when the
q1 cannot be a profit-maximising market price, p, is less than the minimum of its
output level. Why? long run average cost (LRAC). If the firm’s output
58 Notice that the firm’s total level is q1, the firm’s total cost exceeds its revenue
revenue, TR, at q1 is the area of the by an amount equal to the area of rectangle pEBA.
Microeconomics
Introductory

rectangle OpAq1 (the product of

price and quantity) while the firm’s
total cost, TC , is the area of the
rectangle OEBq1 (the product of
average cost and quantity). Since
the area of rectangle OEBq1 is
larger than the area of rectangle
OpAq1, the firm incurs a loss at the
output level q1. But, in the long
run set-up, a firm that shuts down
production has a profit of zero.
Again, the firm chooses to exit in
this case.

4.3.4 The Profit Maximisation

Problem: Graphical
Representation Geometric Representation of Profit
Maximisation (Short Run). Given market
Using the material in sections 3.1, price p, the output level of a profit-maximising
3.2 and 3.3, let us graphically firm is q0. At q0, the firm’s profit is equal to the
represent a firm’s profit area of rectangle EpAB.

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maximisation problem in the short run. Consider Figure 4.6. Notice that the
market price is p. Equating the market price with the (short run) marginal
cost, we obtain the output level q0. At q0, observe that SMC slopes upwards
and p exceeds AVC. Since the three conditions discussed in sections 3.1-3.3
are satisfied at q0, we maintain that the profit-maximising output level of the
firm is q0.
What happens at q0? The total revenue of the firm at q0 is the area of
rectangle OpAq0 (the product of price and quantity) while the total cost at q0 is
the area of rectangle OEBq0 (the product of short run average cost and quantity).
So, at q0, the firm earns a profit equal to the area of the rectangle EpAB.

4.4 SUPPLY CURVE OF A FIRM

A firm’s ‘supply’ is the quantity that it chooses to sell at a given price, given
technology, and given the prices of factors of production. A table describing the
quantities sold by a firm at various prices, technology and prices of factors
remaining unchanged, is called a supply schedule. We may also represent the
information as a graph, called a supply curve. The supply curve of a firm shows
the levels of output (plotted on the x-axis) that the firm chooses to produce
corresponding to different values of the market price (plotted on the y-axis),
again keeping technology and prices of factors of production unchanged. We
distinguish between the short run supply curve and the long run supply
curve.

4.4.1 Short Run Supply Curve of a Firm

Let us turn to Figure 4.7 and derive a firm’s short run supply curve. We shall
split this derivation into two parts. We first determine a firm’s profit-maximising
output level when the market price is greater than or equal to the minimum
AVC. This done, we determine the firm’s profit-maximising output level when
the market price is less than the minimum AVC.
59
Case 1: Price is greater than

under Perfect Competition

The Theory of the Firm
or equal to the minimum AVC
Price,
SMC
Suppose the market price is p1, costs
which exceeds the minimum AVC.
We start out by equating p1 with
SAC
SMC on the rising part of the SMC
curve; this leads to the output level AVC
q1. Note also that the AVC at q1 p1
does not exceed the market price,
p 1. Thus, all three conditions
highlighted in section 3 are p2
satisfied at q1. Hence, when the
market price is p 1, the firm’s O q1 Output
output level in the short run is Fig. 4.7
equal to q1.
Market Price Values. The figure shows the
Case 2: Price is less than the output levels chosen by a profit-maximising firm
minimum AVC in the short run for two values of the market price:
Suppose the market price is p2, p1 and p2. When the market price is p1, the output
level of the firm is q1; when the market price is
which is less than the minimum
p 2, the firm produces zero output.
AVC. We have argued (see

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 condition 3 in section 3) that if a Price,
profit-maximising firm produces Supply
costs
Curve
a positive output in the short run, (SMC)
then the market price, p2, must be
SAC
greater than or equal to the AVC
at that output level. But notice AVC
from Figure 4.7 that for all positive
output levels, AVC strictly exceeds
p2. In other words, it cannot be the
case that the firm supplies a
positive output. So, if the market
O Output
price is p2, the firm produces zero
output. Fig. 4.8
Combining cases 1 and 2, we
The Short Run Supply Curve of a Firm. The
reach an important conclusion. A short run supply curve of a firm, which is based
firm’s short run supply curve is on its short run marginal cost curve (SMC) and
the rising part of the SMC curve average variable cost curve (AVC), is represented
from and above the minimum AVC by the bold line.
together with zero output for all prices strictly less than the minimum AVC. In
figure 4.8, the bold line represents the short run supply curve of the firm.

4.4.2 Long Run Supply Curve of a Firm

Let us turn to Figure 4.9 and
Price, LRMC
derive the firm’s long run supply
costs
curve. As in the short run case,
we split the derivation into two
LRAC
parts. We first determine the firm’s
p1
profit-maximising output level
when the market price is greater
60 than or equal to the minimum
(long run) AC. This done, we
Introductory
Microeconomics

determine the firm’s profit- p2

maximising output level when the
market price is less than the O q1 Output
minimum (long run) AC. Fig. 4.9
Case 1: Price greater than or Profit maximisation in the Long Run for
equal to the minimum LRAC Different Market Price Values. The figure
shows the output levels chosen by a profit-
Suppose the market price is p1,
maximising firm in the long run for two values
which exceeds the minimum of the market price: p1 and p2. When the market
LRAC. Upon equating p 1 with price is p1, the output level of the firm is q1;
LRMC on the rising part of the when the market price is p2, the firm produces
LRMC curve, we obtain output zero output.
level q 1. Note also that the LRAC
at q 1 does not exceed the market price, p 1. Thus, all three conditions
highlighted in section 3 are satisfied at q 1. Hence, when the market price is
p 1, the firm’s supplies in the long run become an output equal to q 1.
Case 2: Price less than the minimum LRAC
Suppose the market price is p2, which is less than the minimum LRAC. We have

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argued (see condition 3 in section Supply Curve(LRMC)
Price,
3) that if a profit-maximising firm costs
produces a positive output in the
long run, the market price, p2, LRAC
must be greater than or equal to
the LRAC at that output level. But
notice from Figure 4.9 that for all
positive output levels, LRAC
strictly exceeds p2. In other words,
it cannot be the case that the firm
supplies a positive output. So,
when the market price is p2, the O Output
firm produces zero output. Fig. 4.10
Combining cases 1 and 2, we
The Long Run Supply Curve of a Firm. The
reach an important conclusion. A long run supply curve of a firm, which is based on
firm’s long run supply curve is the its long run marginal cost curve (LRMC) and long
rising part of the LRMC curve from run average cost curve (LRAC), is represented by
and above the minimum LRAC the bold line.
together with zero output for all
prices less than the minimum LRAC. In Figure 4.10, the bold line represents the
long run supply curve of the firm.

4.4.3 The Shut Down Point

Previously, while deriving the supply curve, we have discussed that in the short
run the firm continues to produce as long as the price remains greater than or
equal to the minimum of AVC. Therefore, along the supply curve as we move
down, the last price-output combination at which the firm produces positive
output is the point of minimum AVC where the SMC curve cuts the AVC curve.
Below this, there will be no production. This point is called the short run shut
down point of the firm. In the long run, however, the shut down point is the 61
minimum of LRAC curve.

under Perfect Competition

The Theory of the Firm
4.4.4 The Normal Profit and Break-even Point
The minimum level of profit that is needed to keep a firm in the existing business
is defined as normal profit. A firm that does not make normal profits is not
going to continue in business. Normal profits are therefore a part of the firm’s
total costs. It may be useful to think of them as an opportunity cost for
entrepreneurship. Profit that a firm earns over and above the normal profit is
called the super-normal profit. In the long run, a firm does not produce if it
earns anything less than the normal profit. In the short run, however, it may
produce even if the profit is less than this level. The point on the supply curve at
which a firm earns only normal profit is called the break-even point of the firm.
The point of minimum average cost at which the supply curve cuts the LRAC
curve (in short run, SAC curve) is therefore the break-even point of a firm.

Opportunity cost
In economics, one often encounters the concept of opportunity cost.
Opportunity cost of some activity is the gain foregone from the second best
activity. Suppose you have Rs 1,000 which you decide to invest in your family
business. What is the opportunity cost of your action? If you do not invest

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 this money, you can either keep it in the house-safe which will give you zero
return or you can deposit it in either bank-1 or bank-2 in which case you get
an interest at the rate of 10 per cent or 5 per cent respectively. So the maximum
benefit that you may get from other alternative activities is the interest from
the bank-1. But this opportunity will no longer be there once you invest the
money in your family business. The opportunity cost of investing the money
in your family business is therefore the amount of forgone interest from the
bank-1.

4.5 DETERMINANTS OF A FIRM’S SUPPLY CURVE

In the previous section, we have seen that a firm’s supply curve is a part of its
marginal cost curve. Thus, any factor that affects a firm’s marginal cost curve is
of course a determinant of its supply curve. In this section, we discuss two
such factors.

4.5.1 Technological Progress

Suppose a firm uses two factors of production – say, capital and labour – to
produce a certain good. Subsequent to an organisational innovation by the firm,
the same levels of capital and labour now produce more units of output. Put
differently, to produce a given level of output, the organisational innovation allows
the firm to use fewer units of inputs. It is expected that this will lower the firm’s
marginal cost at any level of output; that is, there is a rightward (or downward)
shift of the MC curve. As the firm’s supply curve is essentially a segment of the
MC curve, technological progress shifts the supply curve of the firm to the right.
At any given market price, the firm now supplies more units of output.

4.5.2 Input Prices

A change in input prices also affects a firm’s supply curve. If the price of an
62 input (say, the wage rate of labour) increases, the cost of production rises. The
consequent increase in the firm’s average cost at any level of output is usually
Introductory
Microeconomics

accompanied by an increase in the firm’s marginal cost at any level of output;

that is, there is a leftward (or upward) shift of the MC curve. This means that the
firm’s supply curve shifts to the left: at any given market price, the firm now
supplies fewer units of output.

Impact of a unit tax on supply

A unit tax is a tax that the government imposes per unit sale of output. For
example, suppose that the unit tax imposed by the government is Rs 2.
Then, if the firm produces and sells 10 units of the good, the total tax that
the firm must pay to the government is 10 × Rs 2 = Rs 20.
How does the long run supply curve of a firm change when a unit tax is
imposed? Let us turn to figure 4.11. Before the unit tax is imposed, LRMC0
and LRAC0 are, respectively, the long run marginal cost curve and the long
run average cost curve of the firm. Now, suppose the government puts in
place a unit tax of Rs t. Since the firm must pay an extra Rs t for each unit
of the good produced, the firm’s long run average cost and long run marginal
cost at any level of output increases by Rs t. In Figure 4.11, LRMC1 and
LRAC1 are, respectively, the long run marginal cost curve and the long run
average cost curve of the firm upon imposition of the unit tax.

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 Recall that the long run supply curve of a firm is the rising part of the
LRMC curve from and above the minimum LRAC together with zero output
for all prices less than the minimum LRAC. Using this observation in Figure
4.12, it is immediate that S0 and S1 are, respectively, the long run supply
curve of the firm before and after the imposition of the unit tax. Notice that
the unit tax shifts the firm’s long run supply curve to the left: at any given
market price, the firm now supplies fewer units of output.

LRMC1 Price S1 S0
Costs
LRAC1

LRMC0

LRAC0
0
p +t
p0 + t
t
p0
0
p

O O q0 Output
q0 Output
Fig. 4.11 Fig. 4.12

Cost Curves and the Unit Tax. LRAC0 Supply Curves and Unit Tax. S0 is the
and LRMC0 are, respectively, the long run supply curve of a firm before a unit tax
average cost curve and the long run is imposed. After a unit tax of Rs t is
marginal cost curve of a firm before a unit imposed, S1 represents the supply curve
tax is imposed. LRAC1 and LRMC1 are, of the firm.
respectively, the long run average cost
curve and the long run marginal cost curve
of a firm after a unit tax of Rs t is imposed.

4.6 MARKET SUPPLY CURVE

63
The market supply curve shows the output levels (plotted on the x-axis) that

under Perfect Competition

The Theory of the Firm
firms in the market produce in aggregate corresponding to different values of
the market price (plotted on the y-axis).
How is the market supply curve derived? Consider a market with n firms:
firm 1, firm 2, firm 3, and so on. Suppose the market price is fixed at p. Then,
the output produced by the n firms in aggregate is [supply of firm 1 at price p]
+ [supply of firm 2 at price p] + ... + [supply of firm n at price p]. In other words,
the market supply at price p is the summation of the supplies of individual
firms at that price.
Let us now construct the market supply curve geometrically with just two
firms in the market: firm 1 and firm 2. The two firms have different cost structures.
Firm 1 will not produce anything if the market price is less than p1 while firm 2
will not produce anything if the market price is less than p 2 . Assume also that
p 2 is greater than p1 .
In panel (a) of Figure 4.13 we have the supply curve of firm 1, denoted by
S1; in panel (b), we have the supply curve of firm 2, denoted by S2. Panel (c) of
Figure 4.13 shows the market supply curve, denoted by Sm. When the market
price is strictly below p1 , both firms choose not to produce any amount of the
good; hence, market supply will also be zero for all such prices. For a market

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 price greater than or equal to p1 but strictly less than p 2 , only firm 1 will produce
a positive amount of the good. Therefore, in this range, the market supply curve
coincides with the supply curve of firm 1. For a market price greater than or
equal to p 2 , both firms will have positive output levels. For example, consider a
situation wherein the market price assumes the value p3 (observe that p3
exceeds p 2 ). Given p3, firm 1 supplies q3 units of output while firm 2 supplies q4
units of output. So, the market supply at price p3 is q5, where q5 = q3 + q4. Notice
how the market supply curve, Sm, in panel (c) is being constructed: we obtain Sm
by taking a horizontal summation of the supply curves of the two firms in the
market, S1 and S2.
Price
S1 S2

Sm

p3

p2

p1

O q3 O q4 O q5 Output
(a) (b) (c)
Fig. 4.13

The Market Supply Curve Panel. (a) shows the supply curve of firm 1. Panel (b) shows the
supply curve of firm 2. Panel (c) shows the market supply curve, which is obtained by taking
a horizontal summation of the supply curves of the two firms.

It should be noted that the market supply curve has been derived for a fixed
64 number of firms in the market. As the number of firms changes, the market
supply curve shifts as well. Specifically, if the number of firms in the market
Introductory
Microeconomics

increases (decreases), the market supply curve shifts to the right (left).
We now supplement the graphical analysis given above with a related
numerical example. Consider a market with two firms: firm 1 and firm 2. Let the
supply curve of firm 1 be as follows

0 : p < 10
S1(p) =  p – 10 : p ≥ 10

Notice that S1(p) indicates that (1) firm 1 produces an output of 0 if the market
price, p, is strictly less than 10, and (2) firm 1 produces an output of (p – 10) if
the market price, p, is greater than or equal to 10. Let the supply curve of firm 2
be as follows
0 : p < 15
S2(p) =  p – 15 : p ≥ 15

The interpretation of S2(p) is identical to that of S1(p), and is, hence, omitted.
Now, the market supply curve, Sm(p), simply sums up the supply curves of the
two firms; in other words
Sm(p) = S1(p) + S2(p)

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 But, this means that Sm(p) is as follows

0 : p < 10

Sm(p) =  p – 10 : p ≥ 10 and p < 15
( p – 10) + ( p – 15) = 2 p – 25 : p ≥ 15


4.7 PRICE ELASTICITY OF SUPPLY

The price elasticity of supply of a good measures the responsiveness of quantity
supplied to changes in the price of the good. More specifically, the price elasticity
of supply, denoted by eS, is defined as follows
Percentage change in quantity supplied
Price elasticity of supply, eS =
Percentage change in price

∆Q
× 100
Q ∆Q P
= = ×
∆P Q ∆P
× 100
P

Where ∆Q is the change in quantity of the good supplied to the market as market
price changes by ∆P .
To make matters concrete, consider the following numerical example. Suppose
the market for cricket balls is perfectly competitive. When the price of a cricket ball
is Rs10, let us assume that 200 cricket balls are produced in aggregate by the firms
in the market. When the price of a cricket ball rises to Rs 30, let us assume that 1,000
cricket balls are produced in aggregate by the firms in the market.
The percentage change in quantity supplied and market price can be estimated
using the information summarised in the table below:
65
Price of Cricket balls (P) Quantity of Cricket balls

under Perfect Competition

The Theory of the Firm
produced and sold (Q)
Old price : P1 = 10 Old quantity : Q1 = 200
New price : P2 = 30 New quantity: Q2 = 1000

∆Q
Percentage change in quantity supplied= Q × 100
1

Q 2 − Q1
= × 100
Q1
1000 − 200
= × 100
200
= 400
∆P
Percentage change in market price = P × 100
1

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 P2 − P1
= × 100
P1
30 − 10
= × 100
10
= 200
400
Therefore, price elasticity of supply, eS = =2
200
When the supply curve is vertical, supply is completely insensitive to price
and the elasticity of supply is zero. In other cases, when supply curve is
positively sloped, with a rise in price, supply rises and hence, the elasticity of
supply is positive. Like the price elasticity of demand, the price elasticity of
supply is also independent of units.

The Geometric Method

Consider the Figure 4.14. Panel (a) shows a straight line supply curve. S is a
point on the supply curve. It cuts the price-axis at its positive range and as we
extend the straight line, it cuts the quantity-axis at M which is at its negative
range. The price elasticity of this supply curve at the point S is given by the
ratio, Mq0/Oq0. For any point S on such a supply curve, we see that Mq0 > Oq0.
The elasticity at any point on such a supply curve, therefore, will be greater
than 1.
In panel (c) we consider a straight line supply curve and S is a point on it.
It cuts the quantity-axis at M which is at its positive range. Again the price
elasticity of this supply curve at the point S is given by the ratio, Mq0/Oq0.
Now, Mq0 < Oq0 and hence, eS < 1. S can be any point on the supply curve,
and therefore at all points on such a supply curve eS < 1.
Now we come to panel (b). Here the supply curve goes through the origin.
66 One can imagine that the point M has coincided with the origin here, i.e., Mq0
has become equal to Oq0. The price elasticity of this supply curve at the
Introductory
Microeconomics

point S is given by the ratio, Oq0/Oq0 which is equal to 1. At any point on a

straight line, supply curve going through the origin price elasticity will be
one.
Price Price Price

S S S
p0 p0 p0

O M q0
M O q0 Output O q0 Output Output

(a) (b) (c)

Fig. 4.14

Price Elasticity Associated with Straight Line Supply Curves. In panel (a), price elasticity
(eS ) at S is greater than 1. In panel (b), price elasticity (eS) at S is equal to 1. In panel (c), price
elasticity (eS) at S is less than 1.

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 • In a perfectly competitive market, firms are price-takers.
Summary

• The total revenue of a firm is the market price of the good multiplied by the firm’s
output of the good.
• For a price-taking firm, average revenue is equal to market price.
• For a price-taking firm, marginal revenue is equal to market price.
• The demand curve that a firm faces in a perfectly competitive market is perfectly
elastic; it is a horizontal straight line at the market price.
• The profit of a firm is the difference between total revenue earned and total cost
incurred.
• If there is a positive level of output at which a firm’s profit is maximised in the
short run, three conditions must hold at that output level
(i) p = SMC
(ii) SMC is non-decreasing
(iii) p ≥ AV C.
• If there is a positive level of output at which a firm’s profit is maximised in the
long run, three conditions must hold at that output level
(i) p = LRMC
(ii) LRMC is non-decreasing
(iii) p ≥ LRAC.
• The short run supply curve of a firm is the rising part of the SMC curve from and
above minimum AVC together with 0 output for all prices less than the minimum
AVC.
• The long run supply curve of a firm is the rising part of the LRMC curve from and
above minimum LRAC together with 0 output for all prices less than the minimum
LRAC.
• Technological progress is expected to shift the supply curve of a firm to the right.
• An increase (decrease) in input prices is expected to shift the supply curve of a
firm to the left (right).
• The imposition of a unit tax shifts the supply curve of a firm to the left.
67
• The market supply curve is obtained by the horizontal summation of the supply

under Perfect Competition

The Theory of the Firm
curves of individual firms.
• The price elasticity of supply of a good is the percentage change in quantity
supplied due to one per cent change in the market price of the good.
Key Concepts

Perfect competition Revenue, Profit

Profit maximisation Firms supply curve
Market supply curve Price elasticity of supply
Exercises

1. What are the characteristics of a perfectly competitive market?

? 2. How are the total revenue of a firm, market price, and the quantity sold by the
firm related to each other?
3. What is the ‘price line’?
4. Why is the total revenue curve of a price-taking firm an upward-sloping straight
? line? Why does the curve pass through the origin?

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 5. What is the relation between market price and average revenue of a price-
taking firm?
6. What is the relation between market price and marginal revenue of a price-
taking firm?
7. What conditions must hold if a profit-maximising firm produces positive output
in a competitive market?
8. Can there be a positive level of output that a profit-maximising firm produces
in a competitive market at which market price is not equal to marginal cost?
Give an explanation.
9. Will a profit-maximising firm in a competitive market ever produce a positive
level of output in the range where the marginal cost is falling? Give an
explanation.
10. Will a profit-maximising firm in a competitive market produce a positive level of
output in the short run if the market price is less than the minimum of AVC?
Give an explanation.
11. Will a profit-maximising firm in a competitive market produce a positive level of
output in the long run if the market price is less than the minimum of AC?
Give an explanation.
12. What is the supply curve of a firm in the short run?
13. What is the supply curve of a firm in the long run?
14. How does technological progress affect the supply curve of a firm?
15. How does the imposition of a unit tax affect the supply curve of a firm?
16. How does an increase in the price of an input affect the supply curve of a firm?
17. How does an increase in the number of firms in a market affect the market
supply curve?
18. What does the price elasticity of supply mean? How do we measure it?
19. Compute the total revenue, marginal
revenue and average revenue schedules Quantity Sold TR MR AR
in the following table. Market price of each 0
68 unit of the good is Rs 10.
1
Introductory
Microeconomics

2
3
4
5
6

20. The following table shows the

Quantity Sold TR (Rs) TC (Rs) Profit
total revenue and total cost
schedules of a competitive 0 0 5
firm. Calculate the profit at 1 5 7
each output level. Determine 2 10 10
also the market price of the
3 15 12
good.
4 20 15
5 25 23
6 30 33
7 35 40

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21. The following table shows the total cost schedule
Output TC (Rs)
of a competitive firm. It is given that the price
of the good is Rs 10. Calculate the profit at each 0 5
output level. Find the profit maximising level of 1 15
output. 2 22
3 27
4 31
5 38
6 49
7 63
8 81
9 101
10 123
22. Consider a market with two
firms. The following table Price (Rs) SS1 (units) SS2 (units)
shows the supply schedules 0 0 0
of the two firms: the SS 1 1 0 0
column gives the supply
2 0 0
schedule of firm 1 and the
SS2 column gives the supply 3 1 1
schedule of firm 2. Compute 4 2 2
the market supply schedule. 5 3 3
6 4 4

23. Consider a market with two

firms. In the following table, Price (Rs) SS1 (kg) SS2 (kg)
columns labelled as SS 1 0 0 0
and SS 2 give the supply 1 0 0
schedules of firm 1 and firm
2 0 0
2 respectively. Compute the
market supply schedule. 3 1 0 69
4 2 0.5

under Perfect Competition

The Theory of the Firm
5 3 1
6 4 1.5
7 5 2
8 6 2.5

24. There are three identical firms in a market. The

following table shows the supply schedule of firm Price (Rs) SS1 (units)
1. Compute the market supply schedule. 0 0
1 0
2 2
3 4
4 6
5 8
6 10
7 12
8 14

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 25. A firm earns a revenue of Rs 50 when the market price of a good is Rs 10. The
? market price increases to Rs 15 and the firm now earns a revenue of Rs 150.
What is the price elasticity of the firm’s supply curve?
26. The market price of a good changes from Rs 5 to Rs 20. As a result, the quantity
supplied by a firm increases by 15 units. The price elasticity of the firm’s supply
curve is 0.5. Find the initial and final output levels of the firm.
27. At the market price of Rs 10, a firm supplies 4 units of output. The market price

? increases to Rs 30. The price elasticity of the firm’s supply is 1.25. What quantity
will the firm supply at the new price?

70
Introductory
Microeconomics

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