MICRO-MEASUREMENTS

Strain Gages and Instruments Tech Note TN-504-1

Strain Gage Thermal Output and

Gage Factor Variation with Temperature
1.0 Introduction careful consideration; and it is usually necessary to either
provide compensation for thermal output or correct the
Ideally, a strain gage bonded to a test part would respond strain measurements for its presence.
only to the applied strain in the part, and be unaffected
by other variables in the environment. Unfortunately, the Thermal output is caused by two concurrent and algebraically
resistance strain gage, in common with all other sensors, additive effects in the strain gage installation. First, the
is somewhat less than perfect. The electrical resistance electrical resistivity of the grid conductor is somewhat
of the strain gage varies not only with strain, but with temperature dependent; and, as a result, the gage resistance
temperature as well. In addition, the relationship between varies with temperature. The second contribution to thermal
strain and resistance change, the gage factor, itself varies output is due to the differential thermal expansion between
with temperature. These deviations from ideal behavior the grid conductor and the test part or substrate material
can be important under certain circumstances, and can to which the gage is bonded. With temperature change, the
cause significant errors if not properly accounted for. When substrate expands or contracts; and, since the strain gage
the underlying phenomena are thoroughly understood, is firmly bonded to the substrate, the gage grid is forced to
however, the errors can be controlled or virtually eliminated undergo the same expansion or contraction. To the extent
by compensation or correction. that the thermal expansion coefficient of the grid differs
from that of the substrate, the grid is mechanically strained
In Section 2.0 of this Tech Note, thermal output (sometimes in conforming to the free expansion or contraction of the
referred to as “temperature-induced apparent strain”) is substrate. Because the grid is, by design, strain sensitive,
defined, and the causes of this effect are described. Typical the gage exhibits a resistance change proportional to the
magnitudes of the thermal output are then given, followed differential expansion.
by the commonly used methods for compensation and
correction. Section 3.0 treats gage factor variation with Each of the two thermally induced resistance changes may
temperature in a similar but briefer manner since this error be either positive or negative in sign with respect to that of
source is generally much less significant. Methods for the the temperature change, and the net thermal output of the
simultaneous correction of both thermal output and gage strain gage is the algebraic sum of these. Thus, expressed
factor errors are given in Section 4.0, accompanied by in terms of unit resistance change, the thermal output
numerical examples. becomes:
 R    1 + Kt   (1)
2.0 Thermal Output R  =   G + FG   (S − G ) T
 0  T/O   1 −  0 Kt  
Once an installed strain gage is connected to a strain indicator where, in consistent units:
and the instrument balanced, a subsequent change in the  R  = u nit change in resistance from the initial
temperature of the gage installation will normally produce  R 
0 reference resistance, R0, caused by change in
a resistance change in the gage. This temperature-induced T/O
temperature resulting in thermal output.
resistance change is independent of, and unrelated to, the
mechanical (stress-induced) strain in the test object to which G = temperature coefficient of resistance of the
the strain gage is bonded. It is purely due to temperature grid conductor.
change, and is thus called the thermal output of the gage. FG = gage factor of the strain gage.†
Thermal output is potentially the most serious error source Kt = transverse sensitivity of the strain gage.
in the practice of static strain measurement with strain 0 = Poisson’s ratio (0.285) of the standard test material
gages. In fact, when measuring strains at temperatures used in calibrating the gage for its gage factor.
remote from room temperature (or from the initial balance
temperature of the gage circuit), the error due to thermal † In this Tech Note, the gage factor of the strain gage is identified as
FG, to distinguish it from the gage factor setting of the measuring
output, if not controlled, can be much greater than the
instrument, denoted here by FI. This distinction is important, since
magnitude of the strain to be measured. At any temperature, the gage factor setting of the instrument may sometimes, as a matter
or in any temperature range, this error source requires of convenience or utility, be different from that of the gage.

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Tech Note TN-504-1

Strain Gage Thermal Output and Gage Factor Variation with Temperature

(S – G) = difference in thermal expansion coefficients of expected since structural materials vary in thermal expansion
substrate and grid, respectively. characteristics from lot to lot. The best practice is always to
evaluate one or more gages under thermal conditions as
T = temperature change from an arbitrary initial nearly like those to be encountered in the testing program
reference temperature. as possible.
The correction factor for transverse sensitivity [(1 + Kt)/ Figure 1 shows the variation of thermal output with
(1 – 0Kt)] is included in Equation (1) to account for the fact temperature for a variety of strain gage alloys bonded to
that the strain in the gage grid due to differential thermal steel. These data are illustrative only, and not for use in
expansion is equal-biaxial, while the gage factor, FG, refers making corrections. It should be noted, in fact, that the curves
to the strain sensitivity as calibrated in a uniaxial stress state, for constantan and Karma are for non-self-temperature-
with a principal strain ratio of 1/(–0.285). compensated alloys. With self-temperature compensation
It should not be assumed from the form of Equation (Section 2.1.2), as employed in Micro-Measurements strain
(1) that the thermal output is linear with temperature gages, the thermal output characteristics of these alloys are
change, because all of the coefficients within the brackets are adjusted to minimize the error over the normal range of
themselves functions of temperature. The equation clearly working temperatures.
demonstrates, however, that thermal output depends not TEMPERATURE — °C
only on the nature of the strain gage, but also on the material –50 0 +50 +100 +150 +200 +250
to which the gage is bonded. Because of this, thermal output +4000
data are meaningful only when referred to a particular type
of strain gage, bonded to a specified substrate material.
+3000 ISOELASTI C NICHROME V
For convenience in correcting measured strain data for
KARMA (FULL HARD)
thermally induced resistance changes, the thermal output of +2000
the gage is usually expressed in strain units. Thus, dividing
THERMAL OUTPUT —  (FI = 2.0)

Equation (1) by the gage factor setting of the instrument,

+1000

 R  +24°C

 R  0
0 T/O
 T/O = = +75°F
FI
–1000 CONSTANTAN
  1 + Kt   (2) (FULL HARD)
 βG + FG   ( S − G )  T
  1 −  0 Kt   –2000
FI
–3000
where: T/O = thermal output in strain units; that is, the
ALLOYS BONDED TO
strain magnitude registered by a strain indi- STEEL SPECIMEN
cator (with a gage factor setting of FI), when –4000
the gage installation is subjected to a tem- –100 0 +100 +200 +300 +400 +500
perature change, T, under conditions of TEMPERATURE — °F
free thermal expansion for the substrate. Figure 1. Thermal output variation with temperature
When measuring stress-induced strains at a temperature for several strain gage alloys (in the as-rolled
different from the initial balance temperature, the thermal metallurgical condition) bonded to steel.
output from Equation (2) is superimposed on the gage
output due to mechanical strain, causing the measurement As indicated by Figure 1, the errors due to thermal output
to be in error by that amount. Many factors affect the can become extremely large as temperatures deviate from the
thermal output of strain gages. Some of the more important arbitrary reference temperature (ordinarily, room temperature)
are: test specimen material and shape, grid alloy and lot, with respect to which the thermal output is measured. The
gage series and pattern, transverse sensitivity of the gage, illustration shows distinctly the necessity for compensation
bonding and encapsulating materials, and installation or correction if accurate static strain measurements are to be
procedures. It is never possible for Micro-Measurements made in an environment involving temperature changes.
to predict exactly what the thermal output of any gage will With respect to the latter statement, it should be remarked
be when the user has bonded it to a test structure. Even in that if it is feasible to bring the gaged test part to the test
cases where applications involve the same material as that temperature in the test environment, maintaining the test part
used by Micro-Measurements in its tests, differences can be completely free of mechanically or thermally induced stresses,

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 Tech Note TN-504-1

Strain Gage Thermal Output and Gage Factor Variation with Temperature

and balance the strain indicator for zero strain under these there are temperature gradients or transients in the test
conditions, no thermal output error exists when subsequent environment. And, as indicated in the preceding paragraph,
strain measurements are made at this temperature. In other the same considerations apply to the leadwires. Finally, it
words, when no temperature change occurs between the must be recognized that no two strain gages — even from the
stress-free and stressed conditions, strain measurements can same lot or package — are precisely identical. For most static
be made without compensating or correcting for thermal strain measurement tasks in the general neighborhood of
output. In practice, however, it is rare that the foregoing room temperature, the difference in thermal output between
requirements can be satisfied, and the stress analyst ordinarily two gages of the same type from the same lot is negligible;
finds it necessary to take full account of thermal output but the difference may become evident (and significant)
effects. when measuring strains at temperature extremes such as
those involved in high-temperature or cryogenic work.
Also, in the case of purely dynamic strain measurements,
In these instances, point-by-point correction for thermal
where there is no need to maintain a stable zero-strain
output will usually be necessary. With non-self-temperature-
reference, thermal output may be of no consequence. This is
compensated gages, the gage-to-gage differences in thermal
because the frequency of the dynamic strain signal is usually
output may be so great as to preclude dummy compensation
very high with respect to the frequency of temperature
for temperatures which are remote from room temperature.
change, and the two signals are readily separable. If, however,
there is combined static/dynamic strain, and the static In general, when the three identity criteria already mentioned
component must also be measured, or if the frequency can be well satisfied, the method of compensating with a
of temperature change is of the same order as the strain dummy gage is a very effective technique for controlling
frequency, thermal output effects must again be considered. the thermal output error. There is, moreover, a special class
of strain measurement applications which is particularly
2.1 Compensation for Thermal Output adaptable to compensation of thermal output with a second
gage. This class consists of those applications in which the
2.1.1 Compensating (Dummy) Gage ratio of the strains at two different but closely adjacent (or at
least thermally adjacent) points on the test object are known
In theory, at least, the error due to thermal output can be a priori. Included in this class are bars in pure torsion, beams
completely eliminated by employing, in conjunction with in bending, columns, diaphragms, etc., all stressed within
the “active” strain gage, but connected in an adjacent arm of their respective proportional limits. In these applications, the
the Wheatstone bridge circuit, an identical compensating or compensating gage can often be located strategically on the
“dummy” gage — mounted on an unstrained specimen made test member itself so as to provide two active gages which
from the identical material as the test part, and subjected undergo the same temperature variations while sensing
always to the same temperature as the active gage. Under strains that are preferably opposite in sign and of known
these hypothetical conditions, the thermal outputs of the ratio. The two gages in adjacent arms of the Wheatstone
two gages should be identical. And, since identical resistance bridge circuit then function as an active half bridge.
changes in adjacent arms of the Wheatstone bridge do not
unbalance the circuit, the thermal outputs of the active For example, when strain measurements are to be made on
and dummy strain gages should cancel exactly — leaving a beam which is thin enough so that under test conditions
only the stress-induced strain in the active strain gage to be the temperatures on the two opposite surfaces normal to
registered by the strain indicator. For this to be precisely the plane of bending are the same, the two strain gages can
true requires additionally that the leadwires to the active and be installed directly opposite each other on these surfaces
dummy gages be of the same length and be routed together (Figure 2a). The active half bridge thus formed will give
so that their temperature-induced resistance changes also effective temperature compensation over a reasonable range
match identically. of temperatures and, since the strains sensed by the gages
are equal in magnitude and opposite in sign, will double
The principal problems encountered in this method of the output signal from the Wheatstone bridge. Similarly,
temperature compensation are those of establishing and for a bar in pure torsion (Figure 2b), the two gages can
maintaining the three sets of identical conditions postulated be installed adjacent to each other and aligned along the
above. To begin with, it is sometimes very difficult to arrange principal axes of the bar (at 45° to the longitudinal axis). As
for the placement of an unstrained specimen of the test in the case of the beam, excellent temperature compensation
material in the test environment; and even more difficult to can be achieved, along with a doubled output signal.
make certain that the specimen remains unstrained under all
test conditions. There is a further difficulty in ensuring that When making strain measurements along the axis of a
the temperature of the compensating gage on the unstrained column or tension link, the compensating gage can be
specimen is always identical to the temperature of the active mounted on the test member adjacent to the axial gage and
gage. This problem becomes particularly severe whenever aligned transversely to the longitudinal axis to sense the

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Tech Note TN-504-1

Strain Gage Thermal Output and Gage Factor Variation with Temperature

the relationship between the strains at the two locations must

be known with certainty. In a beam, for example, there must
M
A
be no indeterminate axial or torsional loading; and the bar
in torsion must not be subject to indeterminate axial or
bending loads. This requirement for a priori knowledge of
(a) the strain distribution actually places these and most similar
applications in the class of transducers. The same method of
compensation is universally employed in commercial strain
gage transducers; such transducers, however, ordinarily
employ full-bridge circuits and special arrangements of the
ACTIVE
GAGE L1 strain gages to eliminate the effects of extraneous forces or
M moments.
A L2
eo
L3 C 2.1.2 Self-Temperature-Compensated Strain Gages
CL4
COMPENSATING The metallurgical properties of certain strain gage alloys
GAGE — in particular, constantan and modified Karma (Micro-
T
Measurements A and K alloys, respectively) — are such that
these alloys can be processed to minimize the thermal output
C
over a wide temperature range when bonded to test materials
with thermal expansion coefficients for which they are
A intended. Strain gages employing these specially processed
alloys are referred to as self-temperature-compensated.
(b)
T Since the advent of the self-temperature-compensated
strain gage, the requirement for a matching unstrained
dummy gage in the adjacent arm of the Wheatstone bridge
has been relaxed considerably. It is now normal practice when
making strain measurements at or near room temperature to
use a single self-temperature-compensated gage in a quarter-
bridge arrangement (with a three-wire hookup), completing
(c) C A the bridge circuit with a stable fixed resistor in the adjacent
P P arm (Figure 3). Such “bridge-completion” resistors, with
very low temperature coefficients of resistance, are supplied
by Micro-Measurements and are incorporated in most
Figure 2. Examples illustrating the use of a second modern strain indicators.
(compensating) strain gage in an adjacent Wheatstone bridge
ACTIVE
arm to cancel the effect of thermal output. GAGE L1

L3
Poisson strain (Figure 2c). The result, again, is compensation
of the thermal output, accompanied by an augmented L2
output signal [by the factor (1 + ) in this case]. It should eo

be borne in mind in this application, however, that the

accuracy of the strain measurement is somewhat dependent BRIDGE
upon the accuracy with which the Poisson’s ratio of the test COMPLETION
RESISTOR
material is known. The percent error in strain measurement
is approximately equal to /(1 + ) times the percent error in Figure 3. A single self-temperature-compensated strain gage in a
Poisson’s ratio. A further caution is necessary when strain three-wire quarter-bridge circuit exemplifies modern strain gage
gages are mounted transversely on small-diameter rods practice for stress analysis measurements.
(or, for that matter, in small-radius fillets or holes). Hines
has shown (see Appendix) that under these conditions the
thermal output characteristics of a strain gage are different Figure 4 illustrates the thermal output characteristics of
than when the gage is mounted on a flat surface of the same typical A- and K-alloy self-temperature-compensated strain
material. gages. As demonstrated by the figure, the gages are designed
to minimize the thermal output over the temperature range
In all strain-measurement applications which involve from about 0° to +400°F [–20° to +205°C]. When the self-
mounting the compensating gage on the test object itself, temperature-compensated strain gage is bonded to material

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Strain Gage Thermal Output and Gage Factor Variation with Temperature

TEMPERATURE — °C TABLE 1—NOMINAL THERMAL EXPANSION COEFFICIENTS

–100 –50 0 +50 +100 +150 +200 +250 OF ENGINEERING MATERIALS
+500 EXPANSION
+400 MATERIAL COEFFICIENTS** RECOMMENDED
+300
DESCRIPTION S-T-C NUMBER
Per °F [Per °C]
+200 K-ALLOY
+24° C ALUMINA, fired 3.0 [5.4] 03
THERMAL OUTPUT — e (FI = 2.0)

+100
ALUMINUM Alloy, 12.9 [23.2] 13*
0
2024-T4*, 7075-T6
–100
+75° F BERYLLIUM, pure 6.4 [11.5] 06
–200 A-ALLOY

–300
BERYLLIUM COPPER, 9.3 [16.7] 09
Cu 75, Be 25
–400

–500
BRASS, Cartridge, 11.1 [20.0] 13
Cu 70, Zn 30
–600
BRONZE, Phosphor, 10.2 [18.4] 09
–700
Cu 90, Sn 10
–800
CAST IRON, gray 6.0 [10.8] 06
–900
TEST SPECIMEN — 1018 STEEL
–1000
COPPER, pure 9.2 [16.5] 09
–200 –100 0 +100 +200 +300 +400 +500
GLASS, Soda, Lime, Silica 5.1 [9.2] 05
TEMPERATURE — °F INCONEL, Ni-Cr-Fe alloy 7.0 [12.6] 06
Figure 4. Typical thermal output variation with temperature for INCONEL X, Ni-Cr-Fe alloy 6.7 [12.1] 06
self-temperature-compensated constantan (A-alloy) and modified INVAR, Fe-Ni alloy 0.8 [1.4] 00
Karma (K-alloy) strain gages. MAGNESIUM Alloy*, 14.5 [26.1] 15*
AZ-31B
having the thermal expansion coefficient for which the gage MOLYBDENUM*, pure 2.7 [4.9] 03*
is intended, and when operated within the temperature range MONEL, Ni-Cu alloy 7.5 [13.5] 06
of effective compensation, strain measurements can often be NICKEL-A, Cu-Zn-Ni alloy 6.6 [11.9] 06
made without the necessity of correcting for thermal output. QUARTZ, fused 0.3 [0.5] 00
If correction for thermal output is needed, it can be made as STEEL Alloy, 4340 6.3 [11.3] 06
shown in the following sections. STEEL, Carbon, 6.7 [12.1] 06*
1008, 1018*
Self-temperature-compensated strain gages can also be STEEL, Stainless, 6.0 [10.8] 06
Age Hardenable
used in the manner described in Section 2.1.1. That is, when (17-4PH)
circumstances are such that a pair of matched gages can be STEEL, Stainless, 5.7 [10.3] 06
used in adjacent arms of the bridge circuit, with both gages Age Hardenable
maintained at the same temperature, and with one of the (17-7PH)
gages unstrained (or strained at a determinate ratio to the STEEL, Stainless, 5.0 [9.0] 05
Age Hardenable
other gage), excellent temperature compensation can be (PH15-7Mo)
achieved over a wide temperature range. STEEL, Stainless, 9.6 [17.3] 09*
Austenitic (304*)
The designations of Micro-Measurements self-temperature-
STEEL, Stainless, 8.0 [14.4] 09
compensated strain gages include a two-digit S-T-C number Austenitic (310)
identifying the nominal thermal expansion coefficient (in STEEL, Stainless, 8.9 [16.0] 09
ppm/°F) of the material on which the gage will exhibit Austenitic (316)
optimum thermal output characteristics as shown in Figure STEEL, Stainless, 5.5 [9.9] 05
Ferritic (410)
4. Micro-Measurements constantan alloy gages are available
TIN, pure 13.0 [23.4] 13
in the following S-T-C numbers: 00, 03, 05, 06, 09, 13, 15, 18,
TITANIUM, pure 4.8 [8.6] 05
30, 40, and 50. S-T-C numbers of 30 and higher are intended
TITANIUM Alloy, 4.9 [8.8] 05*
primarily for use on plastics. In K alloy, the range of S-T-C 6AL-4V*
numbers is more limited, and consists of 00, 03, 05, 06, 09, TITANIUM SILICATE*, 0.017 0.03 00*
13, and 15. For reference convenience, Table 1 lists a number polycrystalline
of engineering materials, and gives nominal values of the TUNGSTEN, pure 2.4 [4.3] 03
Fahrenheit and Celsius expansion coefficients for each, ZIRCONIUM, pure 3.1 [5.6] 03
along with the S-T-C number which would normally be * Indicates type of material used in determining thermal output
selected for strain measurements on that material. The table data supplied with Micro-Measurements strain gages.
also identifies those test materials used in determining the ** Nominal values at or near room temperature for temperature
published thermal output curves for Micro-Measurements coefficient of expansion values.
self-temperature-compensated strain gages.

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Tech Note TN-504-1

Strain Gage Thermal Output and Gage Factor Variation with Temperature

If a strain gage with a particular S-T-C number is installed

on a material with a nonmatching coefficient of expansion, THERMAL OUTPUT
TEMPERATURE IN °CELSIUS
A48AF28

the thermal output characteristics will be altered from –50 0 +50 +100 +150 +200 +250

VARIATION OF GAGE FACTOR WITH TEMPERATURE

+400 +4.0%

Temp. Coeff. of Gage Factor = (+1.1 ±0.2)%/100°C

those shown in Figure 4 by a general rotation of the curve +300
GAGE FACTOR

(Based on Instrument G.F. of 2.00)

about the room-temperature reference point (see Section +200 +2.0%

THERMAL OUTPUT — m/m

+24°C
2.2.5). When the S-T-C number is lower than the material +100

expansion coefficient, the rotation is counterclockwise; and 0 0

when higher, clockwise. Rotation of the thermal output –100

+75°F
–200 –2.0%
curve by intentionally mismatching the S-T-C number THERMAL OUTPUT
–300
and expansion coefficient can be used to bias the thermal –400 –4.0%
output characteristics so as to favor a particular working –500
eTO =–8.82x101+2.71x100T–2.53x10–2T2+6.72x10–5T3–4.03x10–8 T4 (°F)
1 0 –2 2 –4 3 –7 4
eTO =–2.52x10
temperature range. +2.33x10 T–6.19x10 T +3.62x10 T –4.23x10 T (°C)

–100 0 +100 +200 +300 +400 +500

TEMPERATURE IN °FAHRENHEIT
2.2 Correction for Thermal Output
TESTED ON: 2024-T4 ALUMINUM TEST PATTERN: 250BG CODE: 101171 ENG.: GU

Depending upon the test temperature and the degree of Figure 5. Graph showing typical thermal output
accuracy required in the strain measurement, it will sometimes and gage factor variation with temperature.
be necessary to make corrections for thermal output, even
though self-temperature-compensated gages are used. In any
The first step in the correction procedure is to refer to the
case, when making strain measurements at a temperature
graph and read the thermal output corresponding to the
different from the instrument balance temperature, the
test temperature. Then, assuming that the strain indicator
indicated strain is equal to the sum of the stress-induced
was balanced for zero strain at room temperature (the
strain in the test object and the thermal output of the gage
reference temperature with respect to which the thermal
(plus the strain equivalent of any other resistance changes in
output data were measured), subtract the thermal output
the gage circuit). With the thermal output expressed in strain
given on the graph from the strain measurements at the
units, as in Equation (2), correction for this effect is made
test temperature, carrying all signs. This procedure can be
by simply subtracting (algebraically, with sign) the thermal
expressed analytically as follows:
output from the indicated strain.
As an aid to the user in correcting for temperature-dependent eˆ = eˆ− e T/O (3)
properties, the Engineering Data Sheet in each package of where:
Micro-Measurements A- and K-alloy strain gages includes
a graph showing the thermal output and gage-factor eˆ = uncorrected strain measurement, as registered
variation with temperature. Figure 5 is typical (for A alloy) by the strain indicator.
of the graphs supplied with the gages. In addition to plots eˆ = partially corrected strain indication—that is,
of thermal output and gage factor variation, polynomial corrected for thermal output, but not for gage
equations are provided (in both Fahrenheit and Celsius factor variation with temperature (see Sections
units) for the thermal output curve. Also given on the graph 3.0 and 4.0).
are two other important items of information: (1) the lot
number of the strain gages, and (2) the test material used in eT/O = thermal output, in strain units, from the gage
measuring the thermal output characteristics. It should be package data label.
noted that the thermal output data are specifically applicable
As an example, assume that, with the test part under
to only gages of the designated lot number, applied to the
no load and at room temperature, the strain indicator
same test material.
was balanced for zero strain. At the test temperature of
2.2.1 Simple Procedure +250°F [+121°C], the indicated strain is +2300e. Referring
to Figure 5, assuming that the graph was the one in the
Approximate correction for thermal output can be gage package, the thermal output at test temperature is
accomplished most directly and easily using the formula –100e. From Equation (3), the corrected strain is thus 2300
(Figure 5) on the gage package data label. This simple – (–100) = 2400e. Had the indicated strain been negative,
method of correction is based on the fact that the gage the corrected strain would be: –2300 – (–100) = –2200e.
factors of A- and K-alloy gages are close to 2.0, which If the instrument were balanced for zero strain at some
is the standardized gage-factor setting employed in temperature other than +75°F [+24°C], the value of eT/O for
calibrating the gages for thermal output. Adjustment of use in Equation (3) is the net change in thermal output in
the thermal output data for a different instrument gage- going from the balance temperature to the test temperature.
factor setting is described in Section 2.2.2. That is, eT/O = eT/O(T2) – eT/O(T1), carrying the sign of the
thermal output in each case.

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Strain Gage Thermal Output and Gage Factor Variation with Temperature

2.2.2 Adjusting Thermal Output for Gage Factor be found worth the effort if many strain readings are to be
taken with one gage or a group of gages from the same lot.
It should be noted that the instrument gage factor setting
employed in recording thermal output data is standardized For convenience in computerized correction for thermal
at 2.0 for all Micro-Measurements A- and K-alloy gages. If, output, Micro-Measurements supplies, for each lot of
during strain measurement, the user’s instrument is set at a A-alloy and K-alloy gages, a regression-fitted (least-squares)
gage factor different from 2.0, the thermal output component polynomial equation representing the thermal output curve
of the indicated strain will differ accordingly from that given in for that lot. The polynomial is of the following form:
Figure 5. This difference is usually no more than several T/O = A0 + A1T + A2T 2 + A3T 3 +A4T 4 (5)
percent when the instrument gage factor is set to that of an
A- or K-alloy gage. A modest improvement in the accuracy where: T = temperature.
of the thermal output correction can thus be made by If not included directly on the graph, as shown in Figure
adjusting the data from Figure 5 (taken at FI = 2.0) to the 5, the coefficients Ai for Equation (5) can be obtained
current gage factor setting of the instrument. This is done from Micro-Measurements on request by specifying the lot
as follows:
2.0 number.
eT′/O = eT/O (4)
FI It should be borne in mind that the regression-fitted
equations, like the data from which they are derived, are
where: ′T/O = thermal output adjusted for instrument based on an instrument gage factor of 2.0; and, for greatest
gage factor setting. accuracy, the thermal output values calculated from the
T/O = thermal output from gage package data equations must be adjusted to the gage factor setting of
sheet (FI = 2.0). the instrument if other than 2.0. As an alternative, the Ai
coefficients in Equation (5) can be multiplied by the ratio
FI = instrument gage factor setting during 2.0/FI, where FI is the instrument gage factor used for
strain measurement. strain measurement. Another consideration which should
Continuing the numerical example, and assuming that the not be overlooked is that the supplied thermal output
data sheet gives a room-temperature gage factor of 2.10 data and equations are applicable only to the specified lot
for the gage, and that the instrument is set at this same of gages, bonded to the identical material used by Micro-
gage factor, the adjusted thermal output is calculated from Measurements in performing the thermal output tests.
Equation (4): 2.2.4 Accuracy and Practicality —
2.0
eT′/O = −100 x = −95e First-Hand Measurement of Thermal Output
2.1
And the corrected strain measurements become: There is a limit as to just how far it is practical to go
in adjusting the manufacturer’s thermal output data in
2300 – (–95) = 2395 an attempt to obtain greater accuracy. In the first place,
and, the thermal output curve provided on the gage package
–2300 – (–95) = –2205 data label (or by the polynomial equation) represents
an average, since there is some variation in thermal
As shown in Figure 5, the gage factor of the strain gage varies output characteristics from gage to gage within a lot.
slightly with temperature. When this effect is significant And the width of the scatterband increases as the test
relative to the required accuracy in strain measurement, the temperature departs further and further from the room-
gage factor of the strain gage can be corrected to its test- temperature reference.
temperature value (Section 3.1), and the gage factor of the
instrument set accordingly. The resulting instrument gage Furthermore, the thermal output data given in the gage
factor is substituted into Equation (4) to obtain the adjusted package were necessarily measured on a particular lot of
thermal output, which is then subtracted algebraically from a particular test material (see Table 1). Different materials
the indicated strain to yield the stress-induced strain. with the same or closely similar nominal expansion
coefficients, and even different lots and forms of the same
2.2.3 Extensive Data Acquisition material, may have significantly different thermal expansion
characteristics.
If desired, for extensive strain measurement programs, the
thermal output curve in Figure 5 can be replotted with the From the above considerations, it should be evident that in
gage factor adjustment — either room-temperature or test- order to achieve the most accurate correction for thermal
temperature — already incorporated. Upon completion, the output it is generally necessary to obtain the thermal output
thermal output read from the replotted curve can be used data with the actual test gage installed on the actual test part.
directly to correct the indicated strain. This procedure may For this purpose, a thermocouple or resistance temperature

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Tech Note TN-504-1

Strain Gage Thermal Output and Gage Factor Variation with Temperature

sensor is installed immediately adjacent to the strain gage. of formulation differences, even more seriously from
The gage is then connected to the strain indicator and, with manufacturer to manufacturer of nominally the same
no loads applied to the test part, the instrument is balanced plastic. This fact, along with the general instability of
for zero strain. Subsequently, the test part is subjected to plastics properties with time, temperature, humidity, etc.,
the test temperature(s), again with no loads applied, and creates a situation in which there are no suitable plastic
the temperature and indicated strain are recorded under materials for use in directly measuring the thermal output
equilibrium conditions. If, throughout this process, the part characteristics of gages with S-T-C numbers of 30 and
is completely free of mechanical and thermal stresses, the above. As an admittedly less-than-satisfactory alternative,
resulting strain indication at any temperature is the thermal the thermal output data provided with these gages are
output at that temperature. If the instrument gage factor measured on 1018 steel specimens because of the stability
setting during subsequent strain measurement is the same and repeatability of this material.
as that used for thermal output calibration, the observed
As a result of the foregoing, it is always preferable when
thermal output at any test temperature can be subtracted
measuring strains on plastics or other materials with 30,
algebraically from the indicated strain to arrive at the
40 or 50 S-T-C gages (at temperatures different from the
corrected strain. Otherwise, the thermal output data should
instrument balance temperature) to first experimentally
be adjusted for the difference in gage factor settings, as
determine the thermal output of the gage on the test material
described in Section 2.2.2, prior to subtraction.
as described in Section 2.2.4. Using these data, corrections
In order to correct for thermal output in the manner described are then made as usual by subtracting algebraically the
here, it is necessary, of course, to measure the temperature at thermal output from the measured strain.
the strain gage installation each time a strain measurement
For use as a quick first approximation, the thermal
is made. The principal disadvantage of this procedure is that
output characteristics of 30, 40, or 50 S-T-C gages on a
two channels of instrumentation are preempted for each
plastic (or on any other material) of known coefficient
strain gage — one for the strain gage proper, and one for the
of expansion can be estimated by reversing the clockwise
thermocouple or resistance temperature sensor.
rotation of the thermal output curve which occurred
2.2.5 S-T-C Mismatch when measuring the characteristics on a steel specimen.
Assume, for example, that a 30 S-T-C gage is to be used
When a strain gage is employed on a material other than for strain measurements on a plastic with a constant
that used in obtaining the manufacturer’s thermal output expansion coefficient of 35 x 10-6/°F (63 x 10-6/°C) over
data for that lot of gages, an S-T-C mismatch occurs. the test temperature range. Assume also that the expansion
In such cases, the thermal output of the gage will differ coefficient of 1018 steel is constant at 6.7 x 10-6/°F (12.1 x
from the curve supplied in the gage package. Consider, 10-6/°C) over the same temperature range. With the strain
for example, strain measurements made at an elevated indicator set at the gage factor of the strain gage, so that FI
temperature on Monel with a strain gage of 06 S-T-C =FG, and noting that the ratio (1 + Kt)/(1 – 0Kt) is normally
number, calibrated for thermal output on 1018 steel (Table close to unity for A-alloy gages, Eq. (2) can be rewritten in
1). The thermal expansion characteristics of Monel are simplified (and approximate) form as follows:
somewhat different from 1018 steel, and the strain gage will
 G  (6)
produce a correspondingly different thermal output. Thus, e T/O =  − G  T + S T
if accurate strain measurement is required, the thermal  FG 
output characteristics of the gage bonded to Monel must
be measured over the test temperature range as described (Note: Although the remainder of this example is
in Section 2.2.4. For small temperature excursions from carried through in only the Fahrenheit system to avoid
room temperature, the effect of the difference in expansion overcomplicating the notation, the same procedure produces
properties between Monel and 1018 steel is not very the equivalent result in the Celsius system.)
significant, and would commonly be ignored. When specifically applied to 6.7 and 35 x 10-6/°F materials,
On the other hand, when the difference in thermal expansion Equation (6) becomes:
properties between the thermal output calibration material   (7a)
and the material to which the gage is bonded for stress eT/O (6.7) =  G − G  T + 6.7T
 FG 
analysis is great, the published thermal output curve cannot
be used directly for making corrections. Examples of this
and,
occur in constantan strain gages with S-T-C numbers of
30, 40, and 50. The principal application of these gages
would normally be strain measurement on high-expansion-  G 
eT/O (35) =  − G  T + 35T (7b)
coefficient plastics. But the thermal (and other) properties  FG 
of plastics vary significantly from lot to lot and, because

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 Tech Note TN-504-1

Strain Gage Thermal Output and Gage Factor Variation with Temperature
 G 
Solving Eq. (7a)
eT/O (for:
35) =  − G  TT,+ 35Tsubstituting
and when there is a mismatch between the expansion coefficient of
into Equation (7b),  FG  the test material and the selected S-T-C number of the strain
gage. When accurate correction for thermal output is required,
T/O(35) = T/O(6.7) + (35 – 6.7)T (8) direct measurement, as described in Section 2.2.4, is highly
In words, Equation (8) states that the thermal output curve recommended.
for the 30 S-T-C gage mounted on 1018 steel can be converted
to that for the same gage mounted on a 35 x 10-6/°F plastic 3.0 Gage Factor Variation with Temperature
by adding to the original curve the product of the difference
in expansion coefficients and the temperature deviation The alloys used in resistance strain gages typically exhibit a
from room temperature (always carrying the proper sign change in gage factor with temperature. In some cases, the
for the temperature deviation). Figure 6 shows the thermal error due to this effect is small and can be ignored. In others,
output curve for a 30 S-T-C gage as originally measured on depending upon the alloy involved, the test temperature, and
a 1018 steel specimen, and as rotated counterclockwise to the required accuracy in strain measurement, correction for
approximate the response on a plastic with an expansion the gage factor variation may be necessary.
coefficient of 35 x 10-6/°F. It can be seen from Figure 7 that the effect in the A alloy
The procedure just demonstrated is quite general, and can is essentially linear, and quite small at any temperature,
be used to predict the approximate effect of any mismatch typically being in the order of 1% or less per 100°F [2%
between the expansion coefficient used for obtaining the or less per 100°C]. Thus, for a temperature range of, say,
thermal output curve on the gage package data sheet and ±100°F [±50°C], about room temperature, correction may
the expansion coefficient of some other material on which not be necessary. At more extreme temperatures, when
the gage is to be installed. Although generally applicable, the justified by accuracy requirements, the correction can be
procedure is also limited in accuracy because the expansion made as shown in Section 3.1, or combined with the thermal
coefficients in Equation (6) are themselves functions of output correction as in Section 4.0.
temperature for most materials. A further limitation in The variation of gage factor in the D alloy, while very
accuracy can occur when measuring strains on plastics or modest and flat between room temperature and +200°F
other materials with poor heat transfer characteristics. If, [+95°C], steepens noticeably outside of this range. However,
due to self-heating, the temperature of the strain gage is even for temperatures where the gage factor deviation is
significantly higher than that of the test part, the thermal several percent, correction may not be practical. This is
output data supplied in the gage package cannot be applied because D alloy is used primarily for purely dynamic strain
meaningfully. measurement, under which conditions other errors in the
It should be borne in mind that the foregoing procedure gives, measurement system may greatly overshadow the gage
at best, a rough approximation to the actual thermal output factor effect.

TEMPERATURE — °C TEMPERATURE — °C
–50 0 +50 +100 +150 +200 +250
–50 0 +50 +100 +150 +200 +250
+8000
+3
+6000
(Based on Instrument G.F. of 2.00)

+4000 +2
+24°C
THERMAL OUTPUT, 

+2000
GAGE FACTOR VARIATION —%

B
FROM +75°F (+24°C) VALUE

0 +1 A-ALLOY
+24°C
–2000 0
+75°F
–4000 A
A +75°F
–6000 –1
D
–8000
–2
–10 000

–100 0 +100 +200 +300 +400 +500 –3

TEMPERATURE — °F D-ALLOY
–4
A — S-T-C 30 FOIL BONDED TO 1018 STEEL (  = 6.7 x 10–6 /°F) AS MEASURED.

B — APPROXIMATE RESPONSE EXPECTED FROM S-T -C 30 FOIL BONDED TO MATERIAL –5

WITH  = 35 x 10–6 /°F.
–100 0 +100 +200 +300 +400 +500

TEMPERATURE — °F
Figure 6. Rotation of the thermal output function [from (A) to (B)]
when a strain gage is installed on a material of higher thermal
expansion coefficient than that used by the manufacturer Figure 7. Gage factor variation with temperature for constantan
in S-T-C calibration. (A-alloy) and isoelastic (D-alloy) strain gages.

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Tech Note TN-504-1

Strain Gage Thermal Output and Gage Factor Variation with Temperature

As shown in Figure 8, the gage factor variation with in advance, the gage factor control of the strain indicator
temperature for modified Karma (K alloy) is distinctly can be set at F2, initially, and no correction is necessary. It
different from that of the A and D alloys. The gage factor should be noted in this case, however, that if thermal output
variation is nearly linear with temperature, as it is for A corrections are to be made from the graph (or polynomial
alloy, but the slope is negative and is a function of the S-T-C equation) on the gage package data label, the thermal output
number, becoming steeper with higher numbers. data must be adjusted from a gage factor of 2.0 (at which the
thermal output was measured) to the test temperature gage
TEMPERATURE — °C
factor, F2, being used for strain measurement.
–50 0 +50 +100 +150 +200 +250
+3 The following relationship is used to determine the gage
+2
factor at the test temperature from the tabular and graphical
GAGE FACTOR VARIATION —%

data supplied in the gage package:

FROM +75°F (+24°C) VALUE

+1
+24°C
 F(%) 
F2 = F1 1 +  (10)
0
 100 
–1 +75°F
S-T-C
03 where: F(%) = p ercent variation in gage factor with
–2 06
09
temperature as shown in Figures 7 and
–3 13 8. (Note: The sign of the variation must
always be included.)
–4
–100 0 +100 +200 +300 +400 +500 As a numerical example, using Equations (9) and (10),
TEMPERATURE — °F assume that the room-temperature gage factor of a 13 S-T-C,
K-alloy gage is 2.05 and, with the instrument set at this value,
Figure 8. Variation of K-alloy gage factor with the strain indication at +450°F [+230°C] is 1820. Referring
temperature and S-T-C number. to Figure 8, F(%) for this case is –3, and, from Equation (10),
= 22.05
F2 =
F .05 (1(1±–00.03)
.03) −=1.1.99
99
3.1 Correcting Strain Measurements for 2
Gage Factor Variation with Temperature Substituting into Eq. (9),
2.05
The standard procedure for measuring the gage factor of e 2 = 1820 x = 1875e
a lot of any particular type of strain gage is performed at 1.99
room temperature. It is this value of the gage factor, along Since gage factor variation with temperature affects both the
with its tolerance, which is given on the gage package data thermal output and the stress-induced strain, and because
label of Micro-Measurements strain gages. Thus, at any confusion may arise in making the corrections individually
temperature other than room temperature the gage factor and then combining them, the following section gives
is different, and a correction may be needed, according equations for performing both corrections simultaneously.
to the circumstances. Also given on each data sheet is the
applicable graph of gage factor variation with temperature,
such as those in Figures 7 and 8. This information is all that
4.0 Simultaneous Correction of
is required to make the correction. Thermal Output and Gage Factor Errors
In general, any strain measurement data can be corrected (or Relationships are given in this section for correcting indicated
adjusted) from one gage factor to another with a very simple strains for thermal output and gage factor variation with
relationship. Assume, for instance, that a strain, 1, was temperature. The forms these relationships can take depend
registered with the gage factor setting of the strain indicator upon the measuring circumstances — primarily upon the
at F1, and it is desired to correct the data to a gage factor of strain indicator gage factor setting and the temperature at
F2. The corrected strain, 2, is calculated from: which the instrument was balanced for zero strain.
F1 The strain indicator gage factor can be set at any value
e 2 = e1 x (9) within its control range, but one of the following three is
F2
most likely:†
When correcting for gage factor variation with temperature,
1. Gage factor, F*, used by Micro-Measurements in
F1 can be taken as the package-data room-temperature gage
determining thermal output data (F* = 2.0).
factor at which the strain indicator may have been set, and
F2 the gage factor at the test temperature. Of course, when
†  he instrument gage factor setting should not be changed during
T
the test temperature is known with reasonable accuracy a test (after zero-balance), since this may introduce a zero shift.

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Strain Gage Thermal Output and Gage Factor Variation with Temperature

2. Room-temperature gage factor as given on the gage Next, correction is made for the gage factor variation with
package data label. temperature. Because the strain measurement was made at a
3. Gage factor of gage at test temperature or at any gage factor setting of F*, the correction to the gage factor
arbitrary temperature other than room or test at the test temperature is performed with Equation (9) as
temperature. follows:
F*
No single gage factor is uniquely correct for this situation; ˆ
e1 = e1
F (T1 )
but, of the foregoing, it will be found that selecting the first
alternative generally leads to the simplest form of correction
expression. Because of this, the procedure developed here where: 1 = strain magnitude corrected for both thermal
requires that the gage factor of the instrument be set at output and gage factor variation with
FI = F* = 2.0, the gage factor at which the thermal output temperature.
data were recorded.
F(T1) = gage factor at test temperature.
Similarly, the strain indicator can be balanced for zero strain
at any one of several strain gage temperatures: Combining the two corrections,

1 = [ˆ1 −  T / O (T1)]
F*
1. Room temperature (11)
F (T1 )
2. Test temperature
3. Arbitrary temperature other than room or test When the prescribed conditions on the gage factor setting
temperature and the zero-balance temperature have been met, the strain
The second and third of the above choices can be used
 1 from Equation. (11) is the actual strain induced by
mechanical and/or thermal stresses in the test object at the
for meaningful strain measurements only when the test
test temperature. As a numerical example of the application
object is known to be completely free of mechanical and
of Equation (11), assume the following:
thermal stresses at the balancing temperature. Because this
requirement is usually difficult or impossible to satisfy, the
first alternative is generally preferable, and is thus selected
for the following procedure. Strain gage WK-06-250BG-350

As an example, assume that the strain indicator is balanced Test material Steel
with the gage at room temperature, and with the gage factor †Room-temperature gage factor, F0 2.07
control set at F*, the value used by Micro-Measurements
in recording the thermal output data. Assume also that a Test temperature –50°F [–45°C]
ˆ
strain e1 is subsequently indicated at a temperature T1 which ˆ
e1, indicated strain at test temperature
is different from room temperature. The indicated strain (with instrument gage factor set at F*) –1850
ˆ
e1 is generally in error due both to thermal output and to
†T/O(T1), thermal output at
variation of the gage factor with temperature — and hence
the double caret over the strain symbol. test temperature –200

Consider first the correction for thermal output. Since the †F(T1), deviation at test
gage factor setting of the strain indicator coincides with that temperature from
used in measuring the thermal output, this correction can be room-temperature gage factor +0.6%
made by direct subtraction of the thermal output (as given
on the gage package data label) from the indicated strain.
That is, Using Equation (10) to obtain F(T1), the gage factor of the
gage at test temperature,
eˆ1 = eˆ1 – T/O (T1)
ˆ
where: e1 = indicated strain, uncorrected for either thermal
F(T1 ) = F0 1 +
0.6 
= 2.07 x 1.006
output or gage factor variation with temperature.  100 
eˆ1 = semi-corrected strain; i.e., corrected for thermal F (T1 ) = 2.08
output only. Substituting into Eq. (11), with F* = 2.0,
T/O (T1) = thermal output at temperature T1 (functional 2.0
e1 = [−1850 − ( −200)] = −1587e
notation is used to avoid double and triple sub- 2.08
scripts).
† From engineering data on gage package.

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Tech Note TN-504-1

Strain Gage Thermal Output and Gage Factor Variation with Temperature

For what might appear to be a more complex case, consider a smaller radii, correction may be necessary, depending upon the
strain-gage-instrumented centrifugal compressor, operating required strain-measurement accuracy.
first at speed N1, with the temperature of the gage installation
at T1. Under these conditions, the indicated strain is e1. The ˆ Employing the same basic approach and approximations
used by Hines in his derivation, but generalizing the treatment
compressor speed is then increased to N2, with a resulting
to allow for any combination of adhesive and backing
gage installation temperature of T2, and an indicated strain
ˆ
e2. The engineer wishes to determine the change in stress- properties, an expression for estimating the incremental
thermal output can be written as follows:
induced strain caused by the speed increase from N1 to N2.
This problem is actually no more difficult than the previous e T /O = (A-1)
example. Applying Equation (11) to each condition: 1
R
[ ]
(1 + 2 A − B )(hA A + hB B ) − 2 A − BS (hA + hB ) T
F*
[ˆ
e1 = e1 − e T / O (T1 )]F (T1 ) where, in consistent units,
F*
[ˆ
e 2 = e 2 − e T / O (T2 ) ]
F (T2 )
T/O = curvature-induced incremental thermal output.
R = radius of curvature of test surface at gage site.
The same numerical substitution procedure is followed as
before, and the results subtracted to give (2 – 1), the change A–B = average Poisson’s ratio of adhesive and backing.
in stress-induced strain caused by the speed increase. The hA,hB = adhesive and backing thickness, respectively.
subtraction can also be done algebraically to yield a single
equation for the strain change: A,B = thermal expansion coefficients of adhesive and
backing, respectively.
 eˆ − e (T ) eˆ − e (T )  S = thermal expansion coefficient of substrate (spec-
e 2 − e1 = F *  2 T / O 2 − 1 T / O 1 
 F (T2 ) F (T1 )  imen material).
T = temperature change from reference temperature.
When computerized data reduction is used, analytical
expressions for the functions  T/O(T ) and F(T ) can be Approximate values for the adhesive and backing parameters
introduced into the program to permit direct calculation of in Equation (A-1) are given in Table A-1 for representative
corrected strains from indicated strains. Micro-Measurements adhesives and gage series. The sign of
the incremental thermal output is obtained from Equation
(A-1) when the signs of T and R are properly accounted
Appendix
for — that is, an increase in temperature from the reference
Surface Curvature Effects on Thermal Output temperature is taken as positive, and a decrease negative;
Frank F. Hines has demonstrated† that when a strain gage and correspondingly, a convex curvature is positive, while
is installed on a sharply curved surface, the thermal output a concave curvature is negative. The calculated result
manifested by such an installation is different than for the from Equation (A-1) is then added algebraically to the
same gage mounted on a flat surface. The curvature-indicated thermal output data supplied in the gage package to give
change in thermal output, referred to here as the incremental the curvature-corrected thermal output for use in making
thermal output, is due to the fact that the strain-sensitive thermal output corrections as shown in this Tech Note.
grid of the gage is above the surface of the test member by
the thickness of the gage backing and adhesive layer. It can TABLE A-1
be shown that under these conditions a temperature change Adhesive and Backing Parameters for Use with Equation (A-1)
causes a different strain in the grid than would occur with hA, hB A, B
the grid bonded to a plane surface. The result is an altered Adhesive Type
in [mm] per ºF [per ºC]
thermal output from the data provided in the gage package. M-Bond 200 0.0006 [0.015] 45 x 10 -6 [81 x 10 -6]
M-Bond AE-10/15 0.001 [0.025] 45 [81]
The curvature-induced incremental thermal output is a second- M-Bond 600/610 0.0002 [0.005] 45 [81]
order effect which can ordinarily be ignored; but it can become
significant when the radius of curvature is very small. As a rule Gage Series
(Backings)
of thumb, the incremental thermal output can be neglected
when the radius of curvature is 0.5 in (13 mm) or greater. With EA, CEA, EP, ED 0.0012 [0.030] 50 x 10 -6 [90 x 10 -6]
SA, SK, SD, S2K 0.001 [0.025] 10 [18]
WA, WK, WD 0.0015 [0.038] 10 [18]
† Proceedings, Western Regional Strain Gage Committee, Nov. 9,
1960, pp. 39-44. A–B = 0.35 for all combinations

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Strain Gage Thermal Output and Gage Factor Variation with Temperature

Because the adhesive and backing parameters given in Table

A-1 are approximate, and are affected by gage installation

PER ° F
PER °C
tech-nique and other variables, the curvature correction RADIUS, R — mm

defined by Equation (A-1) is limited in accuracy. When the 1.5 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 8.0 10.0 15.0 20.0 25.0

surface curvature is severe enough so that the curvature- 7

4

induced incremental thermal output may be important,

the actual thermal output should be measured as described
in Section 2.2.4 of the text. In other words, the strain gage 6 GAGES MOUNTED ON STEEL :
S = 6 x 10-6/°F (10.84 x 10-6/ °C)
should be bonded to the test part as for strain measurement,

PER UNIT OF TEMPERATURE CHANGE, T/O/T

3
a thermocouple or resistance temperature sensor should 5

INCREMENTAL THERMAL OUTPUT

be installed adjacent to the gage, and the test part then
subjected to test temperatures (while free of mechanical and
4
thermal stresses) to record the “true” thermal output.
2
"E" BACKING & AE-10/15 ADHESIVE
As an aid in judging the approximate magnitude of the 3 "E" BACKING & 600/610 ADHESIVE
curvature-induced thermal output, Equation (A-1) has been
evaluated for several representative combinations of Micro- "W" BACKING & 600/610 ADHESIVE
Measurements adhesives and gage series. Parameters from 2
1
Table A-1 were substituted into the equation, along with S
= 6.0 x 10–6 (assuming a steel test material), and the results 1
plotted in Figure A-1. Note, in the figure, that the ordinate
gives the incremental thermal output per unit of temperature
change from the initial reference temperature — that is, 0
0.05 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.30 0.40 0.50 0.60 0.80 1.00
T/O /T. RADIUS, R — in

Figure A-1. Equation (A-1) evaluated and plotted for various

standard Micro-Measurements strain gage backing materials
when bonded to a steel substrate.

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