PHYSICS FORMULA SHEET

CHAPTER#01

k
MEASUREMENTS
EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION
L  (reading  Single L  (average  Several

e.p
absolute uncertainty) Measurement absolute uncertainty) Repeated
Measurement
xi Average Value x Percentage
xavg  error  100% Uncertainty
n x
xmax  xmin
x 
2
 ( a  b )  a  b If the data are to a.b If the data are to
be added or y be multiplied or
c
subtracted y divided
 a b c
  
y a b c
rad
1. Smallest unit (Least Count) of measurement by; Measurement tape → 0.1
cm or 1mm
Meter rule or half meter rule → 0.1 cm or 1 mm Vernier caliper → 0.01
cm or 0.1 mm
Screw gauge → 0.001 cm or 0.01 mm
2. θ = s/r
3. 2π rad = 3600 = 1 revolution
4. 1 radian = 57.30
pG

5. 1 hour = 60 minute or 1o = 0.017 rad

6. 1 minute = 60 seconds
7. Angle at circle is 2π radian.
8. Angle at sphere is 4π steradian.
9. Volume of solid cylinder = πr2l
10. Area of sphere = 4πr2
11. Area of Circle = πr2
To

12. Volume of sphere = 4/3 πr3

13. Dimension of velocity = [LT-1]
14. Dimension of acceleration= [LT-2]
15. Energy of photon; E = hf
16. Time period of pendulum; T = 2π√l/g
17. Time period of mass-spring system; T = 2π√m/k
 CHAPTER#02
MOTION AND FORCE
EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION
d Average Velocity F Acceleration
vav  a
t m
d v

k
Instantaneous
Vins = Lim (Δt → 0) a
t Velocity t
P  mv Momentum
v Instantaneous
ains = Lim (Δt → 0) P  F  t Impulse
t Acceleration

e.p
VF  Vi  at m1v1  m2 v2
Equation of
1 Motion m1v1  m2 v2  m1v1'  m2 v2'
S  Vi t  at 2
2 P  2mE
2aS  VF Vi 2
2
2E
P
S = (vf - vi) / 2 x t v
V  vx2  v y2 Projectile Motion Parabolic Projectile Motion

F  Fx2  Fy2 Height of a

Vi 2 sin 2 
Vix  Vi cos  h Projectile
2g
rad
Vfx = Vix = Vi cos
Viy = Vi sin
Vfy = Vi sin -gt
t
2Vi sin 
g
Time of Flight

Horizontal Distance
Vi 2 Range of a
x  Vx  t R sin 2
g Projectile
Vertical Distance
1
1 R tan   gt 2  4 H
Y  gt 2 2
2
P  Px2  Py2
tan = Vfy / Vfx
Angle that resultant
Vix  Vi sin 
pG
velocity makes
with horizontal PH  Pi cos 
Vertical Projectile Motion
Velocity v  2gh
2h
Time to fall t
g
u2
Maximum height h 
2g
Time taken to reach maximum
To

u
height t = g

Distance Traveled Horizontally

2h
S u
g
 CHAPTER#03
WORK, ENERGY AND POWER
EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION
W  F .d  Fd cos  Work done by a Wtotal   i 1 Fi cos i di
n Work done by a
Constant Force Variable Force

k
  90 , Positive Work
o

  90o , Negative Work

  90o ,Work  0

e.p
WAB  mgh Work done by a W Power
gravitational Pav 
t
Force W
P  Limitt0
t
W
P
t
P  Fv
1 2 Energy Loss in P.E.= Gain in K.E. Interconversion
K.E.  mv of K.E. and
2 1
mg(h1  h2 )  m(v22  v12 ) P.E.
P.E.  mgh
rad 2
Loss in P.E.= Gain in K.E. +
Work done against friction
1 2
mgh  mv  fh
2
1. v = s/t
2. a = v/t
3. vf = vi +at
4. s = vit + ½ at2
5. 2as = vf2 – vi2
pG

6. S = vave x t
7. Vave =( vi + vf )/2
8. g = 9.8 ms-2 = 32 ft-2
9. F = ma
10.P = mv
11.P = F t
12.Impulse = I = F x t = ∆P
To

13.Law of conservation of momentum; ∆p = 0

14.Elastic collision in one dimension; [v1 + v2] = [v1’+ v2’]
15.Magnitude of projectile velocity; Vf = √ Vfx2 + Vfy2
16.Height of projectile; H = vi2 sin2θ/2g
17.Time of flight; T = 2 vi sinθ/g
18. Time of summit or time to reach to highest point; T = vi sinθ/g
19. Range; R = vi2 sin 2θ/g
20. Rmax = vi2/g
21. R = Rmax at 450

k
CHAPTER#04
CIRCULAR MOTION

e.p
EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION
S  r Angular Displacement  Angular Velocity
av 
1 rev=360 o
t
1 rad=57.3o 
  Lim
t 0 t
 Angular Acceleration mv 2 Centripetal Force
 av  Fc  mac 
t r
 Centripetal Acceleration
  Lim
t v2
t 0
ac 
r

v
rad GM
r
 GMT 2 
1/3
Geostationary Orbits

r  2 
 4 
r  4.23 10 4 km
1. Angular velocity; ω = ∆θ/∆t
2. Angular acceleration; α = ∆ω/∆t → a = α x r
3. v = r ω
pG
4. Fc = mv2/r
5. ac = -(v2/r)
6. Centrifugal force= mv2/r
7. F sin θ = mv2/r
8. F cos θ = mg
9. Tan θ = v2/gr
10.Τorque = r F = rma = rm (rα) =( r2m)α = I α
To

11.Moment of inertia; I = mr2

12.Ring or thin walled cylinder inertia(I) = MR2
13.Disc or solid cylinder inertia = ½ MR2
14.Disc inertia = ½ M (R22 + R12 )
15.Solid sphere inertia = 2/5 MR2
16.Solid rod or meter stick inertia = 1/12 Ml2
17.Rectangular plate inertia = 1/12 M (a2+b2)
18. Angular momentum =L =r x p =r mv =rmrω =r2mω = Iω
19. L =rmv → L/t =rmv/t =rma =rF =τ
20. L/t =τ
21. Linear kinetic energy = ½ mv2

k
22. Rotational kinetic energy = ½ Iω2

23. Velocity of hoop = v = √ gh

e.p
24.Critical velocity = v = 7.9 km2

25. Lift at rest → T =w

26. Lift moving downward → T = w – ma

27. Lift moving upward → T = w + ma
28. Lift falling freely = T = mg-ma = 0
rad
CHAPTER#05
OSSCILATIONS
EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION
F r  k x Simple Harmonic x  xo sin wt SHM and Uniform
ur r Motion v  vo cos wt Circular Motion
F  ma
r k r v   xo2  x 2
a x
m a   2 x
pG
Frequency Simple Pendulum
1 F   mg sin 
f 
T x gx
Angular Frequency   , a=-
l l
2
  2 f
T
g

l
To

l
T  2
g
1 2 Energy Conservation 1 2  x2  Energy Conservation
P.E.  kxo in SHM K.E.  kxo  1 2  in SHM
2 2  xo 
1
Total Energy  kxo2
2
 1. Frequency → f=1/T
2. Angular frequency → ω = 2πf
3. Time period → T = 2π/ω
4. Simple pendulum time period → T = 2π √L/g

k
5. Simple pendulum potential energy = ½ kx2
6. Simple pendulum kinetic energy = ½ kx02 -½ kx2

e.p
7. Total energy of simple pendulum = ½ kx02
8. Resonance frequency = Fn = nf1
9. Phase → θ =ω t
CHAPTER#06
WAVES
EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION
 Transverse Y  y1  y2  .........  yn Principle of
v
T
rad
v f
1
Periodic Waves

Stationary Waves
Waves with Opposite Phase
Y  y1  y2
2l
Superposition

Stationary Waves
l in a Stretched n  in Air Columns
2 n
String nv
F fn 
v
m 2l
f n  nf1
1 F
f1  nv
2l m fn 
2  l 4l
Observer A moves towards source Doppler’s Effect
pG
v
f2   v  uo 
l fA  f  
 v 
f n  nf1 Observer B receding from the source
2  v  uo 
n  l fB  f  
n  v 
Doppler Shift Doppler’s Effect Source moving with velocity towards Doppler’s Effect
u  stationary observer C & away from D
   s   v 
 f  fC  f  
 v  us 
To

 v 
fD  f  
 v  us 
𝑻xL √𝑻
1. Transverse wave speed → v=
M
or v =
m
𝑬
2. Longitudinal waves speed → v = ρ

3. Phase change→ 2π = λ
4. Phase difference → δ = 2πx/λ
 ρmgh
5. Speed of sound by newton → v = ρ = 281 ms-1
6. Laplace correction → v = γρmgh
ρ = 332 ms-1
CHAPTER#07

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LIGHT
EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION
d sin   m Young’s Double Slit d sin    Diffraction due to a

e.p
Experiment d sin   m narrow slit
 1
d sin    m   
 2 m=  (1,2,3,.....)
mth Fringe ab  d sin  Diffraction Grating
L ab  
ym
d d sin   n
(m+1) th Fringe
 1  L n  0 1 2  3 etc
y  m 
 2 d

CHAPTER#08
rad
EXPRESSION
Nm v2>
HEAT AND THERMODYNAMICS
DESCRIPTION
Kinetic Theory of Gases
EXPRESSION
Interpretation of
DESCRIPTION
Kinetic Theory of
PV  Temperature Gases
3
Pressure of Gas PV nRT
2N 1 2 PV NkT
P  mv 
3V 2 R
k
NA
k  1.381023 JK1
2_ 1 2
pG
T < mv 
3k 2
CHAPTER#09
ELECTROSTATICS
EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION
q1q2 Coulomb’s F Electric Field Intensity
FK Law E
r2 q
1 1 q
K E
4 o 4 o r 2
To

1 q1q2 1 q
F Emed 
4 o r 2 4 o r r 2
m v
r  E
o r
1 q1q2 
F E
4 o r r 2  o r
F q
Fmed  vac E
r A o
F1 r22 Q Capacitance of parallel
 C plate capacitor
F2 r12 V
A o
q2 Cvac 
F d
A o
A 
q Cmed  o r
F

k
d
o
C
 r  med
Cvac
1 Energy Stored W Electric Potential Difference

e.p
F qV in a Capacitor V 
2 qo
1 V  Ed
E  CV 2
2 q
CV 2 V k
F r
2d qd
v
q2 A o
F
2d
1  o r
E ( Ed 2 )
2 d
rad
1
ev  mv2
2
K.E  qV
Electron Volt

1. 1 e = 1.602 x 10-19 C
2. Q = ne
𝒒𝟏 𝒒𝟐
3. Coulomb’s Law; F = k 𝒓𝟐
𝟏
4. K
= 𝟒𝝅𝜺𝒐
5. K = 9.0 x 109 N m2 C-2
pG

6. εo = 8.85 x 10 -12 C2 N-1 m-2

𝜺
7. εr = 𝜺𝟎
𝑭 𝒗𝒂𝒄
8. Fmed = 𝜺𝒓
𝑭 𝑽 𝒒
9. E
= 𝒒
= 𝒅
= K𝒓𝟐
10. Ф θ N m2 C-1
= E A cos =
To

𝑸
11. Ф
= 𝜺𝟎
𝝈
12. E due to sheet of charge; E = 𝟐𝜺
𝝈
13. E due to charge palates; E= 𝜺
𝑾 𝑼
14. V
= 𝑸
=𝑸 Volt = Joule / Coulomb
15. Electric potential energy; U = 𝑲 𝑸𝒒
𝒓
 𝜟𝑽
16. Potential Gradient = E = -
𝜟𝒓
17. 1 eV =1.602 x 10-19 C x 1V → (1 eV = 1.602 x 10-19 J)
𝑸
18. C = = C V-1 = farad
𝑽
𝑸

k
19. Charge density; σ =
𝑨
𝑸 𝜺o 𝑨 𝜺o 𝜺r 𝑨
20. Cvac = = =
𝑽 𝒅 𝒅

e.p
21. r = C / C
med vac
22. Capacitors In Series;
23. Q = Q1 = Q2 =Q3
24. V =V1 + V2 + V3
25. Ce = 1/C1 + 1/C2 + 1/C3
26. Capacitors In Parallel;
27. Q = Q1 = Q2 = Q3
28. V = V1 + V2 +V3,
29. Ce = C1 + C2 + C3
30. Electric dipole; P = q d
rad
31. Energy = U = Q𝑽 =
𝟐
32. Energy density; 𝝁 =
𝑪𝑽𝟐 𝟏 𝑨 𝜺o 𝜺r
𝟐
𝑼
=

=
𝟐
𝟏
𝒅
𝜺𝒐 𝜺𝒓 E2
(Ed)2

𝑨𝒅 𝟐
33. Maximum charge on capacitor = C x e.m.f
34. q/q0 = 63.2 % →for charging
35. q/q0 = 36.7 % →for discharging
36. q = q0 (1-e-t/RC ) →for charging
37. q = q0 e-t/RC →for discharging
pG

CHAPTER#10
CURRENT ELECTRICITY
EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION
ne Current 1 Drift Velocity
I Vd 
t neA
Q  ne 1
Vd 
ne RneA
I
To

r Heating Effect
H  I 2 RT
v
I H  Pt
2 r
I  nAeVd
 Req R
1 R .... Series Combination 1 1 1 Parallel Combination
2
 
............  Rn Req R1 R2
Req  nR 1
............ 
Rx Vt Rn
Vx 

k
Req R
Req 
n
1 1 1
  ..... Req  n 2 Req
Ps P1 P2
Pn  nP

e.p
1
...................  H p  nH
Pn
I GV Ohm’s Law R1R2 For Parallel
Req  Combination of Two
I R1 R2
G Resistors
R R2
V  I1 
R1  R2
IR' R When Resistor is cut
R  R1
n 2
into n-equal parts I2 
R R

1. Current, I = Q/t → C s-1 = A

rad
2. Drift velocity order = 10-5 m/s.
3. V = IR
4. Tan θ = I/V = 1/R
5. Resistance, R = V/I → 1Ω = 1V/1A
6. R = ρ L/A → Ω.m
7. Conductance, G = 1/R → Siemen(S) or mho
8. Conductivity, σ = 1/ρ =L/RA →mho/m or S/m
9. Pure metals R inc with T inc.
pG
10.Electrolytes and insulators, R dec with T inc.
11.ΔR = αR0 T → RT = R0 (1+αT)
12.Temperature co-efficient of Resistance, α = RT – R0/R0T → K-1
13.Resistivity, ρ T = ρ 0 (1+αT) OR α = ρ T – ρ 0/ ρ 0T → K-1
14.Electromotive Force, ε = W/q → 1 volt = 1 joule/coulomb
15.Open circuit, I = 0 so V= ε
16.Terminal Voltage, Vt = ε - Ir
17.Power, P = W/t = VI → 1 Watt = 1V x 1A
To

18.1 kWh = 1 unit of electrical energy

19.1 J = 1W x 1s
20. Maximum output power, (Pout)max = ε2 /4r = ε2 /4R
21. Thermo emf, ε = αT + ½ βT2
22. KCL, ƩI = 0
23. KVL, Ʃε = ƩV = 0
24. KCL based on L.O.C.O.CHARGE
25. KVL based on L.O.C.O.ENERGY
26. Wheatstone Bridge, X = R3 (R2/R1)
27. Potentiometer, ε2 /ε1 = I2 /I1

CHAPTER#11

k
ELECTROMAGNETISM
EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION
F  ILB sin  Force on a Current   B. A Magnetic Flux and
Carrying Conductor   BA cos  Flux Density

e.p
Fm
B
qv

B
A

T1 x  T2 x Ampere’s Law B  o nI Field due to a

Average Speed= Current Carrying
T1  T2 N
B  o I Solenoid
L
B  o r nI
rad
Q  nALq Force on a Moving
  o r

e V Determination of e
Charge in Magnetic 
I  nAqv m Br m
Field of an Electron
F  I ( L  B) P  mv  qBr
F  nAqv( L  B) eB
f 
F  qvB sin  2 m

E Determination of
e qB
V 
pG
B m m
of an Electron
2ev 1
v ev  mv 2
m 2
P  2mE
1
E (qBr ) 2
2m
2mE
r
Be
To
1. Force on current carrying wire, F=BIL sin θ.
2. Magnetic field or magnetic induction, B = F/IL →1 tesla =1 NA-1 m-1 = 1 Wb m-2
3. 1 T = 104 G
4. Magnetic Flux, Ф = B A cos θ → 1 Wb = 1 N m A-1.
5. Ampere’s Law, B ∝ I/r = μ0 (I/2πr) OR ƩB.ΔL = μ0 I

k
6. Bnet = B1 + B2
7. Magnetic field due to current carrying solenoid, B = μ0 n I → n=N/L
8. Motion of charge particle in uniform magnetic field, F=q v B sin θ

e.p
9. Centripetal Force = Magnetic force → mv2/r = qvB
10. Time period of charge particle in B, T = 2πm/qB
11. Frequency of charge particle in B, f = qB/2πm
12. Velocity selector, FE = FM → qE = qvB → v = E/B
13. Torque on current carrying coil, τ = NBIA cos θ
14. Restoring torque, τ=Cθ
15. Galvanometer, NBIA cos θ = C θ → I = Cθ/NAB → I ∝ θ
16. Conversion of galvanometer into ammeter, small R connected in parallel
rad
17. Conversion of galvanometer into voltmeter, large R in series are connected
18. Ammeter, Rs = Rg Ig / (I – Ig)
19. Voltmeter, Rh = (V/Ig) – Rg
→ Ideal ammeter → 0 R
→ Ideal voltmeter → infinite R

CHAPTER#12
ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION
pG
To
EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION
V    IR Induced Emf V Faradays’ Law
and Induced   N and Induced Emf
 Vt
I Current
R VB. A
  N
Peak to Peak Value Vt

k
Vp  p  2VP VBA sin 
  N
Vt
N   LI Self-Induction
F  qvB sin  Motional Emf I
L  L

e.p
E   vBl sin  t
W  q L Energy Stored V  Vo sin wt Alternating
I in an Inductor Current
V  Vo sin 2 ft
L  L and Voltage
t 2
1 V  Vo sin t
W  LI 2 T
2 I  I o sin 
   o nIA
I  I o sin wt
L   o n 2 Al
Vrms  0.7Vo
B   o nI
I rms  0.7 Io
rad
Um 
1
U m  LI 2
2
1 B2
( Al )
Vs N s

Vp N p
Transformer

2 o Vp I p  Vs I s
2
1B Vs I p
um  
2 o Vp I s
Output Power
 100
Input Power

1. Faraday’s Law, ε ∝ N (ΔФ/Δt) → ε = N (ΔФ/Δt )

pG

2. Lenz Law, ε = –N (ΔФ/Δt )

3. Flux motional emf, ε = Blv sin θ
4. Rate of work done, W= Bilv
5. Rate of production of electrical energy, energy =ε I W = energy → Bilv = εI → ε = Blv
6. Power, P = F v
7. ε = L ΔI/Δt or ε = N ΔФ/Δt → LI = NФ
8. Self-Inductance, L = NФ /I
To

9. ε = M ΔI/Δt or ε = N ΔФ/Δt → MI = NФ
10.Mutually inductance, M = NФ /I
11.F = 1/T
12.Induced emf, ε = NAB cosωt or NAB ω sinωt
13.ε = εmax sin ωt
14.Back emf, V = ε + IR
15.Ns / Np = Vs / Vp = Ip /Is
 CHAPTER#13
PHYSICS OF SOLIDS
EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION
F Stress l Strain
  
A l
 Elastic

k
E V
 Constants Volumetric Strain 
Vo
Unit is Nm2 or Pa a
  tan 

e.p
a
F/A Young’s F/A Shear Modulus
Y  K
l / l Modulus V / V
F/A Bulk Modulus 1 Strain Energy
G U Fi
tan  2
1
1 Strain Energy U  mgi
Uo    2
2 Density
1
1 U  kx 2
U o   2 2
2 1
U  l1  F1
rad U
2
1  EA  l12 
 
2  L 
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔
1. Elastic modulus =
𝑺𝒕𝒓𝒂𝒊𝒏
𝑭
2. Tensile stress =
𝑨
3. Tensile strain = 𝜟𝑳
𝑳
𝑭
𝑨
pG
4. Young modulus = 𝜟𝑳 = Nm-2
𝑳
𝑭
5. Shear stress =
𝑨
𝜟𝒙
6. Shear strain = = tan θ
𝒚
𝑭
𝑨 = 𝑭
7. Shear modulus = rigidity modulus = 𝜟𝒙
𝑨𝛉
𝒚
To

𝑭
8. Bulk or volume stress =
𝑨
𝑭
9. Bulk modulus (in fluids) = Δp =
𝑨
𝜟𝑽
10. Volume strain = -
𝑽
 𝑭
11. Bulk modulus = 𝜟𝑽 𝑨 = Δp
- 𝜟𝑽
𝑽 𝑽
12. Stress ∝ strain (Hook’s law)
13. A = 𝝅 r2

k
14. W = ½Fe (work done on stretching wire).
15. Strain energy = ½ F e

e.p
16. Strain energy per unit volume = 1/2 (F x e / A x l) = ½ (stress) (strain )

CHAPTER#14
ELECTRONICS
EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION
Vo OP-AMP f out  2 f in Rectification
AoL 
V  V T
Tout 
R2 2
Inverting Amplifier=G=-
R1
rad
Non  Inverting Amplifier=G=1+
R2
R1

IC Transistor as an
Current Gain= = Amplifier
IB
RC
Amplification  Factor  
rin
I E  IC  I B
pG
To
 CHAPTER#15
DAWN OF MODERN PHYSICS
EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION
to Time Dilation
t

k
v2
1
c2
Length mo Mass Variation
v2 m 10
l  lo 1 Contraction

e.p
c2 v2 cons
1 2.93
c2
E  mc 2 Mass Energy max T  constant Wein’s
Relationship Constant
K .E m
(  m o)c 2
k =2.9x10-3 mK
E
m E Stephen’s
c2 
T4 Boltzmann
 5.67 108Wm2 K 4 Constant
E Planck’s E hf 5.67 Energy of
h Constant Photon
f hc
rad
h  6.6310 34 Js
E 

E  pc
p2


E 
2m
1 2 Photoelectric h Compton Effect
mvmax  V oe Effect  (1 cos )
2 mo c
1 2
hf  + mvmax h 12
2  2.4310 m
moc
hf e   0
hf e  
pG
K .E max hf
hf  o

hf 2mo c K.E.(e ) K.E.(e )

2 Pair Production
To
 CHAPTER#16
NUCLEAR PHYSICS
EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION EXPRESSION DESCRIPTION

k
N  (A Z) Neutron B.E   mc 2 Binding Energy
Number
m  Zmp  ( A  Z )mn  mnucleus Mass defect A
Z X ZA42 Y 24 He α Decay

e.p
N    N t Half Life A
X ZA1 Y 01 e β Decay
Z
N
 N
t
T1/ 2  0.693
T  1
T1/ 2  0.693Tmean
1
Tmean 

rad
1.
2.
3.
Nuclear size is of the order of 10-14 m.
The mass of the nucleus is of the order of 10-27 kg.
½ mv2 = Vq
4. Bqv = mv2/r
5. Bqv = mv2/r → m = Bqr/v
6. ½ mv2 = Vq → v2 = 2Vq/m
7. So m = qr2B2/2V
8. Δm = Zmp + Nmn – M(A,Z)
9. The binding energy in MeV is 931 x Δm.
pG

10.The binding energy per nucleon = Eb/A.

1 1 0
11.0n → 1H + -1β + antineutrino 12 MIN
12.ΔN/Δt =-λN
13.R =- ΔN/Δt =λN
14.N= N0e-λt
15.1 Bq = 1 decay per second
16.1 Ci = 3.70 x 1010 decay/s
To

17.λT ½ = 0.693
18.The charge on u,t and c, in term of electron is +2/3e.
19.The charge on s,t and b in term of electron is -1/3e.
20.proton =2U→D.
21.neutron =U ←2D.