LEVEL

Prepared By: Dr. Alexis John M. Rubio

Learning Objectives
After discussing the following topic the students will be able to:
Use the formulas in level measurement computations.
Distinguish between direct and indirect level measuring devices.
Differentiate between continuous and single-point measurements
Identify various types of instruments available for level measurements.
Develop application of the various types of level sensing devices.
Introduction
There are many widely varying methods for the measurement of liquid
level. Level measurement is an important part of process control. Level
sensing can be single point, continuous, direct, or indirect. Continuous
level monitoring measures the level of the liquid on an uninterrupted basis.
In this case, the level of the material will be constantly monitored, and
hence the volume can be continuously monitored, if the cross-sectional
area of the container is known.
Introduction
Examples of direct and indirect level measurements are using a float
technique, or measuring pressure and calculating the liquid level.
Accurate level measurement techniques have been developed. New
measurement techniques are constantly being introduced and old ones
improved. Level measuring devices should have easy access for
inspection, maintenance, and replacement. Free-flowing solids include dry
powders, crystals, rice, grain, and so forth.
Level Measurement
Level sensing devices can be divided into four categories:
(1) direct sensing, in which the actual level is monitored;
(2) indirect sensing, in which a property of the liquid, such as pressure, is
sensed to determine the liquid level;
(3) single point measurement, in which it is only necessary to detect the
presence or absence of a liquid at a specific level; and
(4) free-flowing solid level sensing.
Direct Level Sensing
A number of techniques are used for direct level sensing, such as direct
visual indication using a sight glass or a float. Ultrasonic distance
measuring devices also may be considered.
The Sight glass or gauge is the simplest method for direct visual reading.
As shown in Figure 8.1, the sight glass is normally mounted vertically
adjacent to the container.
Direct Level Sensing
Direct Level Sensing
The liquid level then can be observed directly in the sight glass. The ends
of the glass are connected to the top and bottom of the tank via shutoff
valves, as would be used with a pressurized container (boiler) or a
container with volatile, flammable, hazardous, or pure liquids. In cases
where the tank contains inert liquids, such as water, and pressurization is
not required, the tank and sight glass both can be open to the atmosphere.
Direct Level Sensing
Glass gauges are cheap but easily broken, and should not be used with
hazardous liquid. For safety reasons, they should not be longer than 4 ft.
Cold liquids also can cause condensation on the gauge. Gauges should
have shutoff valves in case of breakage (sometimes automatic safety
shutoff valves are used) and to facilitate replacement. In the case of high
pressure or hazardous liquids, a nonmagnetic material can be used for the
sight glass with a magnetic float that can rotate a graduated disk, or can be
monitored with a magnetic sensor, such as a Hall Effect device
Direct Level Sensing
Float sensors are shown in Figure 8.2. There are two types of floats shown:
the angular arm and the pulley. The float material is less dense than the
density of the liquid, and floats up and down on top of the material being
measured.
Direct Level Sensing
In Figure 8.2(a), a float with a pulley is used. This method can be used with
either liquids or free-flowing solids. With free-flowing solids, agitation is
sometimes used to help level the solids. The advantages of the float sensor
are that they are almost independent of the density of the liquid or solid
being monitored, are accurate and robust, and have a linear output with
level height.
However, accuracy can be affected by material accumulation on the float,
corrosion, chemical reactions, and friction in the pulleys. If the surface of
the material being monitored is turbulent, causing the float reading to vary
excessively, some means of damping might be required, such as a stilling
well.
Direct Level Sensing
In Figure 8.2(b), a ball float is attached to an arm, and the angle of the arm
is measured to indicate the level of the material. A spherical float shape is
used to provide maximum buoyancy, and it should be one-half submerged
for maximum sensitivity, and to have the same float profile independent of
angle.
An example of this type of sensor is the fuel level monitor in the tank of an
automobile. Due to lack of headroom in this application, the angle of the
float arm can go only from approximately 0° to 90°. The fuel gauge shows
the output voltage from a potentiometer driven by the float. Although very
simple and cheap to manufacture, the angular float sensor has the
disadvantage of nonlinearity.
Direct Level Sensing
Figure 8.3(a) shows a pulley-type float sensor with a linear radial scale that
can be replaced with a potentiometer to obtain an electrical signal. Figure
8.3(b) shows an angular arm float. The travel of the arm on this float is
±30°, giving a scale that is more linear than in the automotive application,
and which can be linearized for industrial use. The scale can be replaced by
a potentiometer to obtain an electrical signal.
Direct Level Sensing
Direct Level Sensing
Ultrasonic or sonic devices can be used for single point or continuous level
measurement of a liquid or a solid. A setup for continuous measurement is
shown in Figure 8.4. A pulse of sonic waves (approximately 10 kHz) or
ultrasonic waves (more than 20 kHz) from the transmitter is reflected from
the surface of the liquid to the receiver, and the time for the echo to reach
the receiver is measured. The time delay gives the distance from the
transmitter and receiver to the surface of the liquid, from which the liquid
level can be calculated, knowing the velocity of ultrasonic waves
(approximately 340 m/s).
Direct Level Sensing
Direct Level Sensing
Since there is no contact with the liquid, this method can be used for solids,
and corrosive and volatile liquids. Sonic and ultrasonic devices are reliable,
accurate, and cost-effective.
They can be used in high humidity, have no moving parts, and are
unaffected by material density or conductivity. Vibration or high noise
levels can affect the devices. Dust can give false signals or attenuate the
signals by deposit buildup on the transmitting and receiving devices.
Direct Level Sensing
Care should be taken not to exceed the operating temperature of the
devices, and correction may be required for the change in velocity of the
sonic waves with humidity, temperature, and pressure
In a liquid, the transmitter and receiver can be placed on the bottom of the
container, and the time measured for an echo to be received from the
surface of the liquid back to the receiver can be used to calculate the depth
of the liquid.
Indirect Level Sensing
A commonly used method of indirectly measuring a liquid level is to
measure the hydrostatic pressure at the bottom of the container. The level
can be extrapolated from the pressure and the specific weight of the liquid.
The level of liquid can be measured using displacers, capacitive probes,
bubblers, resistive tapes, or by weight measurements.
Indirect Level Sensing
Pressure is often used as an indirect method of measuring liquid levels.
Pressure increases as the depth increases in a fluid. The pressure is given
by:
where p is the pressure, γ is the specific weight, and h is the depth.
Note that the units must be consistent, the specific weight is
temperature-dependent, and temperature correction is required.
Example
A pressure gauge located at the base of an open tank containing a liquid
with a specific weight of 13.6 kN/m3 registers 1.27 MPa. What is the depth
of the fluid in the tank?
Indirect Level Sensing
The pressure can be measured by any of the methods given in the section
on pressure. In Figure 8.1, a differential pressure sensor can replace the
sight glass.
These devices are affected by liquid density and are susceptible to dirt. It
is some times necessary to mount the pressure sensor above or below the
zero liquid level, as shown in Figure 8.5, in which case an adjustment to
the zero point is required.
Indirect Level Sensing
Indirect Level Sensing
When the sensor is below the zero level, as shown in Figure 8.5(a), “zero
suppression” is required to allow for H; the distance of the measuring
instrument above or below the bottom of the container when it is above the
zero level, as shown in Figure 8.5(b), “zero elevation” is required to allow
for H.
Shutoff valves should be used for maintenance and replacement, and
cleanout plugs to remove solids. The dial on the pressure gauge can be
calibrated directly in liquid depth.
Indirect Level Sensing
A displacer with force sensing is shown in Figure 8.6. This device uses the
change in buoyant force on an object to measure the changes in liquid level.
The displacers must have a higher specific weight than that of the liquid
whose level is being measured, and has to be calibrated for the specific
weight of the liquid.
Indirect Level Sensing
A force or strain gauge measures the excess weight of the displacer. There
is only a small movement in this type of sensor, compared to the
movement in a float sensor. Displacers are simple, reliable, and accurate,
but are affected by the (temperature-dependent) specific weight of the
liquid, and buildup on the dispenser of coatings and depositions from the
liquid. A still well may be required where turbulence is present in the
liquid.
Indirect Level Sensing
The buoyant force on the cylindrical displacer shown in Figure 8.6 is
given by:

where γ = specific weight of the liquid, d is float diameter, and L is the

length of the displacer submerged in the liquid.
The weight, as seen by the force sensor, is given by: Weight on force
sensor = Weight of displacer (W) - F
It should be noted that the units must be in the same measurement system,
the liquid must not rise above the top of the displacer, and the displacer
must not touch the bottom of the container.
Indirect Level Sensing
Example
A 0.13m diameter displacer is used to measure changes in water level. If
the water level changes by 1.2m, what is the change in force sensed by the
force sensor?
Example
A 7.3-in diameter displacer is used to measure acetone levels. If the change
in force sensed is 33lb. What is the change in the liquid level?
Indirect Level Sensing
Capacitive probes can be used in liquids and free-flowing solids for
continuous level measurement. Materials placed between the plates of a
capacitor increase the capacitance by a factor (µ), known as the dielectric
constant of the material. For instance, air has a dielectric constant of 1, and
water has a dielectric constant of 80. When two capacitor plates are
partially immersed in a nonconductive liquid, the capacitance (Cd) is given
by:
Indirect Level Sensing
Where Ca is the capacitance with no liquid, is the dielectric constant of the
liquid between the plates, r is the height of the plates, and d is the depth or
level of the liquid between the plates. The dielectric constants of some
common liquids are given in Table 8.1. There large variations in dielectric
constant with temperature, so that temperature correction may be needed.
From (8.4), the liquid level is given by:
Example
A 1.3m-long capacitive probe has a capacitance of 31 pF in air. When
partially immersed in water with a dielectric constant of 80, the capacitance
is 0.97 nF. What is the length of the probe immersed in water?
Indirect Level Sensing
The capacitive probe shown in Figure 8.7(a) is used to measure the level in
a nonconducting liquid, and consists of an inner rod with an outer shell.
The capacitance is measured between the two using a capacitance bridge.
In the portion of the probe that is out of the liquid, air serves as the
dielectric between the rod and outer shell. In the section of the probe
immersed in the liquid, the dielectric is that of the liquid, which causes a
large capacitive change. Where the tank is made of metal, it can serve as
the outer shell. The capacitance change is directly proportional to the level
of the liquid.
Indirect Level Sensing
The dielectric constant of the liquid must be known for this type of
measurement. The dielectric constant varies with temperature, as can be
seen from Table 8.1, so that temperature correction is required [7]. If the
liquid is conductive, then one of the plates is enclosed in an insulator, as
shown in Figure 8.7(b).
The dielectric constant is now that of the insulator, and the liquid level sets
the area of the capacitor plate.
Indirect Level Sensing
Indirect Level Sensing
Bubbler devices require a supply of clean air or inert gas to prevent
interaction with the liquid, as shown in Figure 8.8. Gas from a pressure
regulator is forced through a tube via a flow regulator, and the open end of
the tube is close to the bottom of the tank.
The specific weight of the gas is negligible compared to the specific
weight of the liquid, and can be ignored. The pressure required to force the
liquid out of the tube is equal to the pressure at the end of the tube due to
the liquid, which is the depth of the liquid multiplied by the specific
weight of the liquid (requiring temperature correction).
Indirect Level Sensing
This method can be used with corrosive liquids, since the material of the
tube can be chosen to be corrosion-resistant. Electrical power is not
required, and variations in specific weight will affect the readout.
Example
How far below the surface of the water is the end of a bubbler tube, if
bubbles start to emerge from the end of the tube when the air pressure in
the bubbler is 263 kPa?
Indirect Level Sensing
Resistive tapes can be used to measure liquid levels, as shown in Figure
8.9. A resistive element is placed in close proximity to a conductive strip in
an easily compressible nonconductive sheath. The pressure of the liquid
pushes the conductive strip against the resistive element, shorting out a
length of the resistive element that is proportional to the depth of the liquid.
The sensor can be used in corrosive liquids or slurries. It is cheap, but is not
rugged or accurate. It is prone to humidity problems, measurement
accuracy is dependent on material density, and is not recommended for use
with explosive or flammable liquids.
Indirect Level Sensing
Indirect Level Sensing
Load cells can be used to measure the weight of a tank and its contents.
The weight of the container is subtracted from the total reading, leaving
the weight of the contents of the container. Knowing the cross-sectional
area of the tank and the specific weight of the material, the volume and/or
depth of the contents can be calculated.
This method is well-suited for continuous measurement, and the material
being weighed does not come into contact with the sensor. The level
(depth) depends on the density of the material.
Indirect Level Sensing
Indirect Level Sensing
The weight of a container can be used to calculate the level of the material
in the container. From Figure 8.10, the volume (V) of the material in the
container is given by:

where r is the radius of the container, and d is the depth of the material.
The weight of material (W) in a container is given by:
Indirect Level Sensing
What is the depth of the liquid in a container if the specific weight of the
liquid is 56 lb/ft3, the container weighs 33 lb, and has a diameter of 63 in?
A load cell measures the total weight to be 746 lb.
 Single Point Sensing
In On/Off applications, single point
sensing can be used with conductive
probes, thermal probes, and beam
breaking probes.
Conductive probes are used for
single point measurements in liquids
that are conductive and nonvolatile,
since a spark can occur. Conductive
probes are shown in Figure 8.11.
Single Point Sensing
Two or more probes can be used to indicate set levels. If the liquid is in a
metal container, then the container can be used as the common probe.
When the liquid is in contact with two probes, the voltage between the
probes causes a current to flow, indicating that a set level has been reached.
Thus, probes can be used to indicate when the liquid level is low, and when
to operate a pump to fill the container. A third probe can be used to indicate
when the tank is full, and to turn off the filling pump. The use of ac
voltages is normally preferred to the use of dc voltages, to prevent
electrolysis of the probes.
Single Point Sensing
Thermal probes consist of a heating element adjacent to a temperature
sensor. When the liquid rises above the probe, the heat is dissipated and
the temperature at the sensor drops. The probe is a simple, low-cost, and
reliable device for single point sensing.
Single Point Sensing
Beam breaking methods are sometimes used for pressurized containers.
For single point measurement, as shown in Figure 8.12(a), only one
transmitter and one detector are required. The beams can be light, sonic or
ultrasonic waves, or radiation.
The devices are low-cost and of simple construction, but can be affected
by deposits. If several single point levels are required, a detector will be
required for each level measurement. The disadvantages of this radiation
system are the cost, the need for special engineering, and the need to
handle radioactive material. However, this system can be used with
corrosive or very hot liquids. High-pressure containers are used where
conditions would be detrimental to the installation of other types of level
sensors.
Single Point Sensing
Level Sensing of Free-Flowing Solids
Paddle wheels driven by electric motors can be used for sensing the level
of solids that are in the form of power, grains, or granules. When the
material reaches and covers the paddle wheel, the torque needed to turn
the paddles greatly increases.
The torque can be an indication of the depth of the material. Such a setup
is shown in Figure 8.13(a). Some agitation may be required to level the
solid particles. This is an inexpensive device and is good for most
free-flowing materials, but is susceptible to vibration and shock. If the
density of the material is greater than 0.9 lb/ft(12.8kg/m3), then a vibration
device can be used, as shown in Figure 8.13(b).
Level Sensing of Free-Flowing Solids
Level Sensing of Free-Flowing Solids
The probe vibrates at the natural frequency of a tuning fork, and the
frequency changes when in contact with a material. The change in
resonant frequency is detected.
The probe, which has no moving parts, is rugged, reliable, and only
requires low maintenance, but its operation can be affected by other
vibration sources. These devices may need protection from falling
materials, and the proper location of the probe is essential for correct
measurement.
Summary
This chapter introduced the concepts of level measurement. Level
measurements can be direct or indirect continuous monitoring, or single
point detection. Direct reading of liquid levels using ultrasonic devices is
noncontact, and can be used for corrosive and volatile liquids and slurries.
Indirect measurements involve the use of pressure sensors, bubblers,
capacitance, or load cells, which are all temperature-sensitive and will
require temperature data for level correction. Of these sensors, load cells
do not come into contact with the liquid, and are therefore well suited for
the measurement of corrosive, volatile, and pressurized liquids and
slurries.
Summary
Single point monitoring can use conductive probes, thermal probes, or
ultra sonic or radioactive devices. Of these devices, the ultrasonic and
radioactive devices are noncontact, and can be used with corrosive and
volatile liquids, and in pressurized containers. Care has to be taken in
handling radioactive materials.
The measurement of the level of free-flowing solids can be made with
capacitive probes, a paddle wheel, or with a vibration-type of device.