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SCOPE OF STUDYING ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

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SCOPE OF STUDYING ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

By
Prof. A. Balasubramanian
M.Sc., Ph.D., F.G.S(Ind.), F.M.S (Ind.)
Professor of Earth Science (Retd)
Centre for Advanced Studies in Earth Science,
Former Dean, Faculty of Science & Technology,
University of Mysore,
Mysore

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 SCOPE OF STUDYING ECONOMIC GEOLOGY

By
Prof.A.Balasubramanian
Professor of Earth Science (Retd)
Centre for Advanced Studies in Earth Science,
Former Dean, Faculty of Science & Technology,
University of Mysore,
Mysore
Introduction:

Minerals are naturally occurring, inorganic, crystalline solids have known chemical compositions and
definite physical properties. They are usually solid. Minerals are classified based on chemical composition
and crystal structure. Minerals are vital raw materials for many basic industries and are major inputs in
industrial development. The management of mineral resources, hence, has to be closely integrated with the
overall strategy of development and exploitation of minerals, which is to be guided by the long-term
national goals.

Economic geology is a branch of geology deals with the occurrence, composition, structure, and origin of
various geological formations and their economic mineral deposits which can be technically utilized.
Economic geology is concerned with all the natural mineral resources of the earth’s that can be used for
economic and/or industrial purposes. These resources include precious and base metals, nonmetallic
minerals, construction-grade stone, petroleum, coal, and water. Economic geology is studied and practiced
by geologists. It is an interdisciplinary subject involving the concepts of chemistry , physics, geography
and economics. It is related on one side to theoretical geology, paleontology, mineralogy, and petrography;
on the other side to mining, metallurgy, economics and many other technological subjects.

Mineral deposits:

The outer shell of the globe is commonly called the earth's crust. Of this shell only the most superficial part
is accessible to human beings. The radius of the earth is about 4,000 miles. The deepest shaft attains only
about 6,000 feet, 1 the deepest bore-hole 7,350 feet. This crust consists of manifold mineral aggregates
formed at different times and in various ways. Each individualized mass of mineral aggregates—such as a
stratum, a lava flow, an intrusive mass of igneous rock, a dike, a vein, or a lenticular mass—is called a
"formation," a "member," or in general a "geologic body."

At the end of the 1800’s and in the early 1900’s geologists came to the conclusion that 1) ore deposits
formed from a great many geological processes, 2) structures in the rocks were important in localizing ores
and in the movement if fluids, and, 3) that a unifying classification scheme was desperately needed; deposits
needed to be systematically arranged so similarities and differences between them could be seen and used to
not only understand their origin but also to find other, similar deposits.

Aim and Scope of studying Economic Geology:

Minerals play an indispensable role in the progress and development of human society. The living standard
of a nation is measured by its per capita consumption of minerals/metals. The industrial development of a
country needs an uninterrupted supply of raw materials. Therefore, endowment of the mineral resources not
only provides strength but also ensures sustainable supply required to keep the wheels of industries running.
These resources are built by concerted efforts put in exploring the mineral bearing prospects.
Economic Geology deals with the occurrence, distribution, and origin of mineral deposits.

Economic Geology tries to understand the answers to these types of questions.

Where is the deposit?

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Why is it where it is? To what depth is it likely to extend?
What changes are likely to take place in it with increasing depth?
How shall one find the continuation of a deposit that is "lost"?.
Economic geology is closely related to general and to structural geology.

Learning Outcomes:

Upon successful completion of a course in economic geology, students will have the knowledge and skills
to:
1. Recognise common ore minerals in hand samples and under the microscope
2. Demonstrate familiarity with a wide range of mineral deposits, including recognising the overall
geometry, zonation and alteration patterns associated with specific classes of metallic mineral
deposits
3. Relate overall geometry, zonation and alteration patterns of rock associations to specific classes of
metallic mineral deposits.
4. Evaluate different processes of element enrichment by fluids and melts to from ore bodies.
5. Inform peer students and the wider public how understanding the formation of ore bodies is
important in the current debates about global resources.

The scope of studying Economic Geology are shown in the following figure:

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Economic Mineral resources:

Economic Mineral resources fall into four broad categories: metals and non-metals, mineral fuels,
gemstones, and industrial minerals. Coal, oil, and natural gas are treated as mineral fuels. Metals include
gold, silver, iron, copper, lead, and zinc. Rubies and diamonds are examples of gemstones. All other
minerals and rocks of economic significance, from river gravel to sheet mica, are classified as industrial
minerals. Industrial and metallic minerals, because of their physical and chemical properties, provide
materials that are essential for modern society. They furnish raw materials for construction and agriculture,
and for the ceramic, chemical, metallurgical, manufacturing, and energy-related industries. Economic
geology deals with the origin, occurrence, distribution and utility of all these mineral resources.

Ore

A mixture of ore minerals and gangue from which at least one of the metals can be extracted at a profit.

Protore is low-grade metalliferous material which is not itself valuable but from which valuable ore may be
formed by superficial alteration and enrichment.

A gangue mineral is an earthy or nonmetallic mineral associated with the ore minerals of a deposit.

Metallogeny or metallogenesis are words used about the study of how mineral deposits formed, included
their place in time and space, and their relation to the regional petrographic and tectonic characteristics of
the Earth' s crust. We may also talk about metallogenetic maps, metallogenetic provinces, and
metallogenetic epochs.

Ore dressing
Removal of waste and the preparation/concentration of ore.

Ore grade
Amount of minerals contained in an ore. Expressed as a percentage or grams per tonne.

Ore body
A natural concentration of valuable material that can be extracted and sold at a profit.

Ores hoot
The portion, or length, of the vein, or other ore structure, that carries sufficient valuable mineral to be
extracted profitably.

Overburden
Waste rock or cover above an orebody.

A "mineral occurrence" is a concentration of a mineral (usually, but not necessarily, considered in terms of
some commodity, such as copper, barite or gold) that is considered valuable by someone somewhere, or that
is of scientific or technical interest. In rare instances (such as titanium in a rutile-bearing black sand), the
commodity might not even be concentrated above its average crustal abundance.

A "mineral deposit" is a mineral occurrence of sufficient size and grade that it might, under the most
favorable of circumstances, be considered to have economic potential.

An "ore deposit" is a mineral deposit that has been tested and is known to be of sufficient size, grade, and
accessibility to be producible to yield a profit. An Ore Deposit is a mineral deposit that can be mined at a
profit, considering all geological and economic factors including grade, tonnage, accessibility, infrastructure,
ore processing, etc.

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Ore deposits are delineated by mineral exploration, which uses geochemical prospecting, drilling and
resource estimation via geostatistics to quantify economic ore bodies. The ultimate aim of this process is
mining.

Ore Geology:

Ore and mineral deposits are natural concentrations of useful metals, minerals or rocks, which can be
economically exploited. The origin of mineral deposits is often due to a complex combination of several
processes, boundary conditions and modifying factors, collectively making up the metallogenetic, or
minerogenetic system.

It is a branch of economic geology. Ore geology deals with the processes that concentrate metals and
minerals in the earth’s crust. Study of the genesis of a mineral deposit should recognize three groups of
Processes those concerned in (1) deposition, (2) deformation, and (3) superficial alteration and enrichment
of the deposits. An ore is a mineral or association of minerals that may, under favorable conditions, be
worked commercially for the extraction of one or more metals.

Spectrum of studying Economic Geology:

Humanity's ever-increasing use of minerals as raw materials, caused by a growing global population and
ever increasing standards of living, has resulted in much focus on economic geology. Earth has
innumerable variety of valuable natural resources. Air, Land, Soil, Water, Forests and wild life resources,
are to mention a few. There are two major and vital natural resources to be understood in economic
geography, because of their role in supporting human activities. They are the minerals and mineral fuels.

Like land and water, minerals are invaluable natural treasures of the earth. There is no industrialization
without the use of mineral resources. The development of country’s economy and its source of national
income mainly depend on the available natural resources. Some of the natural resources are renewable and
many of them are practically lost once used. The non-renewable resources are to be conserved and preserved
for own future generation to survive. Minerals and power resources support the industrial development and
help to grow the national economy. Many of these resources are not uniformly distributed, in horizontal
space and vertical depth. Their quantitative occurrences are also highly varied.

Studying the Geology of ore deposit :

Ore deposit geology or economic geology is the science behind the discovery and evaluation of mineral
resources. Many ore minerals are relatively rare minerals. Some are widespread as accessory minerals in
many types of igneous, metamorphic and sedimentary rock. One of the long-term research aims of ore
deposit geologists is to understand the genesis and formation of ores in the geological history of the Earth
sufficiently well to predict the locations and nature of deposits. Ore contains ore minerals intermixed with
other minerals (gangue) from which they must be separated through milling, to break down ore into
constituent minerals, followed, typically, by flotation to separate the minerals of economic interest from the
gangue. The processes of ore formation can be magmatic, metamorphic, sedimentary or hydrogeological.

Which commodities are included by the definition of ore deposits?

The economic definition of an ore deposit given above would include:
_ ores of metals
_ ores of gemstones
_ ores of minerals used as feedstock for production of industrial chemicals
_ ores of minerals used in industrial products
_ rock used as aggregate, for building stone
_ coal and oil shale.

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There are many thousands of known ore deposits.

Importance of Economic Geology:

Minerals have a characteristic chemical composition, ordered atomic structure and specific physical
properties. The minerals range in composition from pure elements and simple salts to very complex
silicates with thousands of known forms. Geologists are involved in the study of ore deposits, which
includes the study of ore genesis and the processes within the Earth's crust that form and concentrate ore
minerals into economically viable quantities. Study of metallic ore deposits involves the use of structural
geology, geochemistry, the study of metamorphism and its processes, as well as understanding
metasomatism and other processes related to ore genesis.

Characteristics of Mineral resources:

 Renewable and non-renewable resources
 Mining of optimum recovery of resources-needed
 R&D
 Environmental problems are trivial issues
 Disposal of large volumes of overburden
 Removal and processing of large volumes of rocks
 Modification of landscapes, terrain conditions, drainage systems, etc
 Problems of waste disposal
 Energy requirement at all stages
 Continuous need for searching and exploration
 Offshore and on-shore resources- different approaches needed
 Recycling of scrap- development of substitutes
 Technological innovations
 Demand-supply varies between developed countries and developing countries
 Populations v/c demand increases

Importance of Mineral resources:

 That minerals require the application of energy, labor, and capital in order to liberate their services is
an important point to note.
 Basic raw materials for life are- energy, water, food and shelter.
 Minerals constitute a fundamental part of a nation’s economy.
 Historically, civilizations have closely associated with water and minerals and metallic substances.
 There were stone age, bronze age, iron age and atomic age.
 Common use of mineral products in all homes and offices, industries.
 Brick, stone, cement, glass, iron, steel, copper, aluminium, ceramics, etc.
 Transportation systems use a lot - fuel, steel, glass, iron, copper, etc.
 4 major activities were concentrated in ancient days: mining, drilling, agriculture, and forestry.
 Minerals form as the Backbone of large number of industries.
 They promote industrial growth and development.

Application of Mineral resources:

 Minerals are used as primary raw materials in mineral-based industries
 Minerals are used in agriculture sector
 Minerals are used in food handling, ornamentations, jewellery, etc
 Transport network, automobiles, sports, recreation and travel – all use mineral products directly or
indirectly.
 Minerals are sources of energy

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  There are cheap mineral fuels too.

Minerals in a Nation’s Economy:

 Mineral development contributes for national income and employment.
 There are direct and indirect contributions to economy.
 Modern mining are labour intensive.
 Mining requires huge capital investment and infrastructure.
 Mining machineries are expensive.
 Mining use maximum labour.
 Gives Benefit of Direct taxation
 Involves expenditure on exploration, development and mine production
 Processing of raw materials is another area
 Tax exemptions periods – incentives
 Depletion allowance
 Allowance for pre-production expenses
 Accelerated capital cost allowance
 Economic rent concept and revenue to govt.

Some important factors in the evaluation of a potential ore body are:

Ore grade:

The concentration of a metal in an ore body is called its grade, usually expressed as a percentage or in parts
per million (ppm). The process of determining these concentrations is called assaying. Various economic
and sometimes political considerations will determine the lowest grade of ore that can be produced from an
ore body; this is termed the cut-off grade.
 By-products
 Commodity prices
 Mineralogical form
 Grain size and shape
 Undesirable substances
 Size and shape of deposits
 Ore character
 Cost of capital
 Location and Geographical factors
 Environmental considerations
 Taxation
 Political/actors.

Minerals in International Trade:

In essence, wherever there is demand for these industrial and domestic applications (i.e., a market), this will
create a trading business specific to that market. The crucial point is that the pattern of industrial minerals
trade is dictated by the needs of the population and the performance of the economy, and then combined
with mineral availability. The overall nature of international trade in industrial minerals is based on the
economic importance of industrial minerals, market geography, the structure of the mine-to market supply
route, pricing, and the main factors influencing mineral trade today. Certain industrial minerals may have 1,
2, or maybe up to 10 domestic or industrial applications; others such as lime may have more than 50 uses.

All industrial minerals are mined (surface and underground) and then undergo processing to refine the crude
mineral ore into a processed grade or range of grades for sale to the desired market. The minerals are then
transported from their source, sometimes to another plant for further processing, possibly via a complex
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freight route employing a raft of services, or directly to the consuming markets. In general, three broad
sectors facilitate the route of a mineral from mine to market: (1) the supply sector, (2) the logistics sector,
and (3) the consuming market sector.

Minerals in India:

Most of the metallic minerals in India occur in the peninsular plateau region in the old crystalline rocks.
Over 97 per cent of coal reserves occur in the valleys of Damodar, Sone, Mahanadi and Godavari. Petroleum
reserves are located in the sedimentary basins of Assam, Gujarat and Mumbai High i.e. off-shore region in
the Arabian Sea. New reserves have been located in the Krishna-Godavari and Kaveri basins. Most of the
major mineral resources occur to the east of a line linking Mangaluru and Kanpur. Minerals are generally
concentrated in three broad belts in India. There may be some sporadic occurrences here and there in
isolated pockets.

Well endowed with industrial minerals, India's leading industries include steel, cement, mining, and
petroleum, and gems and jewelry comprised the country's second-leading export commodity. The minerals
industry of India produced more than 80 mineral commodities in the form of ores, metals, industrial
minerals, and mineral fuels and was among the world's leading producers of iron ore, bituminous coal, zinc,
and bauxite, with 10% of world deposits.

Minerals accounted for 20% of exports. An estimated 4,400 mines operated in the country. Most mines were
small surface operations using only hand tool methods. There were also 300 underground mines in the
nonfuel sector, most of which were operated manually. Employment in the minerals industry was estimated
at more than 1 million (4.5% of the employed labor force), with the public sector employing 90% of the
total. Total exports represented about 10% of GDP, with jewelry leading the growth. The country exploited
52 minerals—11 metallic, 38 non-metallic, and three mineral fuels. Increases in production were noted for
bauxite, cathode copper, crude oil, iron ore, steel, and other minerals.

Mineral deposits can be classified as:

a) potentially valuable, and for which reasonable prospects exist for eventual economic extraction.
b) valuable and legally and economically and technically feasible to extract.

A 'Mineral Resource' is a concentration or occurrence of material of intrinsic economic interest in or on the

earth's crust in such form, quality and quantity that there are reasonable prospects for eventual economic
extraction. Mineral Resources are further sub-divided, in order of increasing geological confidence, into
inferred, Indicated and measured Categories.

Inferred Mineral Resource is that part of a mineral resource for which tonnage, grade and mineral content
can be estimated with a low level of confidence. It is inferred from geological evidence and assumed but not
verified geological/or grade continuity. It is based on information gathered through appropriate techniques
from location such as outcrops, trenches, pits, workings and drill holes which may be of limited or uncertain
quality and reliability.

Indicated resources are simply economic mineral occurrences that have been sampled (from locations such
as outcrops, trenches, pits and drill holes) to a point where an estimate has been made, at a reasonable level
of confidence, of their contained metal, grade, tonnage, shape, densities, physical characteristics.

Measured resources are indicated resources that have undergone enough further sampling that a 'competent
person' (defined by the norms of the relevant mining code; usually a geologist) has declared them to be an
acceptable estimate, at a high degree of confidence, of the grade, tonnage, shape, densities, physical
characteristics and mineral content of the mineral occurrence.

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Mineral reserves/Ore Reserves:

Mineral reserves are resources known to be economically feasible for extraction. Reserves are either
Probable Reserves or Proved Reserves.

A Probable Ore Reserve is the part of Indicated resources that can be mined in an economically viable
fashion, and in some circumstances, a Measured Mineral Resource. It includes diluting material and
allowances for losses which may occur when the material is mined. A Probable Ore Reserve has a lower
level of confidence than a Proved Ore Reserve but is of sufficient quality to serve as the basis for decision
on the development of deposit.

A Proved Ore Reserve is the part of measured resources that can be mined in an economically viable
fashion. It includes diluting materials and allowances for losses which occur when the material is mined. A
Proved Ore Reserve represents the highest confidence category of reserve estimate. The style of
mineralization or other factors could mean that Proved Ore Reserves are not achievable in some deposits.

The Formation of Minerals:

A great variety of deposits and lots of processes which lead to mineral concentrations.

Ore Forming Processes and Fluids:

Ore deposits form in a great variety of ways and all of these geologically different processes work toward
taking diffuse elements and minerals and concentrating them 10-1000 or more times thus turning them into
viable mineral deposits.

Ore forming fluids can be subdivided into:

1) Magmatic.
2) Magmatic Hydrothermal.
3) Seawater-meteoric water-connate water.
4) Mixing of 2 and 3.
5) Metamorphic fluids.

Some of the geological processes for forming ore deposits are:

1) Evaporation of seawater: salt, potash, borax.

2) Melting glaciers: sand and gravel.
3) Alluvial: concentration of dense, durable minerals like gold, tin, platinum, and diamonds.
4) Weathering: nickel laterites, bauxite (aluminum)
5) Sedimentary precipitation: iron ore
6) Digenesis and extraction of connate brines: MVT deposits and sedimentary exhalative deposits
7) Metamorphism-Sapphires, Rubies and metamorphic fluids: orogenic gold
8) Magmatic differentiation plus magma mixing: chromium, magnetite, lithium, REEs
9) Liquid Immiscibility: nickel, copper, platinum, palladium
10)Hydrothermal: copper, zinc, lead, mercury, arsenic, gold, silver, bismuth, antimony.

Mineral economics:

Mineral economics is the study of the business and economic aspects of natural resources, their extraction
and use. Mineral economics involves studying the topics like economic and financial analysis that are
developed to meet the special needs of the natural resource related industries. All stakeholders in the

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industry use mineral economics, including national and local governments, corporations, banks and financial
companies, and consulting firms.

Coal and petroleum geology = The study of sedimentology is of prime importance to the delineation of
economic reserves of petroleum and coal energy resources.

Mineral Resource Classification:

Mineral deposits are classified based on their geologic origin, occurrence and economic value.

Classification of Economic Minerals:

Minerals are classified into 10 major categories, on economic point of view:

1. Metallic Minerals (Ferrous Group)
2. Metallic Minerals (Non-Ferrous Group)
3. Precious & Semi-precious Minerals
4. Strategic Minerals
5. Fertilizer Minerals
6. Refractory Minerals
7. Ceramic and Glass Minerals
8. Other Industrial Minerals
9. Minor Minerals
10. Mineral fuels ( Coal, Oil & Gas).

Metallic Minerals (Ferrous Group)

1. Chromite
2. Iron Ore (Haematite)
3. Iron Ore (Magnetite)
4. Manganese Ore

Precious & Semi-precious Minerals

1. Corundum
2. Diamond
3. Garnet
4. Gold
5. Ruby
6. Sapphire
7. Silver

Strategic Minerals
1. Cobalt
2. Molybdenum
3. Nickel
4. Tin
5. Titanium Minerals
6. Tungsten
7. Vanadium

Fertilizer Minerals
1. Gypsum
2. Phosphate (Apatite)
3. Rock Phosphate (Phosphorite)
4. Potash

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 5. Pyrite
6. Sulphur (Native)

Refractory Minerals
1. Andalusite
2. Fireclay
3. Graphite
4. Kyanite
5. Magnesite
6. Pyrophyllite
7. Sillimanite

Ceramic and Glass Minerals

1. Ball Clay
2. China clay
3. Feldspar
4. Quartz & Silica Sand
5. Wollastonite

Other Industrial Minerals/ Rocks

1. Asbestos
2. Barytes
3. Borax
4. Calcite
5. Chalk
6. Diaspore
7. Diatomite
8. Dolomite
9. Dunite
10. Fluorite
11. Laterite
12. Limestone
13. Marl
14. Mica
15. Ochre
16. Perlite
17. Quartzite
18. Rock Salt
19. Shale
20. Slate
21. Talc/Steatite/Soapstone
22. Vermiculite
23. Zircon

Minor Minerals/Rocks
1. Bentonite
2. Fuller's Earth
3. Granite (Dimension Stone)
4. Marble

Mineral Fuel Sector

1. Coal & lignite
2. Petroleum and Natural Gas

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Geochemical considerations:

It is traditional in the mining industry to divide metals into groups with special names. These are as
follows:
1) precious metals-gold, silver, platinum group (PGM);
2) non-ferrous metals-copper, lead, zinc, tin, aluminium (the first four being commonly known as
base metals);
3) iron and ferroalloy metals-iron, manganese, nickel, chromium, molybdenum, tungsten, vanadium,
cobalt;
4) minor metals and related non-metals-antimony, arsenic, beryllium, bismuth, cadmium,
magnesium, mercury, REE, selenium, tantalum, tellurium, titanium, zirconium, etc.;
5) fissionable metals-uranium, thorium (radium).

Mineral Development:

Mineral exploration and development are investigative activities prior to the start up of mining. The
successful exploration and development can be large, if a mineral deposit is discovered, evaluated, and
developed into a mine. For a mining company, successful exploration and development lead to increased
profits. A mineral development project is first explored. The prospectors conduct early exploration activity
to justify the decision to proceed with developing the project. Exploration efforts including geophysical
surveys, surface sampling and drilling have all been conducted. The data gathered from exploration work is
used to determine whether a company will continue to explore and develop a mineral resource. After
discovery and definition of an estimated tonnage of a mineral deposit, a company will want to proceed with
project development. Engineering studies are typically the next phase of development and will require
funding, much like any other exploration or development activity.

Mining:

Mining is the extraction of valuable minerals or other geological materials from the Earth, usually from an
ore body, lode, vein, seam, reef, or placer deposit. These deposits form a mineralized commodity that is of
economic interest to the miner. Ores recovered by mining include metals, coal, oil shale, gemstones,
limestone, chalk, dimension stone, rock salt, potash, gravel, and clay. Mining is required to obtain any
material that cannot be grown through agricultural processes, or feasibly created artificially in a laboratory
or factory. Mining in a wider sense includes extraction of any non-renewable resource such as petroleum,
natural gas, or even water. Modern mining processes involve prospecting for ore bodies, analysis of the
profit potential of a proposed mine, extraction of the desired materials, and final reclamation of the land
after the mine is closed.

Mineral Processing and Extractive Metallurgy:

Mineral processing is a major division in the science of Extractive Metallurgy. Extractive metallurgy has
been defined as the science and art of extracting metals from their ores, refining them and preparing them
for use. Within extractive metallurgy, the major divisions in the order they may most commonly occur are,
Mineral Processing (or Beneficiation), Hydrometallurgy, Pyrometallurgy, and Electrometallurgy. The last
steps in the winning of metals are in Physical Metallurgy where the composition and treatment of metals are
varied to provide desired physical and mechanical properties.

In mineral processing, a number of unit operations are required to prepare and classify ores before the
valuable constituents can be separated or concentrated and then forwarded on for use or further treatment.
The field of mineral processing has also been given other titles such as mineral dressing, ore dressing,
mineral extraction, mineral beneficiation, and mineral engineering. These terms are often used
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interchangeably. Many factors determine whether a rock is an ore, including supply and demand, and the
location of the material.

Simple ores are ores that yield a single metal.

Complex ores are ores that yield more than one metal.

By-products are the minor metals that are recovered from an ore. Co-products are the major metals obtained
from an ore (if > 1)

Primary and Secondary Ores

Primary ore minerals are those associated with the original episode of ore deposition.

Secondary ore minerals are those deposited during subsequent weathering at or near the surface.

The effect of weathering is to leach many metals from the ore to leave a leached capping or gossan. These
metals may then enrich the underlying ore in a process known as secondary enrichment.

The Grade of an Ore:

The grade of an ore is the fraction by mass of the valuable material it contains.
If:
The mass of the ore = M
The mass of valuable material contained = m
Then the grade (in %) = m/M * 100
Sometimes, the ore is described in terms of its ore mineral content. It can then be converted to metals grade
using the appropriate relative atomic masses.

Conclusion:

Geology is the scientific study of the Earth, its constituents, forms and processes, economic resources and
occurrence of natural disasters. Geologists study some of society's most important natural resources, such as
energy, water, oil and mineral resources; the environment; climate change; and natural hazards like
landslides, volcanoes, earthquakes, and floods and application of geological knowledge in mining of mineral
resources, exploring oil and water, construction of dams, reservoirs, tunnels and bridges, providing raw
materials to almost all industries. Mineral resource is one of the important natural resources of India which
contributes to the national income through mineral export earnings and acts as an important input for the
industrial sector of domestic economy. Industrial minerals can be defined as minerals mined and processed
(either from natural sources or synthetically processed) for the value of their non-metallurgical properties,
which determine their use in an extremely wide range of industrial and domestic applications. The scope of
studying Economic Geology is very wide and much useful subject for the sustenance of a nation in its
economic growth and development.

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