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INTERNATIONAL DESIGN CONFERENCE – DESIGN 2024

https://doi.org/10.1017/pds.2024.73

An approach for reverse engineering and redesign of additive


manufactured spare parts

Marija Rešetar 1, Filip Valjak 1,2, , Marina Grabar Branilović 3, Mario Šercer 3 and
Nenad Bojčetić 1
1 University of Zagreb Faculty of Mechanical Engineering and Naval Architecture, Croatia,
2 University of Zagreb Faculty of Architecture, School of Design, Croatia, 3 Metal Centre Čakovec, Croatia
[email protected]

Abstract
The spare parts play a vital role in sustaining the operation and longevity of products and systems, but their
unavailability can lead to prolonged downtime or expensive replacements. The integration of 3D scanning
and Additive Manufacturing (AM) presents a promising path for spare part production. However, to utilise
the full potential of AM, sometimes, redesign of the original part is needed. This paper investigates and
proposes a new approach that integrates reverse engineering and redesign of an original part based on
functional analysis to support the manufacturing of AM spare parts.

Keywords: reverse engineering, additive manufacturing, design for x (DfX)

1. Introduction
Spare or replacement parts play a vital role in maintaining the proper operation of a product or a system
and can be used to extend their lifespan (Turrini and Meissner, 2019). Spare parts provide a cost-
effective and efficient solution to address wear and damage of malfunctioning components, ensuring
sustained functionality and performance of a product or a system over an extended period (Hu et al.,
2018). However, spare parts are not always easy to obtain, and their unavailability can lead to prolonged
downtimes or even require costly replacement of the entire product or a system. The reasons for the
unavailability of spare parts can be many, and some common ones are the lack of original parts on the
market, supply disruptions that prolong the lead time for their procurement, or the loss of technical
documentation needed for manufacturing spare parts. In such cases, one can use reverse engineering
(RE) to design and manufacture the spare parts. The advent of 3D scanning technology in recent years
has facilitated the RE processes, enabling easy and precise scanning of parts and obtaining their digital
CAD models. Simultaneously, Additive Manufacturing (AM) has emerged as a versatile manufacturing
process to produce physical parts directly from digital files without additional tooling and complex
process planning. Hence, AM is becoming the go-to technology for manufacturing spare parts (Heinen
and Hoberg, 2019; Knofius et al., 2019). The synergy between 3D scanning and AM is becoming
important in manufacturing spare parts as it enables fast and cost-effective design and manufacturing of
various spare parts (Yao, 2005). Furthermore, it enables on-demand and on-the-site distributed
manufacturing, which enables the production of a spare part only when needed, close to where it is
needed, removing the need for extensive inventories and complex supply chains (Khajavi et al., 2014).
For example, Montero et al. (2018) used 3D scanning and AM to manufacture the spare valve cover of
an electric diesel generator, while Kudrna et al. (2022) restored and upgraded the braking pedal of a

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historical motorcycle. Geng and Bidanda (2017) even talk about the concept of a "3D Copier", a machine
that seamlessly integrates scanning and AM, enabling the replication of parts.
However, the integration of RE and AM for the production of spare parts is not without its challenges.
The RE process based primarily on 3D scanning captures only the part's geometry without insight into
its functionality. While such an approach enables an "as is it is" replication, when using AM to produce
such spare parts, it is often not cost-effective because original parts designed for conventional
manufacturing may possess excess material, increasing both time and cost in AM production.
Furthermore, original products or parts are often designed with a specific manufacturing technology in
mind and thus could contain certain manufacturing features in the design not relevant to part
performance or operation (Pandilov et al., 2018). At the same time, the layered nature of AM and the
use of material different from the original can influence the performance of the part or cause a reduction
in performance if the original design is replicated with AM without any modifications to address these
issues. Therefore, the need for redesign often emerges to compensate for potential loss of performance
and reduce AM's costs.
Simultaneously, AM offers unprecedented design freedom reflected in four complexities of AM:
geometrical, hierarchical, material, and functional complexity (Gibson et al., 2021). The utilisation of
these complexities through the application of the Design for AM (DfAM) methods and tools could
enable the redesign of the original part with the increase of performance and functionality while at the
same time optimising the design to reduce production time and costs. But to enable the redesign with
the aim of increasing part performance and functionality, capturing only geometry through RE is not
sufficient, as one must understand parts functionality to conduct such redesign.
Hence, to address these challenges, we pose a question: How can we effectively combine RE and 3D
scanning with DfAM methods and tools to redesign, and manufacture AM spare parts with the
possibility of increased performance and functionality and form suitable for AM?
The structure of the paper is as follows: background and related work are presented in Section 2. Section
3 describes the proposed approach for RE and redesign of AM spare parts, while Section 4 depicts its
application through a case study. The approach and the results of the case study are discussed in Section
5, while Section 6 concludes the paper.

2. Background
Reverse engineering (RE) is a process of creating a new product from an existing one and is a common
industry practice. The RE can be used in many different contexts and for different purposes, from
understanding design and decisions behind it, evaluation of competitors' solutions, to replication of
existing designs or for analysis and archival purposes. Michaeli et al. (2017) divided the RE processes
into two categories: processes for creating compatible components with a scanned object and processes
for replicating parts. The later RE process incorporates scanning of the object and replication of that
object by using an appropriate manufacturing technology and is often used for manufacturing spare
parts. According to Buonamici et al. (2018), who conducted a review of RE methods and tools, the
general RE framework is made of five steps: data capture and pre-processing; segmentation of the cloud
point or mesh; classification of segments; surface modelling; and final CAD reconstruction. However,
this framework only considers the RE of the product's or part's geometry, and the RE process based only
on a geometric approach has a frozen design that does not provide design modifications (Durupt et al.,
2008). Hence, a knowledge-based approach that considers aspects of product functionality, form,
physical principles, manufacturability, and assimilability (Otto and Wood, 1998) is needed to extract
the original design intent to facilitate the redesign process. Urbanic (2015) stated that for redesign
purposes, reconstruction of some type of functional model must be conducted to enable subsequent
design changes during the redesign process. Such RE process can be seen in a RE canvas, a visual tool
for supporting RE activities developed by Akerdad et al. (2021), where function structure is a key
element of the RE process when one is trying to improve the existing design. Furthermore, Maier and
Fadel (2009) emphasize that function structures are often used in RE and redesign scenarios when an
existing product is analysed to understand how it works and how it could be improved.
Besides the role of function structure in the RE process, it is important to consider the impact of AM on
RE. Akerdad et al. (2022) incorporated AM in education on RE to enable the manufacturing of

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redesigned products. The use of AM enabled students to experiment with the design and iterate it
between process steps until a redesigned product satisfies the input requirements. Ali et al. (2013)
combined AM with finite element analysis (FEA) in a RE process for redesign of a broken part. In their
process, after digitalisation of a broken product and parametrization of the 3D CAD model, an FEA
analysis is conducted to detect high-stress concentrations and modify the design accordingly, and AM
is used to verify the new design. While in these examples AM is used to verify the RE redesign, Wang
et al. (2021) uses AM to create an innovative design. They demonstrated the RE process where the
redesign step is influenced by AM's manufacturing capabilities to create an innovative design with
improved functionality, structure, or aesthetic.
When the application of RE and AM for manufacturing spare parts is considered, few approaches and
proposals can be found in the literature. Dalpadulo et al. (2022) showed the application of RE and AM
for manufacturing automotive spare parts. The main reason to apply the two is the unavailability of spare
parts on the market, as these provide an on-demand production or small batch production that does not
require dedicated tooling. In their review, they showed the process can be used to create exact replicas
and to modify existing designs to improve the design or incorporate new features or aesthetic details.
Montero et al. (2018) considered the use of RE and AM for the repair of deployed equipment to enable
the manufacturing of spare parts close to the operational area of the equipment. They identified five
stages of the RE design-manufacturing process which include scanning, repairing, parametrisation,
optimisation, and verification. Later, they further developed their approach and proposed a process
model of a deployed AM spare part production made of five phases: data-acquisition, design, proofing,
manufacturing, and service phase (Montero et al., 2020).
As shown in the literature, RE has an important role in the manufacturing of spare parts, and AM
introduces new possibilities in this application, enabling the redesign and improvement of spare parts'
performance. However, the current approaches that integrate RE and AM are primarily focused only on
RE of part geometry. At the same time, for RE to foster the redesign process, a deeper RE process is
needed, which will include RE of form, functionality, and other aspects of the original design intent.

3. Methodology
To address the research question outlined in the introduction and with previous research in mind, we
propose a new approach for RE and redesign of AM spare parts. The proposed approach builds on the
existing body of knowledge in three main areas: geometrical RE, functional analysis and DfAM.
Hence, the approach incorporates existing methods and tools to carry out specific steps with the
commonly accepted workflow direction from the RE of the original product to the manufacturing of
AM spare parts. The novelty of the proposed approach is the concurrent application of geometrical and
functional analysis. Both are used to distinguish geometry that must be kept so that the part keeps its
core functionality and compatibility with the system it is a part of, while the latter is used to define the
function structure of a part needed for redesign purposes. Furthermore, the approach is focused on
searching for new AM-based solutions to facilitate the adaptive redesign to utilise AM design
possibilities, improve part functionality and performance, and ensure the compatibility of the new
design with AM. The steps of the approach are defined as shown in Figure 1, with the workflow divided
into four stages: RE, modelling and analysis, redesign, and, finally, AM manufacturing and quality
control.
The process starts with selecting the part for which a redesigned spare part will be made. Not all parts
will be suitable for this process. Reasons for it include the requirements for specific materials,
tolerances, or specifications not achievable with AM, or it could be down to the limitations of the
machines used for AM. In selecting the part, one should look for cases in which the use of AM and,
more importantly, efforts put into the redesign for AM will bring some additional value, be it reduced
lead time, improved performance and functionality, reduced costs of AM or some other value (Diegel
et al., 2019). This step requires some experience in assessing the added value. Still, one could facilitate
the selection process with the help of tools such as a model for evaluating AM feasibility (Ahtiluoto et
al., 2019) where one can calculate the feasibility index, which depicts the sensibility of using AM to
produce the given part. Once the part is selected, the redesign process starts with the RE stage,
collecting all requirements regarding overall dimensions or operating conditions. These requirements

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are usually based on the position of the part within the overall system, working environment, etc. If
there is no original documentation for the part, it is the engineer's task to estimate the requirements
based on the system design or operational conditions and history. Here, new requirements can be
defined using the same input information to improve the design and resolve potential operational
issues. The redesigned spare part must satisfy all the listed requirements at the end of the redesign
process.

Figure 1. Outline of the approach for RE and redesign of AM spare parts


In the following step, the 3D scanning process is used to obtain the virtual 3D model of the part. The
virtual model can then be used to check the geometry and features of the component, for virtual tests or
to create prototypes, and as input for creating a new CAD model. The three main steps of every scanning
process are obtaining the point cloud, aligning the captured scans, and polygonising to create a 3D
model. Once the 3D model of a part is obtained, two analyses crucial for RE are performed - geometrical
and functional analysis.
Geometrical analysis of the part is carried out to identify functional surfaces. As Yang et al. (2015)
described, a functional surface is a surface that can fulfil a particular functional requirement and has
specific geometric information, dimensions, and spatial location. Our focus are the functional surfaces
of a part in direct contact with external parts or other components within an assembly. As these outer
components are not included in the redesign process, those functional surfaces must remain intact,
meaning all the above characteristics must remain after the redesign. The results of the geometrical

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analysis are used later in the modelling and analysis part of a workflow to define the design space that
can be utilised in a redesign.
The second performed analysis in this stage is a functional analysis. The purpose of this step is to create
a functional model of the part needed for redesign purposes. The analysis begins with defining the main
function of the part, which is then divided into subfunctions through a process of functional
decomposition to create a function structure. A function structure diagram is created by combining
product subfunctions with material, energy, or signal flows into a meaningful representation of the
system (Pahl et al., 2007). It shows the transformation of each flow as the subfunctions perform action
on them. While function structure can be created using the approaches of Pahl et al. (2007), or using
functional basis vocabulary (Hirtz et al., 2002), here it is recommended to create a functional model
using the Function Class Method (Valjak and Bojčetić, 2023), as the functional model created with this
method will be compatible with the mapping process later in the redesign process.
Once RE analysis is completed, the stage of modelling and analysis starts with the extraction of
functional surfaces and modifications of the functional model. For each functional surface, a certain
thickness is given to the surface, making it a functional volume (Ponche et al., 2012), which is extracted
from a 3D CAD model. Thickness is defined based on experience and depends on the layer thickness of
the AM process used. The functional volumes must remain intact, and the volume linking the functional
volumes is intended to be a new design space for the redesign stage. As for the functional analysis, a
function structure is reviewed and can be modified by adding new functions that the original product
didn't have and that will be implemented in the redesigned product, potentially increasing part
performance and functionality.
The created function structure, or multiple alternative function structures, are mapped using the mapping
process (Valjak, 2022) to define new AM-based solutions for the part functions. The mapping process
detects characteristic function chains or individual function blocks in function structure, and for each
detected chain or block, it suggests one or more possible AM-based solutions in the form of AM design
principles (Valjak et al., 2022). Once the function structures are mapped, they are used in the adaptive
redesign stage to create redesigned concepts of the part. Concepts are created by combining suggested
AM design principles to solve the part subfunctions. This is followed by a design of a 3D model of a
spare part that embodies the new AM-based solutions but keeps the functional volumes detected in
geometrical analysis intact.
Lastly, once the CAD model of the redesigned part is created and compared to the established list of
requirements, the manufacturing and quality control stage begins. This stage includes manufacturing of
the part, the 3D scanning of a manufactured spare part, and a geometrical comparison between the
original and spare parts. The redesigned spare part is manufactured using one of the AM processes and
materials appropriate for the context. Although the AM processes can differ, they all include the
preparation of the machine, the manufacturing of a spare part, and the subsequent processing of the
spare part. After manufacturing, the spare part is scanned to make a geometric comparison. Comparison
intends to analyse dimensional deviations of spare part from the original in the region of identified
functional volumes and to confirm whether the new spare part meets the geometric accuracy.
Furthermore, additional evaluation could be carried out to test mechanical performance such as strength,
surface roughness, etc. If necessary, additional post-processing could be conducted to meet the listed
requirements.

4. Case study
The proposed approach was applied to the case study as a form of initial verification (Teegavarapu et
al., 2008). The selected case study was a spur gear on which a proposed approach was applied (Rešetar,
2022). Spur gear is a common machine element found in many products and systems, and due to its
simplicity, it is a good example to depict the proposed approach. The process started with the creation
of a requirement list. There was no original technical documentation for the selected gear (Figure 2);
hence, the requirements were established based on the designer's experience. The initial requirements
were vertical position in the assembly and low rotation speeds. Due to the operational condition of the
gear, an additional requirement was an improvement of passive cooling, while a lightweight design was
added to reduce AM costs. The establishment of the requirements list was followed by 3D scanning of

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the gear to obtain its geometry. The 3D scanning was carried out on the GOM ATOS 5 device, and
considering the size of a gear (70 mm in diameter and 10 mm thickness), a smaller measurement area
(320 x 240 mm) was chosen. The obtained point cloud was processed using the GOM Software 2021,
and the 3D model of the gear was created from which functional volumes of the gear were extracted
(Figure 2).

Figure 2. Original part; Scanning process; Point cloud;


Obtained 3D model; Extracted functional volumes
Furthermore, a basic function structure of the spur gear (Figure 3) was created using the Function Class
Method (Valjak and Bojčetić, 2023). The main functions are positioning and securing the shaft and the
second gear required to transfer mechanical energy from the shaft through the gear onto the second gear.
The function structure was reviewed, and multiple alternative function structures were created with the
addition of a cooling function to dissipate the thermal energy caused by friction during the transmission
of mechanical energy between gears, with different flow of medium used for cooling (gas or liquid).
One variation is shown in Figure 4 as a mapped function structure that was mapped using the mapping
methodology (Valjak, 2022) depicting the combination of design principles used for final redesign. The
mapping process suggested possible partial solutions for function chains or individual function blocks
in the form of design principles (Valjak et al., 2022). No new AM-based solutions were considered for
functions that describe the import and export of mechanical energy due to prior identified requirements
and functional surfaces that cannot be modified. On the other hand, multiple AM-based solutions, such
as topological optimisation, lattice structures, and void structures, were suggested for the function of
guiding mechanical energy. Similarly, for functions regarding cooling, solutions based on complex
internal channels feasible with AM were suggested.

Figure 3. Functional volumes of the scanned spur gear; Function structure of the gear
By combining suggested AM solutions, multiple concepts of redesigned gear were created (Figure 5).
One concept was selected, and the adaptive redesign was performed. The 3D model of a gear was
redesigned to include new geometry and features. New features added to the gear model were a void
structure to guide mechanical energy and reduce mass, vanes that catch the fluid and deliver it to the
channels, and internal cooling channels. The idea behind cooling is that the gear is emersed into the
liquid up to a quarter of its height, which enables vanes to grab the liquid and bring it to the channels.
The channels have a larger diameter at the entrance and then branch into three smaller channels at the
exit. Due to the rotation, the centrifugal force pushes the liquid through the channels. Internal channels
like this can only be produced by AM, which clearly shows one of the advantages over conventional
technologies. Furthermore, as the channel's exit is located on the teeth of the gear, the liquid that exits
the channels lubricates the gear as additional functionality.

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Figure 4. Mapped function structure and suggested design principles

Figure 5. Concepts of the redesigned gear


Once the CAD model of the redesigned gear was completed, spare gear was manufactured using the
EOS M 290 AM machine, based on the DMLS technique for metal AM, in stainless steel 316L (Figure
6). Afterwards, it was scanned using the same process as the original gear. The scans were compared to
carry out a geometric comparison. Deviations were obtained by overlaying 3D scanned models in GOM
Software 2021, as shown in Figure 6. The comparison showed no significant dimensional deviations in
the region of functional volumes, i.e., the shaft hole and the gear teeth. Hence, the requirements posed
in geometric analysis were satisfied. The final spare part is adapted to AM and incorporates some new
solutions to improve its functionality and performance while satisfying the original requirements.

Figure 6. Manufactured redesigned gear; Geometrical comparison of scans

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5. Discussion
Integrating RE, which includes both 3D scanning (geometrical RE) and functional analysis, with the
DfAM approach and AM presents several benefits for manufacturing spare parts. First and foremost,
3D scanning and AM enable rapid, on-demand, and cost-effective manufacturing of spare parts.
However, when the focus is solely on the geometry based RE process and replication of the original
geometry as it is, it does not utilise the design freedom offered by AM; hence, a redesign process is
needed. The proposed approach considers a knowledge-based approach to RE through functional
analysis and creation of function structures for the reversed engineered part. This, in turn, facilitates the
adaptive redesign process and enables the utilisation of DfAM methods and tools to achieve the
redesign. The redesign's goal is to utilise design possibilities offered by AM to increase product
performance and functionality, while optimising the design for new manufacturing technologies. This
is achieved by incorporating function mapping, which suggests possible AM-based solutions for the
developed functional structure and facilitates the utilisation of the aforementioned AM possibilities.
The presented case study illustrates the application of the proposed approach for manufacturing spare
spur gear. The case study demonstrates the successful redesign and manufacture of the spare part with
improvements in functionality and performance. Furthermore, it also depicts the suitability of creating
a new design for the AM process, as it removes excess material in the original part designed for
subtractive manufacturing and incorporates a form that reduces the need for support structures and
minimises the required post-processing.
The proposed approach outlines the redesign process of spare parts on a high level, and it intends to guide
a designer in using the RE, 3D scanning, and DfAM methods and tools to create a new part design while
conforming to the initial requirements. The need for a careful selection of parts suitable for the proposed
process is crucial. Certain requirements, such as specific material properties, tolerances, or specifications
not achievable with AM, may render some parts unsuitable for this approach. Here lies the first limitation
of the proposed approach, as it does not provide any support for selecting the suitable part for the redesign
process. Not every part can be easily reverse-engineered or manufactured using AM, especially parts
whose operational features and performances depend on the original manufacturing technology. Hence,
this approach does not apply to every use case; it is intended for applications where the original design
can be altered, and the use of AM and redesigns for AM can bring some new value to the product. Some
examples of potential use could be manifolds that are usually bulky and with excess material, with
perpendicularly drilled holes for guiding fluids. Redesign for AM could reduce the overall mass and
optimise the trajectory of the internal holes (e.g. Diegel et al., 2019). Similarly, different brackets could
benefit from a redesign for AM as incorporating topologically optimised structures could greatly reduce
the overall mass and improve performance (e.g. Gibson et al., 2021).
The limitation of the approach is the lack of support for defining the initial set of requirements, and in
current form is solely dependent on the expertise and experience of the designer. Similarly, the iterative
nature of the redesign approach requires the designer's familiarity with RE, functional modelling, and
DfAM to navigate the complexities of function structure mapping and adaptive redesign effectively.
Finally, in the presented approach, only deviations in the dimension were analysed during the
geometrical comparison of the AM spare part. However, to ensure the operational readiness of the part,
additional analysis, such as analysis of tolerances and surface roughness, should also be checked. If
necessary, the part should be post-processed until it meets the required specifications. Future research
could be focused on investigation of quality control and post-processing to provide greater level of
applicability in practice.

6. Conclusion
In conclusion, the integration of reverse engineering, 3D scanning, and Design for Additive
Manufacturing presents a promising approach to address the challenges of additive manufactured spare
parts. The proposed approach outlines the high-level process for analysing and redesigning a part to
ensure its manufacturability with AM, enable the utilisation of AM possibilities, and, through utilising
AM possibilities, increase the functionality and performance of the spare part. The novelty of the
approach is the concurrent application of geometrical and functional analysis needed as input for the

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redesign stage. The approach incorporates existing methods and tools for RE, functional modelling and
redesigns from the literature. Furthermore, it requires the designer's expertise in some steps of the
workflow, such as selecting suitable parts for the redesign or defining initial requirements.
Nevertheless, the approach provides a systematic workflow that guides the designer through the steps
of 3D scanning, functional modelling, mapping, and redesign, as well as a structured set of steps for
designing AM spare parts. The presented case study, focusing on redesigning a spur gear, serves as
proof of concept for the proposed approach. However, future research must focus on resolving the
limitations of the approach outlined in the discussion and validate the approach's usability in a broader
context.

Acknowledgement
This work has been supported by Metal Centre Čakovec under the project KK.01.1.1.02.0023.
This work is funded by Ministry of Science, Education and Sports of Republic of Croatia, and Croatian Science
Foundation project IP-2022-10-7775: Data-driven Methods and Tools for Design Innovation (DATA-MATION).

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