College of Engineering, Architecture and Fine Arts

Electrical and Computer Engineering Department

ENGINEERING MECHANICS
Friction and Frictional Forces:
When two bodies in contact have a tendency to move over each other a resistance to the movement is set up.
This resistance to the movement is called the Force of friction or simply friction. Friction depends upon the nature
of the surface of contact. Friction acts parallel to the surface of contact. The direction of this frictional force on
any one of the surfaces of contact will be opposite to the direction in which the contact surface tends to move.
In other words, friction opposes motion.
• Friction is an important force in many aspects of everyday life.
• If there is too much friction, loss of energy, wear and tear of materials in contact occurs.
• If there is less friction or no friction, this would result in ‘slipping’ all around.
• For example oil in the engine of car is meant to minimize friction between moving parts in contact to
reduce excessive friction for reducing loss of energy and material.
• We need the friction between the tires on the road surface, to let the wheels roll. Friction is caused due
to the unevenness of the surface of contact of bodies tending to move past each other.
Friction is the contact resistance exerted by one body when the second body moves or tends to move past
the first body. Friction is a retarding force that always acts opposite to the motion or to the tendency to
move.

Types of Friction
Dry Friction
Dry friction, also called Coulomb Friction, occurs when unlubricated surfaces of two solids are in contact
and slide or tend to slide from each other. If lubricant separates these two surfaces, the friction created is
called lubricated friction. This section will deal only with dry friction.

Fluid Friction
Fluid friction occurs when layers of two viscous fluids moves at different velocities. The relative velocity
between layers causes frictional forces between fluid elements, thus, no fluid friction occurs when there is
no relative velocity.
 Skin Friction
Skin friction also called friction drag is a component of the force resisting the motion of a solid body through
a fluid.

Internal Friction
Internal friction is associated with shear deformation of the solid materials subjected to cyclical loading. As
deformation undergo during loading, internal friction may accompany this deformation.

Elements of Dry Friction

N = Total reaction perpendicular to the contact surface
f = Friction force
μ = Coefficient of friction
R = Resultant of f and N
ϕ = angle of friction

When one body moves relative to the other, the tangential forces will always be developed along the surfaces of
contact. These tangential forces are called frictional forces.
 Fig.12.1
Fig.12.1 shows a wooden block resting on a rough horizontal table. Let W be the weight of the block. Let the
block be subjected to a horizontal force P. When this applied force is sufficiently small, the block will remain in
equilibrium. The rough table surface will exert a normal reaction Rand a tangential reaction (friction) F on the
block so as to keep the block in equilibrium. Resolving, the forces on the block vertically and horizontally, we get
R=W
and F=P
Suppose the force P is gradually increased. The friction F will also increase, so that at every stage of
equilibrium F = P. But there is a limit to which friction can increase. We can not expect the frictional resistance
to go on increasing infinitely as the force P is increased. Let F1 represent the greatest possible friction. Let P1 be
the applied force corresponding to this condition. At this stage,
F1 = P1
If the applied force exceeds P1, the block will slip on the table since the friction resistance cannot increased
beyond the value F1. The greatest possible friction depends upon the normal reaction. In the example given
above the normal reaction is equal to W. When the block is at the point of sliding the ratio of this friction to the
normal reaction is found to be a constant which depends upon the surfaces of contact. This contact is called the
coefficient of friction.
i.e. If F is the frictional resistance when the block is in the limiting equilibrium
F = µR where µ is the coefficient of friction

Angle of Friction
Consider the block resting on the horizontal rough surface. Let Rꞌ be the resultant reaction (resultant of the
normal reaction R and friction F). The angle Ө between the resultant reaction and the normal to the surface is
called the angle of friction.
 Fig.12.2
Obviously, tanӨ = \[{F \over R}\]
Corresponding to the limiting condition of equilibrium, the friction F will reach the maximum value. Corresponding
this condition the angle of friction reaches a maximum value λ, so that
tan λ = \[{{{F_{max}}} \over R}\] = µ
Therefore λ = \[{\tan ^{ - 1}}\mu\]
The inclination of the resultant reaction with the normal when the condition of limiting equilibrium is reached is
called the angle of limiting friction.
Example: If coefficient of friction between all surfaces shown in Fig.12.3 is 0.30. What is the horizontal force
required to get 250 kg block moving to the right?

Fig.12.3
Solution: In this problem 80 kg block is completely restrained against motion and as we apply force P on 250
Kg block as shown in Fig.3, there is no force acting vertically at the contact surfaces between the obstacle and
80 kg block. Hence frictional force acts only at bottom and top surfaces of 250 kg block while only at lower
surface of 80 kg block. Refer Fig.12.4.
(a) Lower block (b) Upper block
Fig.12.4
Note that ∑ Fy = 0 for upper block gives M2 = W2
Therefore, M2 = 80 × 9.81 = 784.8 N
For lower block, ∑ Fy = 0 gives M1 = W1 + M2
Therefore, R1 = (250 × 9.81) + 784.8 = 3237.3 N
Also (Fr)1 = µ R1 = (0.3) (3237.3) = 971.19 R
and (Fr)2 = µ R2 = (0.3) (784.8) = 235.44 R
∑ Fx = 0 for lower block gives P = (Fr)1 + (Fr)2
or P = 1206.63 N
Note - ∑ Fx = 0 is not necessary for upper block in this problem.
Example: A pull of 20 kN at 30° to the horizontal in necessary to move a block of wood on a horizontal table
(Fig.12.5).If the coefficient of friction between the bodies in contact is 0.25, what is the weight of the block?
 Fig.12.5
Solution: Pull (P) = 20 kN, inclination of the force θ = 30° to the horizontal
Coefficient of friction, µ = 0.25
Let W = unknown weight of the block.
Resolving the forces horizontally, we get
F = P Cos30°
µR = P Cos30° ------------------------------------------------(i)
Resolving the forces perpendicular to the plane vertically, we get
R + P Sin30° = W
R = W – P Sin30° ------------------------------------------------------(ii)
Substituting the value of R in Eqn.(i), we get
µ(W – P Sin30°) = P Cos30°
0.25(W – 20 Sin30°) = 20 Cos30°
0.25(W – 10) = 17.32
W = 79.28 kN

LAWS OF FRICTION
The following are the laws of friction:
(i) Friction in non-limiting equilibrium
(ii) Friction in limiting equilibrium
(iii) Friction during motion
First Law (Applicable to non-limiting, limiting and dynamic condition). Friction always opposes motion.
Frictional forces come into play only when a body is urged to move. Frictional force will always act in a direction
opposite to that in which the body is urged to move.
Second Law (Applicable to non-limiting condition of equilibrium). The magnitude of the frictional force is
just sufficient to prevent the body from moving. That is, only as much resistance as required to prevent motion
will be offered as friction.
Third Law (Applicable to limiting condition of equilibrium). The limiting frictional resistance bears a constant
ratio with the normal reaction. This ratio depends on the nature of the surfaces of contact. The limiting frictional
resistance is independent of the area of contact.
Fourth Law (Friction during motion i.e Kinetic Friction). When motion takes place as one body slides over
the other the magnitude of the frictional resistance will be less than that offered at the condition of limiting
equilibrium. The magnitude of the friction will depend only on the nature of the sliding and independent of the
shape or the extent of the contact area.
 Fig.13.2
When a body resting on a horizontal surface is subjected to gradually increasing horizontal force P the
condition F = P is satisfied as long as the body is in equilibrium. In the condition of equilibrium, the maximum
value of the friction is Fm which occurs when the body is in limiting equilibrium. If the horizontal force P on the
body is further increased, then the equilibrium of the body is broken and the body moves over the surface. In
this condition the value of the friction is Fk which is less than Fm.
Example: A 150 N block is placed on a rough horizontal surface as shown in Fig.13.3 knowing that block just
slides for P = 50 N and Ө = 20°, determine µ. For same Ө =20° and same µ, determine magnitude of P to just
slide the same block, ‘P’ being applied in .opposite direction, at same point O.

Fig.13.3
Solution: Refer Fig.13.3 showing Free Body Diagram of the block for case I
 Fig.13.3(Case I)
∑ Fx = 0 gives Fr = 50 cos 20°
Where Fr = µ R1
R1 = 150 – 50 sin 20° = 132.9 N
µ (132.9) = 50 cos 20°
µ = 0.353
Fig.3(Case II) shows Free Body Diagram of same block for ‘P’ in opposite direction.

Fig.13.3(Case II)

Here R2 = 150 + P sin 20° And Fr = P cos 20° = R2

P (0.939) = 0.353 (150 + 0.342P)
P = 64.73 N
Example: Two bodies weighing 120 kN and 100 kN rest on an inclined plane and are connected by a chord
which is parallel to the plane. The body weighing 100 kN is below the one weighing 120 kN and coefficient of
friction for 100 kN body is 0.2 and that for 120 kN is 0.3. Find the inclination of the plane to the horizontal and
the tension in the chord when motion is about to take place, down the incline.

Fig.13.4
Solution: Consider the weight of body A, i.e. 100 kN.
Resolving the forces parallel and perpendicular to the inclined plane, we get
F1 + T – 100 Sinθ = 0
µR1 + T – 100 Sinθ = 0
0.20R1 + T – 100 Sinθ = 0
T = 100 Sinθ – 0.25R1
R1 = 100 Cosθ
100 Sinθ – T = 0.20 × 100 Cosθ -----------------------------------------------------(i)
Consider the body B, i.e. 120 kN.
Resolving the forces parallel and perpendicular to the inclined plane, we get
F2 – T – 120 Sinθ = 0
0.3R2 – T = 120 Sinθ
R2 = 120 Cosθ
0.3 × 120 Cosθ – T = 120 Sinθ--------------------------------------------------------(ii)
Solving Eqn. (i) and (ii), we get
100 Sinθ – T = 25 Cosθ
36 Cosθ – T = 120 Sinθ
100 Sinθ – 25 Cosθ = 36 Cosθ – 120 Sinθ
61 Cosθ = 220 Sinθ
tanθ = \[{{61} \over {220}} = 0.277\]

θ = 15.49°

CONE OF FRICTION

Fig.14.1
Let ON represent the normal reaction offered by a surface on a body (Fig.14.1). If OX is the direction in which
the body tends to move then the force of friction acts in the opposite direction i.e, along OE. If the body be in
limiting equilibrium the resultant R makes an angle λ with the normalON.
Suppose the body is at the point of sliding in other direction, it is easily seen that the resultant reaction will make
the same angle λ with the normal. Hence, when limiting friction is offered the line of action of the resultant
reaction should always lie on the surface of an inverted right circular cone whose semi-vertex is λ. This cone is
called the cone of friction.
Example: A block is weighing 50 kg is placed on a rough surface whose coefficient of friction is 0.30 and inclined
force P is applied at its top corner as shown in Fig.14.2. Determine whether the block will tip or slide and the
force P required to move the block.
 Fig.14.2
Solution: W = 50 × 9.81 = 490.5 N
By referring Fig.14.2
∑ Fy = 0
R1 – W + P sin 35°
R1 = 490.5 – 0.574 P
Or
Hence limiting friction force = µ R1
= 0.3 (490.5 – 0.574 P)
= 147.15 – 0.1722 P
Now F = P cos 35° using ∑ Fx = 0
So, F = 0.819 P
Let us assume that block slides before tipping,
Then 0.819 P = 147.15 – 0.1722 P
P = 148.46 N
Now check the tipping of block,
∑ M0 = 0 = (148.46 sin 35°) (0.35) + (148.46 cos 35°) (0.5) – N1 (x)
29.83 + 60.79 – R1 x = 0
90.62 = R1 x
By putting the value of R1, we get
90.62 = (490.5 – 0.574 P) x
x = 0.224 m
As x < 0.35 m, tipping will not occur.
Hence block slides with P = 148.46 N
Example: A ladder 5 m long weighing 200 N is resting against a wall at an angle 0f 60° to the horizontal ground.
A man weighing 500 N climbs the ladder. At what position along the ladder from bottom does he induce slipping.
The coefficient of friction for both the wall and the ground with the ladder is 0.2.

Fig.14.3
Solution: Let the ladder be at the point of sliding when the man is at a distance x metres from the foot of the
ladder. See Fig.14.3.
Let F be the position of the man.
BF = x, BE = AE = 2.5m
Let the normal reactions at the floor and the wall be R and S. Friction at the floor and the wall will be 0.2R and
0.2S respectively.
Resolving the forces on the ladder horizontally and vertically,
S = 0.2R--------------(1)
R + 0.2S = 700 N-------------(2)
From equations (1) and (2), we get R = 673.08 N
S = 134.62 N
Taking moments about the lower end of the ladder,
200 × 2.5 cos 60° + 500 × x cos 60° = S × 5 sin 60° + 0.2S × 5 cos 60°
250 +250x = 2.5 S + 0.5 S
250 + 250x = S (2.5 + 0.5)
250 + 250x = 134.62 (2.5 + 0.5)
250 + 250x = 650.23
x = 1.60 m

Problems for Friction:

Problem 1
A 400 lb block is resting on a rough horizontal surface for which the coefficient of friction is 0.40. Determine the
force P required to cause motion to impend if applied to the block (a) horizontally or (b) downward at 30° with
the horizontal
Problem 2
The 2225-N block is in contact with 45° incline. The coefficient of static friction is 0.25. Compute the value of
the horizontal force P necessary to (a) just start the block up the incline or (b) just prevent motion down the
incline. (c) If P = 1780 N, what is the amount and direction of the friction force?
Problem 3
The 200-lb block has impending motion up the plane caused by the horizontal force of 400 lb. Determine the
coefficient of static friction between the contact surfaces.
Problem 4
The 10-kN cylinder is held at rest on the 30° incline by a weight P suspended from a cord wrapped around the
cylinder. If slipping impends, determine P and the coefficient of friction.
Problem 5
Block A weighs 120 lb, block B weighs 200 lb, and the cord is parallel to the incline.

If the coefficient of friction for all surfaces in contact is 0.25, determine the angle θ of the incline of
which motion of B impends.
Plane Truss or Frame:
A plane truss or frame consists of several bars laying in one plane and connected by hinges or pins at their ends
so as to provide a stable configuration. Frames are used in the roofs of sheds at Railway platform, workshops
and in industrial buildings, bridges etc. Plane trusses are made of short thin members interconnected at hinges
into triangulated patterns.
• The truss can have only hinged and roller supports.
• In field, usually joints are constructed as rigid by welding.
For analysis purpose we assume that the following conditions are satisfied.
(i) All the members are connected together at their ends by pin joints which are absolutely frictionless.
(ii) All loads and reactions act on the truss only at the joints.
(iii) The longitudinal centroidal axes of the members are absolutely straight, concident with the appropriate lines
joining the joint centres and lie in the same plane of the lines of action of the loads and reactions.
The simplest frame is a triangle (Fig.15.1), consists of three members pin-jointed to each other. This can be
easily analyzed by the condition of equilibrium. This frame is called the basic perfect frame. It has three
members AB, BC and CA and three joints A, B and C.

Suppose we add two members AD and CD and a joint D to this basic perfect frame, we get a frame (Fig.15.2)
which can also be analyzed by the condition of equilibrium. This frame is called a perfect frame.

Suppose we add two members and a joint to this frame as shown in Fig.15.3, we again got a perfect frame.
In this way we can go on adding any number of sets and can obtain a perfect frame.
TYPES OF FRAMES
Following are the types of frames:
(a) Perfect Frame
(b) Deficient or Imperfect Frame
(c) Redundant Frame
(a) Perfect Frames :- Simplest perfect frame is a triangular assemblage of three member AB, BC, CA
meeting at joints B, C and A as shown in Fig.15.4

Mathematically,
m = number of members
j = number of joints
Then m = 2 j – 3 is the condition for the frame to be a perfect frame.
• Hence for a stable frame the minimum number of members required = Twice the number of joints
minus three.
• If the number provided is less than the above requirement equation then frame will not be stable.
For the Fig.15.4, m = 3, j = 3
m = 2j – 3
3=2×3–3
3=3 condition is satisfied.
Now consider the frame in Fig.15.5
Here m = 7, j = 5
m = 2j – 3
7=2×5–3
7=7
Hence the frame is perfect frame.
(a) Imperfect Frames :- (a) When the numbers are less than that required by equation m = 2j – 3 then frame
is called imperfect or deficient frame. Such frame, cannot resist geometrical distortion under the action of loads.
(b) Redundant Frames :- If the number of members are more than that required by equation m = 2j -3, then
such frames will be called as redundant frames.

In Fig.15.6,
m = 12, j = 7
m = 2j – 3
12 = 2 × 7 – 3
12 = 14 – 3 = 11
Hence, the frame is redundant to a single degree, because one member is more.
In general let a frame have j joints and n members.
• If n = 2j – 3, then the frame is perfect frame.
• If n < 2j – 3, then the frame is deficient frame.
• If n > 2j – 3, then the frame is redundant frame.
A perfect frame can always be analyzed by the condition of equilibrium. While a redundant frame cannot be fully
analyzed by the condition of equilibrium. We will discuss the analysis of perfect frames only.

REACTIONS AT SUPPORT
Frames are usually provided with either
(i) Roller Supports
(ii) Hinged Support
(iii) Fixed Support
(i) Roller Support: Fig. 15.7 consists of support which is known as roller support. It is always a normal reaction
R perpendicular to the surface of rolling. This support always gives one reaction component in perpendicular
direction.

(ii) Hinged Support: This is the support at which inclined reaction R is developed. It has two components one
is in vertical direction i.e. V and other is in horizontal direction which is H. Hence, hinged support always offers
offers two reaction components V and H.
(iii) Fixed Support: Fig. 15.9 shows a fixed support at which three reaction components are developed. One is
in vertical direction i.e. V, one is in horizontal direction i.e. H and one is a moment M.

In the cantilever frame shown in Fig. 15.10 the roller base at B is vertical and hence the reaction at this support
is horizontal.
At a hinged support, the direction and the line of action of reaction will depend upon the load system on the
structure.

To determine the reactions

Reactions at the supports of a structure can be determined by the conditions of equilibrium. The external load
system applied on the structure and the reactions at the supports must form a system in equilibrium.
Consider the cantilever truss shown in Fig.15.11. The truss is provided with a hinged support at A and a roller
support at E. The roller base at E being vertical the reaction at E is horizontal. Hence there will be no vertical
reaction at E.

Fig.15.11
Taking moments about A.
He × 4 = (60 + 40) 3 + (30 × 6)
He = 120 KN →
Total applied vertical force = 60 + 40 +30 = 130 KN ↓
Therefore, vertical reaction at A = Va = 130 KN ↑
Resolving the forces horizontally, we get
Ha = 120 KN ←
Thus the reaction at A consists of a vertical component Va = 130 KN ↑ and a horizontal component
Ha = 120 KN ←
Now consider the truss shown in Fig.15.12 provided with a hinged support at A and a roller support at G. The
roller base at G is horizontal and hence the reaction at G is entirely vertical. There will be no horizontal reaction
at G.
Taking moments about A
Vg× 8 = ( 20 × 3) + ( 30 × 2) + ( 40 × 4) + ( 60 × 6)
Therefore, Vg = 80 KN ↑
 Fig.15.12
Total applied vertical force = 30 + 40 + 60 = 130 KN ↓
Therefore, vertical reaction at A = Va = 130 – 80 = 50 KN ↑
Total applied horizontal force = 20 KN →
Therefore, Horizontal reaction at A = Ha = 20 KN ←

To determine which member of a truss do not carry forces

In a truss carrying a load system some members may not carry forces. Such members can be identified by using
the following principles.
(a) A single force cannot form a system in equilibrium. Means if there is only one force acting at a joint, then for
the equilibrium of the joint, this force will be equal to zero as shown in Fig. 15.13.
P=0

Fig.15.13
(b) If two forces act at a joint, then for the equilibrium of the joint these two forces should act along the same
straight line. The two forces will be equal and opposite. If these two forces are not along the same line. Then for
equilibrium of the joint each force equals to zero as shown in Fig. 15.14.
P = 0 and Q = 0
 Fig.15.14
(c) If three forces act at a joint and two of them are along the same straight line, then for the equilibrium of the
joint, the third force should be equal to zero as shown in Fig. 15.15.
R=0

Fig. 15.15
For example, in the truss shown in Fig. 15.16

Fig. 15.16

Consider the joint H. Forces at this joint are

Pha in the member HA.
Phg in the member HG.
Phb in the member HB.
Since Pha and Phg are in the same straight line, Phb = 0. Similarly, Pcg = 0 and Pfd = 0.
Assumptions in truss analysis
Trusses are analyzed based on the following assumptions:
(i) Each member of the truss is connected at its end by frictionless pins.
(ii) The truss is loaded as well as supported only at its joints.
(iii) The forces in the members of the truss are axial.
(iv) The self-weight of the members is neglected.

• These assumptions only lead to idealization of a truss.

• In reality the steel trusses are not exactly pin-jointed. They are fabricated by riveting, bolting or
welding the ends of the members to gusset plates.
• The truss joints are semi-rigid in reality and can transmit moments unlike frictionless pinned joints.
• In many situations the loads are not applied exactly at the joints.
• It should be remember that in an actual truss the centroidal axes of the members are not really
concurrent at a joint thus inducing bending moments in the member.
ANALYSIS OF A TRUSS
The analysis of a truss consists of determination of reactions at supports and forces in the members of the truss.
• The reactions are determined by the condition that the applied load system and the induced reactions at
the supports form a system in equilibrium.
• The forces in the members of the truss are determined by the condition that the every joint should be in
equilibrium and so, the forces acting at every joint should form a system in equilibrium.
A truss can be analyzed by the following methods:
• Method of Joints
• Method of Sections
• Graphical Method
Method of Joints
After determining the reaction at the supports, the equilibrium of each joint is considered one by one.
• Each joint will be in equilibrium if ∑ V= 0 and ∑ H = 0, these two conditions are satisfied.
• Forces in the members will either be tensile in nature or compressive in nature.
• The joint is selected in such a way that at any time there are not more than two unknowns.
The direction of an unknown force is assumed.
• If the magnitude of force comes out to be positive than assumed direction will be correct.
• If the magnitude of force comes out to be negative than assumed direction will be incorrect.
The process is continued until all the joints are considered thereby calculating the forces in all the members of
the frame.
Example: Find the forces in the members AB, BC, AC of the truss shown below in Fig.16.1. End A is hinged
and B is supported on rollers.

Fig.16.1
Solution: A roller offers a reaction perpendicular to plane of rolling. Let RB is reaction at B. A hinge offers two
reaction components one in vertical direction and another in horizontal direction. Since the load of 5O kN acts
vertically downward, therefore only vertical direction RA is developed and no horizontal reaction.
From the geometry of the figure, the distance of 50 kN load from A in horizontal direction
along AB is AC cos60°.

Fig.16.2 Fig.16.3
In ΔACB,
Angle at ACB = 90°
AC = AB cos 60° = 6 × \[{1 \over 2}\] = 3 m
BC = AB sin 60° = 6 × \[{{\sqrt 3 } \over 2}\] = 3 \[\sqrt 3\] m
Distance of 50 kN load from A = AC cos 60° = 3 × = 1.5 m
Taking moments about A, we have
RB × 6 = 50 × 1.5
RB = \[{{50 \times 1.5} \over 6}\] = 12.5 kN
For equilibrium ∑ V = 0, i.e.
RA + RB = 50
RA + 12.5 = 50
RA = 37.5 kN
Considering equilibrium of joint A, first because RA is known and only two unknown forces F1 and F2 are there.
At each joint two equation of statical equilibrium are available i.e.
∑ V = 0 and ∑ H = 0.
Let F1 is force produce in the member AC and F2 is the force produced in the member AB as shown in Fig.2.
Joint A has to be in equilibrium. Component of force F1 in vertical direction will balance vertical reaction RA.
Therefore, the arrow is marked in member (1) in down direction. Applying condition ∑ V = 0 at joint A.
F1 sin 60° = 37.5
F1 = 37.5 × \[{2 \over {\sqrt 3 }}\] = \[{75 \over {\sqrt 3 }}\] = \[{75 \over {\sqrt 3 }}\] × \[{{\sqrt 3 } \over {\sqrt 3
}}\]
= + 25 \[\sqrt 3\] kN (+ve sign indicates that as assumed direction is correct)
= 43.30 kN
As the force F1 is pushing joint A, therefore F1 is compressive force. Mark arrow at joint C as pushing it to show
that member AC is compression member (Fig.16.2)
Now applying condition ∑ H = 0 at joint A,
F1 cos 60° = F2
Therefore, F2 = 43.30 × \[{1 \over 2}\] = + 21.65 kN
(again +ve sign indicated that the arrow marked in member AB is correct)
As the force F2 is pulling the joint A, therefore F2 is a tensile force. At B, place arrow marking away from B to
show that member AB is a tension member.
Next consider joint B, as shown in Fig.16.3
Let F3 is the force produced in the member BC. The joint B has to be in equilibrium. It must satisfy the two
conditions of statical equilibrium viz. ∑V = 0 and ∑ H = 0. Let us assume the direction of arrow towards B.
Applying ∑ V = 0 at joint B.
F3 sin 30° = 12.5
Therefore F3 = + 25 kN (+ve sign indicates that direction of F3 is correct)
As F3 pushes the joint B, Therefore it is a compressive force.
Now applying second condition ∑ H = 0 at the joint B,
F3 cos 30° = F2
25 × \[{{\sqrt 3 } \over 2}\] = 21.65
21.65 = 21.65 (Check)
Now the forces in the various members are tabulated in the following table.

Member Force

AB Tensile = 21.65 Kn

BC Compressive = 25 kN

AC Compressive = 43.30 kN

Forces are marked in the truss, as shown in Fig.16.4. If we take tensile forces as +ve, then compressive force
will be –ve.

Fig.16.4
Example: Determine the forces in the members of the truss loaded as shown in the Fig.16.5. Also indicate the
nature of the force (tensile or compressive).
 Fig.16.5
Solution: The truss is symmetrical and also loaded symmetrically therefore, reactions RA and RB will be equal.
From the condition of equilibrium
∑V=0
i.e. RA + RB = 10 + 20 + 20 + 20 +10
2RA = 80
RA = 40 kN, RB = 40 kN
Draw BM and CN perpendicular to AE.
In Δ CAN, tan CAN = = 33.69°
Q = angle at CAN = 33.69°
ΔCFN, tan α = = 2
α = 63.43°
AC = \[\sqrt {A{N^2} + C{N^2}}\] = \[\sqrt {{6^2} + {4^2}}\] = 7.2 m
AB = 3.6 m, BM = 3.6 sin 33.69° = 1.99 m
AM = AB cos Ө = 3.6 cos 33.69° = 2.99 m
MF = AF – AM = 4 – 2.99 = 1.01 m
tan β = \[{{BM} \over {MF}}\] = \[{2 \over {1.01}}\] = 1.98
β = 63.20° = α
Considering joint A, (Fig.16.6). At this joint four forces are acting, out of which two forces AB and AF are
unknown. Applying condition of equilibrium at joint A, ∑ V = 0. Resolving all forces in a vertical direction, we
have
 Fig.16.6
10 + AB sin Ө = 40 ..........................(i)
∑H=0
Resolving all forces horizontally, we have
AB cos Ө = AF................................(ii)
(Here AF is assumed to be in tension and AB is assumed to be in compression)
From (i), AB × sin 33.69° = 30
Therefore, AB = \[{{30} \over {\sin 33.69^\circ }}\] = \[{{30} \over {0.5547}}\]

= + 54.08 kN (compression)
From (ii), AF = 54.08 cos 33.69°
= 44.99 kN (tensile)
Considering joint B, (Fig.16.7)

Fig.16.7
Angle ABF = 180° - Ө – β
= 180° - 33.69° - 63.20°
= 83.11°
Resolving all forces perpendicular to ABC,
BF sin 83.11° = 20 sin (90 – Ө)
BF × 0.9928 = 20 cos Ө = 20 × 0.8320
BF = 16.76 kN (compressive)
Resolving all forces along the line ABC,
AB + BF cos 83.11° = BC + 20 cos (90 – Ө)
54.08 + (16.76 × 0.1199) = BC + (20 × 0.5547)
56.089 = BC + 11.094
BC = 44.49 KN (compressive)
Considering joint F, (Fig.16.8)

Fig.16.8
Resolving all forces vertically
BF sin α = CF sin α
Therefore, CF = 16.76 kN (tensile)
Resolving all forces in horizontal direction.
FG + CF cos α + BF cos α – AF = 0
Therefore, FG + 16.76 cos 63.20° + 16.76 cos 63.20° - 44.99 = 0
Therefore, FG + 7.56 + 7.56 – 44.99 = 0
FG + 15.12 – 44.99 = 0
FG = 29.87 KN (tensile)
We have analysed half the truss, other half is symmetrical, therefore
AF = EG, AB = ED, BC = DC, BF = DG, CF = CG

Member Force Nature

AB 54.08 KN Compressive

BC 44.99 KN Compressive

CD 44.99 KN Compressive

DE 54.08 KN Compressive

AF 44.99 KN tensile

FG 29.87 KN tensile

GE 44.99 KN tensile

FB 16.76 KN Compressive

FC 16.76 KN tensile

GD 16.76 KN Compressive

GC 16.76 KN tensile

METHOD OF SECTIONS
For a member near to supports can be analysed with the help of method of joints and for members remote from
supports can be quickly analysed with the help of method of sections.
• In this method a section line is passed through the members, in which forces are to be determined in
such a way that not more than three members are cut.
• Then any of the cut part is then considered for equilibrium under the action of internal forces developed
in the cut members and external forces on the cut part of the truss.
 • The condition of equilibrium, i.e \[\sum V = 0,\sum H = 0,\sum M=0\] are applied to the cut part of the
truss under consideration. As three equations are available, therefore, three unknown forces in the three
members can be determined.
• If the magnitude of a force comes out to be positive then the assumed direction is correct. If the magnitude
of a force is negative then reverse the direction of that force.
Example: Find the forces in the members PR and PQ of the truss loaded as shown in Fig.17.1, using method
of sections.

Fig.17.1
Solution: PR = 6 cos60° = 3 m
QR = 6 sin60° = 6 . \[{{\sqrt 3 } \over 2}\] = 3 \[\sqrt 3\] = 5.19 m
Determination of reactions.
Let RP and RQ be the reactions at P and Q.
Taking moments about P,
RQ × 6 = 50 × PR. cos60°
6 RQ = 50 × 3 × \[{1 \over 2}\]
RQ = 12.5 kN
RP + RQ = 50
RP = 50 – 12.5 = 37.5 kN
Passing a section 1-1, thereby cutting the truss in two parts.
 Fig.17.2
Considering equilibrium of the left part. The part part of the truss is shown in Fig.17.2. This part is in equilibrium
under the action of one external force RP = 37.5 kN and other two internal unknown forces PR and PQ in the
members PR and PQ respectively. The directions of PR and PQ both are considered as tensile as marked in
Fig.17.2
Determination of force PR
Taking moment of all forces about Q.
The moment of force PQ about point Q is zero.
Therefore, RP × 6 + (PR × QR) = 0 ( because QR is perpendicular distance between force PR and point Q i.e
5.19 m)
(37.5 × 6) + PR × 6.sin 60° = 0
PR = - \[{{225} \over {6\sin 60^\circ }}\] = - \[{{37.5} \over {0.866}}\] = - 43.30 kN
-ve sign indicates that the assumed direction is wrong. This force is actually compression force.
Hence, PR = 43.30 kN
Determination of force PQ
If we take the moments of all forces about point R, then PR will be eliminated and there will be only one
unknown force PQ.
Hence, taking moment about point R,
-(PQ × PR.sin60° ) + (RP × PR.sin60° ) = 0 (\[\sum M = 0)\]
-(PQ × 3 × 0.866) + (37.5 × 3 × 0.5) = 0
2.598 PQ = 56.25
PQ = + 21.65 kN
 Fig.17.3
The positive sign indicates that the assumed direction is correct. This force is tensile force.
Now if the in member QR is also to be determined then we will have to take another section 2-2 so as to cut the
member QR and PQ, as shown in Fig.17.3 Now considering equilibrium of right part of truss, under the section
of two internal forces QR , PQ and one external force RQ = 12.5 kN, we can apply condition (\[\sum M = 0)\] , if
we take moment about P, then forces PQ will be eliminated and only one unknown force QR will remain. Hence
by taking moment about P, we get (QR × 3) + (12.5 × 6) = 0
QR = - \[{{75} \over 3}\] = -25 kN
Negative sign indicates the assumed direction is wrong. This force is actually compressive. Similarly if we take
moment about R, force QR is eliminated and PQ = 21.65 kN (tensile).
Example: Determine the forces in the members DE, BE and AB of the truss, shown in Fig.17.4.

Fig.17.4
Solution: Pass a section X-X in such a way so that three desired members DE, BE and AB are cut. Now
consider the right part of the cut truss as shown in Fig.17.5.Let F1, F2 and F3 be the forces in the members DE,
BE and AB respectively.

Fig.17.5
Determination of F1,
Taking moments about B, so that moments of the forces F2 and F3 are eliminated
We have, - F1 × 6 sin60° + (20×3) + (15×6) = 0
-5.196 F1 + 60 + 90 = 0
F1 = 28.868 kN (Tensile)
Determination of F3,
Taking moments about E
F3 × 6 sin60° + (15×3) + (20×6) + (15×9) = 0
5.196 F3 + 45 + 120 + 135 = 0
F3 = 57.737 kN (Compressive)
Determination of F2,
Applying equilibrium condition
F2 sin60° = 20 + 15 + 15 = 50
F2 = 57.735 kN (Tensile)
Problems for Trusses

Problem 1
The Fink truss is supported by a roller at A and a hinge at B. The given loads are normal to the
inclined member. Determine the reactions at A and B. Hint: Replace the loads by their resultant.
Problem 2
The truss is supported by a hinge at A and a roller at B. A load of 20 kN is applied at C. Determine the
reactions at A and B.
Problem 3
The roof truss is supported by a roller at A and a hinge at B. Find the values of the reactions.
STRESS AND STRAIN:
When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation. Due to cohesion between
the molecules, the body resists deformation. This resistance by which material of the body opposes the
deformation is known as strength of material.
Within the certain limit (i.e. in the elastic stage) the resistance offered by the material is proportional to the
deformation brought out on the material by the external force. Also within the elastic limit the resistance is equal
to the external force. But beyond the elastic stage, the resistance offered by the material is less than the external
force. In such case, the deformation continues, until failure takes place.
Types of beams: A beam is a structural member subjected to a system of external forces at right angles to its
axis.
(i) Cantilever beam: If such a member is fixed or built in at one end while its other end is free, the member is
called a cantilever. Fig.19.1

Fig.19.1
(ii) Simply or Freely Supported Beam: If the ends of a beam are made to freely rest on supports then the beam
is called freely or simply supported beam. Fig.19.2

Fig.19.2
(iii) Fixed Beam: If the beam is fixed at both its ends, it is called a built-in or fixed beam. Fig.19.3.

Fig.19.3
(iv) Continuous Beam: A beam which is provided with more than two supports is called a continuous beam.
Fig.19.4.

Fig.19.4
Types of Loads: Beams may be subjected to various types of loads.
• Concentrated or Point Load: It is a load applied over a small area.

•
Fig.19.5
• Uniformly Distributed Load: It is a load which is spread on some length of a beam. It is
expressed by its intensity (Newton/meter). if the intensity of the distributed load is constant
the load is called uniformly distributed load.

Fig.19.6
• Uniformly Varying Load: It has an intensity that varies according to some law along the
length of the beam.
 Fig.19.7
• Gradually Varied Load:

Fig.19.8
STRESS
The force of resistance offered by the body against the deformation is called the stress. The external force acting
on the body is called the load. In other words,
• Under the influence of two equal and opposite forces P, the body in Fig.19.9 is in equilibrium. It deforms
(stretches), and the stress (tensile) is developed.

Fig.19.9
• Under the influence of two equal and opposite moments M, the body in Fig.19.10 deforms (bends in
this case), and the stress (bending) is developed.
 Fig.19.10
• A single force or a moment does not put the body under any stress. For a body to be under any stress,
two equal and opposite forces or moments are necessary.
Mathematically Stress is written as
σ = \[{P \over A}\]
where σ = Stress
P = External force or Load
A = Cross-sectional area
The SI units of the stress is N/m2.
STRAIN
When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some change of dimensions of the body. The ratio of
change of dimension of the body to the original dimension is known as Strain.
Strain (e) = \[{{Changeinlength} \over {Originallength}}\]

Strain is unit less.

TYPES OS STRESSES
The important types of simple stresses are:
(i) Tensile Stress
(ii) Compressive Stress
(iii) Shear Stress
(i) Tensile Stress: The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pulls as shown in
Fig.19.11 as a result of which , there is an increase in length, is known as tensile stress.
The ration of increase in length to the original length is known as tensile strain.

Fig.19.11
Let P = force acting on the body
A = Cross-sectional area of the body
L = Original length of the body
 dL = increase in length due to pull P acting on the body
σ = stress induced in the body
e = strain
Tensile stress (σ) = \[{P \over A}\]
and Tensile strain (e) = \[{{increaseinlength} \over {Originallength}}\] = \[{dL \over L}\]
(ii) Compressive Stress: The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pushes as
shown in Fig.19.12 as a result of which there is decrease in length of the body, is known as compressive
stress.
The ratio of decrease in length to the original length is known as compressive strain.

Fig.19.12

Compressive Stress (σ) = \[{P \over A}\]

Compressive Strain (e) = \[{{decreaseinlength} \over {Originallength}}\] = \[{dL \over L}\]
(iii) Shear Stress: The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite forces which are
acting tangentially across the resisting section as a result of which the body tends to shear off across the section,
is known as shear stress.
The corresponding strain is known as shear strain.
Fig.19.13 shows a rectangular block of height l and length L and width unity.

Fig.19.13
Let the bottom face of the block be fixed to a surface EF. Let a force P be applied tangentially along the top face
of the block. Such a force acting tangentially along a surface is called a shear force.
For the equilibrium of the block, the surface EF will offer a tangential reaction P equal and opposite to the applied
tangential force P. Let the block be taken to consist of two parts G and H to which it is divided by a section XX.
Consider the equilibrium of the part G in Fig.19.14
 Fig.19.14
In order the part G may not move from left to right, the part H will offer a resistance R along the section XX such
that R = P.
Similarly, considering the equilibrium of the part H, we find that the part G will offer a resistance R along the
section XX such that the resistance R along the section XX is called a shear resistance.
Fig.19.15 shows a failure at the section XX caused by the tangential forces acting on the top and bottom faces
of the block. This type of failure is called a shear failure. In shear failure, the two parts into which the block is
separated, slide over each other. Hence if such a shear failure should not occur, the section XX must be able to
offer tangential resistances along the section opposing the force P at the top face and the forceP at the bottom
face. For the equilibrium of the system of the shear resistance R should be equal to the tangential load P.
Therefore, R = P

Fig.19.15
The intensity of the shear resistance along the section XX is called the shear stress.
Shear Stress = q = \[{R \over P}\] = \[{{Shear resistance} \over {Shear Area}}\] = \[{R \over {L \times 1}}\]

Fig.19.16(a) shows a rectangular block subjected to shear forces P on its top and bottom faces.
 Fig.19.16
When the block does not fail in shear, a shear deformation occurs as shown in Fig.19.16(b). If the bottom face
of the block be fixed, it can be realized that the block has deformed to the position A1B1CD.
Let us now imagine that the block consists of a number of horizontal layers. These horizontal layers have
undergone horizontal displacements by different amounts with respect of the bottom face. We can assume that
the horizontal displacement of any horizontal layer is proportional to its distance from the lower face of the block.
Let the horizontal displacement of the upper face of the block be dl. Let the height of the block be l.
The ratio \[{{dl} \over l}\] = \[{{Transversedisplacement} \over {Distancefromthelowerface}}\] is called shear
strain.
ELASTIC LIMIT
When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation. If the external force is
removed and the body comes back to its original shape and size, the body is known as elastic body.
• The body will regain its previous shape and size only when the deformation caused by the external
force, is within a certain limit. Thus there is a limiting value of force upto and within which the
deformation completely disappears on the removal of forces. The value of stress corresponding to this
limiting force is known as the elastic limit.

Hook’s Law: It is observed that when a material is loaded such that the intensity of stress is within a certain
limit, the ratio of the intensity of stress to the corresponding strain is constant which is a characteristic of that
material.
\[{{Intensityofstress} \over {Strain}}=constant\]

In the case of axial loading, the ration of the intensity of tensile or compressive stress to the corresponding
strain is constant and is called Modulus of Elasticity or young’s Modulus.
It is denoted by E.
E = \[{\sigma\over e}\]
CONCEPT OF SHEAR FORCE AND BENDING MOMENT
• Fig.20.1 shows a cantilever AB whose end A is fixed. Let the cantilever carry a vertical load of
20 KN at C.

Fig.20.1
For the equilibrium of the cantilever the fixed support at A will provide a vertical reaction vertically upwards, of
magnitude Va = 20 KN
Taking moments about A, we have a clockwise moment of 20 × 4 = 80 KNm
Hence the equilibrium of the cantilever, the fixed support at A must also provide a reacting moment or fixing
moment of 80 KNm of an anticlockwise order.
Now consider a section D. At this section there is a possibility of failure by shear as shown in Fig.20.1 If such a
failure will occurs at section D, the cantilever is liable to be sheared off into two parts. It is clear that the force
acting normal to the centre line of the member on each part equals S = 20 kN.
The force acting on the right part of the section D is downward. The resultant force acting on the left part is
upward.
The resultant force acting on any one of the parts normal to the axis of the member is called the Shear Force at
the section D.
For the case illustrated above the resultant force normal to the axis of the member on the right part of the section
is downwards while the resultant force normal to the axis of the member on the left part of the section is upward.
Such a shear force is regarded as a positive shear force.
• Let us now study another effect of the load applied on the cantilever. The cantilever is liable to
bend due to the load on it.
For instance, the cantilever has a tendency to rotate in clockwise direction about A (Fig.20.1). Hence the fixed
support at A has to offer a resistance against the rotation.
Taking moments about A, we find that the applied load of 20 KN has a clockwise moment of 20 × 2 = 40 kNm.
Hence for the equilibrium of the cantilever, the fixed support at A will provide a reacting or
resisting anticlockwise moment of 40 kNm. If the support A is not able to provide such a resisting moment, the
cantilever will not be in equilibrium and will, therefore, rotate about A in the clockwise order.
The magnitude of the reacting moment at A depends on the magnitude of the load and the position of the load.
We say that the support A provides the necessary fixing or reacting moment at A, and that at the section A of
the beam, there is a bending moment of 20 × 2 = 40 kNm.
Let us no discuss the equilibrium of the part AD (Fig. 20.1) taking moments about D, we get. Moment at fixed
end support is equal to 20×1.5=30kNm (clockwise).
Couple = 30kNm
Net moment at D = 40–30=10kNm (anti-clockwise)
Sign conventions for shear force and bending moment
Shear Force: Fig.20.2 shows a simply supported beam AB, carrying a load of 100 kN at its middle point. The
reaction at the supports will be equal to 50 kN. Hence RA = RB = 50 kN.
Now imagine the beam to be divided into two positions by the section XX. The resultant of the load and reaction
to the left of XX is 50 kN vertically upwards. And the resultant of the load and the reaction to the right of XX is
50 kN downwards.
• The shear force at a section will be considered positive when the resultant of the forces to the left
of the section is upward or to the right of the section is downward.
• The shear force at a section will be considered negative when the resultant of the forces to the left
of the section is downward or to the right of the section is upward.
Bending Moment:
• The banding moment at a section is considered positive if the bending moment at that section is
such that it tends to bend the beam to the curvature having concavity at the top.(Fig.20.3)

Fig. 20.3
• The bending moment at a section is considered negative if the bending moment at that section is
such that it tends to bend the beam to the curvature having convexity at the top.(Fig.20.4)
Fig. 20.4
• Positive bending moment is called sagging moment.
• Negative bending moment is called hogging moment.
Some important points to remember
Shear Force: If we have to calculate the shear force at a section the following procedure may be adopted. (see
Fig.20.5)
1. Consider the left or the right part of the section.
2. Add the forces normal to the member on one of the parts.
If the right part of the section is chosen, a force on the right part acting downwards is positive while a force on
the right part acting upwards is negative. For instance, if the S.F. at a section X of a beam is required and if the
right part XB be considered the forces P and Q are positive while the force R is negative.

Therefore S.F. at X = P + Q – R
If the left part of the section is chosen, a force on the left part acting upwards is positive and a force on the left
part acting downwards is negative.
Therefore S.F. at X = Q – W1 – W2
Bending Moment: To find the bending moment at a section of a beam the following procedure may be adopted.
1. Consider the left or right part of the section.
2. Remove all restraints and all forces on the part selected.
3. Now introduce each force or reacting element one at a time and find its effect at the section.
4. Treat sagging moment as positive and hogging moment as negative.
• The moment due to every downward force is negative and the moment due to every
upward force is positive.
For instance, let the bending moment at the section A of the cantilever AB (Fig.20.6) be required.

If the right part of the section be selected.

Remove the restraints on the part AB.
Introduce the load of 100 kN at E.
The independent effect of the load is to produce a hogging moment of -100 × 5 = -500 kNm
Now consider the independent effect of the 150 kN load at D.
Obviously, this will also produce a hogging moment of – 150 × 2 = -300 kNm
Therefore, Resulting bending moment at A = -500 – 300 = -800 kNm (hogging)
Problem 336
The cantilever beam shown in Fig. P-336 is built into a wall 2 ft thick so that it rests against points A
and B. The beam is 12 ft long and weighs 100 lb per ft.