1.

Fourth Generation: Geosynchronous Satellite Launch Vehicle (GSLV)

 GSLV was developed by ISRO for a capability to launch satellites into geostationary orbits.
 This made India less dependent on other countries for their launch vehicles.
 The three variants include:
o GSLV Mark I (a) with a capability of 1,500 kilograms, GSLV Mark I (b) with a capability of 1,900
kilograms (uses Russian cryogenic engine).
o GSLV Mark II that uses Indian Cryogenic Engine, developed by Liquid Propulsion System
Center (LPSC), and is capable of launching 2,500 kilograms of payload to GTO (Geostationary
Transfer Orbit) and up to 5,000 kilograms of payload to LEO.
o LVM3 / Human rated LVM3 - HLVM3 will be capable of placing the 4 tonne class satellites of the
GSAT series into Geosynchronous Transfer Orbits. Payload to LEO (Low Earth Orbit) : 8,000 kg,
Payload to GTO: 4,000 kg.
 GSLV is a three-stage launch vehicle, where the first two stages are similar to PSLV with same solid and
liquid natures of fuel but the third stage is completely different, i.e., cryogenic stage.
 Earlier, India used Russian-made cryogenic engine. However, now, ISRO developed its own cryogenic
engine in LSPC, Mahendragiri, Tamil Nadu.
 On 6 January 2014, India used the first cryogenic upper stage engine, those successfully used in GSLV-
D5.
o First Stage: It is made of maraging steel and uses solid propellants.
o Second Stage: Vikas engine powers up this stage and UDMH is used as fuel along with Nitrogen Tetroxide
(N204) as oxidiser.
o Third Stage: Driven by an indigenous cryogenic engine, this third stage uses liquid hydrogen and liquid
oxygen in separate chambers interconnected by an inter-stage.

Cryogenic Technology
 Cryogenic technology is the development of useful applications based on cryogenic science, which
is the study of temperatures below-150 C, how to produce such low temperatures and the
behaviour of materials at those temperatures.
 Cryogenic is a Greek word and means 'the production of freezing cold.
 Gases Used and Storage: Liquid nitrogen and liquid helium are used in cryogenic applications.
Most often, liquid nitrogen is used in cryogenics. Liquid helium is also used and allows for the lowest
attainable temperatures to be reached. A special type of container is used to keep these liquids known
as Dewar flasks.

Applications:-

1. Superconductivity: Cryogenic materials such as liquid nitrogen are useful for producing the temperatures
necessary for superconductivity applications. Superconductivity is the property of certain materials to
conduct direct current (DC) electricity without energy loss when they are cooled below a critical
temperature (referred to as Tc). These materials also expel magnetic fields as they transition to the
superconducting state.

2. Cryogenic fuels: Largely, liquid hydrogen has been used as rocket fuel. Liquid oxygen is used as an
oxidiser of hydrogen, but oxygen is not strictly called as a fuel.

3. Cryostorage: Cryogenic gases are used in transportation/storage of large masses of frozen food. When huge
quantity of food must be transported to regions like war fields, earthquake-hit regions, etc., they must be
stored for a long time. So cryogenic food freezing is used.

4. Cryocooling: Use of cryogenic gases for cooling (heat exchange) purposes in industrial applications, such
as electrical cables.

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 5. Magnetic Resonance Imaging: It is a technique of imaging objects where a strong magnetic field is required
that is generated by electromagnets. Elevated field strengths can be addressed by using superconducting
magnets. Normally, liquid helium is used to cool the superconducting coils.

6. Cryogenic processing: This was developed during World War II when scientists found that metals frozen to
low temperatures exhibited more resistance to wear.

7. Cryomilling: Some soft or elastic materials turn to hard and brittle at very low temperatures, which make
cryogenic milling (cryomilling) an option for some materials that cannot easily be milled at higher
temperatures.

8. Cryobiology: It deals with the study of the effects of low temperatures on organisms, generally for the
purpose of achieving cryopreservation.

9. Cryonics: The emerging medical technology of cryopreserving humans and animals with the intention of
future revival.

10. Cryoelectronics: Research of super conductivity at very low temperatures.

11. Cryotrocins: It is the real application of Cryoelectronics.

VIKAS ENGINES
These are liquid fuelled rocket engines developed by the Liquid Propulsion Systems Centre in the 1970s. Earlier
India has imported such engines from French components. It is used in PSLV and GSLV series of expendable
launch vehicles for space launch use. Vikas engine is used to power the second stage of PSLV, boosters and second
stage of GSLV Mark I and II and also the core stage of GSLV Mark III. The propellant loading for Vikas engine in
PSLV, GSLV Mark I and II is 40 tons, while in GSLV Mark III is 55 tons.

2. Small Satellite Launch Vehicle (SSLV):

 Is ISRO’s indigenous new launch rocket, is likely to have its much-delayed, maiden development flight this
3rd/4th quarter of 2022.
 The SSLV is intended to cater to a market for the launch of small satellites into low earth orbits, which has
emerged in recent years on account of the need for developing countries, private corporations, and
universities for small satellites.
 The launch of small satellites has until now been dependent on ‘piggy-back’ rides with big satellite launches
on ISRO’s workhorse- the PSLV.
 The launch of small satellites as a consequence has been dependent on the finalising of launch contracts for
the larger satellites by ISRO.
 The maiden flight SSLV-D1 was conducted on 7 August 2022 from the First Launch Pad SDSC but failed
to orbit.
 A second flight SSLV D2 was conducted on 10 February 2023 that successfully delivered payloads to orbit.
 In the future, a dedicated launch site in Kulasekharapatnam, Tamil Nadu will handle SSLV launches to
Sun-synchronous orbit.
 After entering the operational phase, the vehicle's production and launch operations will be done by a
consortium of Indian firms along with New Space India Limited (NSIL).

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FEATURES
 SSLV is a 4-stage Launch Vehicle with the first 3 stages of the vehicle using HTPB-based solid
propellant, with a fourth terminal stage being a Velocity-Trimming Module (VTM) which is a liquid
propulsion-based stage burning MMH with MON to achieve desired velocity for the insertion of the satellites
into the desired orbit.
 The SSLV can carry satellites weighing up to 500 kg to a low earth orbit.
 The SSLV is the smallest vehicle at 110-ton mass at ISRO.
 It will be an on-demand vehicle.
 SSLV is perfectly suited for launching multiple microsatellites at a time and supports multiple orbital
drop-offs.
 It will take only 72 hours to integrate, unlike the 70 days taken now for a launch vehicle.
 Only six people will be required to do the job, instead of 60 people.
 The entire job will be done in a very short time and the cost will be only around 230 crore.
 The development and manufacture of the SSLV are expected to create greater synergy between the space
sector and private Indian industries-a key aim of the space ministry.

Satellite types according to mass:

Large satellites: More than 1,000 kg

Medium-sized satellites: 500-1,000 kg

Small satellites:

Minisatellite: 100-500 kg

Microsatellite: 10-100 kg

Nanosatellite: 1-10 kg (NSLV)

Picosatellite: Less than 1 kg

Category Mass Range Typical Applications

Few hundred grams to a few Technology demonstration, Education, Scientific research,

Femtosatellites
kilograms Commercial endeavors

Nano-scale sensing, Environmental monitoring, Biomedical

Attosatellites Less than a gram
applications

Experimental research, Particle physics, Nanotechnology

Zeptosatellites Fractions of a gram
applications

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ISRO’s Reusable Launch vehicle
1. Reusable Launch Vehicle – Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD)
 RLV-TD is India's first uncrewed flying testbed developed for the Indian Space Research
Organisation (ISRO)s Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstration Programme. It is a scaled
down prototype of an eventual two-stage-to-orbit (TSTO) reusable launch vehicle.
 The RLV-TD successfully completed its first atmospheric test flight on 23 May 2016, which lasted for 770
seconds and reached a maximum altitude of 65 kilometres (40 mi).
 It was designed to evaluate various technologies, and development of the final version is expected to take 10
to 15 years. The fully developed RLV is expected to take off vertically like a rocket, deploy
a satellite in orbit, return to Earth, and land on a runway.
 ISRO aims to bring down the cost of payload delivery to low Earth orbit by 80% from existing $20,000/kg
to $4,000/kg.
 This launch vehicle (1.5 tonne) will be mounted on the Polar Satellite Launch Vehicle (PSLV) rocket.
 At an altitude of 70 km, the model would get separated and would glide back to earth.
 The descent speed would be controlled through the fins on the machine.
 The configuration of RLV-TD is similar to that of an aircraft and combines the complexity of both launch
vehicles and aircraft.

REUSABLE LAUNCH VEHICLE AUTONOMOUS LANDING MISSION (RLV LEX)

Why in News?
ISRO successfully conducted the Reusable Launch Vehicle Autonomous Landing Mission (RLV LEX).

About Reusable Launch Vehicle Autonomous Landing Mission (RLV LEX)

 RLV LEX test was the second of five tests that are a part of ISRO’s efforts to develop RLVs or space
planes/shuttles under the Reusable Launch Vehicle Technology Demonstrator (RLV-TD) Programme.
o RLV is essentially a space plane with a low lift to drag ratio and can travel to low earth orbits to
deliver payloads and return to earth for use again.
o This vehicle will be scaled up to become the first stage of India’s reusable two-stage orbital
(TSTO) launch vehicle.
 RLV-TD Programme aims at developing essential technologies for a fully reusable launch vehicle to enable
low-cost access to space.
o It includes technologies like hypersonic flight (HEX), autonomous landing (LEX), return flight
experiment (REX), powered cruise flight, and Scramjet Propulsion Experiment (SPEX).
o NASA is using RLV for long time and private space agencies such as Space X is demonstrating
partially reusable launch systems.
 Advantages: RLV is considered a low-cost, reliable, and on-demand mode of accessing space.
 Challenges: Selection of materials like special alloys, composites, and insulation materials and the crafting
of its parts is very complex and demands highly skilled manpower.

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2. Next Generation Launch Vehicle or NGLV (previously referred to as Unified Launch Vehicle or
ULV):
 Is a three-stage partially reusable rocket, currently under development by
the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).
 This vehicle is designed to replace currently operational systems like PSLV,
GSLV and LVM3.
 This family of three launchers was previously being designed for replacing
the different core propulsion modules of PSLV, GSLV, and LVM3
respectively with a common semi-cryogenic engine and hence it was named
as Unified Launch Vehicle (ULV).
 Unlike the latest proposal of the launcher, the initial proposals were
planned to be expendable. But the new proposals under the name of Next
Generation Launch Vehicle (NGLV) suggests launchers having partial
reusability.
 In June 2023, ISRO revealed that the team working on the NGLV
programme had already submitted a preliminary report on the rocket's details,
manufacturing process, and approach toward development. The rocket is
planned to be partially reusable along with its boosters. The development
was expected to take another five to ten years.

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India’s First Private Launch Vehicle

Why in News?

 Space technology startup Skyroot Aerospace is set to make history by sending India’s first privately
developed rocket Vikram-S into space between 12th and 16th November 2022 under the ‘Prarambh’
Mission. Skyroot Aerospace is an Indian startup in the aerospace business.

What is Vikram-S?

 The Vikram-S rocket is a single-stage sub-orbital launch vehicle which would carry three customer
payloads.
 Sub-orbital flight are those vehicles which are travelling slower than the orbital velocity – meaning it is fast
enough to reach outer space but not fast enough to stay in an orbit around the Earth.
 It would help test and validate the majority of the technologies in the Vikram series of space launch vehicles.
 Skyroot has been working on three different Vikram rocket versions.
 The Vikram-I can launch with 480 kilograms of payload, whereas the Vikram-II is designed to do so with 595
kilos and Vikram-III has a 500 km Low Inclination Orbit launch capability with 815 kg.

What is the Prarambh Mission?

 The Prarambh mission is aimed at carrying three payloads into space, including a 2.5-kilogram payload that
has been developed by students from several countries.
 The Prarambh mission and the Vikram-S rocket were developed by the Hyderabad-based startup with
extensive support from Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and IN-SPACe (Indian National Space
Promotion and Authorisation Centre).

India’s First Private Space Vehicle Launchpad

Why in News?

 Recently, Chennai-based space tech startup Agnikul Cosmos inaugurated India’s first private space
vehicle launchpad at the Satish Dhawan Space Centre (SDSC) in Sriharikota.
 It was executed in support of the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) and IN-SPACe (Indian
National Space Promotion and Authorization Centre).
What is Agnikul’s Launchpad Facility?

 The facility has two parts: the Agnikul launchpad and the Agnikul mission control centre, which are four
kilometres apart.
 The launchpad has been designed to accommodate and support liquid stage-controlled launches.
What is Agnibaan?

 Agnibaan is a two-stage launch vehicle that is capable of taking payloads of up to 100 kilograms to a low-
earth orbit around 700 kilometres from the surface of the Earth.
 It will be powered by the company’s 3D-printed Agnilet engines.
 Agnilet is the world’s first single-piece 3-D printed engine fully designed and manufactured in India and
was successfully test-fired in early 2021, making Agnikul the first company in the country to test its
engines at ISRO.
 The Agnilet rocket is a “semi-cryogenic” engine that uses a mixture of liquid kerosene and supercold liquid
oxygen to propel itself.
 The engine is very complex, and it functions at very high temperatures.

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Space Shuttle
 Space Shuttle is a reusable rocket-launched vehicle that is designed to go into Earth’s orbit.
 It is useful to send astronauts/cosmonauts (Soviet word for astronauts) and cargo to space.
 National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) has developed the first space shuttle, formally
called the STS (Space Transportation System), which lifted off into space first on 12 April 1981.
 A space shuttle consists of three major components:
1. Winged orbiter – It carries both crew and cargo.
2. An external tank – It contains propellant.
3. A pair of large, solid-propellant, strap-on booster rockets – During launch, the boosters and the orbiter’s
main engines are fired together to increase thrust. The boosters were returned to Earth by parachute
mechanism for reuse after being jettisoned about two minutes just after lift-off.

Why Satellites do not fall down?

 Satellite do not fall down to the surface of Earth even though a satellite is under the attraction of Earth
(within Earth’s orbit).
 It is defined on the basis of the orbital speed of satellites. Because of Earth’s gravity, everything thrown
upwards or straight eventually comes down or falls down. However, in case of a satellite launched using a
rocket, after reaching into the space, it does not fall down due to balance of centrifugal forces and Earth’s
gravity.
 This outward force (the centrifugal force) becomes greater, the faster the object swings. A certain
orbital speed is required to balance the centrifugal force of the satellite due to its motion around the
Earth and pull of gravity so that the satellite is in proper orbit.
 If a satellite is going farther from Earth, the weaker the gravity and hence, to balance the centrifugal
forces and gravity, orbital speed of satellite will decrease.

 Satellites follow their own orbits as per Newton’s first law of motion (Law of Inertia). According to
Newton’s first law of motion, in the absence of forces such as friction and air resistance, an object at
rest will stay at rest and an object in motion will stay in motion. Consequently, when we put a rocket
in motion, a satellite will stay in motion with the Earth’s gravity bending its path from a straight line
into an orbit. It means a satellite can stay in its own orbit for long periods of time, because it does not
need to carry large amounts of fuel to keep moving.

On what factors does the orbital speed of a satellite depend?

 Only two variables the distance to the centre of the object it is orbiting (e.g. Earth) and the mass of that
object (e.g. Earth).
 The speed of a satellite in orbit is independent of the mass of the satellite.

Q. An artificial satellite orbiting around Earth does not fall down. This is so because the at- traction of
Earth: [UPSC (Pre)-2011]
(a) does not exist at such distance.
(b) is neutralised by the attraction of the moon.
(c)provides the necessary speed for its steady motion.
(d) provides the necessary acceleration for its Motion.
Q: With reference to India's satellite launch vehicles, consider the following statements:
1. PSLVs launch the satellites useful for Earth resources monitoring whereas GSLVs are designed mainly
to launch communication satellites.
2. Satellites launched by PSLV appear to remain permanently fixed in the same position in the sky, as
viewed from a particular location on Earth.
3. GSLV Mk III is a four-staged launch vehicle with the first and third stages using solid rocket motors; and
the second and fourth stages using liquid rocket engines.
Which of the statements given above is/are correct?
(a) 1 only (b) 2 and 3 (c) 1 and 2 (d) 3 only
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Spacecrafts

 A spacecraft is a general term used to describe any vehicle or device designed for travel or operation in
outer space.
 It can encompass a wide range of vehicles, including satellites, space stations, crewed spacecraft (like the
Space Shuttle or the International Space Station), and robotic probes.
 Spacecraft can be used for various purposes, such as communication, navigation, Earth observation,
scientific research, and human space exploration.

Space Probe
 A space probe is a specific type of spacecraft designed for exploring outer space and conducting scientific
investigations of celestial bodies.
 Unlike crewed spacecraft, space probes are typically unmanned and are controlled remotely from Earth.
 Space probes are equipped with scientific instruments and sensors to gather data about their target objects,
such as planets, moons, asteroids, comets, or interstellar space.
 They are often launched on missions to conduct flybys, orbit insertions, landings, or atmospheric entries to
study and collect data about their target bodies.

Type of Spacecrafts
1. Orbiter Spacecraft:
This type of spacecraft is designed to go to distant planets or moon and enter their own orbit. They have
high temperature resistance and power-storage capacity. For power generation, it is equipped with solar
array (a group of solar panels). Examples: Galileo, Magellan and Mars Global Surveyor.

2. Manned Spacecraft:
It is used to carry astronauts into space. It requires life-support systems with crew compartment. They
are de- signed to use either one time (like Soyuz) or reusable (like the space shuttle).

3. Flyby Spacecraft:
Flyby spacecrafts follow a continuous trajectory path to a target object. It is never sent into an orbit.
Examples: Voyagers 1 and 2 and Pioneers 10 and 11.

4. Atmospheric Probe:
It is a small-sized instrumented craft that separates from the main spacecraft when it comes close to a
planet. It involves the study of gaseous atmosphere. It is equipped with an aero shell to protect this probe
during atmospheric entry and a para chute mechanism is adopted to slow its decent.

5. Atmospheric Balloon Package:

It is used to study wind circulation patterns in a planet’s atmosphere.

6. Lander Spacecraft:
Lander spacecraft is designed to reach the surface of a planet or moon as landing technology on the surface
with longer survivability. It telemeters data back to the Earth. Examples: Surveyor, Mars Pathfinder,
Vikram etc.

7. Surface Rover:
They mostly have wheels to rove on the surface of a planet or on other planetary bodies. It takes images and
also does soil analysis for telemetering data back to Earth. Examples: Pragyan, Sojourner, Spirit and
Opportunity etc.

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Satellite

 A satellite may be natural (moon) or human-made (machine) that orbits a planet or a star. For example, a
moon is a satellite because it orbits Earth, similarly, Earth is a satellite as it orbits the Sun.
 An artificial ‘satellite’ refers to a machine that is launched into space and moves around Earth or other
object in space.
 Satellites have numerous applications in the study of planets, like weather forecasting, study of galaxy, etc.,
to understand the solar system and universe better.
 All communication and information technology is also based on satellites. More than 20 satellites are required
in a Global Positioning System (GPS).
 Soviet Union based Sputnik-1 was the first satellite in space launched in 1957.

Satellites Types

In order to fulfil vision and service goals, the Department of Space has been developing mainly the satellites for
communication, earth observation, scientific, navigation and meteorological purposes.

1. Communication Satellites
 The Indian National Satellite (INSAT) system is one of the largest domestic communication
satellite systems in Asia-Pacific region with nine operational communication satellites placed
in Geo-stationary orbit.
 Established in 1983 with commissioning of INSAT-1B, it initiated a major revolution in India’s
communications sector and sustained the same later.
 The INSAT & GSAT system provides services like,
o telecommunications,
o television broadcasting,
o satellite newsgathering,
o societal applications,
o weather forecasting,
o disaster warning and
o Search and Rescue operations.
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 2. Earth Observation
 Starting with IRS-1A in 1988, ISRO has launched many operational remote sensing satellites.
 Today, India has one of the largest constellations of remote sensing satellites in operation.
 The data from these satellites are used for several applications
o covering agriculture (pre-harvest crop area, assessment based on vegetable
conditions and production estimates),
o water resources (locating underground water resources for drilling well, drought,
and irrigation monitoring, flood risk zone mapping and flood assessment),
o urban planning (Water use planning estimates land use and land cover mapping),
o rural development,
o mineral prospecting, forestry (forest survey),
o disaster management,
o prospecting coastal studies environment impact analysis,
o measuring land surface temperature over the entire globe
o it is also possible to measure chlorophyll content in the vegetation of a specific location
as chlorophyll will reflect more light in the green and near infrared
spectrum compared to other wavelengths,
o can also deliver information on (GHGs) soil emissions by estimating tropospherical,
near-surface CO2 and CH4 concentrations based on the measurement of the intensity of
the reflected sunlight in small wavelength bands in the visible and short-wavelength IR
portion of the spectrum,
o greenhouse gas emissions from rice paddies of a specific location can also be
estimated by satellite image/remote sensing data,
o wetland mapping, etc.

Remote Sensing Satellite Launch Year

Radar imaging satellite 1 (RISAT 1) 2012
Megha-Tropiques 2011
Resource sat 2011
Cartosat 2B 2010
RISAT 2 2009
IMS 1 2008
Cartosat 2A 2008
Cartosat 2 2007
Cartosat 1 2005
Resource sat 1 2003
Q: In which of the following activities are Indian Remote Sensing (IRS) satellites used?
1. Assessment of crop productivity
2. Locating groundwater resources
3. Mineral exploration
4. Telecommunications
5. Traffic studies
Select the correct answer using the codes given below.
(a) 1, 2 and 3 only
(b) 4 and 5 only
(c) 1 and 2 only
(d) 1, 2, 3, 4 and 5

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