Lesson 3: Imaging Accessories: Dose Reduction

Overexposure and Blurring Intensifying screens are attached inside when used
in film-screen radiography.
❑ Early x-ray procedures often require exposure times of
15-30minutes. Function of the cassette
❑ Such prolonged exposure time results to image blur,
❑ Protect the film from exposure to outside light.
reducing the detail of the image.
❑ Protect the film from bending or scratching during
❑ Ignorance of the hazardous effects of radiation lead to
use.
increase radiation dose of clueless patients.
❑ Maintain the film in close contact to the
Today’s Patient Dose Radiography intensifying screen during exposure.
❑ Poor screen-film contact will result to blurring
❑ Patient dose is now controlled in all radiologic
in the affected area.
procedures.
❑ Dose management is a fundamental part of radiologic Parts of the Cassette
technology and is always considered in every position
❑ Cassette Front: made up of radiolucent material to
done during imaging, fulfilled thru:
allow east penetration of x-rays.
❑ Radiologic technology as a refined profession.
❑ Cassette Backing: maintain proper screen-film
❑ Better imaging equipment and device
contact and prevent backscatter.
❑ Safe imaging techniques.
❑ Locks: maintain proper closure of cassette.
Accessory Device for Imaging were Introduced ❑ Hinges: allows easy opening and closing.

❑ Initially introduced by Michael Pupin on 1896, the use Cassette front

of intensifying screens were demonstrated in glass
❑ The exposure side of the cassette.
plates.
❑ Should always face the exposed object and x-
❑ During the 1990s, William Rollins introduced the
ray tube.
aperture diaphragm that demonstrated collimation
❑ Should be made of radiolucent material ( Z) to allow
and filtration.
easy penetration by x-rays.
❑ To better control exposure to scatter radiation, Lead-
❑ Can be lightweight metal alloy or plastic
fabricated protective apparels were introduced to
material.
radiation workers.
❑ Materials used: Resin, Bakelite, Carbon Fiber
CASSETTE
Cassette Backing
Radiographic Cassette
❑ Support side of the cassette.
❑ The rigid, light-tight container that holds the screen ❑ Materials used: Magnesium, Manganese
and film them and maintain the close contact; use to ❑ Has the ID blocker for patient identification.
transport film for use without exposing the film to ❑ Contact Felt (Compression Layer)
room light. ❑ Maintain proper film contact to the screen.
❑ AKA Film Holder holds the film during ❑ Contains a Lead foil: absorbs secondary
examination and prevent leakage during use and radiation (backscatter)
transport.
Cassette Back
Characteristics of the Cassette
❑ Layers of the cassette backing.
❑ Strong enough to endure the stress pressed against ❑ Cassette back surface.
the cassette surface. ❑ Lead foil: prevent box cutters x-rays that fog the
❑ Lightweight for easy handling. film.
❑ Lightproof to prevent film exposure to the white light. ❑ Padding (Foam): maintained film-screen
❑ Can be used for direct exposure or film-screen film. contact.
 ❑ Intensifying Screen: attached to the padding ❑ Pros: patient dose, technical factors, tube
layer. life
❑ Cons: quantum mottle, image detail
Proper Usage of the Cassette
Emission of Light
❑ DO NOT fully open the cassette when loading.
❑ Approx. 2-3 inches: must not be fully opened ❑ Any material that emits light in response to outside
to prevent dust and formation of artifacts stimulation is a luminescent material or phosphor.
inside the cassette. This emission of light is called luminescence.
❑ Fully closed the cassette to prevent light leakage: ❑ Light emission is characterized by two sets of
the locks will produce a clicking sound upon the definitions: either a general or a specific emission.
proper closure. ❑ Luminescence is characterized as general,
❑ Prevent accidental dropping of the cassette. while fluorescence and phosphorescence are
specified. Both are emitted by the intensifying
Phototimer Cassette
screen.
❑ Has a radiolucent backing to permit radiation
Luminescence
reaching the film to continue on the AEC.
❑ Automatic exposure control (AEC): a device ❑ Emission of light by the IRS when stimulated by
that measures the quantity of radiation radiation.
reaching the image receptor. ❑ Occurs when a outer-shell electron gets hit by
❑ Terminates the X-ray exposure at the desired an X-ray and enters an excited state, then
film optical density. returns to its stable state with emission of light
photon.
Cardboard Cassette
Fluorescence
❑ No intensifying screen uses a direct-exposure
film. ❑ Florescence: the term used by Roentgen when he
❑ Requires more radiation to create an image, saw the glow of light emitted by the fluorescent
resulting in a higher patient dose. material, barium platinocyanide.
❑ Results in better detail than a screen film (no ❑ Fluorescent: a material capable of
blurring of image caused by light photons). fluorescence.
❑ Light is emitted during x-ray emission.
INTENSIFYING SCREEN
❑ Phosphors emit light while struck by radiation
The Intensifying Screen (IS) or within a rotation or cycle.
❑ Emits light the same time while the stimulus
❑ A flat surface coated with phosphors (fluorescent exists.
material) that emits light when exposed to x-rays.
❑ Act as a transducer: converts X-ray energy to Phosphorescence
light which exposes the radio graphic film.
❑ Emission of light is similar to fluorescence but on a
❑ Main purpose of the screen is to reduce patient
longer (slower) time scale and continues after
dose.
excitation ceases.
❑ Amplifies the effect of image-forming X-rays
❑ AKA Afterglow (Screen Lag), light is still emitted
that reach the screen-film cassette.
by the screen after x-ray emission.
❑ Although the IS reduces patient dose, it
❑ Phosphors continue to light even after the
sacrifices spatial resolution.
exposure (stimulus) has stopped.
❑ You since the 1990s, is made of polyester base with
an active layer containing phosphors that produce Parts of the Intensifying Screen
visible light when struck by X-rays.
❑ Screen Base: provide structural support for the
❑ Usually mounted inside the cassette in pairs for use
screen.
with double-emulsion film.
❑ Reflective Layer: redirect the photons to the film and
reduce patient dose.
 ❑ Phosphor Layer: emits light when exposed to x-rays. ❑ Maximum CE (emission of light per x-ray
❑ Protective coating: protects the screen from friction absorption)
and scratches. ❑ Rare Earth Phosphors = CE

Screen Base Characteristics of the Phosphor Layer

❑ Function: serve as primary support for the sensitive ❑ Spectral Matching: specific color that the phosphorus
phosphor layer; the portion attached to the cassette. emits must match with the spectral sensitivity of the
❑ Composition: Hi-grade cardboard or polyester film.
❑ Thickness: 1000μm (1mm); the thickest portion ❑ Maximum light emission of proper wavelength
of the screen. that matches the sensitivity of the film.
❑ The screen base material must… ❑ Afterglow/Lag: insignificant in radiography, but
❑ Be chemically inert (nonreactive) and does not importance in fluoroscopy.
interact with the phosphor layer. ❑ Minimum persistence of light emission after
❑ Be rugged and moisture resistant. exposure.
❑ Be flexible and doesn’t discolor with age.
Phosphor Materials
❑ Not suffer from radiation damage.
❑ Not contain impurities. ❑ Different phosphor materials can be used in the
manufacture of intensifying screen most common are
Reflective Layer
the following:
❑ Function: intercept light photons a headed to other ❑ Calcium Tungstate
directions and redirect them to the film. ❑ Barium Lead sulfate
❑ Composition: Magnesium oxide or Titanium ❑ Zinc Sulfide
dioxide ❑ Rare Earth
❑ Thickness: 25μm
Types of Rare Earth Phosphors
❑ Increases screen efficiency.
❑ 2x screen speed = 2x image density = ½ mAs ❑ Gadolinium/ Lanthanum Oxysulfide: green-light
required emission
❑ May produce crossover effect by 30%. ❑ Oxysulfide: the cause of green-light emission.
❑ Lanthanum Oxybromide: Blue-light emission
Phosphor Layer
❑ Yttrium Tantalite: ultraviolet, violet, blue, green
❑ Function: the active layer of the screen emits visible emission.
light during exposure to x-rays. ❑ Also emits green light, but with other colors.
❑ Composition: CaWO4 (blue) or Rare Earth (blue, ❑ Although it doesn’t contain Oxysulfide, it is also
green) capable of green light emission.
❑ Thickness: 50 μm – 300 μm or 60mg/cm2
Protective Coating
❑ Individual Crystal Size: 5-15 μm
❑ Fluorescence: emitted within 10-8 second ❑ Function: protect the screen (phosphor layer) from
(radiography) friction and damage during use and transportation.
❑ Phosphorescence: after 10-8 second ❑ Composition: Cellulose
(fluoroscopy) ❑ Thickness: 10 μm - 20 μm
❑ Provides a surface which can be handled and cleaned
Characteristics of a Preferred Phosphor Layer
without damaging the phosphor.
❑ Detective Quantum Efficiency (DQE): the ability of the ❑ Prevents static build up.
phosphor to interact with X-rays.
Selection of Radiographic Imaging System
❑ Maximum DQE (x-ray energy absorption)
❑ Atomic number = DQE= energy absorbed ❑ Spectral Sensitivity: refers to the color of light to
❑ Conversion Efficiency (CE): the ability of the phosphor which a particular film is most sensitive.
to convert X-ray energy into visible light. ❑ Spectral emission: the color of light produced by the
phosphor of a particular intensifying screen.
❑ Spectral Matching: the matching of the sensitivity of ❑ Screens should be cleaned on a regular basis
the film to the color of emission of intensifying screen. (monthly) with manufacturer's cleaner and anti-static
compounds.
Screen Characteristics
FILTER
❑ Screen Speed: the relative speed of light emission
(expressed numerically). Beam Filtration
❑ Image Noise: the speckled appearance that reduce
❑ Filtration: the process of removing low-energy x-rays,
image contrast; caused by the usage of fast screens
making the primary beam more monoenergetic.
and high kVp technique.
❑ Increases quality by increasing the average X-
❑ Spatial Resolution: the ability to produce accurate and
ray energy output of the beam.
clear images; measured by minimum line spacing that
❑ Decreases beam intensity.
can be detected and imaged (lp/mm).
Types of Filters
Use of Faster Screen Speed
❑ Filter: a device used to remove low energy photons
❑ Reduces the patient dose and prolongs tube life.
from the primary. Common examples can be
❑ Reduces image detail, due to increased image noise
categorized as the following:
(light blurring surrounding the image)
❑ Inherent filter
❑ An increased screen speed produces an
❑ Added filter
increase in image noise and decreased
❑ Compensating filter
resolution.
Compensating Filters
Film- Screen Contact
❑ Compensating Filters: filters to compensate for
❑ The film and the intensifying screen must be in
differences in subject radiopacity.
complete contact across the entire surface to achieve
❑ Helps in producing uniform intensity varying
maximum image sharpness.
greatly in thickness or tissue composition; can
❑ Wire Mesh Test: performed to determine the quality
be made up of aluminum or plastic.
of screen film contact.
❑ Wedge filter: used during radiography of a body
❑ Exposure: 150kVp, 100mA, 50ms, 36in SID
part (e.g., foot) varying considerably in
❑ Areas with blurring indicates poor film-screen
thickness.
contact.
BEAM RESTRICTORS
Causes of Poor Film-Screen Contact
Beam Restriction
❑ Worn contact felt.
❑ Loose, bent, or broken latches (locks) and/or hinges. ❑ The most effective method for reducing the amount
❑ Warped screen caused by excessive moisture. of scatter, which limits patient exposure.
❑ Warped cassette front. ❑ Purpose: to limit the size of the primary beam,
❑ Sprung or cracked cassette frame. by directly controlling the field size
❑ Foreign matter under the screen (most common) ❑ Field Size: the size and shape of primary beam
❑ Air trapping: more obvious in the serial changing film extending to the size and shape of the image
cassette, a curved cassette will prevent air trapping. receptor.
❑ Approx. 1% of the x-rays incident on the patient
Care for the Screens
reaches the image receptor.
❑ Care must be taken to avoid abrasions or scratches on
the surface while loading the screen with film. Types of Beam Restrictors
❑ Regular visual examination must be made to ❑ Aperture Diaphragm: simple flat sheets of lead with a
reveal any dirt, speck, or stain, usually via UV fixed hole in the middle; a poor beam restrictor.
light. ❑ Cone/Cylinder: metal devices attached to the
❑ Small scratches and dirt on the screens can housing.
produce image artifacts.
 ❑ 8-19 inches in length; flared, rectangular, RADIOGRAPHY DARKROOM
cylindrical.
Processing Room
❑ Cylinder cone: the most effective.
❑ Collimator ❑ AKA Dark Room, a location where the exposed film is
processed to make it visible and available for
Collimator
interpretation.
❑ Box-like structure attached to the port of the housing. ❑ Minimizes the amount of visible light in the
❑ Useful and (best) accepted type of beam restrictor. environment to avoid corruption of the captured
❑ Has two sets of shutters the upper and lower shutters: image.
❑ Upper/entrance: fixed shutters, nearest to the ❑ “Where radiography starts and ends”.
port
When Entering the Darkroom
❑ Lower: adjust the longitudinal and transverse
borders of the primary beam. ❑ Avoid as much as possible turning on the white light.
❑ Mirror: resting 45 degrees along the beam, reflects ❑ The Occupational Safety & Health Administration
light to the open shutters. requires the technologist to wear face mask in the
darkroom as the fumes are carcinogenic.
❑ Darkroom Disease: hypersensitivity to the
PROTECTIVE APPAREL
chemical fumes present in the darkroom.
Protective Apparel ❑ Don’t forget to keep the door closed.

❑ Lead fabricated gowns, gloves, goggles designed to Follows a Very Strict Guideline in Design
protect the wearer from scatter radiation.
❑ The radiographic film is very delicate, it is sensitive to
❑ Primarily made for the technologists.
temperature, pressure, visible light, chemicals, and
Lesson 4: Designing the Processing Room friction.
❑ The darkroom should be designed to protect the film
Film-Based to Filmless
form being exposed from these sensitives to avoid the
❑ Images are stored in films through processing after production of artifacts in the latent image.
being exposed to x-rays along with the body part ❑ These requirements include...
being examined. ❑ Location
❑ Processing involves a systematic step-by-step ❑ Size
procedure, done with caution and care. ❑ Protection (vs Radiation)
❑ Technological advancement eliminates processing, ❑ Ventilation
able to view the image immediately after exposure ❑ Air Movement
through a monitor. ❑ Cleanliness
❑ Entrance
Films Require a Processing Room ❑ Illumination
❑ If radiographic films are used as image receptors in ❑ Wall color
the Radiology department, a processing room is ❑ Electric wiring
necessary to reveal the image after exposure. AREA OF SPECIFICATIONS
❑ Films are very much sensitive to light;
therefore, it need venue to be processed Room Location
without the elements that might affect the
❑ Must be in proximity (near) to the exposure room.
integrity of the captured image.
❑ A few steps are only required to reach the
entrance.
❑ Placed where it is easily accessible.
 Room Size Cleanliness

❑ Required: 15feet x 9.5 feet (4.5m x 2.9m) ❑ A darkroom’s efficiency also pertains to its
❑ Minimum for darkrooms that process 200 cleanliness.
radiographs per day. ❑ Dust, or other settling particles, is controlled.
❑ Dry & wet Section ❑ Fungal infestation is controlled.
❑ Must be 4 feet away from each other to prevent ❑ Water and drainage pipes are lek-proof.
contamination of the dry section. ❑ Chemical splashes are minimal.
❑ A negatoscope can be on the wet section.
Light-Tight Entrance
Protection Against Radiation
❑ Prevent the entering of visible light to the dark room
❑ The walls should be dense (thick) enough to block while being closed.
radiation that might penetrate through the room. ❑ Light leaks from the side and corners of the
❑ Materials that can be used include: entrance must be addressed ASAP.
❑ Hollow blocks: hollow filled with cement. ❑ Must not be open while film processing is
❑ Concrete: minimum of 6inches thickness. ongoing, unless a film processor is available.
❑ Wood: should be coated with Lead (Pb). ❑ TYPES: Single d., double d., maze, revolving door

Types of Lead Coating Single Door

❑ One-line Coat ❑ Simple Entrance: consist of a single (lockable) door to

❑ Thickness: 1.5mm Lead thickness prevent the entrance of visible light while being close.
❑ Coating is only made on one side of the wall. ❑ Rubber Sealer: all sides/corners of the door are
❑ Two-lined “sandwich” Coat covered with rubber.
❑ Thickness: 0.75mm Lead thickness (2x) ❑ Pass box (cassette/film transfer cabinet): allow
❑ Coating is made on both sides. transfer of film without using the main entrance.
❑ Disadvantage: accidental film exposure
Darkroom Ventilation
Double (Light-Lock) Door
❑ Ventilation is essential in controlling the humidity
(moisture) and temperature within the darkroom. ❑ Safety Entrance: due to the safety introduced by its
❑ Humidity: 30 - 60% interlocking mechanical feature.
❑ Temperature: 65 -83 °F (18 -24 °C) ❑ Interlocking mechanism: door on the other side
❑ Psychrometer: the device used to measure cannot be open unless the other is fully closed.
degree of humidity or moisture (in the dark ❑ Disadvantage: possibility of being trapped used
room). only when there are dark room personnel
❑ Ventilation is also essential in the Storage Room. exclusive to the dark room.
❑ Humidity: 30 - 60%
Labyrinth (Maze)
❑ Temperature: 50 -70 °F (10 -21 °C)
❑ Hygrometer: the device used to measure ❑ Easy Access Entrance: involves no doors.
moisture in the environment (in the storage ❑ Technologists walk through the maze entrance
room). without the use of a door.
❑ Air from the dryer of the automatic processor must be ❑ Visible light is filtered out by the maze corners.
vented to the outside or to the ceiling. ❑ Disadvantage: requires very large space; used
only when the darkroom is large.
Air Movement
Revolving (Rotating) Door
❑ Air must maintain mobility within the darkroom to
reduce odor and settlement of chemical fumes. ❑ Fast Access Entrance: utilizes a heavily tinted rotating
❑ Ceiling Fan: 15-25ft/min glass capsule instead of a simple door.
❑ Exhaust Fan: 8 -10 room changes of air/hour;
should be constructed light-proof.
 ❑ Composed of two black cylinders, the outer is ❑ Sodium Vapor: mostly used for very busy darkrooms,
fixed, inner is the revolving door with only one with labyrinth entrance.
opening. ❑ Light Emitting diode (LED)
❑ Disadvantage: very expensive
Safelight Distance (Height)
Darkroom Illumination
❑ 3feet: when the bulb wattage is 7.5W, used mainly for
❑ Illumination provides visibility for the technologist as single-coat emulsion films.
he performs his duties in the darkroom. ❑ 4-5feet: when the bulb wattage is 15 W, used mainly
❑ Has two types of illumination used in the darkroom, for duplitized-coat emulsion films.
these consisting of: ❑ 6feet: exclusive for illuminations that use Sodium
❑ White-light Illumination Vapors.
❑ Safelight Illumination
Filters Used for Safelight
White-Light Illumination
❑ Kodak Wratten 6B filter
❑ Primarily used for processes done in the dark room ❑ AKA: Amber filter; Kodak Morlite
involving quality control and assurance (cleaning, ❑ Filters out wavelength and intensity.
maintenance, emergency). ❑ Produces more bright color, leaves out red-
❑ Fluorescent lamp: provides bright illumination in the orange-yellow light colors (amber color).
environment with a short duration of ❑ Emits red-orange-yellow light.
phosphorescence.
❑ Placed overhead, 2-4 lamps of 48 inches long ❑ Kodak GBX2 filter
each. ❑ AKA Red filter; all-purpose filter; multi-purpose
❑ Light switch 4 meters off the floor, at eye level. filter; Kodak 2 filter.
❑ Filters the colors like the Wratten 6B, as well as
Safelight Illumination
the yellow and orange colors, leaving only red.
❑ Provides (minimal) visibility in the darkroom that is ❑ Emits red light only.
not detrimental to image quality.
Construction Types of Safelight
❑ Tungsten-filament Lamp: most preferred bulb to be
used as safelight illumination, partnered with SL ❑ Direct (Fixture) Type
filters. ❑ Downward illumination: light is distributed
❑ Safelight fog: most common source of image fog. directly toward the area; most common design.
❑ Latensification: an exposed film is 2-8x more ❑ Indirect (ceiling) Type
sensitive to subsequent exposures. ❑ Upward Illumination: light points upward then
reflected to the working area; used for sodium
Precautions in Reliance to Safelight
vapor bulbs.
❑ If a safelight is to be used, it must be within the proper
Replacement of Bulb
specifications according to its use.
❑ Type of bulb, distance, filter used, type. ❑ Every 1 year: of usage is 24/7 working operation, for
❑ Avoid exposing the film from the safelight for too tungsten, amber, and sodium vapor bulbs.
long. ❑ Every 2 years: if usage is 12/7 working operations, for
❑ 40 seconds: duration where the film is still safe tungsten, amber, and sodium vapor bulbs.
from safelight fog. > 40secs begins fogging. ❑ Every 15 years: for LED illumination.
❑ Longer exposure results to more fogging.
Wall Colors
Bulbs Used for Safelight
❑ Pastel: increases safelight reflectance in the
❑ Tungsten-filament: most preferred to be used on darkroom.
orthochromatic films. ❑ Light Color: (ivory, light gray) painted of light colors.
❑ Amber-filament ❑ Enamel/Epoxy: enamel for wood, epoxy for cement;
are easy to clean and durable; quick dry.
❑ Matte Finish: decreases white light reflectance; ❑ Proper film handling should be exercised while
texture of wall should be flat (color), not glossy. loading fresh film onto the cassette.
❑ Put the film into the assets softly and gently.
Electrical Wiring
❑ Do not slide the film, sliding produces friction.
❑ Should be properly installed.
❑ Proper installation of electrical line prevents the ❑ Apply anti-static compound solution onto the IS to
production of static artifacts in processed prevent the production of static artifacts.
radiographs. ❑ Alternative 1: Water + mild soap (or body soap),
❑ Avoid utilizing octopus wiring. distributed by cotton balls.
❑ Alternative 2: 70% Isopropyl alcohol, cotton ball
Sections of the Darkroom ❑ Never use denatured alcohol or detergent.
❑ A proper setup within the darkroom should be
followed to prevent contamination of the following ❑ Wear natural fiber clothing. Natural fiber, the
areas: preferred cloth of attire worn by storage
❑ Dry section technologists.
❑ Wet section ❑ E.g., cotton, wool, silk, and flax.
❑ DO not use synthetic fiber (polyester)
Dry Section ❑ Prevent octopus wiring in the darkroom.
❑ Loading Bench Effects of Hight Temperature
❑ Film bin
❑ Storage cabinet ❑ High temperature in the dark room produces thermal
❑ Cassette Transfer Cabinet (Pass box) (Heat) fog, thus increasing density.
❑ 60-90% of density comes from fog.
Wet Section ❑ High temperature in the exposure room decreases IS
❑ Processing Tank (1 Master Tank, 2 Inserts Tank inside) speed and activity, thus decreasing density.
❑ Wash Tank (single or cascade) ❑ The low IS speed alters the bright light it emits
❑ Temperature Control Unit into a dark color, which leads to poor spectral
❑ Wet-Film Illuminator (AKA Negatoscope or View box) matching.
❑ Film Dryer Mechanisms That Maintain Proper Humidity
HUMIDITY & TEMPERATURE ❑ These devices can help maintain proper moisture in
Humidity & Temperature in the Darkroom the darkroom, which in turn provides quality
radiographs.
❑ Humidity: the amount of water vapor present in the ❑ Ion generator
air. ❑ Humidifier
❑ Humidity is inversely proportional to the ❑ Exhaust fan: keeps harmful fumes out of the dark
temperature. room; must be light proof.
❑ High air temperature eliminates the present
moisture in the environment, thus, lower QUALITY CONTROL/ASSURANCE
humidity. Hazard of Processing Chemicals
❑ Low humidity increases the possibility of
producing characteristic (static) artifacts (tree, ❑ Fumes of processing chemicals are toxic and
crown, smudge). carcinogenic.
❑ Humidity must be kept around 30-60%. ❑ Dark room disease: hypersensitivity to the fumes
of processing chemicals in the dark room.
Preventing Radiographic Static Artifacts ❑ Permissible chemical exposure limits:
❑ Maintain humidity at 30-60%. Use a humidifier if ❑ Hydroquinone: 0.44 PPM, PHENIDONE: 0.2 PPM
humidity cannot be controlled naturally. ❑ Ammonium Thiosulfate: 50 PPM, Acetic Acid:
10PPM
 Storage of Processing Chemicals

❑ Processing chemicals should not be stored near films.

❑ P. Chemicals release radioactive elements in the
form of potassium 40. (Emission: 7-12 μR/hr)
❑ 8 μR/hr: detrimental for image quality.
❑ Creates secondary radiation fog.
❑ Geiger-Muller Counter: measures radiation emission
(measure mut not exceed the above values).

QA/QC: Darkroom Environment

❑ Schedule: once a day (daily).

❑ Must be maintained clean, well ventilated,
devices are organized and safe from damaging
effects.
❑ Use psychrometer for room humidity, and
thermometer for room temperature.

QA/QC: Automatic Processor Temperature

❑ Schedule: once every week (weekly).

❑ Standard: should not vary greater than +/- 0.5 °F
(0.3°C) to avoid change in density.
❑ Temperature = Activity = Density =
Oxidation = Contrast
❑ High density = low contrast (density is inversely
proportional to contrast).
❑ High developer temperature produces chemical
fog.

QA/QC: Processor Replenishment Rate

❑ Schedule: once every week (weekly).

❑ Standard: +/- 5% replenishment
❑ Replenishment of only occurs when a 14 x 17 or
14 x 14 film enters the processor.
❑ Replenishment rate: 60-70cc of developer & 100-
110cc of fixer.