MODULE-2

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF FLIGHT

1. Significance of speed of sound;

In many aerodynamic problems, the speed of sound plays a pivotal role.

 How do we calculate the speed of sound?
 What does it depend on: pressure, temperature, density, or some combination
thereof?
 Why is it so important?
First let us derive a formula to calculate the speed of sound.
Consider a sound wave moving into a stagnant gas, as shown in Figure 4.9.

2 1

P+dp P

ρ+dρ ρ

T+dT T

a+da a

Motionless sound wave

Figure 4.9 Model of a sound wave moving into a stagnant gas.

This sound wave is created by some source, say a small firecracker in the corner of

a room. The air in the room is motionless and has density p, pressure p, and

temperature T. If you are standing in the middle of the room, the sound wave
sweeps by you at velocity “a” in m/s. The sound wave itself is a thin region of
disturbance in the air, across which the pressure, temperature, and density change
slightly. (The change in pressure is what activates your eardrum and allows you to
hear the sound wave.)
The air in front of the wave appears to be comning at you with velocity “a”;
However, in passing through the wave, the pressure, temperature, and density of
the air are slightly changed by the amounts dp, dT, and dρ.
you would then expect the air speed a to change slightly, say by an
amount da. Thus, the air behind the wave is moving away from the wave with
velocity a+da,
Let us apply our fundamental equations to the gas flow shown in Figure 4.9.
Our objective will be to obtain an equation for “a”, where “a” is the speed of the
sound wave, the speed of sound. Let points 1 and 2 be ahead of and behind the
wave, respectively. Applying the continuity equation, Eq (4.2), we find
ρ1A1V1 = ρ2A2V2

or ρA1a = (ρ + d ρ)A 2 (a + da) ………………………………………………… (4.43)

Here, A1 and A 2 are the areas of a stream tube running through the wave.

The area of the stream tube is constant, hence A = A1 = A 2 = const. (This is an

example of a type of flow called one-dimensional, or constant-area, flow.)

Thus, Eq. ( 4.43) becomes

pa= (p + dp)(a + da)

or ρa= ρa+ adρ + ρda + dρda …………….…………….(4.44)

The product of two small quantities dp da is very small in comparison to the

other terms in Eq. (4.44) and hence can be ignored.

Thus, from Eq. (4.44),

a= - ………………………………………………..(4.45)

Now, apply the momentum equation in the form of Euler's equation, Eq. (4.8):

dp = -ρa da

da=- ………………………………………………..(4.46)
Substitute Eq. (4.46) into (4.45):

a = ρ dp

dρ ρa

a2 = dp ………..………………………………..(4.47)
dρ
On a physical basis, the flow through a sound wave involves no heat addition, and

the effect of friction is negligible. Hence, the flow through a sound wave is

isentropic. Thus, from Eq. (4.47), the speed of sound is given by

a= √(dp/ dρ) Isentropic ……………………………….(4.48)

Equation (4.48) is fundamental and important. However, it does not give us a

straightforward formula for computing a number for “a”. We must proceed further.

For isentropic flow, Eq. (4.37) gives

P2/P1 =(ρ2/ρ1)ϒ

P2/ ρ2ϒ = P1/ ρ1ϒ =Constant=C ……………….(4.49)

Equation ( 4.49) says that the ratio p / ρY is the same constant value at every point

in an isentropic flow. Thus, we can write everywhere

= C……………………………………………….(4.50)
ϒ

Hence dp = d Cρ ϒ = Cρ ϒ -1 …….(4.51)
dρ isentropic dρ
Substituting for c in Eq. (4.51) the ratio of Eq. (4.50), we obtain

dp = P ϒ ρ ϒ -1 = ϒP. (4.52)
dρ isentropic ρϒ ρ

Substitute Eq. ( 4.52) into ( 4.48):

a = ϒP ……………….(4.53)
ρ
However, for a perfect gas, p and p are related through the equation of state;

p = ρ RT, hence p / ρ = RT. Substituting this result into Eq. ( 4.53) yields

a= ϒRT ………………(4.54)
Equations (4.48), (4.53), and (4.54) are important results for the speed of
sound; however, Eq. (4.54) is the most useful. It also demonstrates a fundamental
result, that the speed of sound in a perfect gas depends only on the temperature of
the gas.
The propagation of a sound wave through a gas takes place via molecular collisions.
Thus, the energy of a sound wave is transmitted through the air by molecules which
collide with each other. Each molecule is moving at a different velocity, but summed
over a large number of molecules, a mean or average molecular velocity
Temperature is a measure of the mean molecular kinetic energy, hence of the mean
molecular velocity; then temperature should also be a measure of the speed of a
sound wave transmitted by molecular collisions. Eq. (4.54) proves this to be a
fact.
For example, consider air at standard sea-level temperature T,; = 288.16 K.
From Eq. (4.54), the speed of sound is a = √ϒRT = √1.4(287)(288.16) = 340.3
m/s.
From the results of the kinetic theory of gases, the mean molecular velocity
can be obtained as V =√8/ꙤRT = √(8/Ꙥ )(287)(288.16) = 458.9 m/s. Thus,
the speed of sound is of the same order of magnitude as the mean molecular
velocity and is smaller by about 26 percent.
Emphasis is made that the speed of sound is a point property of the flow, in
the same vein as T is a point property. It is also a thermodynamic property of the
gas, defined by Eqs. (4.48) to (4.54). In general, the value of the speed of sound
varies from point to point in the flow.
The speed of sound leads to another, vital definition for high-speed gas flows,
namely, the Mach number(M).

M= Where, V=Velocity at appoint

a = Velocity of sound

We will find that M is one of the most powerful quantities in aerodynamics. We

can immediately use it to define three different regimes of aerodynamic flows:
1. If M < 1, the flow is subsonic.
2. If M = 1, the flow is sonic.
3. If M > 1, the flow is supersonic.

4. If M is ≥ 0.8 and ≤ 1.2 the flow is transonic

5. If M > 5, the flow is hypersonic.
2. Airspeed and Groundspeed
Airspeed:
In aviation, airspeed is the speed of an aircraft relative to the air.

The common measures of airspeed are:

 Indicated airspeed ("IAS"), what is read on an airspeed gauge connected to
a Pitot-static system.
 Calibrated airspeed ("CAS"), indicated airspeed adjusted for pitot-static
system position and installation error.
CAS is typically within a few knots of IAS
 Equivalent airspeed (EAS) is calibrated airspeed (CAS) corrected for the
compressibility of air at a non-trivial Mach number.
EAS decreases slightly from CAS as aircraft altitude increases or at high
speeds
 True airspeed ("TAS") is Equivalent airspeed adjusted for air density
With EAS constant, TAS increases as aircraft altitude increases. This is
because air density decreases with higher altitude.
 Mach number is a measure of how fast the airplane is flying relative to the
speed of sound.

Ground speed

Ground speed is the horizontal speed of an aircraft relative to the Earth’s surface.

It is vital for accurate navigation that the pilot has an estimate of the ground speed
that will be achieved during each leg of a flight.
An aircraft diving vertically would have a ground speed of zero. Information displayed
to passengers through the entertainment system of airline aircraft usually gives the
aircraft ground speed rather than airspeed.
Ground speed can be determined by the vector sum of the aircraft's true
airspeed and the current wind speed and direction; a headwind subtracts from the
ground speed, while a tailwind adds to it. Winds at other angles to the heading will
have components of either headwind or tailwind as well as a crosswind component.

An airspeed indicator indicates the aircraft's speed relative to the air mass. The air
mass may be moving over the ground due to wind, and therefore some additional
means to provide position over the ground is required. This might be through
navigation using:

- landmarks,
- radio aided position location,
- inertial navigation system, or GPS.
- E6B flight computer may be used to calculate ground speed.
- Ground speed radar can measure it directly.
3. Standard Atmosphere

Aerospace vehicles can be divided into two basic categories:

 Atmospheric vehicles such as airpianes and helicopters, which always fly

within the sensible atmosphere, and

 Space vehicles such as satellites, the Apollo lunar vehicle, and deep space
probes, which operate outside the sensible atmosphere. However, space
vehicles do encounter the earth's atmosphere during their blast-offs from the
earth's surface and again during their reentries and recoveries after
completion of their missions.

The earth's atmosphere is a dynamically changing system, constantly in a state of

flux. The pressure and temperature of the atmosphere depend on altitude, location
on the globe (longitude and latitude), time of day, season, and even solar sunspot
activity.

To take all these variations into account when considering the design and
performance of flight vehicles is impractical. Therefore, a standard' atmosphere is
defined in order to relate flight tests, wind-tunnel results, and general airplane design
and performance to a common reference.

The standard atmosphere gives mean values of pressure, temperature, density, and
other properties as functions of altitude; these values are obtained from experimental
balloon and sounding-rocket measurements combined with a mathematical model of
atmosphere.

3.1 Definition of altitude

ha hG

r Surface of Earth sea-level

Center of Earth r = Radius of Earth

Figure 3.1 Definition of altitude.

i) Geometric Altitude

First, imagine that we are at Chennai Beach, where the ground is sea level. If we
could fly straight up in a helicopter and drop a tape measure to the ground, the
measurement on the tape would be, by definition, the geometric altitude “hG”, i.e., the
geometric height above sea level.

ii) Absolute Altitude

If we would bore a hole through the ground to the center of the earth and extend our
tape measure until it hit the center, then the measurement on the tape would be, by
definition, the absolute altitude “ha”

If “r “ is the radius of the earth, then (This is illustrated in Figure 3.1)

ha =hG+ r..

The absolute altitude is important, especially for space flight, because the local
acceleration of gravity, g, varies with ‘ha’

From Newton's law of gravitation, g varies inversely as the square of the distance
from the center of the earth.

Letting g0 be the gravitational acceleration at sea level, the local gravitational

acceleration g at a given absolute altitude ha., is:

g= g0 r 2
ha

g = g0 r 2 …………………………………..(3.1)
r + hG
3.2 Hydrostatic Equation

The variation of g with altitude must be taken into account when you are dealing with
mathematical models of the atmosphere, as follows.

P+dp

dhG

Increasing Altitude “hG”

Figure 3.2 Force diagram for the hydrostatic equation.

We will now begin to piece together a model which will allow us to calculate
variations of P, ρ, and T as functions of altitude.

The foundation of this model is the hydrostatic equation, which is nothing more than
a force balance on an element of fluid at rest. Consider the small stationary fluid
element of air shown in Figure 3.2.

We take for convenience an element with rectangular faces, where the top and
bottom faces have sides of unit length and the side faces have an infinitesimally
small height dhG· On the bottom face, the pressure “P” is felt, which gives rise to an
upward force of

P X(1) X(1) exerted on the fluid element.

The top face is slightly higher in altitude (by the distance dhG and because pressure
varies with altitude, the pressure on the top face will be slightly different from that on
the bottom face, differing by the infinitesimally small value dp. Hence, on the top
face, the pressure P + dp is felt. It gives rise to a downward force of

( P + dp )X(1 )X(1) on the fluid element.

Moreover, the volume of the fluid element is (1)(1) dh G = dhG, and since ρ is the
mass per unit volume, then the mass of the fluid element is simply

ρ(l)(l) dhG = ρ dhG.

If the local acceleration of gravity is g, then the weight of the fluid element is

W = gρdhG, as shown in Figure 3.2.

The three forces shown in Figure 3.2, pressure forces on the top and bottom and the
weight must balance because the fluid element is not moving. Hence

p=(p+dp)+ gρdhG

dp = -ρgdhG ……………………………………… (3.2)

Equation (3.2) is the hydrostatic equation and applies to any fluid of density ρ,

e.g., water in the ocean as well as air in the atmosphere. Also, note that g is a
variable in Eq. (3.2); g depends on ha as given by Eq. (3.1).

To be made useful, Eq. (3.2) should be integrated to give us what we want, namely,
the variation of pressure with altitude, p = p(hG).

To simplify the integration, we will make the assumption that g is constant through
the atmosphere, equal to its value at sea level, g0 . This is something of a historical
convention in aeronautics. At the altitudes encountered during the earlier
development of human flight (less than 15 km or 50,000 ft), the variation of g is
negligible. Hence, we can write Eq. (3.2) as

dp = -ρg0 dh……………………………………… (3.3)

Hence, we can write Eq. (3.2) as (3.3) However, to make Eqs. (3.2) and (3.3)
numerically identical, the altitude h in Eq. (3.3) must be slightly different from that of
hG in Eq. (3.2), to compensate for the fact that g is slightly different from g0.

Suddenly, we have defined a new altitude h, which is called the geopotential altitude
and which differs from the geometric altitude. For the practical mind, geopotential
altitude is a "fictitious" altitude, defined by Eq. (3.3) for ease of future calculations.
However, many standard atmosphere tables quote their results in terms of
geopotential altitude, and care must be taken to make the distinction.

3.3 Relation between Geopotential and Geometric altitudes

We still seek the variation of p with geometric altitude, p = p(hG). However, our
calculations using Eq. (3.3) will give, instead, p = p ( h ). Therefore, we need to
relate h to hG, as follows. Dividing Eq. (3.3) by (3.2), we obtain
 1= g0 dh
g dhG
dh= g dhG ………………………………………..(3,4)
g0
Substitute Eq. (3.1) into (3.4):
dh= r2 dhG ………………………………………(3.5)
(r+hG)2
By convention, we set both h and hG equal to zero at sea level.

Now, consider a given point in the atmosphere. This point is at a certain geometric
altitude hG, and associated with it is a certain value of h (different from hG).
Integrating Eq. (3.5) between sea level and the given point, we have

∫ 𝑑ℎ = ∫ 𝑟2 ∫ 𝑟2 dhG = r 2∫ dhG
(r+hG)2 (r+hG)2

h = r2 ( -1/ r+hG) hG = r2 -1 + 1
0 r+hG r

h = r2 - r + r + hG
( r+ hG) r

Thus h= r hG ………………………………………………………………………(3.6)
r+ hG
where h is geopotential altitude and hG is geometric altitude. This is the desired
relation between the two altitudes

3.4 Definition of the Standard Atmosphere

We are now in a position to obtain P, T, and ρ as functions of h for the standard
atmosphere. The keystone of the standard atmosphere is a defined variation of T
with altitude, based on experimental evidence. This variation is shown in Figure(3.3)

Note that it consists of a series of straight lines, some vertical (called the constant-
temperature, or isothermal, regions) and some inclined (called the gradient regions).
Given T = T(h) as defined by Figure 3.3, then P = P(h) and ρ= ρ( h) follow from the
laws of physics, as shown below.
 Figure 3.3 Temperature distribution in the standard atmosphere.

Consider hydrostatic equation ( 3.3), dp = -ρg0dh

Divide by the equation of state, Eq. (2.3): P=ρRT
dp = -ρg0dh =- g0 dh ……………………………(3.7)
P ρRT RT
Consider first the isothermal (constant-temperature) layers of the standard
atmosphere, as given by the vertical lines in Figure 3.3 and sketched in Figure 3.4.
The temperature, pressure, and density at the base of the isothermal layer shown in

h1 h

Base of Isothermal layer T1 , P1, ρ1

Figure 3.4 Isothermal layer.

Figure 3.4 are T1, P1, and ρ1, respectively. The base is located at a given
geopotential altitude h1.
Now consider a given point in the isothermal layer above the base, where the
altitude is h. The pressure p at h can be obtained by integrating Eq. (3.7) between
h1 and h.
.
∫ 𝑑𝑝/𝑝 = - g0 ∫ . 𝑑ℎ …………………(3.8).
RT
Note that g0 , R, and T are constants that can be taken outside the integral. (This
clearly demonstrates the simplification obtained by assuming that g = g 0 = const, and
therefore dealing with geopotential altitude h in the analysis.)
Performing the integration in Eq. (3.8), we obtain
ln p = - g0 (h – h1)
p1 RT

( )( )
p = 𝑒 ……………………..(3.9)
p1

From the equation of state:

p= ρT =ρ
p1 ρ1T1 ρ1

ρ = 𝑒 ( )( )
………………..(3.10)
ρ1
Equations (3.9) and (3.10) give the variation of p and ρ versus geopotential altitude
for the isothermal layers of the standard atmosphere.

Considering the gradient layers, as sketched in Figure 3.5, we find the temperature
variation is linear and is geometrically given as
T – T1 = dT = a
h - h1 dh

(T, P, ρ, h) gradient region

Base of gradient layer

( h1, T1, P1, ρ1)

Figure 3.5 Gradient layer.

where ‘a’ is a specified constant for each layer obtained from the defined
temperature variation in Figure 3.3. The value of a is sometimes called the lapse rate
for the gradient layers.
a = dT
dh
dh = 1 dT
a
Substitute this result into Eq. (3.7):
dp = - g0 dT ………………………………………(3.11)
p a RT
Integrating between the base of the gradient layer (shown in Figure 3.5) and some
point at altitude h, also in the gradient layer, Eq. (3.11) yields
∫ 𝑑𝑝/𝑝 = - g0 ∫ 𝑑𝑇/𝑇
aR
l n p = - g 0 ln T
p1 a R T1

p = T - g0/aR
p1 T1 …………………………………………(3.12)
From the equation of state
p = ρ T
p 1 ρ1 T1
Hence, Eq. (3.12) becomes
ρ T = T - g0/aR
ρ1 T1 T1
- (g0/aR) - 1
ρ = T
ρ1 T1
- (g0/aR) + 1
ρ = T ……………………(3.13)
ρ1 T1

Recall that the variation of T is linear with altitude and is given by the specified
relation T = T1 + a (h – h1) …………………………………(3.14)
Equation (3.14) gives T = T(h) for the gradient layers; when it is plugged into Eq.
(3.12), we obtain p = p(h); similarly from Eq. (3.13) we obtain ρ = ρ(h).
Now we can see how the standard atmosphere is pieced together. Looking at Figure
3.3, start at sea level ( h = 0), where standard sea level values of pressure, density,
and temperature, p, ρ , and T, respectively, are
Ps = 1.01325 X 10 5 N/m2 = 2116.2 lb/ft 2
ρs = 1.2250 kg/m3 = 0.002377 slug/ft3
Ts = 288.16 K = 518.69°R
These are the base values for the first gradient region. Use Eq. (3.14) to obtain
values of T as a function of h until T = 216.66 K, which occurs at h = 11.0 km. With
these values of T use Eqs. (3.12) and (3.13) to obtain the corresponding values of p
and ρ in the first gradient layer. Next, starting at h = 11.0 km as the base of the first
isothermal region (see Figure 3.3), use Eqs. (3.9) and (3.10) to calculate values of p
and ρ versus h, until h = 25 km, which is the base of the next gradient region. In this
manner, with Figure 3.3 and Eqs. (3.9), (3.10), and (3.12) to (3.14), a table of values
for the standard atmosphere can be constructed.

3.5 Pressure, Temperature, and Density altitudes

Imagine that you are in an airplane flying at some real, geometric altitude.
However, at this altitude, you measure the actual outside air pressure, temperature
and density from the table corresponding altitudes can be found out. Therefore these
are called respective altitudes.

4. Bernoulli’s Theorem and its Application for generation of lift and Measurement
of Airspeed

Bernoulli's Principle
In fluid dynamics, Bernoulli's principle states that an increase in the speed of a
fluid occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in the
fluid's potential energy.
The principle is named after Daniel Bernoulli, a swiss mathemetician, who published
it in 1738 in his book Hydrodynamics.

Derivation of Bernoulli’s Equation

The following are the assumptions made in the derivation of Bernoulli’s equation:
1. The fluid should be ideal.
2. The flow should be steady.
3. There should be no energy loss.
4. The fluids should be incompressible.
5. The flow should be irrotational.
Derivation
Let us consider a fluid moving inside a pipe of different cross-sectional areas in
different parts and is present in different heights, as shown in the figure below.
Consider the flow at two regions BC and DE.
Now, suppose the fluid initially lying between B and D. Then, in an infinitesimal time
interval (Δt), this fluid would have moved. Suppose v1 is the speed at B and v2 at D,
then fluid initially at B has moved a distance of v1Δt to C. In the same interval (Δt) the
fluid initially at D moves to E, a distance equal to v2Δt Pressures P1 and P2 act as
shown on the plane faces of areas A1 and A2 binding the two regions
The work done on the fluid at the left end (BC) is
W1=P1A1(v1Δt)=P1ΔV
Now according to the equation of continuity same volume ΔV passes through both
the regions then, the work done by the fluid at the other end (DE) is:
W2=P2A2(v2Δt)=P2ΔV
So the total work done on the fluid is:
W1–W2=(P1–P2)ΔV

If the density of the fluid is ρ , then

Δm=ρA1v1Δt=ρΔV
is the mass passing through the pipe in time Δt , then change in gravitational
potential energy is:
ΔU=ρgΔV(h1–h2)
And, the change in its kinetic energy is:
ΔK=(1/2)ρΔV(v22–v21)
Now, after applying the work-energy theorem to this volume of the fluid it gives,
(P1–P2)ΔV=(1/2)ρΔV(v22–v21)+ρgΔV(h2–h1)
Now, on dividing each term by ΔV to obtain the term as:
(P1–P2)=(1/2)ρ(v22–v21)+ρg(h2–h1)

Now, on rearranging the above terms we get,

P1+(1/2)ρv21+ρgh1=P2+(1/2)ρv22+ρgh2

This is Bernoulli’s equation. Since 1 and 2 refer to any two locations along the
pipeline, we may write the expression in general as:
P+(1/2)ρv2+ρgh= constant
Where,
P= Static pressure of the fluid at the cross-section,
ρ= Density of the flowing fluid,
v= Mean velocity of the fluid flow at the cross-section,
h= Elevation head of the centre of the cross-section from the datum and,
g= Acceleration due to gravity.

Applications of Bernoulli’s Equation

Some of the important applications of Bernoulli’s equation are given following:

1. Venturimeter

A venturi meter is a device used to measure flow speed in a pipe of non-uniform

cross-section, as shown in the figure. We apply Bernoulli’s equation to the wide and
narrow parts of the pipe, with h1=h2
As A1 is greater than A2, v2 is greater than v1 and hence the pressure p2 is less
than p1
A net force to the right accelerates the fluid as it enters the narrow part of the tube
(called throat) and a net force to the left slows as it leaves. Then the pressure
difference is also equal to ρgh
where h is the difference in liquid level in the two tubes, we get the flow speed as:
V= 2gh
(A1/A2)2 – 1

2. The atomizer or Spray Gun

In the figure below, a spray gun is given. When the piston is pressed, the air rushes
out of the horizontal tube B, decreasing the pressure to p 2 which is less than the
pressure p1 in the container. As a result, the liquid rises in vertical tube A
It breaks up into a fine spray when it collides with the high-speed air in tube B
Filter pumps, Bunsen burners, and sprayers used for perfumes or to spray
insecticides work on the same principle.

3. Principle of Lifting of an Aircraft

We all know that aeroplanes fly. This is a result of a lift force acting on the wings of
the aircraft. The lift can be generated when an asymmetric object moves through a
fluid. According to the Bernoulli principle, the difference in the velocities of the fluid
molecules results in pressure difference regions. This pressure difference produces
a force in an upward direction, as shown in the below figure.

4. Speed of Efflux
Suppose the surface of a liquid in a tank is at a height h from the orifice on its sides,
through which the liquid issues out with velocity v
The speed of the liquid coming out from the orifice is called the speed of efflux. If the
dimensions of the tank are sufficiently large, the velocity of the liquid at its surface
may be taken to be zero. By applying Bernoulli’s equation at the surface and just
outside the orifice, the speed of the efflux is: v=√2gh
FAQs on Bernoulli’s Principle and its Applications
Q.1. What is the Bernoulli’s Equation?
Ans: Bernoulli’s equation states that, as we move along a streamline the sum of the pressure (P) , the
kinetic energy per unit volume (ρv2/ 2) and the potential energy per unit volume (ρgh) remains
constant.
P+(1/2)ρv2+ρgh = constant.

Q.2. What are the applications of Bernoulli’s Equation?

Ans: Bernoulli’s equation is applied to all problems of incompressible fluid flow. Bernoulli’s equation
can be applied in Venturi meter, Nozzle meter, Orifice meter, Pitot tube, etc. Bernoulli’s theory is used
to study the unstable potential flow used in the theory of ocean surface waves and acoustics.

Q.3. What are the limitations of Bernoulli’s Equation?

Ans: Bernoulli’s equation ideally applies to fluids with zero viscosity or non-viscous fluids. The fluids
must be incompressible, as the elastic energy of the fluid is also not taken into consideration.

Q.4. What do you mean by the equation of continuity?

Ans: Continuity equation states that when an incompressible and non-viscous liquid flows in a
streamlined motion through a tube of non-uniform cross-section, then the product of the area of
cross-section and the velocity of flow is the same at every point in the tube.

Q.5. What are the assumptions for the Bernoulli equation?

Ans: The assumptions for the application of the Bernoulli equation are:
a) The fluid should be ideal.
b) The flow should be steady.
c) There should be no energy loss.
d) The fluids should be incompressible.
e) The flow should be irrotational.
MEASUREMENT OF AIRSPEED
Static Pressure
Static pressure is the pressure you have if the fluid is not or you are moving with the
fluid. It decreases with increase in speed because of conservation of law.

Total Pressure
Total pressure at a given point in a flow is that pressure that would exist if the flow
were slowed down isentropically to zero velocity.

For many other aerodynamic applications, it is important to obtain a point

measurement of velocity at a given spatial location in the flow. This measurement
can be made by an instrument called a Pi tot-static tube, as described below.
Open end
C A
Pitot tube

Closed end

B Pressure gauge

Figure 4.13 Sketch of a Pitot tube.

There is an aerodynamic instrument that actually measures the total pressure at a

point in the flow, namely, a Pitot tube. A basic sketch of a Pitot tube is shown in
Figure 4.13.

It consists of a tube placed parallel to the flow and open to the flow at one end
(point A). The other end of the tube (point B) is closed. Now imagine that the flow is
first started. Gas will pile up inside the tube. After a few moments, there will be no
motion inside the tube because the gas has nowhere to go-the gas will stagnate
once steady-state conditions have been reached. In fact, the gas will be stagnant
everywhere inside the tube, including at point A. As a result, the flow field sees the
open end of the Pitot tube (point A) as an obstruction, and a fluid element moving
along the streamline, labeled C, has no choice but to stop when it arrives at point A.
Since no heat has been exchanged, and friction is negligible, this process will be
isentropic, i.e., a fluid element moving along streamline C will be isentropically
brought to rest at point A by the very presence of the Pitot tube. Therefore, the
pressure at point A is, truly speaking, the total pressure p 0 • This pressure will be
transmitted throughout the Pitot tube, and if a pressure gauge is placed at point B, it
will in actuality measure the total pressure of the flow. In this fashion, a Pitot tube is
an instrument that measures the total pressure of a flow. By definition, any point of a
flow where V = 0 is called a stagnation point. In Figure 4.13, point A is a stagnation
point.
Consider the arrangement shown in Figure 4.14. Here we have a uniform flow with
velocity V1 moving over a flat surface parallel to the flow. There is a small hole in the
surface at point A called a static pressure orifice. Since the surface is parallel to the
flow, only the random motion of the gas molecules will be felt by the surface itself. In
other words, the surface pressure is indeed the static pressure p. This will be the
pressure at the orifice at point A. On the other hand, the Pitot tube at point B in
Figure 4.14 will feel the total pressure p0 , as discussed above. If the static pressure
orifice at point A and the Pitot tube at point B are connected across a pressure
gauge, as shown in Figure 4.14, the gauge will measure the difference between total
and static pressure, p0 - p.

Total pressure measured here

Flow with velocity ‘ V1’ B

A Static pressure orifice Pitot-tube

Static pressure

Measured here

Differential pressure gauge

Figure 4.14 Schematic of a Pitot-static measurement.

Now we arrive at the main thrust of this section. The pressure difference P o - p, as
measured in Figure 4.14, gives a measure of the flow velocity V 1.
A combination of a total pressure measurement and a static pressure measurement
allows us to measure the velocity at a given point in a flow. These two
measurements can be combined in the same instrument, a Pitot-static probe, as
illustrated in Figure 4.15. A Pitot-static probe measures p 0 at the nose of the probe
and p at a point on the probe surface downstream of the nose. The pressure
difference Po - p yields the velocity V1, but the quantitative formulation differs
depending on whether the flow is low-speed (incompressible), high-speed subsonic,
or supersonic.
A Incompressible Flow
Consider again the sketch shown in Figure 4.14. At point A, the pressure is p and
the velocity is V1 . At point B, the pressure is p0 and the velocity is zero. Applying
Bernoulli's equation, Eq. (4.9a), at points A and B, we obtain
p + (1/2) ρV12 = Po
(Static pressure + Dynamic pressure =Total pressure

V1 = 2 (P0 – p)
ρ

Figure 4.14 Schematic of a Pitot-static Probe

5. Forces over Wing section

Four Forces on an Airplane

Force
A force may be thought of as a push or pull in a specific direction. A force is a vector
quantity so a force has both a magnitude and a direction.

Weight
Weight is a force that is always directed toward the center of the earth.
The magnitude of the weight depends on the mass of all the airplane parts, plus the
amount of fuel, plus any payload on board (people, baggage, freight, etc.). The
weight is distributed throughout the airplane. But we can often think of it as collected
and acting through a single point called the center of gravity. In flight, the
airplane rotates about the center of gravity.
Lift
To overcome the weight force, airplanes generate an opposing force called lift. Lift is
generated by the motion of the airplane through the air and is an aerodynamic
force. “Aero” stands for the air, and “dynamic” denotes motion. Lift is
directed perpendicular to the flight direction. The magnitude of the lift depends on
several factors including the shape, size, and velocity of the aircraft. As with weight,
each part of the aircraft contributes to the aircraft lift force. Most of the lift is
generated by the wings. Aircraft lift acts through a single point called the center of
pressure. The center of pressure is defined just like the center of gravity, but using
the pressure distribution around the body instead of the weight distribution.
Drag
As the airplane moves through the air, there is another aerodynamic force present.
The air resists the motion of the aircraft and the resistance force is called drag. Drag
is directed along and opposed to the flight direction. Like lift, there are
many factors that affect the magnitude of the drag force including the shape of the
aircraft, the “stickiness” of the air, and the velocity of the aircraft. Like lift, we collect
all of the individual components’ drags and combine them into a single aircraft drag
magnitude. And like lift, drag acts through the aircraft center of pressure.
Thrust
To overcome drag, airplanes use a propulsion system to generate a force
called thrust. The direction of the thrust force depends on how the engines are
attached to the aircraft.
Aerodynamic force on a wing is generated by the motion of the airplane through the
air.
1. The lift force is produced by the action of air flow on the wing, which is an
airfoil.
2. The net aerodynamic force on the body is equal to the pressure and shear
forces integrated over the body's total exposed area.
3. Airplanes' wings are curved on top and flatter on the bottom, which makes air
flow over the top faster than under the bottom, resulting in less air pressure on
top of the wing and making the wing and airplane attached to, move up

6. Airfoil Nomenclature

Consider the wing of an airplane, as sketched in Figure 5.1.

Figure 5.1 Sketch of a wing and airfoil.

 Figure 5.2 Airfoil nomenclature.

The cross-sectional shape obtained by the intersection of the wing with the
perpendicular plane shown in Figure 5.1 is called an airfoil. Such an airfoil is
sketched in Figure 5.2, which defines some basic terminology.

Mean camber line

The major design feature of an airfoil is the mean camber line, which is the locus of
points halfway between the upper and lower surfaces as measured perpendicular to
the mean camber line itself.

Leading Edge and Trailing Edge

The most forward and rearward points of the mean camber line are the leading and
trailing edges, respectively.

Chord line
The straight line connecting the leading and trailing edges is the chord line of the
airfoil, and the precise distance from the leading to the trailing edge measured along
the chord line is simply designated the chord of the airfoil, given by the symbol c.

Camber
The camber is the maximum distance between the mean camber line and the chord
line, measured perpendicular to the chord line.

The camber, the shape of the mean camber line, and to a lesser extent, the
thickness distribution of the airfoil essentially control the lift and moment
characteristics of the airfoil.
More definitions are illustrated in Figure 5.3, which shows an airfoil inclined to a
stream of air. The freestream velocity V∞ is the velocity of the air far upstream of the
airfoil. The direction of V∞ is defined as the relative wind. The angle between the
relative wind and the chord line is the angle of attack α of the airfoil.
Figure 5.3 Sketch showing the definitions of lift, drag, moments, angle of
attack, and relative wind.

There is an aerodynamic force created by the pressure and shear stress distributions
over the wing surface. This resultant force is shown by the vector R in Figure 5.3. In
tum, the aerodynamic force R can be resolved into two forces, parallel and
perpendicular to the relative wind. The drag D is always defined as the component of
the aerodynamic force parallel to the relative wind. The lift L is always defined as the
component of the aerodynamic force perpendicular to the relative wind.

In addition to lift and drag, the surface pressure and shear stress distributions also
create a moment M which tends to rotate the wing. To see more clearly how this
moment is created, consider the surface pressure distribution over an airfoil as
sketched in Figure 5.4 F1

F2

Figure 5.4 The physical origin of moments on an airfoil.

Consider just the pressure on the top surface of the airfoil. This pressure gives rise
to a net force F1 in the general downward direction. Moreover, F 1 acts through a
given point on the chord line, point 1, which can be found by integrating the pressure
times distance over the surface (analogous to finding the centroid or center of
pressure from integral calculus).

Now consider just the pressure on the bottom surface of the airfoil. This pressure
gives rise to a net force F2 in the general upward direction, acting through point 2.

The total aerodynamic force on the airfoil is the summation of F1 and F2 , and lift is
obtained when F2 > F1.

However, note from Figure 5.4 that F1 and F2 will create a moment which will tend to
rotate the airfoil. Moreover, the value of this aerodynamically induced moment
depends on the point about which we chose to take moments.

For example, if we take moments about the leading edge, the aerodynamic moment
is designated M LE·

It is more common in the case of subsonic airfoils to take moments about a point on
the chord at a distance c/4 from the leading edge, the quarter-chord point, as
illustrated in Figure 5.3. This moment about the quarter chord is designated Mc/4.

In general, MLE * Mc/4.

Intuition will tell you that lift, drag, and moments on a wing will change as the angle
of attack α changes.

However, it should be pointed out that, although M LE and Mc/4 are both functions of
α, there exists a certain point on the airfoil about which moments essentially do not
vary with α. This point is defined as the aerodynamic center, and the moment about
the aerodynamic center is designated Mac· By definition, Mac= const independent of
angle of attack.

The location of the aerodynamic center for real aerodynamic shapes can be found
from experiment. For low-speed subsonic airfoils, the aerodynamic center is
generally very close to the quarter-chord point(c/4)

7. Pressure Distribution over a Wing section

Figure 1: Overview of forces acting on an airplane. The lift should balance the weight
while the thrust should balance the drag for the plane to keep itself in the air.

Figure 2: Schematics of the reaction forces acting on a single airfoil in an airplane

wing

Pressure Distribution About the Airfoil

Consider a streamline, where state ‘1’ represents the state before interacting with the
airfoil and state ‘2’ the state after interacting with the airfoil. Figure 3 shows the
schematics for the associated variable terminologies:

Figure 3: Streamline schematics for an airfoil between state 1 and state 2

representing before and after interaction, respectively.
Applying Bernoulli’s equation along this streamline gives:
P2–P1=–(1/2) ρ(U22–U12)
Where,
 P is the static pressure
 ρ is the density of the fluid medium
 U is the fluid velocity

The shape of the airfoil is designed for different purposes. This allows the airfoil to
have different fluid velocities along its length. The change in velocity leads to a
change in pressure relative to the local atmospheric pressure according to
Bernoulli’s equation.
These corresponding pressure loads act normal to the surface and can be integrated
to give the total force exerted per unit surface area.
Top Surface vs Bottom Surface of the Airfoil

If we imagine the flow of air only over the top surface of the airfoil in 2D, we can see
that the velocity accelerates around the curvature of maximum thickness. This
means that velocity U2 would be more than the freestream velocity U1. Thus, the
static pressure P2 would be less than the freestream pressure P1. This creates
suction on the top surface and pulls the airfoil upwards, contributing towards lifting
the airfoil (See Figure 4).

Figure 4: The flow accelerates around the curvature of maximum thickness, reducing
the pressure locally and thus generating lift.

In a similar fashion, the pressure distribution on the bottom surface can be analyzed.
For this particular airfoil, the flow around the leading edge accelerates, creating a
suction pressure pulling it downwards. Further ahead, the flow decelerates, causing
an increase in pressure. Since this pressure is higher than the local atmospheric
pressure, it will act into the airfoil and, thus, contribute to the lift (See Figure 5).

Figure 5: At the bottom surface there is downward suction mostly at the leading edge
but also upward pull in the middle section which contributes to
the total lift force.
Note that each airfoil will have a different flow pattern around it that solely depends
on the shape of the airfoil.
This pressure distribution on both the top and bottom surface can now be integrated
to give a total force vector F⃗ , whose perpendicular and parallel components to the
flow provide lift and drag, respectively.
Figure 6: The total force acting on the airfoil has a perpendicular component
called lift and a parallel component called drag.

8. Lift and Drag components

Lift:

Lift is a mechanical force that is produced by the movement of an object through the
air. Therefore, it has a magnitude and direction.
Lift force requires two things:
 Fluid: Lift generates only when there is an interaction between a solid object
and a fluid.
 Motion: Lift occurs only when there is a difference in velocity between the
solid object and the fluid, i.e., motion through the fluid. This motion also
introduces drag, which is called induced drag.
Equation for Lift Force
Lift is a function of the fluid density, the freestream velocity, and the reference area
of the airfoil. It also involves a dimensionless quantity called Lift Coefficient, which is
used to compare how different airfoils perform at varying shapes or speeds.
Basically, the lift coefficient helps measure how an airfoil’s shape, inclination, and
flow conditions affect its lift.
Fl = 1 ρ V2 A Cl
2
Where:
 Fl [N] is the sum of forces in the specified lift direction;

 Cl is the lift coefficient;

 ρ [kg/m³] is the density of the fluid;
 V [m/s] is the freestream velocity;
 A [m²] is the reference area.
Drag

Drag is the component of the total force vector F⃗ that works through the center of
pressure of an object and acts parallel to the direction of the incoming flow. For a
zero angle of attack, it acts opposite to the thrust of the airplane (see Figure 1).
However, drag generates due to the velocity difference between the solid body and
the fluid. Therefore, drag only generates when there is a relative movement between
an object and a fluid. If one of those two does not exist, then there is no drag.

For a flying object, there are two important drag forces:

1. Parasitic Drag: Parasitic drag is a combination of form drag and skin friction
drag.
 Form Drag: This type of drag depends on the shape of the object. The
drag force can be calculated by integrating the local pressure and
multiplying it with the surface area of the object.
 Skin Friction Drag: This drag develops from the direct interaction
between the fluid and the skin of the object. The higher the wetted
area, the higher the skin friction drag is.
2. Induced Drag: Induced drag or lift-induced drag is caused by the generation of
lift. In airplanes, vortices form at the wingtips producing a swirling flow that
disturbs the airflow distribution around the wingspan. This reduces the wing’s
ability to generate lift and, thus, requires a higher angle of attack for the same
lift. This results in the shifting of the total aerodynamic force rearwards, which
increases the drag component of that force.
This phenomenon also appears in lift-based turbomachinery, such as wind
turbines.

Equation for Drag Force

Drag is also a function of the fluid density, the freestream velocity, and the reference
area of the airfoil. It involves another dimensionless quantity called Drag Coefficient,
which helps measure an airfoil’s resistance in a fluid environment.
Fd = 1 ρ V2 A Cd
2
Where:
 Fd [N] is the sum of forces in the specified drag direction;
 Cd is the drag coefficient;
 ρ [kg/m³] is the density of the fluid;
 V [m/s] is the freestream velocity;
 A [m²] is the reference area.

What is Pitch?
Pitch is an up-and-down movement of the nose of an aircraft about an axis. This
motion heavily influences the lift generated by the wings of the airplane.
Figure 7: Description of pitching motion of an airplane with its axis spanning
from the tips of the airplane wings.

Using Figure 7, imagine an axis along the trajectory between the end of one wing to
the end of the other wing through the center of gravity. Consider the motion of the
airplane around that axis.

Upward pitching will lead to an increase in the angle of attack (defined below), thus
increasing the lift component of the total force (see Figure 10). This is because of the
added downward deflection leading to an accelerated flow over the airfoil. The more
upward movement there is, the larger the lift the wings generate. However, this
continues to happen only up to a certain point, where stalling takes place (discussed
below).

Figure 8 shows the schematics for the relation between pitching and angle of attack
of an airfoil. Notice the change in the magnitude of the lift and drag forces as the
angle of attack increases. Both forces increase in magnitude but not equally. The
resulting lift-to-drag ratio increases as lift increases faster than drag.

Figure 8: As we increase the angle of attack, the airfoil generates more lift and
drag force; however, the lift-to-drag ratio certainly increases.
Angle of Attack and Pitch Angle

Angle of Attack
For an airfoil, the angle of attack is the angle between the incident freestream fluid
and the chord line extending from the leading edge to the trailing edge.

The pitch angle

The pitch angle on the other end, is the angle made by the chord line with any
reference plane. This reference plane can be a flat ground for a flying object or the
plane of the rotor disk of a turbine.

Depending on the reference plane, the angle of attack may be greater than, less
than, or the same as the pitch angle.

Figure 9: This figure highlights the difference between the angle of attack and
the pitch angle. It may be greater than, less than, or the same as pitch angle.

Stall
An increase in the angle of attack causes the ratio of lift force to drag force to
increase up to a certain point. Increasing the angle of attack beyond this point leads
to a sudden decrease in lift and a sharp increase in drag, entering into a state of
stall. This means the airplane cannot generate enough lift that can support the
weight of the airplane, causing the plane to sink.
Airplanes should avoid stall at all costs, as this would mean an inadequate amount of
lift force to balance the weight. The phenomenon of stalling can also be observed in
compressors causing non-uniform blade rotation, which in turn slows down the rotor
while also causing blade failure.

Figure 10: Lift and drag coefficients for the NACA 0012 airfoil; Re, Reynolds
number. The onset of stall region is clearly highlighted

Lift, Drag and Moment Coefficient

For an airplane in flight, the actual magnitudes of L, D, and M depend not only on a,
but on velocity and altitude as well. In fact, we can expect that the variations of L, D,
and M depend at least on:
1. Freestream velocity V∞
2. Freestream density ρ∞ , that is, on altitude.
3. Size of the aerodynamic surface. For airplanes, we will use the wing area S to
indicate size.
4. Angle of attack α
5. Shape of the airfoil.
6. Viscosity coefficient µ∞ (because the aerodynamic forces are generated in part
from skin friction distributions).
7. Compressibility of the airflow- Compressibility effects are governed by the value of
the freestream Mach number, M∞ = V∞ /a∞ • Since V∞ is already listed above, we can
therefore designate a∞ as our index for compressibility.
Hence, we can write that, for a given shape airfoil at a given angle of attack,
L = ƒ ( V∞, ρ∞, S, µ∞, a∞) ……………………………………………………..…........(5.1)
and D and M are similar functions.
In principle, for a given airfoil at a given angle of attack, we could find the variation of
L by performing a myriad of wind-tunnel experiments wherein V ∞, ρ∞, S, µ∞, a∞ are
individually varied and then try to make sense out of the resulting huge collection of
data. This is the hard way.
The technique we will apply is a simple example of a more general theoretical
approach called dimensional analysis.
Let us assume that Eq. (5.1) is of the functional form

L = Z ( Va∞, ρb∞, Sd, ae∞µf∞,) ……………………........(5.2)

Where Z, a, b, d, e, and f are dimensionless constants. However, no matter what the
values of these constants may be, it is a physical fact that the dimensions of the left-
and right-hand sides of Eq. (5.2) must match; i.e., if L is a force (say in
newtons), then the net result of all the exponents and multiplication on the
right-hand side must also produce a result with dimensions of a force. This
constraint will ultimately give us information on the values of a, b, etc. If we
designate the basic dimensions of mass, length, and time by m, I, and t,
respectively, then the dimensions of various physical quantities are as given
below.
Physical Quantity Dimensions

L m l / t2

V∞ l/t

ρ∞ m / l3

S l2

a∞ l/t

µ∞ m/lt

Thus, equating the dimensions of the left- and right-hand sides of Eq. (5.2), we
obtain
m l / t2 = ( l / t)a (m / l3 )b ( l2 )d ( l / t )e (m / l t )f …………………(5.3)
Consider mass m. The exponent of m on the left-hand side is 1. Thus, the exponents
of m on the right must add up to 1. Hence
1 =b+f ………………………………………….(5.4)
Similarly, for time t we have
-2 = -a - e - f ……………………………………(5.5)
and for length l,
1 = a - 3b + 2d + e - f ……………………….(5.6)
Solving Eqs. (5.4) to (5.6) for a, b, and d in terms of e and f yields
b = 1 - f …………………………………………(5.7)
a = 2 - e - f ……………………………………..(5.8)
d=1- f/2 ………………………………………(5.9)
Substituting Eqs. (5. 7) to (5.9) into (5.2) gives
L = Z (V∞)2-e-f (ρ ∞) 1-f (S)1-f/2 (ae∞) (µf∞) ………(5.10)
Rearranging Eq. (5.10), we find
L = Z ρ∞ V2∞ S (a∞/V∞)e (µ∞ / ρ∞ V∞ S1/2)f …..(5.11)

Note that a∞ /V∞ = 1/M∞ , where M∞ is the freestream Mach number.

Also note that the dimensions of S are l2 ; hence the dimension of / S1/ 2 is l, purely a
length.
Let us choose this length to be the chord c by convention. Hence, µ∞ / ρ∞ V∞ S1/2 can
be replaced in our consideration by the equivalent quantity
µ∞ / ρ∞ V∞ c
However, µ∞ / ρ∞ V∞ c = 1/ Re where Re is based on the chord length c.
Hence, Eq. (5.11) becomes
L = Z ρ∞ V2∞ S (1 / M∞)e (1 / Re )f …………………… (5.12)
We now define a new quantity called the lift coefficient cl as
Cl / 2 = Z (1 / M∞ )e ( 1/ Re )f ……………………………(5.13)
Then, Eq. (5.12) becomes
L = 1 ρ∞ V2∞ S cl ………………………………….. (5.14)
2
The dynamic pressure is q∞ = 1 ρ∞ V2∞ we transform Eq. (5.14) into
2
L = q∞ x S x cl……………………………………………(5.15)
(Lift) = (Dynamic pressure) x (Wing area) x (Lift coefficient)

Eq. (5.15) is one of the most important relations in applied aerodynamics. It says that
the lift is directly proportional to the dynamic pressure (hence to the square of the
velocity). It is also directly proportional to the wing area S and to the lift coefficient cl
In fact, Eq. (5.15) can be turned around and used as a definition for the lift
coefficient:
cl = L
q∞ x S ………………………………………..(5.16)

The lift coefficient is a function of M∞ and Re as reflected in Eq. (5.13). Moreover,

since M∞ and Re are dimensionless and since Z was assumed initially as a
dimensionless constant, from Eq. (5.13) cl is dimensionless.

The above derivation was carried out for an airfoil of given shape and at a given
angle of attack α If α were to vary, then cl would also vary. Hence, for a given airfoil,

cl = ƒ(α, M∞ , Re) …………………………………(5.17)

Performing a similar dimensional analysis on drag and moments, beginning with

relations analogous to Eq. (5.1), we find that
D = q∞ S cd ………………………………………………………………(5.18)
where cd is a dimensionless drag coefficient, and
M = q∞ S c cm …………………………………………………………(5.19)
where cm is a dimensionless moment coefficient.

In summary, for an airfoil of given shape, the dimensionless lift, drag, and moment
coefficients have been defined as
cl = L
q∞ x S

cd = L
q∞ x S ………………………(5.20)

cm = L
q∞ x S x c
9. Lift curves
A goal of theoretical aerodynamics is to predict values of cl, cd, and cm from the basic
equations When theoretical results are obtained, they are generally not "exact." The
use of high-speed digital computers to solve the governing flow equations is now
bringing us much closer to the accurate calculation of aerodynamic characteristics;
however, there are still limitations imposed by the numerical methods themselves,
and the storage and speed capacity of current computers is still not sufficient to
solve many complex aerodynamic flows.
As a result, the practical aerodynamicist has to rely upon direct experimental
measurements of cl, cd, and cm for specific bodies of interest.

A large bulk of experimental airfoil data was compiled over the years by the National
Advisory Committee for Aeronautics (NACA), which was absorbed in the creation of
the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in 1958. Lift, drag, and
moment coefficients were systematically measured for many airfoil shapes in low-
speed subsonic wind tunnels. These measurements were carried out on straight,
constant-chord wings which completely spanned the tunnel test section from one
side wall to the other. In this fashion, the flow essentially "saw" a wing with no
wingtips, and the experimental airfoil data were thus obtained for "infinite wings."

Let us examine the variation of cl with α more closely. This variation is sketched in
Figure 5.5.

Figure 5.5 Sketch of a typical lift curve.

The experimental data indicate that cl varies linearly with α over a large range of
angle of attack. The slope of the linear portion of the lift curve is designated as
a0 = dcl /dα = lift slope.
Note that in Figure 5.5, when α= 0, there is still a positive value of cl, that is, there is
still some lift even when the airfoil is at zero angle of attack to the flow. This is due to
the positive camber of the airfoil. All airfoils with such camber have to be pitched to
some negative angle of attack before zero lift is obtained. The value of α when lift is
zero is defined as the zero lift angle of attack αL=0 and is illustrated in Figure 5.5.
This effect is further demonstrated in Figure 5.6, where the lift curve for a cambered
airfoil is compared with that for a symmetric (no camber) airfoil.

Figure 5.6 Comparison of lift curves for cambered and symmetric airfoils.

Note that the lift curve for a symmetric airfoil goes through the origin.
Refer again to Figure 5.5, at the other extreme: for large values of α, the linearity of
the lift curve breaks down. As α is increased beyond a certain value, cl peaks at
some maximum value, cl max. and then drops precipitously as a is further
increased. In this situation, where the lift is rapidly decreasing at high α, the airfoil is
stalled.

The phenomenon of airfoil stall is of critical importance in airplane design. It is

caused by flow separation on the upper surface of the airfoil. This is illustrated in
Figure 5.7, which again shows the variation of cl versus α for an airfoil.
 Figure 5.7 Flow mechanism associated with stalling.

At point 1 on the linear portion of the lift curve, the flow field over the airfoil is
attached to the surface, as pictured in Figure 5.7.
The effect of friction is to slow the airflow near the surface; in the presence of
an adverse pressure gradient, there will be a tendency for the boundary layer to
separate from the surface. As the angle of attack is increased, the adverse pressure
gradient on the top surface of the airfoil will become stronger, and at some value of
α- the stalling angle of attack-the flow becomes separated from the top surface.
When separation occurs, the lift decreases drastically and the drag increases
suddenly. This is the picture associated with point 2 in Figure 5.7.

10. Drag Curves

Types of drags are: (Refer figure below)
i) Parasitic drag ii) Induced drag

Parasitic drag
The parasitic drag increases with the square of the airspeed while induced drag is a
function of lift, it is created when maximum lift is being generated usually at low
speeds.

The diagram below shows the relationship of parasitic drag and induced drag to
each other and total drag.

There is an airspeed at which total drag is minimum and in this theory this is the
maximum range speed; however, flight at this sped is unstable because small
decrease in speed results in increase in drag and a further fall in speed. The further
decrease in speed causes yet more drag and without the addition of thrust or
initiation of descent could result in stall or loss of control.
In practice for stable flight maximum range is achieved at a speed little above the
minimum drag speed where a small speed decrease results in a reduction in drag.
Induced drag
Induced drag is a function of lift, it is created when maximum lift is being generated
usually at low speeds.
Induced drag reduces exponentially with velocity because the additional over the
wings means that the wings can produce the lift required to keep the aircraft airborne
at lower angle of attack; which in reduces the lift coefficient of the wing, hence
decreasing the lift induced drag component.

11. Factors affecting lift and drag

Factors That Affect Lift
Factors of Flow
There are many factors that affect the turning of the flow, which creates lift. We can
group these factors into(a) those associated with the object, (b) those associated
with the motion of the object through the air, and (c) those associated with the air
itself:
1. Object: At the top of the figure, aircraft wing geometry has a large effect on
the amount of lift generated. The airfoil shape and wing size will both affect
the amount of lift. The ratio of the wing span to the wing area also affects the
amount of lift generated by a wing.
2. Motion: To generate lift, we have to move the object through the air. The lift
then depends on the velocity of the air and how the object is inclined to the
flow.
3. Air: Lift depends on the mass of the flow. The lift also depends in a complex
way on two other properties of the air: its viscosity and its compressibility.

Factors that Affect Drag

Aerodynamic Force
When a solid body is moved through a fluid (gas or liquid), the fluid resists the
motion. The object is subjected to an aerodynamic force in a direction opposed to
the motion which we call drag. As with aircraft lift, there are many factors that affect
drag. We can group these factors into (a) those associated with the object, (b) those
associated with the motion of the object through the air, and (c) those associated
with the air itself
The Object
Geometry has a large effect on the amount of drag generated by an object. As with
lift, the drag depends linearly on the size of the object moving through the air. The
cross-sectional shape of an object determines the form drag created by the pressure
variation around the object. The three dimensional planform shape affects
the induced drag of a lifting wing. If we think of drag as aerodynamic friction, the
amount of drag depends on the surface roughness of the object; a smooth, waxed
surface produces less drag than a roughened surface. This effect is called skin
friction and is usually included in the measured drag coefficient of the object.
Motion of the Air
Drag is associated with the movement of the aircraft through the air, so drag
depends on the velocity of the air. Like lift, drag actually varies with the square of
the relative velocity between the object and the air. The inclination of the object to
the flow also affects the amount of drag generated by a given shaped object. If the
object moves through the air at speeds near the speed of sound, shock waves are
formed on the object which create an additional drag component called wave drag.
The motion of the object through the air also causes boundary layers to form on the
object. A boundary layer is a region of very low speed flow near the surface which
contributes to the skin friction.
Properties of the Air
Drag depends directly on the mass of the flow going past the aircraft. The drag also
depends in a complex way on two other properties of the air: its viscosity and its
compressibility. These factors affect the wave drag and skin friction which are
described above.
We can gather all of this information on the factors that affect drag into a single
mathematical equation called the Drag Equation. With the drag equation we can
predict how much drag force is generated by a given body moving at a given speed
through a given fluid.

12. Center of pressure and its significance

Center of pressure (CP)
As an object moves through a fluid, the velocity of the fluid varies around the surface
of the object. The variation of velocity produces a variation of pressure on the
surface of the object as shown by the the thin red lines on the figure. Integrating the
pressure times the surface area around the body determines the aerodynamic
force on the object. We can consider this single force to act through the average
location of the pressure on the surface of the object. We call the average location of
the pressure variation the center of pressure in the same way that we call the
average location of the weight of an object the center of gravity. The aerodynamic
force can then be resolved into two components, lift and drag, which act through the
center of pressure in flight.
Significance of CP

The center of pressure is determined through calculation and wind tunnel tests by
varying the airfoil's angle of attack through normal operating extremes. As the angle
of attack is changed, so are the various pressure distribution characteristics
(Fig. 17-7). Positive (+) and negative (-) pressure forces are totaled for each angle of
attack and the resultant force is obtained.
The total resultant pressure is represented by the resultant force vector shown in
Fig. 17-8. The point of application of this force vector is termed the "center of
pressure" (CP). For any given angle of attack, the center of pressure is the point
where the resultant force crosses the chord line. This point is expressed as a
percentage of the chord of the airfoil.
It would appear then that if the designer would place the wing so that its center of
pressure was at the airplane's center of gravity, the airplane would always balance.
The difficulty arises, however, that the location of the center of pressure changes
with change in the airfoil's angle of attack (Fig. 17-9).

The balance of an airplane in flight depends, therefore, on the relative position of the
center of gravity (CG) and the center of pressure (CP) of the airfoil. Experience has
shown that an airplane with the center of gravity in the vicinity of 20 percent of the
wing chord can be made to balance and fly satisfactorily.

The tapered wing presents a variety of wing chords throughout the span of the wing.
It becomes necessary then, to specify some chord about which the point of balance
can be expressed. This chord, known as the mean aerodynamic chord (MAC),
usually is defined as the chord of an imaginary untapered wing which would have the
same center of pressure characteristics as the wing in question.

Airplane loading and weight distribution also affect center of gravity and cause
additional forces which in turn affect airplane balance.

In the airplane's normal range of flight attitudes, if the angle of attack is increased,
the center of pressure moves forward; and if decreased, it moves rearward. Since
the center of gravity is fixed at one point, it is evident that as the angle of attack
increases, the center of lift (CP) moves ahead of the center of gravity, creating a
force which tends to raise the nose of the airplane or tends to increase the angle of
attack still more. On the other hand, if the angle of attack is decreased, the center of
lift (CP) moves aft and tends to decrease the angle a greater amount. It is seen then,
that the ordinary airfoil is inherently unstable, and that an auxiliary device, such as
the horizontal tail surface, must be added to make the airplane balance
longitudinally.
13. Aerodynamic center

Velocity
As an object moves through a fluid, the velocity of the fluid varies around the surface
of the object. The variation of velocity produces a variation of pressure on the
surface of the object. Integrating the pressure times the surface area around the
body determines the aerodynamic force on the object. We can consider this force to
act through the average location of the pressure on the surface of the object. We call
the average location of the pressure variation the center of pressure in the same way
that we call the average location of the weight of an object the center of gravity.

In general, the pressure distribution around the object also imparts a torque, or
moment, on the object. If a flying airfoil is not controlled in some way it will tumble as
it moves through the air.

Aerodynamic Center
If we consider an airfoil at angle of attack, we can (theoretically) determine the
pressure variation around the airfoil, and calculate the aerodynamic force and the
center of pressure. But if we change the angle of attack, the pressure distribution
changes and therefore the aerodynamic force and the location of the center of
pressure and the moment all change. So determining the aerodynamic behavior of
an airfoil is very complicated if we use the center of pressure to analyze the forces.
We can compute the moment about any point on the airfoil if we know the pressure
distribution. The aerodynamic force will be the same, but the value of the moment
depends on the point where that force is applied. It has been found both
experimentally and theoretically that, if the aerodynamic force is applied at a location
1/4 chord back from the leading edge on most low speed airfoils, the magnitude of
the aerodynamic moment remains nearly constant with angle of attack. Engineers
call the location where the aerodynamic moment remains constant the aerodynamic
center (ac) of the airfoil. Using the aerodynamic center as the location where the
aerodynamic force is applied eliminates the problem of the movement of the center
of pressure with angle of attack in aerodynamic analysis. (For supersonic airfoils, the
aerodynamic center is nearer the 1/2 chord location.)

14. Aspect Ratio

It's the ratio of a wing's length to its chord.
So for example, a wing that's long and skinny has a high aspect ratio, and a wing
that's short and stubby has alow aspect ratio.
Advantages Of High Aspect Ratio Wings

High aspect ratio wings have one major advantage: because the wingtip has less
area, there is less vortex-induced downwash, which means a lot less induced drag.
Induced drag is most significant at low speeds and high altitudes (anywhere you
have a high AOA), and since high aspect ratio wings have less of it, they perform
very well in takeoff, landing, climb, and cruise. So why don't all wings have a high
aspect ratio? There are several reasons:

Air Loads
One of the most significant reasons is a structural one. The longer your wing is, the
stronger it needs to be. That's because the air load is placed across the entire span,
which creates more of a bending moment.

Think of it like a tape measure. When you pull the tape out a foot, it's pretty strong
and stable, and it doesn't bend. But when you extend the tape out 8 feet, it starts to
bend downward. Eventually, the tape collapses when it's pulled out far enough.
The same is true for a wing. The longer it is, the more it tends to bend. To overcome
the bending, you need a stronger wing, which means you need more material. And
when you add more material to the wing, it becomes heavier, which in turn means
you'll produce more induced drag in flight. Eventually, the structural needs of a high
aspect ratio design outweigh the benefits of the design.

Maneuverability
Another major factor of aspect ratio is maneuverability. Simply put, the longer your
wing is, the less maneuverable it is. That's because longer wings have a higher
moment of inertia. So a longer wing generally has less roll rate, and a shorter wing
has more roll rate.
This is similar to a figure skater when they start doing those insanely fast spins. They
typically start with their arms out, and when they pull their arms in, they reduced their
moment of inertia, and they spin much faster.

Practical Design
The last major factor comes down to practical design. High aspect ratio wings have a
few disadvantages.
- First, they aren't as thick, which means they don't have room for
retractable landing gear.
- Second, they can't hold as much fuel for the same reason: less space.
- And third, if large aircraft had extremely high aspect ratio wings, they
would be nearly impossible to maneuver around airports. Their wings
would hang over taxiways and runways, and you couldn't park them
anywhere near each other.

15. Mach number and Supersonic flight Effects

The Mach number is the ratio of flow velocity after a certain limit of the sound’s
speed. In simple words, it is the ratio of the speed of a body to the speed of sound in
the surrounding medium.
M = U/C
Where,
 The Mach number is M
 Based on the limits the local flow velocity is U
 The speed of sound in that medium is C
The Mach number due to the local speed of sound is dependent on the surrounding
mediums in specific temperature and pressure. Flow can be determined as an
incompressible flow with the help of the Mach number. The medium can either be a
liquid or a gas. The medium can be flowing, whereas the boundary may be stable, or
the boundary may be travelling in a medium that is at rest. The medium and
boundary both may be travelling with a certain speed, but their velocities concerning
each other matter. The medium may be channelled through several devices such as
wind tunnels or may be immersed in the medium. The Mach number is termed as a
dimensionless number because it is a ratio of two speeds.

An Austrian philosopher and physicist Ernst Mach is after whom the Mach number is
named. Due to it being a dimensionless quantity and not a measurable unit, the
number is put after the term Mach for instance, Mach 4 and not 4 Mach.

Mach Number Classification

Speed below the speed of sound is termed as subsonic whereas speed above the
speed of sound is termed as supersonic, although scientists practising aerodynamics
most of the time use these terms to describe a particular range of Mach values.

The various regimes of Mach values are:

Regime Subsonic Transonic Sonic Supersonic Hypersonic Hypervelocity
Mach <0.8 0.8–1.3 1.0 1.3–5.0 5.0–10.0 >10.0
Subsonic:
Commercial aircraft with aerodynamic features such as rounded nose and leading
edges. The Mach is below 0.8.

Transonic:
Aircraft that are built with swept wings. The Mach value is between 0.8-2.1.

Supersonic:
The aircraft created to go supersonic have a definite design, it has the complete
movement of the canards, thin aerofoil sections, and sharp edges. The Mach levels
are between 1.2 and 5.0.

Hypersonic:
These planes have several distinctive features, such as cooled nickel-titanium skin
and small wings. The Mach values are between 5.0 and 10.0. The U.S. plane X-15
created the world record of flying at Mach 6.72.

High-Hypersonic:
The Mach levels are between 10.0 -25.0. When flying at such huge speeds, thermal
controls becomes an integral portion of the design. The hotness of the surface must
be considered beforehand.

Re-entry speeds:
The Mach speed is above 25.0. This does not require wings and a blunt design.
Supersonic flight effects
In supersonic flight, we encounter compressibility effects and the local air density
varies because of shock waves, expansions, and flow choking
As an aircraft flies at supersonic speeds it is continually generating shock
waves, dropping sonic boom along its flight path, similar to someone dropping
objects from a moving vehicle. From the perspective of the aircraft, the boom
appears to be swept backwards as it travels away from the aircraft.

Drawbacks and design challenges are excessive noise generation (at takeoff and
due to sonic booms during flight), high development costs, expensive construction
materials, high fuel consumption, extremely high emissions, and an increased cost
per seat over subsonic airliners.
Sound barrier, sharp rise in aerodynamic drag that occurs as an aircraft approaches
the speed of sound and that was formerly an obstacle to supersonic flight. If an
aircraft flies at somewhat less than sonic speed, the pressure waves (sound waves)
it creates outspeed their sources and spread out ahead of it. Once the aircraft
reaches sonic speed the waves are unable to get out of its way. Strong local shock
waves form on the wings and body; airflow around the craft becomes unsteady, and
severe buffeting may result, with serious stability difficulties and loss of control over
flight characteristics. Generally, aircraft properly designed for supersonic flight have
little difficulty in passing through the sound barrier, but the effect upon those
designed

What Is the Critical Mach Number?

When airflow occurs across an aircraft during flight, it is not uniform along the
airframe. When airflow over any portion of the aircraft approaches the speed of
sound, flight characteristics will begin to change, which we will discuss below. We
can compare the relative airflow speed at different regions along the craft to the
speed of sound using the Mach number (Ma) as described below:

Mach number definition

There is a critical Mach number, which will depend on the slowest part of the local
flow velocity across the body of an aircraft. Specifically, the critical Mach number is
the slowest free stream Mach number at which the airflow along any other area of
the aircraft reaches Ma = 1. In other words, the moment at which the fastest portion
of the airflow equals the speed of sound, then the flow and the craft velocity have
reached the critical Mach number.
What Happens at the Critical Mach Number?
On the approach to the critical Mach number, the airflow exerts oscillatory (vibration)
forces on the structure of the aircraft. This is known as buffeting, which occurs as
Ma = 1 is approached, which is felt by the pilot as heavy vibrations. Once the speed
of sound is exceeded for the entire flow, flight will feel smooth again. In terms of
airflow, a shockwave occurs once the critical Mach number is exceeded, which will
be heard by any surrounding observers.
Visually, this is examined by looking at spherical wavefronts produced by the moving
aircraft. The aircraft will cause air compression along the leading edge of the
airframe, and this air compression will then cause the emission of spherical acoustic
waves around the front edge of the aircraft. At the front edge of the craft’s nose
cone, these air fronts pile up and eventually produce high compression along the
front face of the aircraft when the limit of Ma = 1 in this region.

Wavefronts pile up along the front of the craft when Ma = 1 is approached. When
Ma > 1, a shockwave occurs as the aircraft exceeds the speed of sound
This point at which the airflow around the craft approaches the speed of sound, as
well as other fluid flow effects that result from such a shockwave event, will depend
on the shape and speed of the aircraft. How fluid flow along an aircraft is affected by
its shape, and the forces exerted on the aircraft when approaching the critical Mach
number, can be examined with CFD simulations. In particular, the critical Mach
number can be determined directly from flow simulations, as outlined below.
Possible Consequences of Supersonic Flight
 Increased greenhouse gas emissions, which will worsen the problem of
climate change.
 Sonic-booms that can cause physical damage, breaking glasses, cracking
plasters, staking object off shelves.
 Directly affecting the ozone layer.
 Emission of CO2, NOX, and water vapour in the atmosphere, which will have
detrimental effect on the atmosphere and exacerbate the impact of climate
change.
 Climate cooling effects which exceed the warming resulting from changes in
ozone, stratospheric water or CO2