Tech Science Press

DOI: 10.32604/jrm.2023.026604

ARTICLE

Preparation of Peanut Shell Cellulose Double-Network Hydrogel and Its

Adsorption Capacity for Methylene Blue

Yalin Li1,*, Lei Liu1, Wenbao Huang1, Junpu Xie2, Zhaoxia Song1, Shuna Guo1 and Enci Wang1
1
Department of College of Environment and Bioengineering, Henan University of Engineering, Zhengzhou, 451191, China
2
School of Mathematics and Statistics, Carleton University, Ontario, K1S 5B6, Canada
*
Corresponding Author: Yalin Li. Email: [email protected]
Received: 15 September 2022 Accepted: 23 November 2022 Published: 07 June 2023

ABSTRACT
To achieve optimal recovery and value-added utilisation of cellulose in peanut shells, the cellulose in peanut shells
was first extracted using the sodium hydroxide-sodium chlorite method. Then, cellulose hydrogel was prepared by
graft copolymerisation using N, N’-methylenebisacrylamide as the cross-linking agent, sodium persulfate as the
initiator, and acrylic acid as the monomer. Orthogonal optimisation experiments were designed to obtain optimal
process parameters for hydrogel preparation with the cellulose dosage of 0.40 g, initiator dosage of 0.20 g, poly-
merisation temperature of 70°C, cross-linking agent of 0.25 g, and monomer dosage of 3.0 mL. The effect of
initiator dosage on hydrogel synthesis was the most significant, followed by monomer dosage and reaction tem-
perature. Characterisation using X-ray diffraction analysis and scanning electron microscopy revealed that the
hydrogel was amorphous and exhibited a distinct three-dimensional double network structure. Hydrogel swelling
kinetic analysis showed that the hydrogel swelling process was divided into three stages, and fitted the Schott sec-
ondary swelling kinetic model. The prepared hydrogel had a good adsorption effect on methylene blue; the
adsorption of methylene blue by the hydrogel was 1.259 mg/g at 25°C when the initial concentration of methylene
blue was 5 mg/L. The adsorption kinetics of the hydrogel fit the pseudo-first-order kinetic model, pseudo-second-
order kinetic model, Eovich model and particle diffusion model. The best fitting effect was obtained with the
pseudo-second-order kinetic model. The adsorption isotherm analysis of methylene blue on hydrogel showed that
the adsorption process was consistent with Langmuir and Freundlich models. The correlation coefficient of the
Freundlich isotherm model was higher, indicating that the adsorption of methylene blue on hydrogel was mainly
chemisorption.

KEYWORDS
Cellulose; hydrogel; graft copolymerisation; cross-linking polymerisation; swelling property

1 Introduction
Dyes are one of the most critical pollutants produced by various industries such as textiles, food,
printing, rubber, etc. They are complex unsaturated organic compounds whose molecular structure mainly
consists of chromophores, autochromes, and matrixes (benzene, perylene, and anthracene rings,
respectively) [1]. Most dye structures contain aromatic compounds and the hydrogen on the aromatic
group may be substituted to produce more toxic derivatives. These dyes are usually divided into three

This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which
permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original
work is properly cited.
3002 JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7

main categories, cationic, non-ionic and anionic, wherein the cationic dyes are more toxic than other dyes [2].
Most of these dyes are stable, and their effective elimination from wastewater using conventional methods
has become a major challenge. In addition, due to the presence of aromatic compounds, dye wastewater is
dangerous and poisonous for organisms [3]. Nitrogen and phosphorus containing reagents (e.g., urea) are
often used in various processes of printing and dye manufacturing. These nitrogen and phosphorus
containing wastewaters are colored and their direct discharge into natural water bodies can prevent
sunlight from diffusing into the water. This leads to a significant reduction in dissolved oxygen in the
water and causes eutrophication of the water bodies [4,5]. At the same time, the random discharge of dye
wastewater can also severely affect human health and the environment [6]. According to statistics, 12%
of the annual production of cationic dyes (7 × 105–1 × 106 t) enters the environment through industrial
wastewater, which in humans can cause skin irritation, genetic changes, digestion problem, cancer,
lethargy, dysfunction of the liver, kidney, brain, nervous and reproductive systems, increased heart rate,
nausea, vomiting, diarrhea and mental confusion [7]. Therefore, the removal of dye contaminants from
aqueous solutions and the environment is essential to enhance environmental protection and the health of
living organisms.
The main methods to remove dyes and other pollutants from wastewater include adsorption,
photocatalysis, and electrochemical and chemical oxidation methods [8]. Among them, the adsorption
method has the advantages of good performance, low cost, flexible operation and simple operation. In
recent years, the use of polymeric adsorbents (e.g., starch, montmorillonite, bone char, activated carbon)
for the removal of various pollutants has attracted widespread attention.
Starch is the most abundant natural polymer, which is environmentally friendly. When the adsorbent
produced by starch is used in wastewater treatment, various functional groups are introduced into the
adsorbent in order to improve the performance of removing target pollutants. Montmorillonite is another
highly efficient adsorbent with abundant reserves, low cost, large specific surface area and strong oxygen
ion exchange ability. Due to the negative charge on the structure of montmorillonite, it can be used as an
efficient adsorbent to remove dyes [3]. Bone char produced by pyrolysis of animal bones in an inert
atmosphere consists of 80%–90% of calcium phosphate (in hydroxyapatite form, HAP) and 10% carbon
with a high surface area, which can be used as an adsorbent to adsorb dyes [9]. Activated carbon can
effectively treat pollutants in wastewater (especially biodegradable pollutants such as heavy metals, dyes,
etc.), but its price is high, and it is not selective for disperse dyes and reductive dyes.
In view of this, many researchers have proposed unconventional low-cost adsorbents, including natural
materials, bio-sorbents, and industrial and agricultural wastes. These adsorbent materials can be used to
remove dyes in solution [10], such as tasteless fruit bark made of activated carbon, used for the
adsorption of methylene blue dye. This is a simple adsorption method, which can facilitate the adsorption
of a variety of dyes [11].
Hydrogel is also a typical adsorption material. It is a kind of polymer functional material, which is
widely used in the food industry, medical and health care, petrochemical industry, agriculture, forestry,
horticulture and environmental protection. Its applications are due to its unique three-dimensional mesh
cross-linked structure and good biodegradability, as well as its swelling and water retention properties
that make it hydrophilic but insoluble in water [12]. Up to now, several hydrogels have been prepared by
cross-linking two different polymers in different ways, which have great application value in adsorbing
dyes. Other hydrogels have been prepared by chemical crosslinking of sucrose, short fiber and poly (vinyl
alcohol) hydrogel. Core-shell structure is used in a variety of dye adsorption materials. Studies have
shown that compared to raw hydrogel, all performance aspects of composite hydrogel were improved
[13]. In another study, cellulose (CNWs) was introduced into chitosan hydrogel with the polyacrylic acid
double network, in order to enhance the adsorption capacity of methylene blue. Compared with the
JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7 3003

original hydrogel, when the CNWs content was 0–20 w/%, the prepared hydrogel adsorbents all showed
excellent adsorption performance for methylene blue (MB) [14]. Zhao et al. [15] prepared modified
cellulose hydrogels by mixing and cross-linking acrylamide and acrylic acid. It was found that the
cellulose dual-network hydrogel could be used as an adsorbent for heavy metal removal in addition to
dye removal [15]. However, due to the presence of a large number of water molecules, the three-
dimensional mesh structure of hydrogels is loose and most heterogeneous, resulting in poor mechanical
properties. As a result, hydrogels can be easily broken under the action of prolonged swelling or external
force, limiting their applications.
Cellulose is the most abundant natural polymer in nature, and is the most commonly used hydrogel
precursor material [16] with non-toxicity and good biocompatibility for a wide range of applications. It is
a typical D-glucopyranose cyclic linear polymer, which is bridged by β-(l, 4) glycosidic bonds, and the
glucose ring in the chain molecule is rich in -OH groups. The hydrogel prepared from cellulose can
effectively improve the swelling and water retention of the prepared hydrogel via modification of its
functional groups. Additionally, due to its good ductility, cellulose can be employed as a layer in double-
network hydrogels to improve the rigidity of the hydrogels [17].
Peanut shells (PS) have a huge output worldwide and occupy an important position in agricultural waste
[18]. Nearly half of the PS output in the world is produced by China, more than 15,000,000 tons, of which
less than 80% is effectively utilised [19]. Nearly all PS waste is burnt directly, except for a small quantity that
is ground into powder and used as feed for livestock and poultry, compost and base materials for edible
mushrooms. This does not meet the requirements of China’s “14th Five-Year Plan” for green life and
resource-oriented utilisation. Extraction of cellulose from PS for the preparation of hydrogels is very
economical and enhances the value-added use of PS on the premise of resource-oriented utilisation, with
positive ecological benefits. Compared with other adsorbents, the cellulose content extracted from PS is
high, and the prepared dual-network hydrogel is non-toxic, low cost, abundant in reserves, biodegradable,
and has good adsorption performance.
In this study, peanut shell cellulose (PSC) was extracted from PS via the NaOH-NaClO2 method,
and cellulose was dissolved via NaOH-CO(NH2)2 solvent system. N, N’-methylenebisacrylamide (MBA)
was introduced as the cross-linking agent, sodium persulfate (SPS) as the initiator, and acrylic acid
(AA) as the monomer for the preparation of a double-network hydrogel (PSC-Hydrogel) by graft
copolymerisation. The effects of cross-linking agent dosage, polymerisation temperature, initiator dosage
and monomer dosage on the preparation of PSC-Hydrogel were investigated by single factor and
orthogonal experiments with swelling rate as the response value, and the optimum preparation conditions
were determined. The prepared PSC-Hydrogel was characterised by Fourier transform infrared
spectroscopy (FT-IR), X-ray diffractometry (XRD), thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) and scanning
electron microscopy (SEM). Additionally, the swelling kinetics of PSC-Hydrogel and adsorption
properties for methylene blue dye were analysed in order to provide a theoretical reference for the value-
added utilisation of PS.

2 Experimental Section
2.1 Materials and Reagents
The raw material of PS was purchased from Lianyungang (Jiangsu, China). After rinsing, dehydration
and grinding, it was passed through a 120-mesh nylon sieve. Then, it was subjected to the NaOH-NaClO2
method [20] to obtain PSC, which was further processed by the NaOH-CO(NH2)2 method to obtain a
homogenous and transparent cellulose solution with a cellulose content of 41.39%. Acrylic acid (AA, 79-
10-7, 72.06(MW), >99%(GC)), sodium persulfate (SPS, 7775-27-1, 238.1(MW), AR), N, N’-
methylenebisacrylamide (MBA, 110-26-9, 154.17(MW), AR), sodium hydroxide (NaOH, 1310-73-2,
40(MW), 96%), urea (CO(NH)2)2, 57-13-6, 60.06(MW), 99%), and sodium chlorite (NaClO2, 7758-19-2,
3004 JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7

90.44(MW), 80%) were purchased from Macklin Biochemical Technology Co., Ltd. (Shanghai, China).
Methylene blue (MB, 7220-79-3, 373.90(MW), AR) was analytically pure, and purchased from Enokai
Technology Co., Ltd. (Beijing, China).

2.2 Instruments and Equipment

The reaction mixture was placed in a constant temperature water bath and magnetically stirred (HSJ,
Jiangsu Branch Vein Instrument Manufacturing Co., Ltd., Taizhou, China). The prepared hydrogels were
completely dried in a vacuum freeze dryer (LGJ-10, Beijing Yuecheng Jiaye Technology Co., Ltd.,
Beijing, China). Swelling experiments were carried out in an artificial climate box (BIC-300, The medical
equipment factory of Shanghai Bosun Industrial Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China). Determination of methylene
blue concentration was achieved using an ultraviolet spectrophotometer (UV-6300, Shanghai Meproda
Instrument Co., Ltd., Shanghai, China).

2.3 Methods
2.3.1 Preparation of Cellulose Hydrogels
The hydrogel preparation process is shown in Fig. 1A. Briefly, 5.0 g of pre-treated PS powder was
accurately weighed and placed in a 250 mL beaker with 150 mL of 1 M NaOH solution, which was
heated in a constant temperature water bath at 75°C for 2 h. The solution was filtered through a Buchner
funnel, and washed with distilled water until the pH was neutral. The solid phase was removed using a
funnel and 50 mL of a mixed solution containing CH3COOH (31 mL/L) and NaClO2 (15 g/L) was added,
where the volume ratio of CH3COOH to NaClO2 was 1:1. Then, the mixed solution with solid phase was
placed in a constant temperature water bath at 75°C for 1 h to remove lignin from PS. The mixed
solution was filtered using a Buchner funnel, and the filtered solid phase was washed with distilled water
until the pH was neutral. The treated PS powder was dried in an electric thermostatic drying oven at 60°
C to obtain PSC. The content of cellulose was 41.39%.

(A) (B)
(a)
NaOH NaOH

PS NaClO2
PSC CO(NH2)2
Distilled water (b)

Seal

-16ºC 65ºC
2h 30min

Constant temperature water bath

(c)
Refrigerator

SPS AA NH2
COO
OH
COO
MBA OH
NH2

Constant temperature water bath PSC-Hydrogel

Figure 1: The (A) preparation process and (B) synthesis scheme of double network hydrogels

Next, 1.0 g of PSC powder was weighed into a beaker, and 7.0 g of NaOH, 12.0 g of CO(NH2)2 and
81 mL of deionised water were added. The mixture was stirred evenly, covered with cling film, and
placed in a constant temperature water bath at 65°C for 30 min to fully dissolve the cellulose in PS.
JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7 3005

Then, it was removed and placed in the refrigerator quickly and cooled to −16°C for 2 h to obtain PSC
solution.
To prepare the PSC-hydrogel, 40 mL of PSC fibre solution was measured in a beaker, which was then
placed in a constant temperature (55°C, 60°C, 65°C, 70°C, 75°C, 80°C) water bath, stirred for 5 min, and
then AA was added. SPS and MBA were added under continuous stirring until the solution appeared
viscous. The formed hydrogel product was PSC-Hydrogel, which was freeze-dried to a constant weight to
obtain a dried gel sample.
The synthesis of PSC-Hydrogel is shown in Fig. 1B. The basic principles of hydrogel synthesis using
graft cross-linking and polymerisation cross-linking were cellulose extraction using NaOH-NaClO2 method,
and solubilisation of cellulose by NaOH-CO(NH2)2 solvent system. Here, SPS was employed as an initiator,
which underwent thermal decomposition under certain temperature conditions, generating free radicals to
extract hydrogen atoms from -OH of the cellulose backbone, which in turn formed active-OR. AA as a
monomer by reactive radicals. A graft copolymer was formed by open C=C grafting on the cellulose
backbone that generated the first layer of rigid network structure. MBA was used as the cross-linking
agent to promote cross-linking of the branched chains to form a second layer of flexible mesh structure of
the hydrogel. A double network hydrogel was produced by multiple components polymerisation and two-
layer network interpenetration.
2.3.2 Single-Factor Experimental Design
In this study, a single-factor four-level experimental design was used. PSC extract volume was fixed at
40 mL, and the effects of the amount of MBA (0.20, 0.25, 0.30, 0.35, 0.40 g), polymerisation temperature
(55°C, 60°C, 65°C, 70°C, 75°C, 80°C), amount of SPS (0.05, 0.10, 0.15, 0.20, 0.25 g), and amount of AA
(1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 3.5, 4.0 g) on the swelling rate of hydrogels were explored, respectively.
2.3.3 Orthogonal Experimental Design
Based on the analysis of single-factor experiments, an orthogonal experimental design was carried out
using Minitab statistical software. SPS dosage (A), MBA dosage (B), polymerisation temperature (C) and
AA dosage (D), were used as the investigating factors. L9 (34) orthogonal experiments were designed to
determine the optimal parameters with hydrogel swelling rate as the response value. The experimental
factors and levels are shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Factors and levels of orthogonal experiments
Factor SPS dosage A/g The MBA dosage B/g Polymerization temperature C/°C AA amount D/mL
+1 0.10 0.25 60 2.0
0 0.15 0.30 65 2.5
−1 0.20 0.35 70 3.0

2.3.4 Determination of Swelling Rate of Hydrogels

In a typical procedure, 0.2–0.5 g of dried hydrogel was weighed in a 250 mL beaker, and 200 mL of
deionised water was added. The hydrogel was allowed to swell in an artificial climate chamber at
constant temperature (25°C) and humidity (55%). It was removed every 12 h, placed on a 100-mesh
nylon sieve to drain, and the residual water from the surface was gently absorbed with absorbent paper.
Then, it was immediately weighed and returned to the chamber. The above process was repeated until the
hydrogel mass was constant, and the final swelling rate of the hydrogel was used as the equilibrium
swelling rate, which was calculated by Eq. (1).
Sr ¼ ðWs  W0 Þ=W0  100% (1)
3006 JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7

where Sr (%) is the swelling rate of PSC-Hydrogel, Ws (g) is the mass of PSC-Hydrogel when swelling
equilibrium was reached, and W0 (g) is the mass of PSC-Hydrogel before swelling.
2.3.5 Determination of Dye Adsorption Capacity by Hydrogels
Briefly, 0.2 g of freeze-dried PSC-Hydrogel was accurately weighed in a 100 mL beaker, and 80 mL of
5 mg/L methylene blue (MB) solution was added. Then, adsorption was carried out in an artificial climate
chamber at constant humidity (55%) and various temperatures (15°C, 25°C, 35°C). The adsorption of
PSC-Hydrogel was measured and calculated at certain time intervals. The Hydrogel adsorption capacity
of MB was calculated by Eq. (2).
Qt ¼ ½ðc0  ct ÞV =m (2)
where Qt (mg/g) is the adsorption capacity of PSC-Hydrogel for MB, c0 (mg/L) is the initial concentration of
MB, ct (mg/L) is the concentration of MB at a specific time, m(g) is the mass of dried PSC-Hydrogel, and V
(L) is the volume of MB solution.
2.3.6 Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer (FT-IR) Characterisation
The PS and freeze-dried PSC-Hydrogel were ground into a powder using a mortar and sieved through
120 mesh sieves. Their functional groups were characterised using Fourier transform infrared spectrometer
(Nicolet 6700, Thermo Fisher, USA) with a scanning range of 500–4000 cm−1.
2.3.7 Thermogravimetric Analysis (TGA) Characterisation
The thermal analysis of samples was performed using a synchronous thermal analyser (STA449 F3,
Netzsch Inc., Bavaria, Germany) with a ramp-up rate of 30 °C/min and a ramp-down range of room
temperature to 800°C.
2.3.8 X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) Characterisation
The freeze-dried samples were ground into a powder using a mortar and passed through a 300-mesh
sieve. Their surface chemical composition was characterised using an X-ray diffractometer
(D8 ADVANCE, Bruker Corporation, Milton, ON, Canada) with Cu Kα rays at a current of 30 mA,
voltage of 35 kV, and scanning range of 2θ = 20°–80°.
2.3.9 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) Characterisation
A small amount of freeze-dried sample was placed on a copper plate with the cross-section facing
upwards, fixed with conductive adhesive, sprayed with gold, and then observed under a scanning electron
microscope (Quanta 250, FEI, Ltd., Brno, Czech Republic) for the apparent morphology of the samples.
2.3.10 Brunauer-Emmett-Teller (BET) Surface Area Characterisation
The BET surface area was determined from the N2 adsorption-desorption isotherm at 77.3 K. The
surface area and pore volume data were collected using a surface area and porosity analyser (ASIQM
0010-14, Quantachrome Corp., Florida, USA). The samples were degassed for 12 h at 100°C prior to the
adsorption process. In order to analyse the porous structure of the synthesized samples, the BJH method
was employed.
3 Results and Analysis
3.1 Single-Factor Experimental Results
3.1.1 Influence of Cross-Linking Dosage on Swelling Property of the Prepared Hydrogels
The hydrogel samples were prepared by using 40 mL of PSC solution, with the amount of AA set to
2.0 mL, the amount of SPS set to 0.40 g, and the polymerization temperature set to 65°C. The amount of
MBA was varied. Afterwards, the hydrogel samples were dried to a constant weight and the swelling rate
was measured. Three groups were measured in parallel for each sample. The effect of MBA content on
JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7 3007

hydrogel swelling rate is shown in Fig. 2A. The cross-linking agent was mainly used to cross-link cellulose
with AA during the hydrogel preparation process, which is a known factor that affects the formation of the
hydrogel mesh structure. At 0.10 g dosage of MBA or 0.15 g of MBA, the network structure of the polymer
was not fully formed due to insufficient dosage, and the products existed in water-soluble form. The results
showed that the hydrogel state products were formed at 0.20 g of MBA. The cross-linking reaction prompted
the initial construction of the three-dimensional mesh structure of the hydrogel.

(A) (B)
3500 4000

3500
3000
Swelling rate/%

Swelling rate/%
3000
2500
2500

2000
2000

1500 1500
0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 0.40 50 55 60 65 70 75 80
Cross-linking agent dosage/g Polymerization temperature/˚C

(C) 5000 (D) 6000

5500
4500
5000
4000
4500
Swelling rate/%

Swelling rate/%

3500 4000

3000 3500

3000
2500
2500
2000
2000

1500 1500
0.05 0.10 0.15 0.20 0.25 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0 3.5 4.0
Initiator dosage/g Monomer dosage/mL

Figure 2: Effect of (A) cross-linking agent dosage, (B) polymerization temperature, (C) initiator dosage, (D)
monomer dosage on swelling property of hydrogels

As shown in Fig. 2A, Sr grew faster with the increase in MBA dosage and reached a maximum of
3250.24% at 0.30 g MBA dosage. According to Flory network theory [21], the dosage of cross-linking
agent is a key factor influencing the cross-linking density and fluid absorption rate of hydrogels. In this
study, the increase in MBA dosage improved the cross-linking density and increased the network nodes
in the reaction. The observed effects were conducive to maintaining the water-holding properties of
hydrogels. As MBA dosage increased, the integrity of the network structure in the hydrogel gradually
improved, as well as its swelling properties. Above 0.03 g MBA dosage, Sr decreased due to excess
MBA present that promoted an overly cross-linked hydrogel network, increased nodes in the
polymerisation network, and reduced cross-linked spacing and free spaces [22]. Furthermore, the rigidity
of the hydrogel was enhanced, limiting the extension degree of the cellulose chain during the swelling
process, while AA in the system underwent self-polymerisation to form short-chain linear polymers,
resulting in the reduced water-holding capacity of the hydrogel.
3008 JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7

3.1.2 Influence of Polymerisation Temperature on Swelling Property of the Prepared Hydrogels

The hydrogel samples were prepared by using 40 mL of PSC solution, with the amount of monomer AA
set to 2.0 mL, the amount of initiator SPS set to 0.40 g and the amount of MBA set to 0.30 g. The
polymerization temperature was varied. Afterwards, the hydrogel samples were dried to a constant weight
and the swelling rate was measured. Three groups were measured in parallel for each sample. The effect
of polymerisation temperature on the swelling properties of the prepared hydrogel is shown in Fig. 2B.
Temperature influences the graft copolymerisation reaction [23], as well as the degree of movement of
active molecules in the reaction, rate of thermal decomposition of initiator, and degree and rate of cross-
linking polymerisation. As shown in Fig. 2B, in the range of 50°C–80°C, Sr showed an increasing trend
that decreased at the higher temperature. At a polymerisation temperature of 70°C, Sr was 3608.6%.
The decomposition rate of SPS was low when the temperature was lower than 40°C with a slow rate of
polymerisation reaction, low degree of polymer cross-linking, and poor water absorption due to “defects” in
network structure formation. In contrast, the decomposition rate of SPS accelerated with the increase in
temperature due to the enhanced thermal motion of reactant molecules and the possibility of free radical
collision. This promoted the formation of the hydrogel’s internal network structure and the gradual
improvement of swelling performance. However, at high temperatures, the decomposition of the initiator
and degree of polymerisation between the components increased in the system, which resulted in a
violent reaction. This hindered the formation of a uniform and effective network structure, and reduced
the hydrogel’s swelling properties.
3.1.3 Influence of Initiator Dosage on Swelling Property of the Prepared Hydrogels
The hydrogel samples were prepared by using 40 mL of PSC solution, with the amount of monomer AA
set to 2.0 mL, the amount of MBA set to 0.30 g, and the reaction temperature set to 70°C. The amount of
initiator SPS was varied. Afterwards, the hydrogel samples were dried to a constant weight and the
swelling rate was measured. Three groups were measured in parallel for each sample. The effect of the
initiator dosage on the swelling performance of the hydrogel is shown in Fig. 2C. The results showed that
Sr increased significantly with an increase in SPS dosage and reached a maximum value of 4783.2% at an
SPS dosage of 0.15 g. Additionally, as an active central substance that generates radicals for the
polymerisation reaction, SPS affected the rate of the polymerisation reaction, which determined the
relative molecular mass of PSC-Hydrogel. SPS can undergo thermal decomposition at a certain
temperature as shown in Eqs. (3) and (4) [24].
heat
Na2 S2 O8 ! 2NaSO4 : (3)
heat
Na2 S2 O8 ! 2Naþ þ 2SO
4: (4)

SO4−⋅ produced during decomposition initiated the graft polymerisation of cellulose. The mechanism is
shown in Eqs. (5)–(7).
  
8 ! Cellulose  O þ HSO4 þ SO4 :
Cellulose  OH þ S2 O2 (5)
Cellulose  O þ monomer ! copolymer (6)
SOþ
4 :monomer ! homopolymer (7)
When the SPS dosage was less than 0.15 g, fewer active sites were triggered with a low degree of cross-
linking, resulting in the poor formation of a three-dimensional reticular spatial structure inside the hydrogel
and a lower value of Sr [25]. Furthermore, as SPS increased, both the number of active sites and active
radicals on cellulose chains increased. Thus, the collision probability between radicals and monomers
showed a significant increase, and the graft polymerisation reaction between cellulose chains and
JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7 3009

monomers was sufficient [26]. This led to the formation of a relatively complete spatial network structure
with a consequent increase in Sr. When SPS dosage exceeded 0.15 g, heat-activated SPS generated a
large amount of SO4−⋅ to promote the reactive centre sites, and elevate the rates of co-polymerisation and
self-polymerisation reactions. This led to uneven polymerisation and the formation of irregular network
structures. At the same time, the excessive amount of SO4−⋅ reacted with S2O82− in a burst reaction [27],
resulting in a significant reduction in Sr. Excess amount of SPS increased chain termination reactions,
reducing the relative molecular weight of the hydrogel polymer, and hindering the ability of cellulose to
form the hydrogel.
3.1.4 Influence of Monomer Dosage on Swelling Property of the Prepared Hydrogels
The hydrogel samples were prepared by using 40 mL of PSC solution, with the amount of SPS set to
0.15 g, the amount of MBA set to 0.30 g, and the reaction temperature set to 70°C. The amount of AA
was varied. Afterwards, the hydrogel samples were dried to a constant weight and the swelling rate was
measured. Three groups were measured in parallel for each sample. The effect of monomer AA dosage
on the swelling property of the prepared hydrogel is shown in Fig. 2D, where Sr gradually increased with
an increase in AA dosage, and a maximum of 5464.7% was reached at the dosage of 3.0 mL. This was
due to AA molecules undergoing self-polymerisation or graft copolymerisation with cellulose under the
action of SPS and MBA. Moreover, the AA molecules contained a large amount of hydrophilic -COOH
groups making the hydrogel absorb a significant amount of water without dissolution [28].
Sr decreased when the AA dosage was greater than 3.0 mL. This was because the higher AA dosage
resulted in a continuous rise in the number of -COOH and -COO-Na+ groups in the hydrogel. The
presence of -COOH and -COO-Na+ groups created a large number of intermolecular and intramolecular
hydrogen bonds inside the formed three-dimensional network. This resulted in an excessively dense
cross-linking network, which inhibited the water-absorbing and swelling behaviour of the hydrogel [29].
Additionally, the continuous increase in the number of -COOH and -COO-Na+ groups also led to an
increase in the soluble fraction of the hydrogel, which was detrimental to the swelling of the hydrogel.

3.2 Orthogonal Experimental Results

The experiments were analysed visually using orthogonal experiments with SPS dosage, MBA dosage,
polymerisation temperature, and AA dosage as independent variables and Sr as the response value. The
results are shown in Table 2. The degree of influence of every single factor on Sr was as follows, SPS
dosage > AA dosage > MBA dosage > polymerisation temperature, where the optimal conditions for
hydrogel preparation were: cellulose dosage of 0.40 g, SPS dosage of 0.20 g, polymerisation temperature
of 70°C, MBA dosage of 0.25 g, and AA dosage of 3.0 mL. All the subsequent hydrogels were prepared
under these conditions. The highest swelling rate of the hydrogel was 6646%, which was higher than that
of the hydrogels prepared by other methods, as shown in Table 3.
Table 2: Orthogonal experimental results
Serial number SPS dosage/g MBA dosage/g Polymerization temperature/°C AA dosage/mL Sr/%
1 +1 +1 +1 +1 2573.9
2 +1 0 0 0 2835.2
3 +1 −1 −1 −1 3555.2
4 0 +1 0 −1 7368.7
5 0 0 −1 +1 4195.0
6 0 −1 +1 0 4727.8
7 −1 +1 −1 0 6646.6
(Continued)
3010 JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7

Table 2 (continued)

Serial number SPS dosage/g MBA dosage/g Polymerization temperature/°C AA dosage/mL Sr/%
8 −1 0 0 −1 5899.6
9 −1 −1 +1 +1 4032.4
k1 2988.1 5529.7 4400.4 3600.4
k2 5430.5 4309.9 4745.4 4736.5
k3 5526.2 4105.2 4798.9 5607.8
R 2538.1 1424.6 398.5 2007.4

Table 3: Comparison of swelling rates of different hydrogels

Types of hydrogel Maximum swelling
rate (%)
Cellulose dual network hydrogel 6646
Environmentally friendly polyvinyl alcohol/carboxymethyl cellulose hydrogel [30] 3500
K-carrageenan nanocomposite hydrogel [31] 2800
Cellulose gel prepared from pineapple peel [32] 3927

3.3 XRD Characterisation Results of the Prepared Hydrogels

PS, PSC, and PSC-Hydrogel were characterised by XRD, and the results are shown in Fig. 3A. The
characteristic diffraction peaks of PS mainly appeared at 2θ = 15.63°, 22.13° and 26.68°, which
corresponded to the typical cellulose type I structure [33]. After extraction, the characteristic diffraction
peaks of PSC remained at 2θ = 15.63°, 22.13° and 26.68°. It was obvious that the peak area changed and
the cellulose crystalline shape changed to a cellulose type II structure. Both PS and PSC crystallinity
originated from the intramolecular hydrogen bonding of -OH and -COOH groups in their structures [34].

(A) (B)
22.13° PSC-Hydrogel
15.63°
26.68° 1573

22.13° PS 1640 1438

I n t e n s it y (a .u .)

15.63° 2939
PSC
26.63°
1745 1438
PS 1059
PSC 2939

22.39° 27.96°
19.28°
24.76° 29.48°30.17° 1745 1438
18.34° 1059
2939
PSC-Hydrogel

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000

Diffraction angle/(°) Wave number/cm-1

Figure 3: (A) XRD pattern and (B) FT-IR spectra of PS, PSC and PSC-Hydrogel

Crystallinity calculations revealed that the crystallinity index of PS was only 4.53%, while the
crystallinity index of PSC was 10.25%, which was 5% higher compared with PS. This was because PS
JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7 3011

contained a large number of amorphous substances, which could remove the attached substances such as
lignin and hemicellulose wrapped on the outer layer of cellulose during the extraction process of NaOH-
NaClO2, exposing cellulose and enhancing its crystallinity [35].
According to the XRD pattern, the intensity of the crystalline diffraction peak of PSC-Hydrogel
cellulose type II was significantly weaker than that of PSC, indicating that the original crystalline
structure of cellulose was destroyed during the cross-linking polymerisation reaction of the hydrogel. This
resulted in reduced crystallinity, which increased the chance of water molecules entering the network
structure of the solvated hydrogel, and increased the hydrogel’s water-holding capacity.
Additionally, in the case of PSC-Hydrogel, the original PSC diffraction peak at 2θ = 26.68° shifted
to 2θ = 27.96° with reduced intensity, indicating that the hydrogen bonding between the hydrogel
polymer chains was weakened due to the conversion of -OH groups of cellulose to C-O-C during the
graft polymerisation process [36], resulting in a new diffraction peak.
In addition, crystalline diffraction peaks of Na2CO3 were found at 2θ = 22.39°, 27.96°, 29.48° and
30.17° in the spectrum. This was presumably because, during the extraction of cellulose, hydrated Na+
intruded into the original crystalline region of cellulose. Finally, crystalline diffraction peaks containing
C, H, and O elements were found at 2θ = 18.34°, 19.28° and 24.76°, which were the characteristic peaks
of organic compounds.

3.4 FT-IR Characterisation Results of Hydrogels

PS, PSC, and PSC-Hydrogel were characterised by FT-IR analysis, and the spectra are shown in Fig. 3B.
IR absorption spectra of PC and PSC were comparable, with a broad absorption band at 1059 cm−1
corresponding to the asymmetric stretching vibration of C-O-C [37], a peak at 1438 cm−1 corresponding
to the shear vibration of -CH2, a peak at 1745 cm−1 corresponding to -C=О stretching vibration [38], and
the stretching vibration peak of C-H at 2933 cm−1 [39]. These results indicated that no derivatisation
reaction occurred during the cellulose extraction process.
In the case of PSC-Hydrogel, compared with PS and PSC, the asymmetric stretching vibration peak of
C-O-C at 1059 cm−1 and -C-О stretching vibration peak at 1745 cm−1 disappeared, indicating that the
grafting reaction consumed the groups on PSC. Furthermore, the weak -NH2 characteristic peak at
1573 cm−1 and C-О stretching vibration peak of the amide group at 1640 cm−1 indicated that monomer
AA and cross-linking agent MBA were involved in the reaction and the functional groups were
successfully grafted onto the fibre macromolecular chains [40].

3.5 SEM Characterisation Results of Hydrogels

In order to investigate the mechanism of the hydrogel with high swelling ability, SEM characterisations
of PS, PSC and PSC-Hydrogel were performed, and the results are shown in Fig. 4. It was observed that the
surface of untreated PS (Fig. 4a) showed a rough irregular shape, which was the structure formed by the
cellulose in PS wrapped by lignin and hemicellulose. The dense structure of the extracted PS surface in
Fig. 4b was disrupted, and cellulose was separated and exposed. The local magnification shown in
Fig. 4c describes the strip clusters of cellulose, which was also observed in the SEM image of PSC-
Hydrogel (Fig. 4d). The surface of PSC-Hydrogel displayed uneven and interconnected morphology. The
cellulose formed an obvious first-layer network structure due to the graft copolymerisation reaction with
monomer AA, and the second-layer flexible network contributed by MBA was interpenetrated with the
first-layer network. The double network structure facilitated the infiltration of water molecules, thus,
greatly improving the swelling property of PSC-Hydrogel.
3012 JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7

(A) (B)

Cellulose

(C) (D)
Cellulose
Cellulose
Cellulose

Figure 4: SEM images of (a) Peanut shell 1000×, (b) Peanut shell cellulose 1000×, (c) Peanut shell cellulose
5000×, and (d) Hydrogel 1000×

3.6 TGA Characterisation Results of Hydrogels

TGA analysis results of PSC-Hydrogel are shown in Fig. 5. The weight loss process of PSC-Hydrogel
was divided into three stages. The first stage was from room temperature to 150°C. This was caused by the
loss of water inside the hydrogel, which contributed to 74.98% of the sample’s total mass. The second stage
was from 150°C to 350°C, which consisted of the destruction of -CONH2 in PSC-Hydrogel and -COOH in
AA, with the weight loss caused by the destruction of -C-O-C- on the graft chain. The third stage was from
350°C to 600°C, where the disruption of the cross-linked structure in PSC-Hydrogel and weight loss were
due to carbonisation of organic components.

100 0.0

-0.2
80
-0.4
TG/%

60
-0.6

40 -0.8

-1.0
20
-1.2

0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

ºC

Figure 5: TGA analysis of hydrogels

3.7 Hydrogel Swelling Kinetic Analysis

To further explore the swelling behaviour of the prepared hydrogels, the swelling rate changes were
measured at different temperatures (10°C, 20°C and 30°C), and the results are shown in Fig. 6A. The
change in the trend of Sr at different temperatures was similar, where rapid growth was observed in the
first stage, then slowed in the second stage, and equilibrated in the third stage. In the first stage, water
molecules first diffused to the inside of the hydrogel, triggering the rapid stretching of polymer chains.
JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7 3013

Thus, the internal spatial structure of the hydrogel expanded with a large number of water molecules invading
and forming a significant amount of hydrogen bonds with hydrophilic groups such as -COOH, resulting in
hydrogel swelling. As the swelling proceeded, the swelling entered the second stage, where the internal
network of the hydrogel was stressed to produce elastic contraction [41]. Then, the polymer chain
extension became hindered, and the hydrogel swelling rate slowed. When the two tendencies of the
polymer chain, stretching and contraction, were in conflict, the swelling entered the third stage, where the
internal space of the hydrogel was stable and the swelling reached equilibrium.

(A) 7000 (B) 0.25

6000 0.00

-0.25
5000
Swelling rate/%

Phase III -0.50

4000

ln(S rt/S r )
-0.75
3000 Phase II
-1.00
2000 ºC ºC
ºC -1.25 ºC
1000 ºC ºC
Phase I -1.50

0 -1.75
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 0.0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0
Swelling time/h lnt

(C) 0.0028

0.0024

0.0020

0.0016
t/S rt

0.0012
ºC
0.0008 ºC
ºC
0.0004

0.0000
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16
t

Figure 6: (A) Swelling rate of hydrogels at different temperatures. (B) Fitting curve of Schott’s second-order
kinetic equation for the whole swelling process. (C) Fitting curve of Fickian diffusion model for the first stage
of swelling

In order to explain the swelling behaviour of PSC-Hydrogel more reasonably, the whole process of
hydrogel swelling was analysed using Schott’s secondary kinetic equation Eq. (8) [42], and the results are
shown in Fig. 6A.
t=Srt ¼ 1=ks Sr1
2
þ t=Sr1 (8)
where Srt (%) is the swelling rate of PSC-Hydrogel at time t, Sr∞ (%) is the equilibrium swelling rate of PSC-
Hydrogel, t (h) is the swelling time, and ks is the swelling rate constant.
3014 JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7

As shown in Fig. 6B, the entire process of dissolution and Schott’s secondary kinetic equation fitting
curve matched well, and the relevant parameters are shown in Table 4.

Table 4: Schott swelling parameters of hydrogel at different temperatures

Temperature/°C R2 ks Sr∞/% Srs/%
−4
30 0.97606 1.610 × 10 5982.1 6710
20 0.96639 0.689 × 10−5 5490.0 6990
10 0.97331 0.428 × 10−5 5137.2 7340

As listed in Table 4, the correlation coefficients R2 of the linear fitted curves of hydrogel swelling under
different temperature conditions were greater than 0.9, which had a certain linear correlation and ks values were
realistic. However, the theoretical equilibrium swelling rate Srs was large, which indicated that the whole
swelling process of PSC-Hydrogel could not be simulated using the Schott secondary swelling kinetic model.
Considering the theoretical differences in the principles of the three stages of hydrogel swelling, the
Fickian diffusion model Eqs. (9) and (10) were used to fit the first stage of swelling separately [43], and
the results are shown in Fig. 6C.
F ¼ Srt =Sr1 ¼ kt n (9)
lnðSrt =Sr1 Þ ¼ lnk þ n  lnt (10)
where Srt (%) is the swelling rate of PSC-Hydrogel at time t, Sr∞ (%) is the equilibrium swelling rate of PSC-
Hydrogel, t (h) is the swelling time, k is the swelling rate constant, and n is the characteristic index.
Fig. 6C shows that the first stage of hydrogel swelling exhibited good coincidence with the fitted curve
of the Fickian diffusion model, and the relevant parameters are listed in Table 5.

Table 5: Fickian swelling parameters of hydrogel at different temperatures

Temperature/°C R2 n k
30 0.99982 0.77126 0.34420
20 0.99409 0.68801 0.28126
10 0.99031 0.71756 0.23050

As shown in Table 5, the correlation coefficients R2 of the fitted curves for the first stage of hydrogel
swelling at different temperatures were all greater than 0.99, 0.5 < n < 1.0. This indicated that hydrogel
swelling in the first stage satisfied the Fickian diffusion model, and the swelling was determined by both
water diffusion and polymer chain stretching inside the hydrogel [44].

3.8 Adsorption Property Analysis of the Prepared Hydrogels

Keeping other variables constant, 0.2 g of PSC-Hydrogel was placed into 80 mL of 5 mg/L MB solution
and the adsorption experiments were performed at different temperatures. The actual adsorption performance
of the hydrogels for MB at 25°C for different adsorption times is shown in Fig. 7.
The results of the adsorption property of PSC-Hydrogel towards MB dye at different temperatures are
shown in Fig. 8A. The change trend of Qt at different temperatures was comparable, and the adsorption
processes all showed a similar trend of fast and then slow, and finally equilibration. During 1∼7 h, PSC-
Hydrogel adsorbed MB rapidly and the blue colour of the MB solution became lighter. This was due to
JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7 3015

the rapid water absorption of hydrogel swelling with increased stretching of cellulose macromolecule chains,
the opening of adsorption sites inside the hydrogel space, and increased binding of MB dye molecules to the
adsorption sites. During 7∼26 h, the adsorption sites on the PSC-Hydrogel structure were gradually
occupied, the surface attraction between MB molecules and PSC-Hydrogel gradually decreased, and the
adsorption rate of PSC-Hydrogel on MB gradually decreased. After 26 h, the adsorption sites on the
hydrogel surface were saturated, and the adsorption of MB on the hydrogel reached equilibrium.

(A) (B) (C)

Figure 7: Comparison of hydrogel adsorption of MB at different times: (a) 0 h; (b) 18 h; (c) 48 h

(A) (B) 50
1.35

1.20
40
Adsorption amount/(mg/g)

1.05

0.90 30
0.75
t/Q t

0.60 ºC 20
ºC
0.45 ºC 15 ºC
10 25 ºC
0.30 35 ºC
0.15
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Adsorption time/h t

(C) 0

-1

-2
ln(Qe-Qt)

-3

ºC
-4 ºC
ºC

-5

-6
0 10 20 30 40
t

Figure 8: (A) Adsorption capacities of aqueous hydrogel for MB at different temperatures. (B) Pseudo
primary kinetic equation fitting curve for adsorption of MB by hydrogels. (C) Pseudo secondary kinetic
equation fitting curve for adsorption of MB by hydrogels
3016 JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7

To further explore the adsorption behaviour of PSC-Hydrogel, the pseudo primary model Eq. (11) and
pseudo secondary model Eq. (12) were used to evaluate the MB adsorption process, and the results are shown
in Figs. 8B and 8C.
lnðQe  Qt Þ ¼ lnQe  k1 t (11)
t=Qt ¼ 1=k2 Q2e þ t=Qe (12)
where Qe(mg/g) is the adsorption amount at PSC-Hydrogel adsorption equilibrium, k1 is the adsorption
pseudo primary kinetic model coefficient, and k2 is the pseudo secondary kinetic model coefficient.
According to the fitted parameters listed in Table 6, the theoretical adsorption amount of both the pseudo
primary kinetic and pseudo-secondary kinetic models of PSC-Hydrogel adsorption of MB was similar to the
actual adsorption amounts. However, the theoretical adsorption amounts of the pseudo secondary kinetic
model were higher than the actual situation. Additionally, the linear correlation coefficient R2 values of
the pseudo-secondary kinetic model were all greater than 0.99. This excellent correlation indicates that
the adsorption process of PSC-Hydrogel adsorption MB was more consistent with the pseudo-secondary
kinetic model. It also indicates the existence of chemical adsorption in the process.

Table 6: Kinetic parameters for adsorption of MB by hydrogels at different temperatures

Temperature/°C Pseudo first order dynamics
k1 R2 Qe (mg/g) qe (mg/g)
15°C 0.12309 0.96922 1.17276 1.11082
25°C 0.11699 0.93573 1.26124 1.20117
35°C 0.12956 0.91795 1.05307 1.08120
Temperature/°C Pseudo-second-order dynamics

k2 R2 Qe (mg/g) qe (mg/g)
15°C 0.16776 0.99925 1.17276 1.29256
25°C 0.14739 0.99844 1.26124 1.39054
35°C 0.17205 0.99955 1.05307 1.17306

In order to further evaluate the kinetics of the MB adsorption process on the gel surface, this adsorption
process was investigated using the Elovich kinetic model, and the results are shown in Fig. 9 and Table 7.
Elovich equation is usually applied to chemisorption kinetics and some slow adsorption processes in a
wide range. It is suitable for systems with heterogeneous adsorption surfaces, and its model is shown in
Eqs. (13) and (14) [37].
dqt
¼ aebqt (13)
dt
Integration over the boundary yields
1 1
qt ¼ lnðabÞ þ ln t (14)
b b
JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7 3017

where α (mg/g min) is the initial adsorption rate and β is related to the degree of surface coverage and the
activation energy of chemisorption (g/mg).

ºC
1.25 ºC
ºC

1.00

qt(mg/g)
0.75

0.50

0.25

0 1 2 3 4
lnt

Figure 9: Elovich fitting curve for adsorption of MB by hydrogels at different temperatures

Table 7: Fitting parameters of Elovich dynamic model

Temperature (°C) Α (mg/g min) Β (g/mg) R2
15 0.7335 3.9885 0.98720
25 0.7783 3.7528 0.99124
35 0.5742 4.2533 0.98581

As seen from the fitted parameters listed in Tables 6 and 7, the R2 values for the second-order fitted
model of hydrogel adsorption for MB are higher than those obtained for Elovich kinetics, indicating that
the fitted curve for the second-order equation is closer to the experimental curve than the fitted curve for
the Elovich model. It should be noted that the Elovich model can also be used to describe the adsorption
of MB on the PSC-Hydrogel, based on a correlation coefficient R2 > 0.9, which indicates the presence of
chemisorption between the PSC-Hydrogel and MB.

3.9 Adsorption Isotherm Analysis of the Prepared Hydrogels

In order to gain a clearer understanding of the relationship between adsorption and equilibrium
concentration, experimental data on the adsorption of hydrogels for MB solutions with different initial
concentrations at pH 7 and 25°C were fitted using the Langmuir and Freundlich isotherm models, and the
results are shown in Fig. 10 and Table 8.
The Langmuir adsorption model assumes that adsorption occurs on a homogeneous adsorbent surface,
as a monolayer, with a finite number of adsorption sites, and that the adsorption equilibrium is dynamic. The
corresponding mathematical expression is shown in Eq. (15) [45]:
Ce 1 Ce
¼ þ (15)
Qe Qm KL Qm
where Ce is the equilibrium concentration of MB in an aqueous solution (mg⋅L−1), Qe is the adsorption capacity
at equilibrium (mg⋅g−1), Qm is the maximum adsorption capacity (mg⋅g−1), and KL is the Langmuir constant
(L⋅mg−1). The abscissa is set by the Ce value, and then the Ce/Qe value is set to the ordinate to draw the
3018 JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7

chart. Qm and KL can be deduced respectively by the slope and intercept of the image obtained by fitting the
experimental data.

(A) (B)
70 1.8

60
1.5
50
1.2
Ce/Qe g·L-1

40

logQe
30 0.9

20 0.6

10
0.3
0
0.9 1.2 1.5 1.8 2.1 2.4
0 75 150 225 300
logC e
Ce/mg·L-1

Figure 10: Fitting curves of Langmuir (A) and Freundlich (B) adsorption isotherm models for the
adsorption of MB by hydrogels

Table 8: Adsorption isotherm parameters of Langmuir and Freundlich adsorption isotherm models for the
adsorption of MB by hydrogels
Langmuir adsorption isotherm Freundlich adsorption isotherm
−1 −1
Qm/(mg⋅g ) KL/(L⋅mg ) R 2
n KF(mg⋅g−1) R2
384 6.6968 0.9799 0.5464 0.3639 0.9864

The Freundlich adsorption model is usually used to simulate the multilayer adsorption phenomenon
between the adsorbent and the surface functional groups, and its mathematical expression is shown in
Eq. (16) [46]:
log Ce
log Qe ¼ log KF þ (16)
n
where KF is the Freundlich constant related to adsorption capacity (mg⋅g−1), and n is the parameter related to
adsorption strength. With logCe as the abscissa and logQe as the ordinate, KF and n can be derived from the
slope and intercept of the image obtained by fitting the experimental data, respectively.
Analysis of the results showed that the correlation coefficient of the Freundlich model (R2 = 0.9864) was
higher than that of the Langmuir model (R2 = 0.9799), indicating that the theoretical sorption of MB fitted by
the Freundlich model was closer to the experimental results. Therefore, the adsorption behavior of MB on
PSC-Hydrogel was more inclined to chemisorption.

3.10 Adsorption Mechanism for the MB Dye by Prepared Hydrogels

Due to the three-dimensional mesh structure of the hydrogel, MB molecules are easily adsorbed.
According to the above model analysis, the process of MB adsorption is mainly chemisorption,
accompanied by physical adsorption. The functional groups on the surface of the hydrogel before and
after adsorption were analyzed by FT-IR, as shown in Fig. 11.
JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7 3019

After adsorption

1078
2933

1380
1457
1640
Before adsorption

2933 1640 1380

4000 3500 3000 2500 2000 1500 1000

-1
Wave number/cm

Figure 11: FT-IR spectra of PSC-Hydrogel before and after adsorption

The new peak at 1457 cm−1 after adsorption is due to C=C bond contraction vibration in the region of
double bond stretching vibration [30]. The peak at 1380 cm−1 corresponds to polycycles with enhanced
intensity, indicating the binding of MB on the hydrogel [47], while the peak at 1078 cm−1 is due to the
vibration of the C-O-C glycosidic bond of cellulose [48]. The increase in the peak area at 1078 cm−1 after
adsorption indicates the involvement of MB in the adsorption process on the hydrogel surface [49]. At
the same time, hydrogen bonds are also involved in the adsorption process, and the free electron pair on
the MB tertiary amine group forms hydrogen bonds with the hydroxyl group on the cellulose molecular
chain [47]. In addition, the adsorption pore size (4.395 nm), average pore size (1.363 nm), and surface
area (0.309 m2/g) of the hydrogel promote the adsorption of MB molecules, and allow MB molecules to
diffuse through the pores on the surface of the hydrogel.
The above results illustrate the good adsorption properties of PSC-Hydrogel for MB. The comparison
between the adsorption performance of PSC-Hydrogel and other adsorbents is shown in Table 9. It was found
that the adsorption amount of cellulose double network hydrogel was higher than that of other adsorbents in
different concentrations of MB solution, which indicates the excellent adsorption performance of
PSC-Hydrogel.

Table 9: Adsorption amounts of PSC-Hydrogel and other adsorbents in different concentrations of MB solutions
Adsorbent MB 10 mg/L MB 100 mg/L MB 500 mg/L
PSC-Hydrogel 1.83 20 127
Activated charcoal from the fruit peel of plant - 9 -
hydnocarpus pentandra [9]
Bone char [11] 0.70 - -
Activated acidified kaolinite [50] - - 85
Raw kaolinite [50] - - 64
Note: “-” indicates no data given.
3020 JRM, 2023, vol.11, no.7

4 Conclusions
A double network hydrogel was prepared by graft copolymerisation method, using peanut shell cellulose
extract as the raw material, MBA as the cross-linking agent, sodium persulfate as the initiator, and AA as the
monomer.
(1) After the single-factor tests and orthogonal experiments, the equilibrium hydrogel swelling rate was
used as the response value for the process optimisation. The optimal conditions for hydrogel
synthesis were as follows: 0.40 g of cellulose, 0.20 g of initiator, polymerisation temperature at
70°C, 0.25 g of cross-linking agent, and 3.0 mL of monomer. The effect of the amount of
initiator on hydrogel synthesis was the most obvious, followed by the reaction temperature, while
the amount of monomer had the least influence.
(2) SEM analysis revealed that the hydrogel exhibited a clear three-dimensional double network cross-
linked structure. XRD showed that the cellulose crystal type changed from cellulose I to cellulose II
during the extraction process, and the hydrogel was amorphous.
(3) The results of the hydrogel swelling kinetic analysis showed that the hydrogel swelling process could
be divided into three stages. The whole swelling process basically fitted the Schott secondary swelling
kinetic model, which fitted well with the Fickian diffusion model in the first stage.
(4) The adsorption kinetic analysis of methylene blue on hydrogel showed that the adsorption process of
hydrogel conformed to the pseudo-first-order kinetic model, pseudo-second-order kinetic model,
Elovich model, and particle diffusion model. The best-fitting effect was achieved with the
pseudo-second-order kinetic model.
(5) The adsorption isotherm analysis of methylene blue on hydrogel showed that the adsorption process
was consistent with Langmuir and Freundlich models. The correlation of the Freundlich isotherm
model was higher, indicating that the adsorption of methylene blue on hydrogel was mainly
chemisorption.

Acknowledgement: The authors would like to thank the Analytical and Testing Center of the Henan
University of Engineering, which provided the facilities for the experiments. The authors would also like
to thank Yuqing Song for her help with language revision in the paper.

Funding Statement: This study was supported by the National Visiting Scholar Program for Key Young
Teachers of Central and Western Universities, the Ministry of Education (19042), the Key Science and
Technology Project of Henan Province (212102310064), and the National Innovation and Entrepreneurship
Training Program for College Students, Ministry of Education (202111517002).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest to report regarding the
present study.

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