Preparation O rnam ental Fish International

Preparation for Transport:

Fish Packaging Technology
by

Dr. LIM Lian C huan, Dr. P hilippe DHERT, Prof. P a tric k S O R G E LO O S

In the ornamental fish business, the the fish in the consignment. Hence the
ability to meet customers' needs for use of modern packaging technology
high quality fish is always a critical for air transport to increase fish loading
factor. As most ornamental fish are densities and improve the postshipment
destined for export, the fish must not survival is critical to the business.
only be pleasing to look at but also
robust enough to withstand the long Packaging system
journey by air transportation. Since the There are basically two major types of
1 9 5 0 s when polyethylene bags were live fish transport systems: the open
first used for live fish transport, the system which uses live fish tanks, and
polyethylene-bag transport system has the closed system which involves fish
greatly reduced the shipping weight of packed in polyethylene bags. The
ornamental fish consignments, and system used for packaging live
made it feasible to ship them for air ornamental fish for air transport is a
freight. Nevertheless, the freight costs closed system, in which all factors
of fish consignments still represent the necessary to meet fishes' requirements
majority of the costs involved in the for survival are self-sustained. The
ornamental fish business, and for system involves packing the fish in
consignments such as those from Asia sealed polyethylene bags filled with
to the USA, it can even cost more than water and over-saturated with oxygen.
The bottom of the bag either has a
Dr. Lian Chuan LIM, Aquaculture seam or a rectangular base. For the
Integrated Solutions Pte Ltd, seam type bags, the 2 bottom corners
Singapore. Email: Iim 333@ gm ail.com are tied together with rubber bands or
heat-sealed to round off the corners so
Dr. Philippe DHERT, INVE Technologies that the fish are not trapped and
NV, O everstraat 7, Baasrode, Belgium squashed in the corners.

Prof. Patrick SO R G ELO O S, Laboratory of

With the exception of a small number
A quaculture & A rtem ia R eference
of freshwater fish and most of the
Center, Gent University, Gent, Belgium
marine species, ornamental fish are

25
O rnam ental Fish International Preparation

packed at a relatively high density.

Aggressive fish such as Fighting fish
(Betta splendens) and most Cichlids
are packed individually to prevent
them from attacking each other, a
situation that is likely to arise under the
stressful conditions of transportation.
Fish with fragile fins such as veil tail
Angelfish (Pterophyllum scalare) and
Pearl Gouramis (Trichogaster leeri) are
also packed individually in order to
ensure that their fragile finnage will
remain intact on arrival at destinations.
Individual packing is also applied to
high-priced fish as a safety precaution
to avoid mass mortality. These high-
priced fish include most marine Betta males are agressive and for that
ornamental fish and a few freshwater reason packed individually.
species such as Asian Arowanas Photo: Svein Fossá
(Scleropages formosus), Discus
(Symphysodon spp) and some rare with oxygen as high pressure may
species. cause unnecessary stress to the fish
and the bag may burst when lifted up.
Fish that are packed individually are
packed in single polyethylene bags. After packing, the opening of the bag
When many fish are packed in the is closed. There are 3 ways of closing
same bag, double bags, with one the bags:
inserted into the other, and with
newspaper inserted in between, are a) Using rubber bands: The upper end
used to prevent leakage of water and of the bag is twisted to prevent
oxygen due to perforation. A fixed oxygen from leaking. The twisted
volume of potable water, usually pre part is then folded and tightened
treated with chemicals or drugs, is first with rubber bands. This is a
poured into the bags and the fish are common practise as it allows re use
placed inside. Air is displaced from the of the bags especially during
space above water in the bags by transshipment. However, re-use of
squeezing the bag above the water the bags is prohibited in some
level, and oxygen is then added to the countries.
water or overlaid on the water through
a hose connected to the pressure b) Using a metal clip: Same method
regulator of an oxygen cylinder. It is used as in (a) above but the twisted
not advisable to inflate the bag fully section is tightened with a metal
Preparation O rnam ental Fish International

clip using a clipping machine. This especially when the consignments are in
is faster than the rubber band the cargo hold of the aircraft (21-22 °C)
method but bags can get damaged during air transport. Two sizes of
during unpacking and cannot be re styrofoam boxes are most commonly
used. Methods (a) and (b) are used used: those which measure 48.5 cm x
for packing many fish in the same 36.5 cm x 36.5 cm and 60.5 cm x 45.5
bag. cm x 30.5 cm. The thickness of the
box is either 2.0 cm or 1.30 cm, thicker
c) Heat sealed method: This method boxes being used for temporate
is used for closing small bags using climates or during the winter. The boxes
a machine, usually for fish that are serve to protect the polyethylene bags
packed individually. from mechanical damage during
handling, keeping bags in an upright
The bags with fish are then placed in a position and facilitates handling at
styrofoam (polystyrene) box, usually 4 to embarkation and disembarkation.
8 bags to a box. The styrofoam box is
usually placed inside a cardboard box of Biom ass in the packaging system
similar size. The styrofoam box serves to How many fish may be packed using
provide thermal insulation so as to the packaging system? The number of
prevent sudden changes in the fish is limited by the volume of transport
temperature of the transport water, water, and it varies with the species

Protection and Security during

transport of Aquarium
Münster

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The Aqua-Clipper sealing systems are used worldwide for many years. They are fully
autom atic robust and easy to handle. To fill up a bag w ith oxygen and dose it is a matter
of a few seconds. Please ask us for references. Our customers w ill confirm the high quality
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27
Ornam ental Fish International Preparation

and size of the fish. For example, the individuals or less active fish consume
average density for a consignment less oxygen and produce less
from Singapore to Europe (transit time nitrogenous wastes per unit weight
26-30 hours) ranges from 480 fish/box than do small ones. Compared with
for goldfish (Carassius auratus, average the loading densities for packing
body weight 13.8 g) to 1,663 fish/box foodfish juveniles such as cyprinid and
for neon tetra (Paracheirodon innesi, perch juveniles with the same transit
average weight 0.22 g). The transit time, the loading densities used for
time (the period from packing to ornamental fish are relatively higher
unpacking) is another key factor than those for cyprinid and perch
governing the fish density of a packaging juveniles of the same size.
system. More fish cán be packed in a
given volume of water if the transit Principles of fish transport
time is shorter. With air transport of ornamental fish,
water and packing materials represent
Consignments to Asia with transit times the main bulk of the weight of the
of 12-14 hours, for instance, allow consignment, with fish biomass
density increases of about 50%. Fish accounting for only 5-10% of the
densities are again decreased by about weight of consignment. The freight
20% when sent to the United States cost, which is based on the weight of
(transit times of more than 36 hours). the consignment, can be reduced if
more fish are packed in a given
We may use loading density of fish, volume of water. The objective of live
which is expressed in terms of fish transport is therefore to maximise
biomass of fish (g) per unit volume of the loading density of the fish while
water (I), to determine the number of simultaneously maintaining the fish in
fish to be packed in a packaging good conditions so as to achieve high
system. Figure 1 provides an idea of survival rate on arrival at destinations.
the loading density of some common Flence the basic principles associated
freshwater ornamental fish being with live ornamental fish transport, as
applied by some exporters in in other live fish transport, are:
Singapore for consignments from
Singapore to Europe with a 30-hour a) To enhance the stress resistance of
transit time. The average loading the fish, maintain them in good
density varies greatly according to the conditions and reduce stress to the
fish species. It ranges from 34 g/l with fish during transport, thereby
neon tetras to 264 g/l in goldfish. The ensuring good survival on and after
loading density is generally associated arrival at destinations.
with the size and behaviour of the fish, b) To shorten the duration between
and it increases with increasing body packing and unpacking so as to
weight and in less active fish. This is reduce the total oxygen requirement
dependent on the fact that large and metabolic wastes excretion
Preparation O rnam ental Fish International

Closing plastic bags with fish by “clipping”, pressing a metal ring around the end of the
bag, here in Ruinemans Aquarium, Netherlands. Photo Alex Ploeg

Closing boxes with fish by sealing it, the packing method of “The Pack”.
Photo Alex Ploeg

29
Ornam ental Fish International Preparation

300
X Orn fish -B-Cyprinid-A-Perch 1. Tetra
2. Guppy
250 3. Tiger barb
4. Platy
Ui 5. Swordtail
200
6. Molly
c 7. Gourami
o
TJ 150 8. Goldfish
Ui
C
'-ü
100
o

0 10 15 20
Body weight (g)

Figure 1. The average loading densities o f eight common freshwater ornamental fish
used by some Singapore exporters. The standard densities for foodfish juveniles (cyprinid
and perch) in similar systems are shown for comparison purposes.

from the fish, as well as to shorten can be packed in a given volume of

the period of stress the fish are water if the transport time is shortened
subjected to during shipment This can be achieved through proper
planning and coordination of the
c) To reduce the metabolism of the fish procedure of harvesting, conditioning,
and hence lower their oxygen counting, distributing and packing of
consumption and the accumulation fish. As counting of fish is one of the
of metabolic wastes in the system. most time consuming tasks, it should
be performed in advance in order to
shorten the time of the packing operation.
Fish packaging techniques In planning the flight schedule for fish
consignments, the principle used by
Shortening of transport time the exporters is to select the most
One of the major factors governing the direct route. This is to keep the
fish loading density of a packing number of landings and take offs and
system is the transport time. More fish the waiting time for subsequent flights
Preparation Ornam ental Fish International

to a minimum. This will avoid repeated journey if the loading density offish
handling and climatic changes thus and the transport time exceed the
minimising the handling stress to the tolerable limits of the fish. The amount
fish. Since some airports do not have of dissolved oxygen required for a
customs and veterinary clearance packing system is associated with the
services open for fish on weekends number, size and species of fish
and public holidays, exporters also packed in the system. The oxygen to
ensure they are not sending fish ratio, which is calculated by
consignments which will arrive at the dividing the volume of oxygen (ml) by
airports on these days. the total biomass o ffish (gram,
assuming that specific gravity offish is
Oxygen supply 1), is a good measure of the amount of
The most important factor of live fish oxygen required or used in a packing
transport is an adequate supply of system. Figure 2 provides an idea of
dissolved oxygen to the fish the average oxygen to fish ratios used
throughout the transport time. Oxygen for 7 common freshwater ornamental
deficiency may occur in the packing fish species for air shipment from
water towards the latter part of the Singapore to Europe (transit time

250 T
xO rnfïsh -Q-Cyprinid -4-Perch
1. Tetra
200
o 2. Guppy
cs_c 3. Tiger barb
_C 4. Platy
V)
150
V>— 1 5. Swordtail
O X\ 6. Molly
g 100 A 7. Gourami
o> 8. Goldfish
>% \x 3
X
O 2 \
50 - -;XA
XÀ 7
-4 - 4
.P.... X . l.

5 10 15 20

Body w eight (g)

Figure 2. The average oxygen to fish ratios of eight common freshwater ornamental fish
used by some exporters in Singapore. The ratios used for cyprinid and perch juveniles in
similar systems are shown for comparison purposes.

31
O rnam ental Fish International Preparation

Ornamental fish, ready for shipment at Sunbeam, Singapore. Photo: A lex Ploeg

30 hours). The ratios range from 19 in consignment with oxygen to water ratio
large fish such as goldfish (average of 4:1 showed dissolved contents of
weight 13.8 g) to 153 in small fish such 6.0 7.6 mg/1 after 48 hours' transit
as neon tetras (average weight 0.22 time, indicating that at a 4:1 ratio,
g). With the exception of that of tiger oxygen is not a limiting factor.
barbs which is higher, all the ratios are However, the high oxygen to water
near to or between the 2 standard ratios is still preferred as it ensures a
curves for cyprinid and perch juveniles, good reserve of oxygen in the packing
indicating that the amounts of oxygen water so that the dissolved oxygen in
used for packing the freshwater the water will not become a limiting
ornamental fish are quite similar to factor even if there are a few dead fish
those for cyprinid and perch juveniles. found in the bag. The large volume of
oxygen used for packing will not
In practise, exporters use high oxygen increase the freight costs significantly
to water ratios ranging from 4:1 to 6:1 as the freight charges are calculated
in packing ornamental fish for air by weight and not the volume of the
transport. A check on a Guppy consignment.
Preparation O rnam ental Fish International

30 T
Hlt-ctr
2 5 -- Hlt-vit C

15

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

Days after unpacking

Figure 3. Comparison o f post-shipment cumulative mortality between vitamin C-

supplemented Guppies and control fish. The fish were not infected with Tetrahymena.
The value represents the mean of three replicates and its standard deviation. An asterisk
(*) indicates significant differences between means taken on the same observation day
(P<0.05).

Quality control of fish transport. Screening of the fish starts

Fish transport is a long and tedious from the time the fish are counted to
process that consists of a series of the actual packing of the fish in
operations, including harvesting, polyethylene bags. During this period,
packing, actual transport, unpacking fish are inspected for pathological
and stocking. The whole process is syndromes, which include dark body
known to initiate stress in fish. When colour, closing of finnage, cloudy eyes,
fish are unable to recover homeostasis lack of appetite or lethargy.
during or after the process, it may lead
to mortality. It is therefore imperative to Fish are usually pre-packed in
examine and evaluate the quality of polyethylene bags after counting and
the fish prior to packaging and ship the bags are placed in an air-
only healthy and good quality fish with conditioned room at 22-23 °C for 4-6
strong stress resistance, so as to hours before the actual packing. This
increase their chance of survival after is to enable the fish to acclimatise to

33
Ornam ental Fish International Preparation

the packing conditions, such as proliferation, oxygen depletion and the

confinement, crowding, high formation of toxic metabolic wastes.
pressurised conditions and low water
temperature. Fish that fail to adapt to Nutritional prophylaxis and harvesting
the pre-packing conditions and show Ornamental fish are subjected to
signs of sickness are eliminated from stress right from the farming stage.
the shipment to reduce the risk of Very often the fish are reared under
mass mortality. Weak or unhealthy fish intensive conditions, and they are
are most susceptible to the stressful subjected to physiological challenges
conditions of transport, especially from changes in water chemistry,
during long journeys. Once a fish is culture procedures and behavioural
dead, it competes with the living fish interactions among fish. Control of
for oxygen. It also induces bacterial stress responses of ornamental fish

100

80
os^
>* 60
75
o 40

20

0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Days after unpacking

Figure 4. Comparison o f post-shipment cumulative mortality between vitamin C-

supplemented guppies and control fish. Both groups were found to be infected with
Tetrahymena on Day 2. The value represents the mean o f three replicates and its
standard deviation. An asterisk (*) indicates significant differences between means taken
on the same observation day (P<0.05).
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Ornam ental Fish International Preparation

should therefore start during the Health prophylaxis

farming stage. Crowding and adverse water quality
conditions during transport are
Vitamin C, in particular ascorbic acid, common stressful factors associated
is an essential dietary component for with outbreaks o f stress-mediated
the various stages of aquaculture diseases. When fish are infected with
organisms. It plays a role in maintaining diseases, their stress resistance is
normal growth and collagen formation, reduced, leading to fish mortality.
improving disease resistance and
reducing stress. Studies have shown Parasitic infection is common in
that nutritional prophylaxis using ornamental fish, especially for those
vitamin C supplementation have fish raised in large earthen ponds
worked well in enhancing the stress enriched with organic manure. In many
resistance of the Guppy. Guppies fed cases, the infection is mild and
with vitamin C supplements (8%) for asymptomatic, and the infection alone
10 days survived better than the may not kill fish. However, the
control group (23%) at 7-day post­ apparently harmless infection may turn
shipment (Figure 3). On the other lethal when the fish are stressed and
hand, Guppies fed with vitamin C their immune function is adversely
supplement also displayed a better suppressed during transport. Fish
resistance to disease infection. When which arrive in fairly good condition
fish were infected with Tetrahymena, with low death on arrival can still be
the feeding of a vitamin C supplement heavily infested and die within a week
helped to reduce the cumulative after arrival, as commonly observed in
mortality at 7-day post-shipment from Guppies infected with Tetrahymena.
90% in the control fish to only 14% in Parasitic infection can also pre­
the vitamin C-fed fish (Figure 4). dispose fish to secondary bacterial
Hence ornamental fish farmers can infections, which further compromises
contribute significantly to enhancing the immune system and aggravates
the stress resistance of their fish by the problem of post-shipment mortality.
applying nutritional prophylaxis using In view of the adverse impacts of
vitamin C supplementation prior to parasitic infection on stress resistance
harvesting. and the subsequent post-shipment
performance of the fish, it is critical for
Harvesting of fish is a typical operation exporters to treat fish for pathogenic
in which farmers should take infection prior to packaging, so as to
precautions to avoid injury to the fish, enhance their stress resistance and
exposing the fish to air for a prolonged hence their chances of survival after
period or over-crowding. These shipment. Table 1 shows some
stressful factors compounded by protocols for treatments of fish infected
capture could be more severe than with common bacterial pathogens such
transport itself. as Aeromonas and parasites such as
Preparation O rnam ental Fish International

Fish T argeted T re atm en t protocols Survival rate a t 7-day post­ Sources

species pathogens shipm ent
Guppy Gyrodactylus Bathe fish in 20 mg/1 formalin, 2 mg/1 acriflavine and 2 % Increases from 78% in control Ling et al.
and Cestode salt solution for 1 hour prior to packing and add 2 mg/1 fish to 99% in treated fish (1996)
aciiflavine and 2% salt solution in transport w ater during
transportation (36 hours).
Tetrahymena One-day bath in 10 mg/1 chloramphenicol and 2 % salt Increases from 67% in the Loo et al.
and solution, followed by 1-hour bath in 0.1 mg/1 malachite control group to 91% in the (1998)
Aeromonas green, 50 mg/1 formalin and 2 % salt solution, and then treated group
sp. add 0.1 mg/1 malachite green and 2 % salt to transport
water during transportation (36 hours)
Tetrahymena Add 20 mg/1 chlorine dioxide to transport w ater during Improves from 61% in control Ling et al.
pre-packing (6 h) and actual transportation (40 hours). fish to 89% in treated fish. (2000)
Angelfish Hexamita, Bathe fish in 2 mg/1 acriflavine and 2 % salt solution for 3 Increases from 3% in control Ling &
Costia and days, and during the first two days, feed them fish with group, to 42% in group with Khoo
Trichodina dried pellet incorporated with 2% metronidazole, twice a bath treatment, and to 96% in (1997)
day (36 hours). group given full treatment
Hexamita Add 3.5 mg/1 metronidazole (soluble form) to transport Improves from 58% in the Ling et a l
w ater during transportation (40 hours) control to 95% in treated group (2000)

Table 1 Improvements in post-shipment survival rates o f Guppies and Angelfish

through prophylaxis treatment by medication.

Tetrahymena, Gyrodactylus and more direct and convenient. As

Cestode in Guppy and Hexamita, treatments are performed only in pre­
Costia and Trichodina in Angelfish. In packing and/or transport water, it is no
all cases, the post-shipment survival longer necessary to treat and maintain
rates are vastly improved after fish in the tank, and hence the tanks,
application of the respective treatment space and manpower are saved
protocols on the fish prior to packing. accordingly.
Most of these protocols involve bathing
or feeding the fish with the appropriate Conditioning for transport: Starvation
chemicals or drugs for a period prior to Starving fish prior to live fish transport
packing and treating fish with chemicals has been a traditional technique used
or drugs in the transport water during for improving the survival of fish during
transportation. For Tetrahymena infection transport. Starvation for a short period
in Guppy and Hexamita infection in when fish could not find suitbale food
Angelfish, the treatments have been is common in nature. Prior to packing,
vastly simplified. Fish were treated fish are starved to empty their stomachs
directly in the pre-packing and/or and intestines in order to prevent
transport water with the appropriate regurgitation of partially digested food
drugs (Table 1). These protocols are material during transport. Other

37
O rnam ental Fish International Preparation

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advantages of starving the fish include starved for one day showed a significant
a decreased amount of excreta from increase in the stress resistance over
fish and reduced metabolic rate, hence the non-starved fish or fish starved for
minimising pollution of the water during only half a day. Starvation for a longer
the journey. Starvation is also known period of two or three days would lead
to reduce stress response to handling, to decreases in the stress resistance
and this will cut down unnecessary of the Guppy. Hence the optimal
loss o ffish during packaging. duration for starving small fish like
Guppies and Neon Tetras should be
Studies have shown that the duration limited to one day only, as prolonged
of starvation is important to the starvation may have adverse effects
performance of the fish after transport. on the stress resistance of the fish,
While starvation had no effect on the and hence increase the post-shipment
death during unpacking after arrival, mortality. The optimal duration of
Guppies starved for a day prior to starvation for larger fish such as
shipment survived significantly better Goldfish (Carassius auratus) and Koi
than the control fish at 7-day post­ (Cyprinus carpio) is two days.
shipment. A starvation duration of only
half a day or for a prolonged duration The optimal duration of starvation for larger
of two or three days was not as fish such as and Koi (Cyprinus carpio) is
effective. On the other hand, Guppies two days. Photo: A le x Ploeg
Ornam ental Fish International Preparation

Control of temperature of transport water is to pre-pack the fish in polyethylene

The temperature of the transport water bags, place them on multi-layer
is an important physical factor trolleys and cool them in air-
governing the loading density of fish conditioned rooms for 4-6 hours or
in a packaging system. A high water more at the required temperature. After
temperature adversely affects the acclimation, the fish are packed in
loading density o ffish due to the water that has been cooled down to
increase in the metabolic rate of fish the same packing temperature using a
and hence resulting in a higher oxygen water-cooling machine or through the
consumption and higher carbon addition of ice to the water.
dioxide and ammonia production. High During the winter months in the
water temperatures can also result in importing countries, it is necessary to
more rapid multiplication of bacteria increase the temperature in the
and lower oxygen solubility, which packing box so that the water
leads to increased toxic waste temperature of transport water will not
production and decreased availability be too cold for the fish on arrival. This
of dissolved oxygen to the fish. Hence, is particularly important as there may
lowering of the water temperature is a be a significant drop in water
useful technique for increasing the fish temperature when the consignments
loading density. are at the destination airport for
several hours while waiting for
In practise, the temperature of the connecting flights or customs
transport water is lowered to 22 °C for clearance. A common practise used to
packing ornamental fish of tropical overcome the cold-shock problem to
origin. At this temperature, fish are less the fish is to attach a heat pack to the
active but swim normally. This packing underside of the cover of the packing
temperature is also very close to that box before sealing the box. The heat
in the cargo hold (21-22 °C) of most generated by the heat pack induced by
aircraft. Fish of temperate origins such rocking motions will increase the
as Koi and Goldfish can tolerate a temperature in the packaging system.
much lower temperature and are Due to the anticipated increase in
therefore packed at 15-18°C. In temperature, the loading density of fish
contrast, certain tropical fish that are in the packaging system is also
sensitive to low temperatures such as reduced accordingly.
the Glow-light Tetra, Hemigrammus
erythrozonus and Rummy-nose Tetra, Removal of ammonia from transport
H. bleheri, are packed at 24-25 °C. It is water
important to acclimatise the fish to the Ammonia accumulates in transport
packing temperature prior to the actual water due to excretion from the fish
packing, as sudden changes in water and the bacterial action on fish excreta
temperature may impose additional and dead fish. For fish, ammonia is
stress on the fish. A common practice excreted mainly through the gills.
 Preparation O rnam ental Fish International

There are two forms of ammonia, was nearly 7 (6.95-7.05), which should
ionised (NH4+) ammonia and un be tolerable for most freshwater
ionised or free ammonia (NH3). Only ornamental fish. Furthermore, a
un-ionised ammonia is capable of decrease in the pH of packing water
passing through tissue barriers and is would help to lower the level of the
poisonous to fish. Fish may succumb if toxic-free ammonia in the water. Any
the toxic-free ammonia in their tissues attempt to stabilise the pH of the
is above the tolerable limit. A common packing water will lead to higher levels
technique for removing ammonia from of toxic free ammonia. Tests on tris
the transport water is to use resins buffer using 2 groups of Guppies
such as clinoptilolite, a natural zeolite (transit time of 48 hours) have shown
that has the ability to absorb ammonia that the group without tris buffer had a
by selective ion exchange. To prevent lower pH (7.03) than that treated with
water from cloudiness, the zeolite 0.02 M tris buffer (7.62). Consequently,
chips are rinsed thoroughly to there was a tenfold increase in the
eliminate the surface powder before toxic-free ammonia, from 0.82 mg/l in
use. They are either wrapped in a net the untreated group to 8.33 mg/l in the
bag or added directly to the transport treated group. The high cost of tris
water at 15 - 20 g/l of water. buffer also makes its routine use for
fish packaging uneconomical.
Management of pH in transport water
using buffers For fish that require low pH, some
During transport, the accumulation of exporters use Ketapang (Terminalia
carbon dioxide originating from fish catappa) leaf water, which has a pH of
and bacterial respiration can lower the about 6.5, as packing water. This
pH of transport water. At a high carbon technique is commonly used for
dioxide level and low pH, fish may packing the Chocolate gourami
succumb as a result of the reduction in (Sphaerichthys osphromenoides),
the oxygen carrying capacity of their Harlequin rasbora (Rasbora
blood even if oxygen levels in the heteromorpha) and Coolie loach
water are within acceptable ranges. (Pangio kuhli sumatranus), which do
The use of buffers such as tris buffer better in water with low pH levels
(tris-hydroxylmethyl amino methane) is ranging from 6.0-6.5.
effective in stabilising the pH, by
converting free carbon dioxide to Addition of salt in transport water
bicarbonate ions in the transport water. Osmo-regulatory dysfunction is
However, in practise, it is usually not common in fish that are exposed to
necessary to use buffers to stabilise confined water during transport. The
the pH of the packing water. A check addition of salt to transport water has
on packing water packed with Guppies been found to be effective in reducing
showed that the pH of the packing osmo-regulatory disturbances and fish
water, after 48 hours transport time, mortality in several foodfish species.

41
L.
O rnam ental Fish International Preparation

In practise, coarse salt containing are added, either directly or first

about 95-98% sodium chloride is dissolved in solvent, to the water
added directly to the transport water of whereupon the fish are then immersed
freshwater ornamental fish at 0.5-9%, in it. For practical reasons, the drug is
with 1-3% being more common. added to the packing water during
packing and the fish are exposed to
Studies have shown that when the effect of the drug throughout the
Guppies were kept in saline water for transit time. In order to be effective, it
40 hours, their stress resistance is most critical to make the correct
increased with increasing salinity from choices of anaesthetic drugs and
1% to 9%, which is close to isotonic dosages. Broad spectrum anaesthetics
conditions. These results demonstrate that can be universally applied to the
that the addition of salt up to 9% would common fish species destined for
help to enhance the stress resistance export are preferred. The anaesthetics
of the fish. On the other hand, should have a wide margin between
experiments with Guppies showed that the effective dose and the lethal dose,
there was a dramatic increase in the so as to reduce the risk of overdose
total ammonia content when the leading to fish mortality. There should
salinity of the transport water was also be a large window in the effective
increased to 3% or 9%, due to a sedating dose, so that fish can be kept
decrease in the efficiency of under light sedation without advancing
clinoptilolite. These results suggest to a deeper stage throughout the
that among the three effective salinities transit time. At this stage, fish are
ranging from 1% to 9%, Guppies lethargic but still maintain spontaneous
should be packed at 1%. Higher opercular movement.
salinity should be avoided as it may
result in an undesirable quality of the The anaesthetics used for ornamental
transport water. fish packaging include tricaine
methanesulfonate (MS 222) and
Management of transport water quality quinaldine sulphate. The use of
using anaesthetics anaesthetics is however not so popular
Since ornamental fish are packed in a among exporters, because the
small volume of water at a high response of the fish to the drugs varies
loading density, the metabolic wastes greatly with the size and species of
accumulate rapidly in the transport fish and with different water quality
water. An effective method is to use conditions. The high variability often
anaesthetics to reduce the metabolic causes delayed fish mortality after
rate and cut down the excretion of arrival at destinations. Other reasons
ammonia and carbon dioxide by the are the high cost of MS 222, the
fish. All of the anaesthetics used for unfavourable odour of quinaldine
ornamental fish transport are of the sulphate and the concern for the
inhalation type; in other words, they health hazards to human beings.
Preparation O rnam ental Fish International

a a
16-

14 0% □ 1%o ö3%o E39%o

12 -

10 a

m tm m
8-
Ü
o 6
S
4 ■

« =•

2 .

0
Fresh w ater Saline w ater

Recovery water
Figure 5. Effects o f salt content in the transport water on cumulative mortality of guppies
at 7-days post-shipment. Two batches o f fish were tested and they were stocked in
freshwater or in water with initial salinity similar to their transport water (with daily 30%
dilution with freshwater) during the 1-week recovery period after shipment. The value
represents the mean o f four replicates and its standard deviation. Different alphabet
letters within the same group o f recovery water indicate significant differences between
means (P<0.05).

Some have shifted to 2 packaging, the generic name of the

phenoxyethanol in their operations. drug and the dosage used should be
When MS-222 is used, the pH of the indicated on the packing boxes.
transport water should be measured,
as MS-222 can cause a considerable Reduced light intensity
drop in pH in poorly buffered water, Fish may be subjected to further stress
which may damage gili tissue and lead if there is sudden influx of light when
to osmo-regulatory dysfunction. the box is opened on arrival at the
destination. In order to reduce the
According to IATA regulations, when stress due to the influx of light during
anaesthetics are used in fish unpacking, it is useful to cover the

43
Ornamental Fish International Preparation

lower half of the transparent ornamental fish. Hence only a brief

polyethylene bags with coloured non account is given in this section.
transparent polyethylene sheets or
bags, or darken the transport water On arrival, the fish should be allowed
with methylene blue. Methylene blue to recover from transport stress in
also serves to control the parasitic tanks before being distributed to
protozoa that may infest the fish. retailers, as this process may
constitute another series of stressful
Sometimes, leaves of Terminalia situations for the fish. The importers
catappa (known as Ketapang in should have prior knowledge of the
Singapore and Malaysia) are added to water quality requirements of the fish
the transport bags. The leaf has a dual in terms of the temperature, pH and
function: it serves as a hiding place for hardness, so that they can prepare the
fish and lowers the pH of the transport tanks and water for stocking in
water. advance of fish arrival. The acclimation
operation includes floating the sealed
Prevention of bacteria bloom bags in the recovery tanks until the
Bacteria bloom is a major problem temperature difference between the
during live fish transport as the transport water and the recovery water
bacteria not only increase the is less than 2 °C, which takes about
ammonia load and compete with fish half an hour for a temperature
for oxygen in the transport water, but difference of 4-5 °C. To minimise the
also weaken or can even cause risk of disease infection, care should
diseases in fish. Many chemicals and be taken not to introduce the transport
drugs are available on the market to water to the recovery tank during fish
control the development of bacteria in transfer. The fish should first be
transport water. In Europe and other transferred to a hand-net, dipped in a
countries, the addition of antibiotics to basin of clean water before being
transport water is strictly prohibited stocked in the recovery tanks. The pH
and hence should be avoided. The and hardness of the recovery water
most commonly used drugs for fish should be as close to the optimal
packaging include methylene blue and values for the fish as possible.
acriflavine.
The addition of salt to the recovery
Acclimation and recovery of fish after water to enhance the stress resistance
shipment of the fish is effective in improving the
Acclimation and the recovery of fish post-shipment survival of the fish.
after arrival at their destination is Studies have shown that when
another important operation in the Guppies were stocked in fresh water
transport process. A detailed account for recovery after transport, there were
on this subject is given in the last no significant differences in the
chapter of this book on the receipt of cumulative mortality at 7-day post­
Preparation O rnam ental Fish International

shipment among the three groups of Ling K .H ., C hew W .Y., Lim Y.Q.,
fish packed in saline water (1%, 3% Koh C .H . & Lim L.C. (2000).
and 9%) and the control group (Figure New approaches to quality
5). However, when the fish were enhancement of Guppy and
stocked in the respective salinity of Angelfish during transportation
transport water for recovery (with 30% (abstract). In: Abstract Book of First
daily dilution with fresh water), all three AVA Technical Seminar, 1
groups of fish displayed a significantly September 2000, pp 6-7. Agri-food
lower cumulative mortality than the and Veterinary Authority of
control group. Fish packed in 1% also Singapore, Singapore.
survived significantly better in water of
the same salinity than in fresh water Ling K.H. & Khoo L.T. (1997).
during recovery. Hence the addition of Quality enhancement on Agelfish:
salt, even in the small amount of 1%, Eradication of Heximita and other
is critical to the recovery of Guppies ectoparasites. Singapore Journal of
after transport. Primary Industry 25, 15-22.

Ling K .H., Lim L.C. & Cheong L.

References (1996). Quality enhancement of
Guppy for export: Eradication of
Lim L C, Dhert P, Chew W Y, parasites. Singapore Journal of
Dermaux V, Nelis H & Sorgeloos Primary Industry 24, 45-52.
P (2002b). Enhancement of stress
resistance of Guppy, Poecilia Loo J.J., Ling K.H. & Lim L.C.
reticulate Peters through feeding with (1998). Development of an
vitamin C supplement. Journal of the improved treatment protocol for
World Aquaculture Society 33: 32-40. quality enhancement of Guppy prior
to export. Singapore Journal of
Primary Industry 26,15-20.
Lim L.C. & Chua L.H. (1993).
Transportation of ornamental fish
for export - the Singapore
Experience. In: AQUARAMA
Conference Proceedings 1993, 24-
26 June 1993, pp 1-24.
Expoconsult, Singapore.

Lim L C, Dhert P & Sorgeloos P

(2003). Recent developments and
improvements in ornamental fish
packaging systems for air transport.
Aquaculture Research 34: 923-935.
Lim, L.C., Dhert, Ph., Sorgeloos, P. (2007).
Preparation for transport: fish packaging technology: 25-45.
In: International Transport of Live Fish in the Ornamental Aquatic Industry. Fossa,
S.A., Bassleer, G.M.O., Lim, C., and Ploeg, A. (Eds). Ornamental Fish International
OFI Educational publication 2, OFI, Maarssen, the Netherlands, 126 pp.