BACTERIOLOGICAL

MONITORING 109
3 CONTACT HOURS
CONTINUING EDUCATION COURSE
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Printing and Saving Instructions
The best thing to do is to download this pdf document to your
computer desktop and open it with Adobe Acrobat reader.

Abode Acrobat reader is a free computer software program and you

can find it at Abode Acrobat’s website.

You can complete the course by viewing the course materials on your
computer or you can print it out. We give you permission to print this
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Printing Instructions: If you are going to print this document, this

document is designed to be printed double-sided or duplexed but can
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This course booklet does not have the assignment. Please visit our
website and download the assignment also.

You can obtain a printed version from TLC for an additional $49.95
plus shipping charges.

Link to Assignment…
http://www.tlch2o.com/PDF/BacteriologicalMonitoringAss.pdf

State Approval Listing Link

http://www.tlch2o.com/PDF/CEU%20State%20Approvals.pdf

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We have taught this course to over 5,000 students in a conventional classroom
setting. Call and schedule a class at your facility or utilize the distance learning
course to obtain your CEUs.

Contributing Editors

Joseph Camerata has a BS in Management with honors (magna cum laude). He retired
as a Chemist in 2006 having worked in the field of chemical, environmental, and
industrial hygiene sampling and analysis for 40 years. He has been a professional
presenter at an EPA analytical conference at the Biosphere in Arizona and a
presenter at an AWWA conference in Mesa, Arizona. He also taught safety classes at
the Honeywell and City of Phoenix, and is a motivational/inspirational speaker nationally
and internationally.

Dr. Eric Pearce S.M.E., chemistry and biological review.

Dr. Pete Greer S.M.E., retired biology instructor.

Jack White, Environmental, Health, Safety expert, City of Phoenix. Art Credits.

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Technical Learning College’s Scope and Function
Technical Learning College (TLC) offers affordable continuing education for today’s
working professionals who need to maintain licenses or certifications. TLC holds
approximately eighty different governmental approvals for granting of continuing
education credit.

TLC’s delivery method of continuing education can include traditional types of classroom
lectures and distance-based courses or independent study. Most TLC’s distance based
or independent study courses are offered in a print based format and you are welcome
to examine this material on your computer with no obligation. Our courses are designed
to be flexible and for you do finish the material on your leisure. Students can also receive
course materials through the mail. The CEU course or e-manual will contain all your
lessons, activities and assignments. Most CEU courses allow students to submit lessons
using e-mail or fax, however some courses require students to submit lessons by postal
mail. (See the course description for more information.) Students have direct contact
with their instructor—primarily by e-mail. TLC’s CEU courses may use such technologies
as the World Wide Web, e-mail, CD-ROMs, videotapes and hard copies. (See the
course description.) Make sure you have access to the necessary equipment before
enrolling, i.e., printer, Microsoft Word and/or Adobe Acrobat Reader. Some courses may
require proctored exams depending upon your state requirements.

Flexible Learning
At TLC, there are no scheduled online sessions you need contend with, nor are you
required to participate in learning teams or groups designed for the "typical" younger
campus based student. You will work at your own pace, completing assignments in time
frames that work best for you. TLC's method of flexible individualized instruction is
designed to provide each student the guidance and support needed for successful
course completion.

We will beat any other training competitor’s price for the same CEU material or
classroom training. Student satisfaction is guaranteed.

Course Structure
TLC's online courses combine the best of online delivery and traditional university
textbooks. Online you will find the course syllabus, course content, assignments, and
online open book exams. This student friendly course design allows you the most
flexibility in choosing when and where you will study.

Classroom of One
TLC Online offers you the best of both worlds. You learn on your own terms, on your
own time, but you are never on your own. Once enrolled, you will be assigned a
personal Student Service Representative who works with you on an individualized basis
throughout your program of study. Course specific faculty members are assigned at the
beginning of each course providing the academic support you need to successfully
complete each course.

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Satisfaction Guaranteed
Our Iron-Clad, Risk-Free Guarantee ensures you will be another satisfied TLC student.

We have many years of experience, dealing with thousands of students. We assure you,
our customer satisfaction is second to none. This is one reason we have taught more
than 20,000 students.

Our administrative staff is trained to provide the best customer service in town. Part of
that training is knowing how to solve most problems on the spot with an exchange or
refund.

TLC Continuing Education Course Material Development

Technical Learning College (TLC’s) continuing education course material development
was based upon several factors; extensive academic research, advice from subject
matter experts, data analysis, task analysis and training needs assessment process
information gathered from other states.

We welcome you to complete the assignment in Word. You can easily find the
assignment at www.abctlc.com. Once complete, just simply fax or e-mail the
answer key along with the registration page to us and allow two weeks for
grading. Once we grade it, we will mail a certificate of completion to you. Call us
if you need any help.

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CEU COURSE DESCRIPTION

BACTERIOLOGICAL MONITORING 109 CEU TRAINING COURSE

This CEU course is a short review of proper biological water sampling, water sample preservation
techniques, reporting, MCLS and related microbiological concerns. This course will cover the
basic requirements of the federal Safe Drinking Water Act concerning water sampling (TCR) and
general laboratory operations.

Attention Wastewater Treatment, Collections, Water Distribution, Well Drillers, Pump Installers,
and Water Treatment Operators. The target audience for this course is the person interested in
working in a water/wastewater treatment or distribution/collections facility and wishing to maintain
CEUs for certification license or to learn how to do the job safely and effectively, and/or to meet
education needs for promotion.

Final Examination for Credit

Opportunity to pass the final comprehensive examination is limited to three attempts per course
enrollment.

Course Procedures for Registration and Support

All of Technical Learning College’s distance courses have complete registration and support
services offered. Delivery of services will include, e-mail, web site, telephone, fax and mail
support. TLC will attempt immediate and prompt service.

When a student registers for a distance or correspondence course, he/she is assigned a start
date and an end date. It is the student's responsibility to note dates for assignments and keep
up with the course work. If a student falls behind, he/she must contact TLC and request an end
date extension in order to complete the course. It is the prerogative of TLC to decide whether to
grant the request. All students will be tracked by their social security number or a unique number
will be assigned to the student.

Instructions for Written Assignments

The Bacteriological Monitoring CEU Training course uses a multiple-choice answer key.

Feedback Mechanism (examination procedures)

Each student will receive a feedback form as part of his or her study packet. You will be able to
find this form in the rear of the course or lesson.

Security and Integrity

All students are required to do their own work. All lesson sheets and final exams are not returned
to the student to discourage sharing of answers. Any fraud or deceit will result in forfeiture of all
fees, and the appropriate agency will be notified.

Grading Criteria
TLC will offer the student either pass/fail or a standard letter grading assignment. If TLC is not
notified, you will only receive a pass/fail notice. For security purposes, please fax or e-mail a copy
of your driver’s license and always call us to confirm we’ve received your assignment and to
confirm your identity. TLC offers students the option of either pass/fail or assignment of a
standard letter grade. If a standard letter grade is not requested, a pass/fail notice will be issued.
Final course grades are based on the total number of possible points. The grading scale is
administered equally to all students in the course. Do not expect to receive a grade higher than
that merited by your total points. No point adjustments will be made for class participation or other
subjective factors. If TLC is not notified, you will only receive a pass/fail notice. In order to pass
your final assignment, you are required to obtain a minimum score of 70% on your assignment.

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Required Texts
The Bacteriological Monitoring CEU training course comes complete with a short summary of the
EPA's Rules and Regulations (TCR Rule) and drinking water standards. If you need more
information or a complete set of Rules, you can download them off the EPA’s web page,
www.epa.gov or contact your local state environmental agency. You may need to contact a
laboratory or state agency for certain sampling information.

Recordkeeping and Reporting Practices

TLC will keep all student records for a minimum of seven years. It is the student’s responsibility
to give the completion certificate to the appropriate agencies. TLC will not release any records to
any party, except to the student self. We will send the required information to Texas, Indiana and
Pennsylvania for your certificate renewals.

ADA Compliance
TLC will make reasonable accommodations for persons with documented disabilities. Students
should notify TLC and their instructors of any special needs. Course content may vary from this
outline to meet the needs of this particular group.

Mission Statement
Our only product is educational service. Our goal is to provide you with the best possible
education service possible. TLC will attempt to make your learning experience an enjoyable
opportunity.

When the Student finishes this course…

At the conclusion of this course:
At the finish of this course, you (the student) will be able to explain and describe various
biological sampling procedures and laboratory bacteriological methods. The student will be able
to explain sampling techniques and biological monitoring, and proper microbes (bacteria)
identification. Describe reporting regulations, chain of custody standards and dealing with a
sampling violation.

Educational Mission
The educational mission of TLC is:
To provide TLC students with comprehensive and ongoing training in the theory and skills needed
for the environmental education field,

To provide TLC students with opportunities to apply and understand the theory and skills needed
for operator certification,

To provide opportunities for TLC students to learn and practice environmental educational skills
with members of the community for the purpose of sharing diverse perspectives and experience,

To provide a forum in which students can exchange experiences and ideas related to
environmental education,

To provide a forum for the collection and dissemination of current information related to
environmental education, and to maintain an environment that nurtures academic and personal
growth.

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Table of Contents

Acronyms 11
Key Words 13
Bacteriological Monitoring 19
Heterotopic Plate Count 25
Coliform 29
Coliform Follow-up 35
Compliance and Violations 39
Chain of Custody 41
Safe Drinking Water Act 47
Primary Regulations 53
Secondary Regulations 59
New EPA Rules 61
Waterborne Pathogens 67
Disinfectant Terminology 75
Microorganism Appendix 83
Protozoan Diseases 95
Legionnaire’s Disease 125
Virus 129
Water Treatment Chemicals 137
References 139

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Copyright Notice
©2005 Technical Learning College (TLC) No part of this work may be reproduced or distributed in
any form or by any means without TLC’s prior written approval. Permission has been sought for
all images and text where we believe copyright exists and where the copyright holder is traceable
and contactable. All material that is not credited or acknowledged is the copyright of Technical
Learning College. This information is intended for educational purposes only. Most unaccredited
photographs have been taken by TLC instructors or TLC students. We will be pleased to hear
from any copyright holder and will make good on your work if any unintentional copyright
infringements were made as soon as these issues are brought to the editor's attention.

Every possible effort is made to ensure that all information provided in this course is accurate. All
written, graphic, photographic or other material is provided for information only. Therefore,
Technical Learning College accepts no responsibility or liability whatsoever for the application or
misuse of any information included herein. Requests for permission to make copies should be
made to the following address:
TLC
P.O. Box 420
Payson, AZ 85547-0420
Information in this document is subject to change without notice. TLC is not liable for errors or
omissions appearing in this document.

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LIST OF ACRONYMS
Acronym Full Phrase
AA Approval Authority
AO Administrative Order
BAT Best Available Technology Economically Achievable
BCT Best Conventional Pollutant Control Technology
BMP Best Management Practices
BMR Baseline Monitoring Report
BOD5 5-day Biochemical Oxygen Demand
BPJ Best Professional Judgment
BPT Best Practicable Control Technology Currently Available
CA Control Authority
CFR Code of Federal Regulations
CIU Categorical Industrial User
CSO Combined Sewer Overflow
CWA Clean Water Act (formerly referred to as the Federal Water Pollution
Control Act or Federal Water Pollution Control Act Amendments of 1972) Pub. L.
92-500, as amended by Pub. L. 95-217, Pub. L. 95-576, Pub. L. 96-483, Pub. L.
97-117, and Pub. L. 100-4, 33 U.S.C. 1251 et seq.
CWF Combined Wastestream Formula
CWT Centralized Waste Treater
DMR Discharge Monitoring Report
DSE Domestic Sewage Exclusion
DSS Domestic Sewage Study
ELG Effluent Limitations Guideline
EPA Environmental Protection Agency
EPCRA Emergency Preparedness and Community Right to Know Act
ERP Enforcement Response Plan
FDF Fundamentally Different Factors
FR Federal Register
FWA Flow Weighted Average
gpd Gallons per Day
IU Industrial User
LEL Lower Explosive Limit
MAHL Maximum Allowable Headworks Loading
MAIL Maximum Allowable Industrial Loading
MGD Million Gallons per Day
MSDS Material Safety Data Sheet
NAICS North American Industry Classification System (replaces SIC coding
system in 1998)
NOV Notice of Violation
NPDES National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System
NRDC Natural Resources Defense Council
NSPS New Source Performance Standard
O&G Oil and Grease
O&M Operations and Maintenance

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OCPSF Organic Chemicals, Plastics, and Synthetic Fibers
P2 Pollution Prevention
PCI Pretreatment Compliance Inspection
PCS Permit Compliance System
PIRT Pretreatment Implementation Review Task Force
POTW Publicly Owned Treatment Works
PSES Pretreatment Standards for Existing Sources
PSNS Pretreatment Standards for New Sources
QA/QC Quality Assurance/Quality Control
RCRA Resource Conservation and Recovery Act
SIC Standard Industrial Classification
SIU Significant Industrial User
SPCC Spill Prevention Control and Countermeasures
SNC Significant Noncompliance
SSO Sanitary Sewer Overflow
SUO Sewer Use Ordinance
TCLP Toxicity Characteristic Leaching Procedure
TIE Toxicity Identification Evaluation
TOMP Toxic Organic Management Program
TRE Toxicity Reduction Evaluation
TRI Toxic Release Inventory
TSS Total Suspended Solids
TTO Total Toxic Organics
USC United States Code
UST Underground Storage Tank
WET Whole Effluent Toxicity
WWTP Wastewater Treatment Plant

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Water Monitoring Key Words
2,4-D: A chlorinated phenoxy compound, functions as a systemic herbicide and is used to control
many types of broadleaf weeds. There are many forms or derivatives (esters, amines, salts) of
2,4-D and these vary in solubility and volatility. Unless otherwise specified, this document will
refer to the acid form of 2,4-D. This compound is used in cultivated agriculture and in pasture and
rangeland applications, forest management, home and garden situations and for the control of
aquatic vegetation. 2,4-D was a major component (about 50%) of the product Agent Orange used
extensively throughout Vietnam. However most of the problems associated with the use of Agent
Orange were associated with a contaminant (dioxin) in the 2,4,5-T component of the defoliant.
The association of 2,4-D with Agent Orange has prompted a vast amount of study on the
herbicide.

ANTIMONY: A chemical element with the symbol Sb (Latin: stibium, meaning "mark") and
atomic number 51. A metalloid, antimony has four allotropic forms. The stable form of antimony is
a blue-white metalloid. Yellow and black antimony are unstable non-metals. Antimony is used in
flame-proofing, paints, ceramics, enamels, a wide variety of alloys, electronics, and rubber.

ASBESTOS: A mineral fiber that has been used commonly in a variety of building construction
materials for insulation and as a fire-retardant. EPA and CPSC have banned several asbestos
products. Manufacturers have also voluntarily limited uses of asbestos. Today, asbestos is most
commonly found in older homes, in pipe and furnace insulation materials, asbestos shingles,
millboard, textured paints and other coating materials, and floor tiles.

BARIUM: A chemical element. It has the symbol Ba, and atomic number 56. Barium is a soft
silvery metallic alkaline earth metal. It is never found in nature in its pure form due to its reactivity
with air. Its oxide is historically known as baryta but it reacts with water and carbon dioxide and is
not found as a mineral. The most common naturally occurring minerals are the very insoluble
barium sulfate, BaSO4 (barite), and barium carbonate, BaCO3 (witherite). Benitoite is a rare gem
containing barium.

BERYLLIUM: A chemical element with the symbol Be and atomic number 4. A bivalent element,
beryllium is a steel grey, strong, light-weight yet brittle alkaline earth metal. It is primarily used as
a hardening agent in alloys, most notably beryllium copper. Commercial use of beryllium metal
presents technical challenges due to the toxicity (especially by inhalation) of beryllium-containing
dusts.

BROMATE: An inorganic anion, bromate is tasteless and colorless, with a low volatility. As a
moderately strong oxidant, bromate is reactive. BrO3- is a bromine-based oxoanion. A bromate is
a chemical compound that contains this ion. Examples of bromates include sodium bromate,
(NaBrO3), and potassium bromate, (KBrO3).

CADMIUM: A chemical element with the symbol Cd and atomic number 48. A relatively
abundant, soft, bluish-white, transition metal, cadmium is known to cause cancer and occurs with
zinc ores. Cadmium is used largely in batteries and pigments, for example in plastic products.

CHLORITE: The chlorite ion is ClO2−. A chlorite (compound) is a compound that contains this
group, with chlorine in oxidation state +3. Chlorites are also known as salts of chlorous acid.

CHROMIUM: A chemical element which has the symbol Cr and atomic number 24. It is a steel-
gray, lustrous, hard metal that takes a high polish and has a high melting point. It is also odorless,
tasteless, and malleable.

CONTACT TIME (CT): To inactivate viruses and bacteria, the minimum disinfection contact time
measured before the first customer should be six milligrams per minute per liter (6 mg-min/L).
This value is called “Chlorine Contact Time” or CT. To calculate CT, multiply the free chlorine
residual concentration (C) times the contact time (T). To get the required CT value of 6, adjust the
free chlorine residual concentration or the contact time.

DISINFECTION BYPRODUCTS: Disinfection byproducts are chemical, organic and inorganic

substances that can form during a reaction of a disinfectant with naturally present organic matter
in the water.

DPD METHOD: Presence of free chlorine in the distribution network is indication of correct
disinfection. Chlorine in water is determined according to ISO 7393-2 by colorimetric HACH
method on the basis of DPD (N, N-diethyl - p – phenylendiamine). The photometric detection
uses the wave lengths of 490 – 555 nm. Hach elected, for most of his DPD colorimetric systems,
the wave length of 530 nm.

FORMAZIN TURBIDITY UNIT (FTU): A unit used to measure the clarity of water. The ISO refers
to the units as FNU (Formazin Nephelometric Units). The technique is the same as that for the
NTU, but the calibration uses microspheres of the polymer formazin.

HALOACETIC ACIDS: Haloacetic acids are carboxylic acids in which a halogen atom takes the
place of a hydrogen atom in acetic acid. Thus, in a monohaloacetic acid, a single halogen would
replace a hydrogen atom. For example, chloroacetic acid would have the structural formula
CH2ClCO2H. In the same manner, in dichloroacetic acid two chlorine atoms would take the place
of two hydrogen atoms (CHCl2CO2H).

HIGH-TEST HYPOCHLORITE: A composition composed mainly of calcium hypochlorite is

commonly called high test hypochlorite. High-Test Hypochlorite contains not less than 60.0% of
available chlorine.

HYDROCHLORIC ACID: It is the aqueous solution of hydrogen chloride gas (HCl). It is a strong
acid, and the major component of gastric acid, and of wide industrial use. Hydrochloric acid must
be handled with appropriate safety precautions because it is a highly corrosive liquid.

INFORMATION COLLECTION RULE (ICR): EPA collected data required by the Information
Collection Rule (May 14, 1996) to support future regulation of microbial contaminants,
disinfectants, and disinfection byproducts. The rule was intended to provide EPA with information
on chemical byproducts that form when disinfectants used for microbial control react with
chemicals already present in source water (disinfection byproducts (DBPs)); disease-causing
microorganisms (pathogens), including Cryptosporidium; and engineering data to control these
contaminants.

IRON BACTERIA: In the management of water-supply wells, iron bacteria are bacteria that
derive the energy they need to live and multiply by oxidizing dissolved ferrous iron (or the less
frequently available manganese and aluminum). The resulting ferric oxide is insoluble, and
appears as brown gelatinous slime that will stain plumbing fixtures, and clothing or utensils
washed with the water carrying it, and may contribute to internal corrosion of the pipes and
fixtures the water flows through. They are known to grow and proliferate in waters containing as
low as 0.1mg/l of iron. However, at least 0.3 ppm of dissolved oxygen is needed to carry out
oxidation. The proliferation of iron bacteria, in some way, increases the chance of sulfur bacteria
infestation.

LETHAL CONCENTRATION 50: Also referred to as LC50, a concentration of a pollutant or

effluent at which 50 percent of the test organisms die; a common measure of acute toxicity.

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MANGANESE (IV) OXIDE: The chemical compound MnO2, commonly called manganese
dioxide. This blackish or brown solid occurs naturally as the mineral pyrolusite, which is the main
ore of manganese. It is also present in manganese nodules. The principal use for MnO2 is for
dry-cell batteries, such as the alkaline battery and the zinc-carbon battery. In 1976 this application
accounted for 500,000 tons of pyrolusite. MnO2 is also used for production of MnO4–. It is used
extensively as an oxidizing agent in organic synthesis, for example, for the oxidation of allylic
alcohols.

MAXIMUM CONTAMINANT LEVEL (MCL): The maximum concentration of a chemical that is

allowed in public drinking water systems.

MAXIMUM CONTAMINANT LEVEL GOAL (MCLG): The maximum level at which a contaminant
can exist in drinking water without having an adverse effect on human health.

NEPHELOMETRIC TURBIDITY UNIT (NTU): The unit used to describe turbidity. Nephelometric
refers to the way the instrument, a nephelometer, measures how much light is scattered by
suspended particles in the water. The greater the scattering, the higher the turbidity. Therefore,
low NTU values indicate high water clarity, while high NTU values indicate low water clarity.

PERMISSIBLE EXPOSURE LIMIT (PEL or OSHA PEL): A legal limit in the United States for
exposure of an employee to a substance or physical agent. For substances it is usually
expressed in parts per million (ppm), or sometimes in milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m3). Units
of measure for physical agents such as noise are specific to the agent. Permissible Exposure
Limits are established by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA).

POWDERED ACTIVATED CARDON TREATMENT (PACT): A wastewater technology in which

powdered activated carbon is added to an anaerobic or aerobic treatment system. The carbon in
the biological treatment process acts as a "buffer" against the effects of toxic organics in the
wastewater.

PPM: Abbreviation for parts per million.

QUICKLIME: A calcium oxide material produced by calcining limestone to liberate carbon

dioxide, also called “calcined lime” or “pebble lime”, commonly used for pH adjustment. Chemical
formula is CaO.

RECOMMENDED EXPOSURE LIMIT (REL): An occupational exposure limit that has been
recommended by the U.S. National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health to OSHA for
adoption as a Permissible Exposure Limit. The REL is a level that NIOSH believes would be
protective of worker safety and health over a working lifetime if used in combination with
engineering and work practice controls, exposure and medical monitoring, posting and labeling of
hazards, worker training and personal protective equipment. No REL has ever been adopted by
OSHA, but they have been used as guides by some industry and advocacy organizations.

SCADA: A remote method of monitoring pumps and equipment. 130 degrees F is the maximum
temperature that transmitting equipment is able to with stand. If the level controller may be set
with too close a tolerance 45 could be the cause of a control system that is frequently turning a
pump on and off.

TRANSIENT, NON-COMMUNITY WATER SYSTEM: TNCWS A water system which provides

water in a place such as a gas station or campground where people do not remain for long
periods of time. These systems do not have to test or treat their water for contaminants which
pose long-term health risks because fewer than 25 people drink the water over a long period.
They still must test their water for microbes and several chemicals. A Transient Non-community
Water System: Is not required to sample for VOC’s.

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U.S. ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY: In the United States, this agency responsible
for setting drinking water standards and for ensuring their enforcement. This agency sets federal
regulations which all state and local agencies must enforce.

VOLATILE ORGANIC COMPOUNDS (VOCs): Solvents used as degreasers or cleaning agents.

Improper disposal of VOCs can lead to contamination of natural waters. VOCs tend to evaporate
very easily. This characteristic gives VOCs very distinct chemical odors like gasoline, kerosene,
lighter fluid, or dry cleaning fluid. Some VOCs are suspected cancer-causing agents. Volatile
organic compounds (VOCs) are organic chemical compounds that have high enough vapor
pressures under normal conditions to significantly vaporize and enter the atmosphere. A wide
range of carbon-based molecules, such as aldehydes, ketones, and other light hydrocarbons are
VOCs. The term often is used in a legal or regulatory context and in such cases the precise
definition is a matter of law. These definitions can be contradictory and may contain "loopholes";
e.g. exceptions, exemptions, and exclusions. The United States Environmental Protection Agency
defines a VOC as any organic compound that participates in a photoreaction; others believe this
definition is very broad and vague as organics that are not volatile in the sense that they vaporize
under normal conditions can be considered volatile by this EPA definition. The term may refer
both to well characterized organic compounds and to mixtures of variable composition.

Top photograph, HPC plate. Bottom, Bac-T or Colilert samples, the yellow
indicates coliform bacteria, if this sample fluoresces under a black light that
means that fecal or e. coli is present.

Coliform bacteria are common in the environment and are generally not
harmful. However, the presence of these bacteria in drinking water is usually a
result of a problem with the treatment system or the pipes which distribute water,
and indicates that the water may be contaminated with germs that can cause
disease.

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Water Sampling Terms and Definitions
Microbes
Coliform bacteria are common in the environment and are generally not harmful. However, the
presence of these bacteria in drinking water is usually a result of a problem with the treatment
system or the pipes which distribute water, and indicates that the water may be contaminated
with germs that can cause disease.

Fecal Coliform and E. coli are bacteria whose presence indicates that the water may be
contaminated with human or animal wastes. Microbes in these wastes can cause short-term
effects, such as diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches, or other symptoms.

Turbidity has no health effects. However, turbidity can interfere with disinfection and provide a
medium for microbial growth. Turbidity may indicate the presence of disease causing organisms.
These organisms include bacteria, viruses, and parasites that can cause symptoms such as
nausea, cramps, diarrhea, and associated headaches.

Cryptosporidium is a parasite that enters lakes and rivers through sewage and animal waste. It
causes cryptosporidiosis, a mild gastrointestinal disease. However, the disease can be severe or
fatal for people with severely weakened immune systems. The EPA and the CDC have prepared
advice for those with severely compromised immune systems who are concerned about
Cryptosporidium.

Giardia lamblia is a parasite that enters lakes and rivers through sewage and animal waste. It
causes gastrointestinal illness (e.g. diarrhea, vomiting, and cramps).

Radionuclides
Alpha emitters. Certain minerals are radioactive and may emit a form of radiation known as
alpha radiation. Some people who drink water containing alpha emitters in excess of the EPA
standard over many years may have an increased risk of getting cancer.

Beta/photon emitters. Certain minerals are radioactive and may emit forms of radiation known
as photons and beta radiation. Some people who drink water containing beta and photon emitters
in excess of the EPA standard over many years may have an increased risk of getting cancer.

Combined Radium 226/228. Some people who drink water containing radium 226 or 228 in
excess of EPA standard over many years may have an increased risk of getting cancer.

Radon gas can dissolve and accumulate in underground water sources, such as wells, and in the
air in your home. Breathing radon can cause lung cancer. Drinking water containing radon
presents a risk of developing cancer. Radon in air is more dangerous than radon in water.

Inorganic Contaminants
Antimony Cadmium Cyanide Nitrite
Asbestos Chromium Mercury Selenium
Barium Copper Nitrate Thallium
Beryllium

Arsenic. Some people who drink water containing arsenic in excess of the EPA standard over
many years could experience skin damage or problems with their circulatory system, and may
have an increased risk of getting cancer.

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Fluoride. Many communities add fluoride to their drinking water to promote dental health. Each
community makes its own decision about whether or not to add fluoride. The EPA has set an
enforceable drinking water standard for fluoride of 4 mg/L (some people who drink water
containing fluoride in excess of this level over many years could get bone disease, including pain
and tenderness of the bones). The EPA has also set a secondary fluoride standard of 2 mg/L to
protect against dental fluorosis. Dental fluorosis, in its moderate or severe forms, may result in a
brown staining and/or pitting of the permanent teeth. This problem occurs only in developing
teeth, before they erupt from the gums. Children under nine should not drink water that has more
than 2 mg/L of fluoride.

Lead typically leaches into water from plumbing in older buildings. Lead pipes and plumbing
fittings have been banned since August 1998. Children and pregnant women are most
susceptible to lead health risks. For advice on avoiding lead, see the EPA’s “Lead in Your
Drinking Water” fact sheet.

Synthetic Organic Contaminants, including pesticides & herbicides

2,4-D Dibromochloropropane Hexachlorobenzene
2,4,5-TP (Silvex) Dinoseb Hexachlorocyclopentadiene
Acrylamide Dioxin (2,3,7,8-TCDD) Lindane
Alachlor Diquat Methoxychlor
Atrazine Endothall Oxamyl [Vydate]
Benzoapyrene Endrin PCBs [Polychlorinated biphenyls]
Carbofuran Epichlorohydrin Pentachlorophenol
Chlordane Ethylene dibromide Picloram
Dalapon Glyphosate Simazine
Di 2-ethylhexyl adipate Heptachlor Toxaphene
Di 2-ethylhexyl phthalate Heptachlor epoxide

Volatile Organic Contaminants

Benzene trans-1,2-Dicholoroethylene 1,2,4-Trichlorobenzene
Carbon Tetrachloride Dichloromethane 1,1,1,-Trichloroethane
Chlorobenzene 1,2-Dichloroethane 1,1,2-Trichloroethane
o-Dichlorobenzene 1,2-Dichloropropane Trichloroethylene
p-Dichlorobenzene Ethylbenzene Toluene
1,1-Dichloroethylene Styrene Vinyl Chloride
cis-1,2-Dichloroethylene Tetrachloroethylene Xylenes

Point-of-Entry P.O.E. will usually be a designated sampling point on a water treatment or

distribution system.

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Bacteriological Monitoring Section
Most waterborne diseases and illnesses have been related to the microbiological quality of
drinking water. The routine microbiological analysis of your water is for coliform bacteria. The
coliform bacteria group is used as an indicator organism to determine
the biological quality of your water.

The presence of an indicator or pathogenic bacteria in your drinking

water is an important health concern. Indicator bacteria signal possible
fecal contamination, and therefore, the potential presence of
pathogens. They are used to monitor for pathogens because of the
difficulties in determining the presence of specific disease-causing
microorganisms.

Indicator bacteria are usually harmless, occur in high densities in their

natural environment and are easily cultured in relatively simple
bacteriological media. Indicators in common use today for routine
monitoring of drinking water include total coliforms, fecal coliforms, and
Escherichia coli (E. coli).

Bacteria Sampling
Water samples for bacteria tests must always be
collected in a sterile container. Take the sample from
an inside faucet with the aerator removed. Sterilize by
spraying a 5% household bleach or alcohol solution or
flaming the end of the tap with disposable butane
lighter.

Run the water for five minutes to clear the water lines
and bring in fresh water. Do not touch or contaminate
the inside of the bottle or cap. Carefully open the
sample container and hold the outside of the cap. Fill
the container and replace the top. Refrigerate the
sample and transport it to the testing laboratory within
six hours (in an ice chest). Many labs will not accept
bacteria samples on Friday so check the lab's schedule. Mailing bacteria samples is not
recommended because laboratory analysis results are not as reliable. Iron bacteria forms an
obvious slime on the inside of pipes and fixtures. A water test is not needed for identification.
Check for a reddish-brown slime inside a toilet tank or where water stands for several days.

Bac-T Sample Bottle, often referred to as a Standard Sample, 100 mls, Notice the white powder
inside the bottle. That is Sodium Thiosulfate, a de-chlorination agent. Be careful not to wash-out
this chemical while sampling. Notice the custody seal on the bottle.

Coliform bacteria are common in the environment

and are generally not harmful. However, the presence
of these bacteria in drinking water is usually a result of
a problem with the treatment system or the pipes
which distribute water, and indicates that the water
may be contaminated with germs that can cause
disease.

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Laboratory Procedures
The laboratory may perform the total coliform analysis in one of four methods approved by the
U.S. EPA and your local environmental or health division.

Methods
The MMO-MUG test, a product marketed as Colilert, is the most common. The sample results will
be reported by the laboratories as simply coliforms present or absent. If coliforms are present, the
laboratory will analyze the sample further to determine if these are fecal coliforms or E. coli and
report their presence or absence.

Types of Water Samples

It is important to properly identify the type of sample you are collecting. Please indicate in the
space provided on the laboratory form the type
of sample.

The three (3) types of samples are:

1. Routine: Samples collected on a routine
basis to monitor for contamination. Collection
should be in accordance with an approved
sampling plan.
2. Repeat: Samples collected following a
‘coliform present’ routine sample. The number
of repeat samples to be collected is based on
the number of routine samples you normally
collect.
3. Special: Samples collected for other
reasons.
Examples would be a sample collected after repairs to the system and before it is placed
back into operation or a sample collected at a wellhead prior to a disinfection injection point.

Water Quality Review Statements

 What are disease causing organisms such as bacteria and viruses called? Pathogens

 Name the 4 broad categories of water quality. Physical, chemical, biological, radiological.

 What does a positive bacteriological sample indicate? The presence of bacteriological

contamination.

 When must source water monitoring for lead and copper be preformed? When a public
water system exceeds an action level for lead of copper.

Noncommunity and nontransient noncommunity public water systems will sample at the
same frequency as a like sized community public water system if:
1. It has more than 1,000 daily population and has ground water as a source, or
2. It serves 25 or more daily population and utilizes surface water as a source or ground water
under the direct influence of surface water as its source.

Noncommunity and nontransient, noncommunity water systems with less than 1,000 daily
population and groundwater as a source will sample on a quarterly basis.

Routine Coliform Sampling

The number of routine samples and frequency of collection for community public water systems is
shown in Table 3-1 below.

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No. of Samples per System Population
Persons served - Samples per month
up to 1,000 1
1,001-2,500 2
2,501-3,300 3
3,301 to 4,100 4
4,101 to 4,900 5
4,901 to 5,800 6
5,801 to 6,700 7
6,701 to 7,600 8
7,601 to 8,500 9
8,501 to 12,900 10
12,901 to 17,200 15
17,201 to 21,500 20
21,501 to 25,000 25
25,001 to 33,000 30
33,001 to 41,000 40
41,001 to 50,000 50
50,001 to 59,000 60 Using a black light to see fecal bacteria.
59,001 to 70,000 70
70,001 to 83,000 80
83,001 to 96,000 90
96,001 to 130,000 100
130,001 to 220,000 120
220,001 to 320,000 150
320,001 to 450,000 180
450,001 to 600,000 210
600,001 to 780,000 240

Repeat Sampling
Repeat sampling replaces the old check sampling with a more comprehensive procedure to try to
identify problem areas in the system. Whenever a routine sample is total coliform or fecal coliform
present, a set of repeat samples must be collected within 24 hours after being notified by the laboratory.
The follow-up for repeat sampling is:
1. If only one routine sample per month or quarter is required, four (4) repeat samples must be
collected.
2. For systems collecting two (2) or more
routine samples per month, three (3)
repeat samples
must be collected.
3. Repeat samples must be collected
from:
a. The original sampling location of the
coliform present sample.
b. Within five (5) service connections
upstream from the original sampling
location.
c. Within five (5) service connections
downstream from the original sampling
location.
d. Elsewhere in the distribution system or
at the wellhead, if necessary.
4. If the system has only one service connection, the repeat samples must be collected from the same
sampling location over a four-day period or on the same day.
5. All repeat samples are included in the MCL compliance calculation.

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6. If a system which normally collects fewer than five (5) routine samples per month has a coliform
present sample, it must collect five (5) routine samples the following month or quarter regardless of
whether an MCL violation occurred or if repeat sampling was coliform absent.

Positive or Coliform Present Results

What do you do when your sample is positive or coliform present?

When you are notified of a positive test result you need to contact either the Drinking Water
Program or your local county health department within 24 hours, or by the next business day after
the results are reported to you. The Drinking Water Program contracts with many of the local
health departments to provide assistance to water systems. After you have contacted an agency
for assistance, you will be instructed as to the proper repeat sampling procedures and possible
corrective measures for solving the problem. It is very important to initiate the repeat sampling
immediately as the corrective measures will be based on those results.

Some examples of typical corrective measures to coliform problems are:

1. Shock chlorination of a ground water well. The recommended dose of 5% household bleach is
2 cups per 100 gallons of water in the well. This should be done anytime the bell is opened for
repair (pump replacement, etc.). If you plan to shock the entire system, calculate the total
gallonage of storage and distribution.
2. Conduct routine distribution line flushing. Install blowoffs on all dead end lines.
3. Conduct a cross connection program to identify all connections with non-potable water
sources. Eliminate all of these connections or provide approved back flow
prevention devices.
4. Upgrade the wellhead area to meet current construction standards as set your state
environmental or health agency.
5. If you continuously chlorinate, review your operation and be sure to maintain a detectable
residual (0.2 mg/l free chlorine) at all times in the distribution system.
6. Perform routine cleaning of the storage system.
This list provides some basic operation and maintenance procedures that could help eliminate
potential bacteriological problems, check with your state drinking water section or health
department for further instructions.

Maximum Contaminant Levels (MCLs)

State and federal laws establish standards for drinking water quality. Under normal circum-
stances when these standards are being met, the water is safe to drink with no threat to human
health. These standards are known as maximum contaminant levels (MCL). When a particular
contaminant exceeds its MCL a potential health threat may occur.

The MCLs are based on extensive research on toxicological properties of the contaminants, risk
assessments and factors, short term (acute) exposure and long term (chronic) exposure. You
conduct the monitoring to make sure your water is in compliance with the MCL. There are two
types of MCL violations for coliform bacteria. The first is for total coliform; the second is an acute
risk to health violation characterized by the confirmed presence of fecal coliform or E. coli.

Heterotrophic Plate Count HPC

Heterotrophic Plate Count (HPC) --- formerly known as the standard plate count, is a procedure for
estimating the number of live heterotrophic bacteria and measuring changes during water treatment
and distribution in water or in swimming pools. Colonies may arise from pairs, chains, clusters, or
single cells, all of which are included in the term "colony-forming units" (CFU).

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Method: There are three methods for standard plate count:

1. Pour Plate Method

The colonies produced are relatively small and compact, showing
fewer tendencies to encroach on each other than those produced by
surface growth. On the other hand, submerged colonies often are
slower growing and are difficult to transfer.
2. Spread Plate Method
All colonies are on the agar surface where they can be distinguished
readily from particles and bubbles. Colonies can be transferred
quickly, and colony morphology easily can be discerned and
compared to published descriptions.
3. Membrane Filter Method
This method permits testing large volumes of low-turbidity water and
is the method of choice for low-count waters.

Material Necessary for Testing:

i ) Apparatus
Glass rod
Erlenmeyer flask
Graduated Cylinder
Pipet
Petri dish
Incubator
ii ) Reagent and sample
Reagent-grade water
Nutrient agar
Sample

Procedure*
1. Boil mixture of nutrient agar and nutrient broth for 15 minutes,
and then cool for about 20 minutes.
2. Pour approximately 15 ml of medium in each Petri dish, let
medium solidify.
3. Pipette 0.1 ml of each dilution onto surface of pre-dried plate,
starting with the highest dilution.

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4. Distribute inoculum over surface of the medium using a sterile bent glass rod.
5. Incubate plates at 35oC for 48h.
6. Count all colonies on selected plates promptly after incubation; consider only plates having 30 to
300 colonies in determining the plate count.
*Duplicate samples

Computing and Reporting:

Compute bacterial count per milliliter by the following equation:
CFU/ml = colonies counted / actual volume of sample in dish a)If there is no plate with 30 to 300
colonies, and one or more plates have more than 300 colonies, use the plate(s) having a count
nearest 300 colonies.
b) If plates from all dilutions of any sample have no colony, report the count as less than 1/actual
volume of sample in dish estimated CFU/ml.
c) Avoid creating fictitious precision and accuracy when computing CFU by recording only the first
two left-hand digits.

Ciliates, a wastewater bug, it shouldn’t be in drinking water, but can be found if a

well is close to a septic tank or marsh.

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Heterotrophic Plate Count
(Spread Plate Method)
Heterotrophic organisms utilize organic compounds as their carbon source (food or substrate). In
contrast, autotrophic organisms use inorganic carbon sources. The Heterotrophic Plate Count
provides a technique to quantify the bacteriological activity of a sample. The R2A agar provides a
medium that will support a large variety of heterotrophic bacteria. After an incubation period, a
bacteriological colony count provides an estimate of the concentration of heterotrophs in the
sample of interest.

Laboratory Equipment:
100 x 15 Petri Dishes
Turntable
Glass Rods: Bend fire polished glass rod 45 degrees about
40 mm from one end. Sterilize before using.
Pipet: Glass, 1.1 mL Sterilize before using.
Quebec Colony Counter
Hand Tally Counter

Reagents:
1) R2A Agar: Dissolve and dilute 0.5 g of yeast extract, 0.5
g of proteose peptone No. 3, 0.5 g of casamino acids, 0.5 g of glucose, 0.5 g of soluble starch,
0.3 g of dipotassium hydrogen phosphate, 0.05 g of magnesium sulfate heptahydrate, 0.3 g of
sodium pyruvate, 15.0 g of agar to 1 L. Adjust pH to 7.2 with dipotassium hydrogen phosphate
before adding agar. Heat to dissolve agar and sterilize at 121 C for 15 minutes.

2) Ethanol: As needed for flame sterilization.

Preparation of Spread Plates

Immediately after agar sterilization, pour 15 mL of R2A agar into sterile 100 x 15 Petri dishes; let
agar solidify. Pre-dry plates inverted so that there is a 2 to 3 g water loss overnight with the lids
on. Use pre-dried plates immediately or store up to two weeks in sealed plastic bags at 4
degrees C.

Sample Preparation
Mark each plate with sample type, dilution, date, and
any other information before sample application.
Prepare at least duplicate plates for each volume of
sample or dilution examined. Thoroughly mix all
samples by rapidly making about 25 complete up-and-
down movements.

Sample Application
Uncover pre-dried agar plate. Minimize time plate
remains uncovered. Pipet 0.1 or 0.5 mL sample onto
surface of pre-dried agar plate.

Record volume of sample used. Using a sterile

bent glass rod, distribute the sample over surface of
the medium by rotating the dish by hand on a turntable. Let the sample be absorbed completely
into the medium before incubating. Put cover back on Petri dish and invert for duration of
incubation time. Incubate at 28 degrees C for 7 days. Remove Petri dishes from incubator for
counting.

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Counting and Recording:
After incubation period, promptly count all colonies on the plates. To count, uncover plate and
place on Quebec colony counter. Use hand tally counter to maintain count. Count all colonies on
the plate, regardless of size. Compute bacterial count per milliliter by the following equation:
colonies counted
CFU mL 
actual volume of sample in dish, mL

To report counts on a plate with no colonies, report the count as less than one (<1) divided by the
sample volume put on that plate (remember to account for any dilution of that sample).

If plates of all dilutions for a sample have no colonies, report the count as less than one (<1)
divided by the largest sample volume used. Example: if 0.1 mL of a 100:1 and 10000:1 dilution of
a sample both turned up with no colonies formed, the reported result would be <1 divided by the
largest sample volume 0.001 mL (0.1 mL divided by 100). The final reported result for the sample
is <1000 CFU per mL.

Assignment:

1. Report the number of colony forming units (CFU) found on each plate.

2. Calculate the CFU per mL for each plate.

3. The aim of diluting samples is to produce a plate having 30 to 300 colonies, which plates meet
these criteria. If no sample produces a plate with a count in this range, use the plate(s) with a
count closest to 300. Based on these criteria, use your calculated results to report the CFU per
mL for each sample.

In the conclusion of your lab report, comment on your final results for each sample type as well as
the quality of your application of this analysis technique. Feel free to justify your comments using
statistical analysis. Also, comment on the general accuracy of this analytical technique and the
factors that affect its accuracy and or applicability.

Data Table for Samples

Sample ID Volume of Sample, mL Colonies Counted per plate

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Total Coliforms
This MCL is based on the presence of total
coliforms, and compliance is on a monthly or
quarterly basis, depending on your water
system type and state rule. For systems which
collect fewer than 40 samples per month, no
more than one sample per month may be
positive. In other words, the second positive
result (repeat or routine) in a month or quarter
results in an MCL violation. For systems which
collect 40 or more samples per month, no
more than five (5) percent may be Positive,
check with your state drinking water section or
health department for further instructions.

Acute Risk to Health (Fecal coliforms and

E.coli)
An acute risk to human health violation occurs if either one of the following happens:

1. A routine analysis shows total coliform present and is followed by a repeat analysis which
indicates fecal coliform or E. coli present.

2. A routine analysis shows total and fecal coliform or

E. coli present and is followed by a repeat analysis
which indicates total coliform present. An acute health
risk violation requires the water system to provide
public notice via radio and television stations in the
area. This type of contamination can pose an
immediate threat to human health and notice must be
given as soon as possible, but no later than 72 hours
after notification from your laboratory of the test
results.

Certain language may be mandatory for both these violations and is included in your state
drinking water rule.

Public Notice
A public notice is required to be issued by a water system whenever it fails to comply with an
applicable MCL or treatment technique, or fails to comply with the requirements of any scheduled
variance or permit. This will inform users when there is a problem with the system and give them
information. A public notice is also required whenever a water system fails to comply with its
monitoring and/or reporting requirements or testing procedure. Each public notice must contain
certain information, be issued properly and in a timely manner, and contain certain mandatory
language. The timing and place of posting of the public notice depends on whether an acute risk
is present to users. Check with your state drinking water section or health department for further
instructions.

The following are acute violations:

1. Violation of the MCL for nitrate.
2. Any violation of the MCL for total coliforms, when fecal coliforms or E. coli are present in the
distribution system.
3. Any outbreak of waterborne disease, as defined by the rules.

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General Contaminant Information
The sources of drinking water include rivers, lakes, streams, ponds, reservoirs, springs, and
wells. As water travels over the surface of the land or through the ground, it dissolves naturally
occurring minerals and in some cases, radioactive material, and can pick up substances resulting
from the presence of animals or human activity.

Contaminants that may be present in sources of drinking water include:

Microbial contaminants, such as viruses and bacteria, which may come from sewage
treatment plants, septic systems, agricultural livestock operations and wildlife; Inorganic
contaminants, such as salts and metals, which can be naturally occurring or result from urban
stormwater runoff, industrial or domestic wastewater discharges, oil and gas production, mining
or farming; Pesticides and herbicides, which may come from a variety of sources such as
agriculture, urban stormwater run-off and residential uses; Organic chemical contaminants,
including synthetic and volatile organic chemicals, which are by-products of industrial processes
and petroleum production, and can also come from gas stations, urban stormwater run-off and
septic systems; Radioactive contaminants, which can be naturally occurring or be the result of oil
and gas production and mining activities.

Background
Coliform bacteria and chlorine residual are the only routine sampling and monitoring requirements
for small ground water systems with chlorination. The coliform bacteriological sampling is
governed by the Total Coliform Rule (TCR) of the SDWA. Although there is presently no
requirement for chlorination of groundwater systems under the SDWA, State regulations require
chlorine residual monitoring of those systems that do chlorinate the water.

TCR The TCR requires all Public Water Systems (PWS) to monitor their distribution system for
coliform bacteria according to the written sample siting plan for that system. The sample sitting
plan identifies sampling frequency and locations throughout the distribution system that are
selected to be representative of conditions in the entire system. Coliform contamination can occur
anywhere in the system, possibly due to problems such as; low pressure conditions, line breaks,
or well contamination, and therefore routine monitoring is required. A copy of the sample siting
plan for the system should be kept on file and accessible to all who are involved in the sampling
for the water system.

Number of Monthly Samples The number of samples to be collected monthly depends on the
size of the system. The TCR specifies the minimum number of coliform samples collected but it
may be necessary to take more than the minimum number in order to provide adequate
monitoring. This is especially true if the system consists of multiple sources, pressure zones,
booster pumps, long transmission lines, or extensive distribution system piping. Since timely
detection of coliform contamination is the purpose of the sample siting plan, sample sites should
be selected to represent the varying conditions that exist in the distribution system. The sample
siting plan should be updated as changes are made in the water system, especially the
distribution system.

Sampling Procedures The sample siting plan must be followed and all operating staff must be
clear on how to follow the sampling plan. In order to properly implement the sample siting plan,
staff must be aware of how often sampling must be done, the proper procedures and sampling
containers to be used for collecting the samples, and the proper procedures for identification,
storage and transport of the samples to an approved laboratory. In addition, proper procedures
must be followed for repeat sampling whenever a routine sample result is positive for total
coliform. The following diagram outlines the requirements for responding to a positive Total
Coliform sample.

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General Questions about Coliform
Always check with your State to ensure this information is correct, for many States have
stricter laws than what is in this section.

What is the Total Coliform Rule (TCR)?

The Total Coliform Rule (TCR) requires all public water supplies to monitor for the presence of
total coliforms in the distribution system. For drinking water, total coliforms are used to monitor
the sanitary quality of the water, adequacy of water treatment, and the integrity of the distribution
system. The absence of total coliforms in the distribution system minimizes the likelihood that
fecal pathogens are present. Thus, total coliforms are used to determine the vulnerability of a
system to fecal contamination.

What is total coliform bacteria?

Total coliforms are a group of closely related bacteria that are (with few exceptions) not harmful to
humans. They are an indicator of other pathogens that can be present in water. Coliform bacteria
are present in the intestinal tract of warm-blooded animals. They are shed from the body in the
feces. Because these organisms are shed from the body in large numbers and are relatively easy
to detect in the laboratory, they have been accepted as an indicator of contamination. All
bacteriological samples are analyzed for the coliform group; however, a positive reaction to these
coliform analyses may be from sources other than fecal. In order to differentiate between these
sources, all samples that are total coliform positive must be analyzed again to determine if fecal
coliform or E. coli are present.

What are fecal coliform and E. coli?

Fecal coliform is bacteria whose presence indicates that the water may be contaminated with
human or animal wastes. E. coli is a member of the fecal coliform group. Microbes in these
wastes can cause diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches, or other symptoms. They may pose a
special health risk for infants, young children, and people with severely compromised immune
systems. The presence of fecal coliform or E. coli in drinking water sample indicate recent
contamination and signals a greater possibility that pathogenic organisms are also in the water.

Why must a water system monitor for total coliform, fecal coliform, and E. coli?
Total coliforms serve as indicators of the efficiency of water treatment, of the integrity of the pipes
in the distribution system, and as a screen for the presence of fecal contamination. Usually,
coliforms are a sign that there could be a problem with the system’s treatment or distribution
system. Fecal and/or E. coli indicates that pathogenic organisms may be present that can cause
short-term health effects, such as diarrhea, cramps, nausea, headaches, fatigue and jaundice.
They may pose a special health risk for infants, young children, and people with severely
compromised immune systems.

Monitoring Requirements
How many coliform samples must a water system collect?
Every Public Water System (WS or PWS) must collect a given number of “routine” coliform
samples from the distribution system per month generally based on the population served.

Additional raw, finished, and distribution water samples may also be required depending on your
source of water, water treatment facilities, service area of the distribution system, and any related
sanitary survey deficiencies. After a WS or PWS sanitary survey is conducted by the official State
water or health agency inspector, the total number of coliform samples required each month is
listed on the follow-up inspection report that is mailed to the WS or PWS. If you are not sure how
many samples you are required to collect, please contact your Drinking Water Agency.

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Introduction.
If a WS or PWS has a positive coliform sample, confirmation (repeat) samples must be collected
immediately. The number of repeats will vary.

Does the number of monthly routine distribution coliform samples ever change?
Yes. Two events may change your monthly distribution monitoring requirements:
1) A change in population may cause a change in the number of samples. If a change occurs,
your official State Drinking Water Agency will notify the WS or PWS.
2) One coliform positive routine finished or routine distribution system sample result during any
month requires a minimum of FIVE routine distribution samples be collected the following month.
If your system is already required to collect a minimum of five distribution samples each month,
this does not affect you.

Do I have to collect my monthly routine coliform samples from specific locations?

Yes. Failure to do so may result in a monitoring violation. Every WS or PWS must have on file an
approved coliform sample site plan at the appropriate Drinking Water Agency. Always check
with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

What is a coliform sample site plan?

A coliform sample site plan is a list of sites by street address, lot number, or other permanent
description, that identifies all the approved locations where your routine (monthly) coliform
samples may be collected. The list of sites must be plotted on a map of your service area. Larger
water systems will divide their distribution system into specific sample areas.

Does the site plan have to be approved by the official State water or health agency?
Yes. The list of sites and the map is reviewed by the official State water or health agency Drinking
Water Agency serving your facility to insure representative sites have been selected. A site
number is then assigned to each sample location. All reporting forms must be completed using
the sample site number rather than the street address. Your approved site plan MUST be
followed each time you collect routine samples. Always check with your Agency to ensure this
rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

How can I find out the water system’s sampling locations?

A copy of the WS or PWS’s coliform site plan (and sample site numbers) is on file at your official
State water or health agency

How often and when must I collect my routine samples?

Routine compliance samples must be collected every month. Each month is a sampling period.
A WS or PWS with only a groundwater source (not under the direct influence of surface water)
that serves 4,900 persons or fewer, may collect all required samples on a single day if they are
taken from each area of the approved sample site plan. Always check with your Agency to ensure
this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

Surface water supplies, supplies using groundwater under the direct influence of surface water
and groundwater supplies that serve more than 4,900 people must collect samples throughout
the month. WS or PWS that collect weekly or more frequently should continue this practice.
Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some
States.

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Samples should be Collected as Early as Possible
Samples should be collected as early each month as possible, but not before the first day of each
month. Prompt collection allows WS or PWS sufficient time for replacement sampling if samples
are discarded. Reasons for discarding samples include: failure to record date or time of collection,
sample(s) more than 30 hours old upon arrival at the certified laboratory, and sample(s) broken or
frozen in transit. If the sample(s) and/or any necessary replacement samples are not collected
within the monthly monitoring period, the WS or PWS will be in violation of their monitoring
requirements and must make public notice. Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is
correct, for this rule is different in some States.

Collecting Samples
How do I choose a proper sample faucet?
Since coliform samples must be representative of the water quality in the distribution system, it is
important to select proper sampling locations. Visit the site before selecting it for your coliform
sample site plan. See if a smooth-nosed cold-water faucet is available that will allow the collector
to run the faucet at a constant flushing rate for 30 to 60 seconds without flooding the sink. You
may choose to install a smooth nosed faucet at your designated sample locations.

The sampling faucet should be conveniently located and readily accessible to the collector. Avoid
faucets that are connected to private water treatment equipment such as water softeners or
filters. Faucets that are subject to exterior contamination because they are too close to a sink
bottom or to the ground must be avoided. It is difficult to place a bottle beneath a low faucet
without touching the interior of the bottle’s neck against the outside of the faucet. Threaded
faucets that might harbor bacteria around the threads should not be used. Leaking faucets that
allow water to flow around the stem and over the outside of the faucet should be avoided. If an
even stream of water cannot be sustained, a more suitable tap should be found. Failure to follow
these precautions could result in a contaminated sample.

Keep in mind that in the event of a positive coliform sample, two (or three) additional distribution
sites meeting the above criteria, one within five (5) service connections upstream and one within
five (5) service connections downstream, will be needed for the collection of repeat samples.
These additional sites should be included in your coliform sample site plan. You may wish to
install dedicated sampling faucets or sampling stations to assure access and satisfactory
sampling conditions at all times. Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for
this rule is different in some States.

How should a coliform sample be collected?

Use great care when collecting coliform samples. Only bottles received from the certified
laboratory should be used to collect samples. It is extremely important that the sample collector
uses only the approved sampling locations and follow proper sampling techniques.

Contamination from the sampling faucet can easily occur if extreme caution is not used. Should
an incident occur during sample collection that may result in contamination, the sample should be
discarded and a new bottle requested. It is assumed that all samples submitted for testing
are properly collected. Sample error will not be accepted as an excuse to avoid repeat
sampling.

Generally, the following protocol should be followed:

1. Sample bottles should be examined when received. If for any reason (loose caps, caps off,
etc.) the sterility of the bottle is in question, the bottles should not be used.
2. Open an approved sampling faucet so that a smooth flow of water at moderate pressure is
obtained. Be sure that there is no splashing. Allow the water to flow for sufficient time to clear the
service line. Depending on time of year and water source you may notice a water temperature
change when the line has been cleared.

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3. If your WS or PWS is chlorinated, check for residual chlorine. These results MUST be
included on the reporting form. Indicate whether the residual measured is free (F) or total (T)
chlorine.
4. The bottle cap should not be removed until you are ready to collect the sample. Do not lay the
bottle cap down or put it in a pocket. Hold the bottle in one hand and the cap in the other, keeping
the bottle cap right side up (threads down) and taking care not to touch the inside of the cap.
Avoid touching the inside of the sterile bottle(s) with your fingers or the faucet nose.
5. Once you start filling the bottles do not adjust the stream flow. Do not allow splashing drops of
water from the ground or sink to enter the bottle. Fill the bottle to the 100 ml mark on the side of
the bottle. Cap the bottle immediately. Then turn off the faucet.

Can I use any container to collect the sample?

No. You must use sterile 100 ml plastic (or glass) bottles obtained from a certified laboratory.
These bottles contain a small amount of sodium thiosulfate to neutralize the residual chlorine in
the sample. The sodium thiosulfate may appear as a tablet or as a white residue in the bottle. Do
NOT rinse this material out of the bottle.

Do we need to use any special reporting forms when submitting samples to the
laboratory?
Yes. These forms can be obtained by calling your certified laboratory. The reporting forms
should be included with the bottles. Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct,
for this rule is different in some States.

How do I complete the reporting/collection form?

For the most part, the form is self-explanatory. A few reminders:
1. Always use your official State water or health agency assigned sample site numbers (not
sample address). If a site number does not exist for a location, please add it to your site plan by
calling your official Drinking Water Agency. Simply record the address if it’s a “one-time”
sample location.
2. Be-sure you include all “Contact Person” information including telephone number and cellular
number. This information is very important in case there is a positive sample.
3. Clearly mark sample purpose.
4. If the WS or PWS is chlorinated, you must include the chlorine residual on the form. Failure to
do so will result in a violation.

After I collect the sample, how long does it have to reach the laboratory?
Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some
States. In order for the laboratory to analyze the sample(s), it must be received within 24 or 30
hours of collection. If not, a replacement must be collected. It is strongly recommended that the
monthly routine samples be collected within the first few days of each month. This will allow
ample time for the collection of replacement sample(s) if they are required.

What days of the week should I collect my samples?

It is preferred that routine samples be collected and shipped to the laboratory on Mondays or
Tuesdays. If routine samples are hand delivered to the laboratory, they should be delivered no
later than Thursday. However, emergency or repeat samples may be submitted at any time. If
you anticipate the samples will arrive on a weekend or holiday, you should contact your certified
laboratory and make the necessary arrangements. It is recommended that you call your certified
laboratory for a contact person, business hours, and any special delivery instructions. Always
check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

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Do all coliform samples collected during the month count towards meeting our
compliance monitoring requirements?
No. Special purpose samples, such as those taken to lift a boil order, or new construction
samples to determine whether disinfection practices are sufficient following pipe placement,
replacement or repair, will not be used to determine compliance with the Maximum Contaminant
Level (MCL) or towards the routine number of samples required each month.

Routine raw and/or finished water entry point samples do not count towards meeting the total
number of distribution samples required each month. However, finished water entry point
samples will be used to determine compliance with the MCL. Thus, if you have a positive finished
water entry point sample, you must follow-up with the collection of repeat samples.

Our water system is chlorine exempt. Are there any special monitoring requirements?
Yes. In past years, some very small systems have been granted an exemption from chlorination
by State water or health agencies. New exemptions are no longer granted. Official State water or
health agency may still honors past chlorine exemptions, but recognizes that the water lacks the
protection of the residual chlorine.

Consequently, it is especially important that the bacterial quality of the water be monitored at
frequent intervals. One of the conditions of the exemption is that samples be collected and
analyzed at twice the frequency required of a chlorinated WS or PWS (two times a month).
Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some
States.

Interpretation of Results
How do I know if the sample is satisfactory?
The laboratory will determine if any bacteria are present in your sample(s). If no bacteria are
present the sample is considered satisfactory with a (S) recorded on the reporting form.

If bacteria are detected in the sample, the laboratory will record the number of colonies (if using
the membrane filter technique) and analyze the sample to see if the bacteria are coliform. If the
bacteria are determined to be coliform the laboratory will use the designation of “P” (positive).If no
coliform is detected, the designation will be given as “N” (negative). Any sample with a non-
coliform bacteria count of 200 colonies or less is considered a satisfactory (S) sample.

If any coliform bacteria are found, the sample is positive and requires collection of repeat samples
as described in – Repeat Samples / Follow-up to Coliform Positive Samples. Additional tests
are performed on the original total coliform positive sample to determine if fecal coliform or E. coli
is present. This result is also recorded on the reporting form with a P or N.

A sample analyzed by the membrane filter technique is deemed invalid (I) in the following
scenarios:
1. Samples are negative for coliform but exhibit confluent growth. Confluent growth is continuous
bacterial growth covering all or part of a membrane filter.
2. Samples are negative for coliform but bacteria colonies are too numerous to count (reported as
G- or TNTC by the laboratory). Submission of replacement sample(s) is required. When using the
multiple fermentation tube procedure or the presence-absence procedure, if the media is turbid
with no production of gas or acid, the sample also is invalidated with replacement sample(s)
required.

How long must I keep coliform results and other related paperwork?
5 years. Records of total coliform analyses must be kept for no less than five (5) years. The
actual laboratory reports may be kept or the data may be transferred to tabular summaries. Local
procedures may contain requirements concerning the retention of records. The most stringent
requirement should be followed. Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for
this rule is different in some States.

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Repeat Samples / Follow-up to Coliform Positive Samples
How am I notified of positive coliform samples?
If a routine or replacement sample is total coliform positive, the certified laboratory and the
Drinking Water Agency will try to contact the WS or PWS by telephone using the contact name
and number provided on the reporting form. All Water Systems should keep a small number of
extra coliform bottles/reporting forms in case of required repeat sampling. If for some unforeseen
reason, the WS or PWS does not have extra coliform bottles on hand, the laboratory will
overnight coliform bottles to the facility. However, this is not a preferred situation. Remember,
responsibility for timely sampling ultimately falls on the WS or PWS. Therefore, waiting for bottles
to arrive in the mail incurs risk on the WS or PWS. Obviously, to receive “repeat” sample bottles
in the mail is an indication that there is a positive sample and immediate action is needed.

What is a repeat sample?

Any sample that is analyzed as a follow-up to an initial positive result is referred to as “repeat”
sample. After a routine coliform sample is found to be total coliform positive, repeat samples are
required to confirm the initial positive result(s), to determine if the contamination is ongoing, and
to evaluate the extent of the contamination within the distribution system.

How many repeat samples must I collect?

The number of repeats samples is dependent on the number of routine samples collected for the
month. Three repeat samples are required for each distribution sample that is coliform positive;
however, if the WS or PWS sends in only one routine distribution sample per month, four repeat
samples are required for each sample that is coliform positive. Always check with your Agency to
ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

Where must repeat samples be collected?

If three repeat samples are required, one repeat sample must be collected from a tap within five
(5) service connections upstream from the original sample, another repeat sample must be
collected within five (5) service connections downstream from the original sampling site, and the
last must be collected at the original site.
If four repeat samples are required, one repeat sample must be collected from a tap within five
(5) service connections upstream from the original sample, another repeat sample must be
collected within five (5) service connections downstream from the original sampling site, another
must be collected at the original site, and the fourth may be collected anywhere within the
distribution system (this may aid in identifying the possible source of contamination).

All repeat samples (or sample set) must be collected on the same day. Exceptions to this rule are
WS or PWS with a single service connection. In this case the official State water or health agency
may allow the WS or PWS to collect the repeat samples over a four-day period or to collect a
single sample of at least 400 ml (300 ml if the system collects more than one sample per month).
Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some
States.

Where should the repeat samples be collected if the positive sample was collected at the
end of the distribution system?
The WS or PWS is still required to collect three (or four when applicable) repeat samples. If the
original sampling site is at the end of the distribution system (or one tap away from the end) the
State Drinking Water agency may waive the requirement to collect one of the repeat samples
downstream. An additional sample will be required upstream or from the same building. Always
check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

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How many repeats are required if a finished water entry point sample or raw well sample is
positive?
One. Only one repeat sample should be collected from the positive finished water entry point
location or raw positive location. Raw or finished entry point samples (or raw/entry point repeat
samples) are not used when determining compliance. Prior to August 2007, a routine coliform
positive finished water (entry point) sample required three or four repeats. This has changed.
Only one repeat is now required and it is to be collected from the same entry point location as the
positive (downstream repeat samples are no longer required). Always check with your Agency to
ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

How much time do I have to collect repeat sample(s)?

24 Hours. If a routine or replacement sample is total coliform positive, the WS or PWS must
collect a set of repeat samples within 24 hours of being notified of the positive result. Again, all
WS or PWS should keep a small number of extra coliform bottles/reporting forms in case
of required repeat sampling. If the WS or PWS is waiting for bottles to be shipped from the
laboratory, repeat samples must be collected on the day of bottle receipt.

All repeat samples (or sample set) must be collected on the same day. Exceptions to this rule are
WS or PWS with a single service connection. In this case the official State water or health agency
may allow the WS or PWS to collect the repeat samples over a four-day period or to collect a
single sample of at least 400 ml (300 ml if the system collects more than one sample per month).
Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some
States.

When does the repeat sample collection “start clock” begin?

The 24-hour clock starts when the laboratory (or State) notifies the water system of the
initial positive coliform result. You have 24 hours from the time of notification to collect
your repeat samples and return them to a laboratory for analysis. If you fail to meet this
window, a violation will be issued, provided that no extension had been granted.

If the WS or PWS cannot be reached via phone, the official State water or health agency has
defined “notified” as the date that the laboratory initiates shipment of repeat sample bottles. The
laboratory records this date on the coliform reporting form. The repeat samples must be collected
on the on the day that the bottles are received at the WS or PWS. Always check with your
Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

What if I cannot meet the 24-hour repeat collection requirement?

your official State water or health agency acknowledges that some circumstances may arise,
totally beyond the control of the WS or PWS, which prevent repeat samples from being collected
within the 24-hour period. Therefore, extensions may be granted by your Drinking Water
Agency. A valid reason for the extension must be provided. Extensions cannot be granted after
the fact. Therefore, requests for extensions MUST be made prior to or at the same time the
repeat samples are being collected. Extensions will always specify exactly how much time the
WS or PWS has to collect and return the repeat samples. Failure to obtain the extension or failure
to meet the terms of the extension will result in a monitoring violation. Please remember that an
extension on the 24-hour repeat collection requirement is NOT a waiver for actually collecting the
repeat samples. Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is
different in some States.

What happens if I am notified on a Friday of positive routine results (or receive repeat
bottles on a Friday or Holiday)?
The 24-hour collection requirement must still be met. You should contact your certified
laboratory to arrange a time on Saturday to collect the repeat samples and drive them to the
laboratory. If this is not possible, the WS or PWS must request an extension the first business
day following the weekend or holiday. Please call the official State water or health agency at at
the earliest possible time to request an extension on the 24-hour requirement.

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It is strongly recommended that all routine coliform samples be collected and mailed on
a Monday or Tuesday to avoid this situation.

What happens if any of the repeats are positive or invalid?

If one or more repeat samples in the set are total coliform positive or invalid, the whole repeat
monitoring process must start over. A new “set” of three or four (if only one routine sample is
collected per month) repeats must be collected within 24 hours of being notified of the positive or
invalid repeat.

If a repeat sample location is positive and is not from the same location as the original positive
sample (and/or the original site is negative), the next repeat collection should be based on the
original positive site location and NOT the positive repeat location. Every consecutive set of
repeat samples must be collected at the same locations as the 1st set of repeat samples.

The WS or PWS must repeat this process until either total coliform are not detected in one
complete “set” of repeat samples or the WS or PWS determines that the total coliform Maximum
Contaminant Level(MCL) has been exceeded and notifies your official State water or health
agency. It is highly recommended that sampling be repeated until a “set” is satisfactory. Always
check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some States.

Does one (or more) positive routine or repeat sample change the following month’s
monitoring requirements?
Yes. If you collect less than 5 routine distribution samples per month and have at least one
positive routine, repeat or replacement sample, 5 routine distribution samples MUST be collected
the following month. The samples can be collected from other approved coliform sites or from
other locations in the distribution system. Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is
correct, for this rule is different in some States.

Who is responsible for notifying the official State water or health agency if results are
positive?
The WS or PWS is responsible for notifying your official State water or health agency when a total
coliform positive sample is found and for having the appropriate repeat samples analyzed. In
most cases, an agreement has been made between the certified laboratory and the WS or PWS
that the laboratory will notify the State Agency; however, even in this case, the WS or PWS is
held accountable for this notification requirement.

Invalidating Sample Results

Can a sample result be invalidated?
A coliform positive can be invalidated when there is a significant reason to believe the test results
are not accurate or not representative of the water quality. These samples are not used in
compliance calculations and a replacement must be collected within the same monitoring period
(same month) at the same location to avoid a possible monitoring violation.

There are three conditions in which a total coliform positive sample result may be invalidated:
1. The laboratory establishes that an error in its analytical procedure caused the total coliform
positive result.
2. The State water or health agency, on the basis of the results of repeat samples collected
determines that the total coliform positive sample resulted from a domestic or other non-
distribution system-plumbing problem.
3. The State water or health agency determines that there are substantial grounds to believe that
a total coliform positive result is due to a circumstance or condition that does not reflect water
quality in the distribution system.

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The laboratory will invalidate the results if they are unable to obtain a true result according to the
test method used to analyze the sample. If a laboratory invalidates a routine sample due to
interference, the WS or PWS must collect another sample from the same location as the original
sample within 24 hours of being notified of the interference problem.

How can I have a positive coliform result invalidated?

Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for this rule is different in some
States. The invalidation process involves 3 steps:
1. All repeat samples must have been collected in accordance with the repeat sampling
requirements.
2. As soon as you feel a sample should be invalidated, the Drinking Water Agency should be
contacted by telephone and the situation discussed. If the Drinking Water Agency verbally agrees
that the sample is not representative of the water quality, they will direct you as to what certain
steps need to be taken (e.g., proof, additional samples, etc.). Ultimately, the Drinking Water
Agency will recommend to the Compliance or Regulatory division whether or not a sample should
be invalidated. Failure to get the Drinking Water Agency’s concurrence will result in your request
being rejected by the Compliance or Regulatory division.
3. A formal written requested must be mailed to the Drinking Water Agency and Compliance or
Regulatory division within four weeks of the original routine sample collection date. The written
documentation must state the specific cause of the total coliform positive sample and what action
the supplier has taken, or will take, to correct this problem. The official State water or health
agency will provide a written notification to the WS or PWS as to whether or not the request for
invalidation was granted.

The State water or health agency will not invalidate a total coliform positive sample solely
on the grounds that all repeat samples are total coliform negative.

How soon do I have to initiate the invalidation process?

At the time of receiving notice of positive results, the WS or PWS should immediately begin an
investigation and collect repeat samples. At that time, any reason to question validity of a result
should be acted on promptly while the situation is fresh at hand.

If a sample is invalidated by the State water or health agency or the certified laboratory
does it still count towards meeting the monthly monitoring requirements?
No. You MUST collect another routine sample to replace any invalidated routine sample. To
confirm the sample purpose look at the reporting form. Remember that all routine samples are
marked with a sample purpose of “Routine” on the reporting form. The replacement sample(s)
MUST be collected within the same monitoring period (same month). Repeat samples cannot be
used to meet this requirement. Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is correct, for
this rule is different in some States.

My repeat sample is invalid. Now what?

If one or more repeat samples in a set are invalid, the whole repeat monitoring process must
begin over starting with the collection of a new “set” (3 or 4) of repeat samples within 24 hours.
Every consecutive set of repeat samples should be collected at the same locations as the 1st set
of repeats.

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Compliance, Violations, and Follow-up Actions
What is an MCL?
Maximum Contaminant Level. State and federal regulations set maximum contaminant levels
(MCLs) on contaminants that have been determined to cause possible health effects. When
MCLs are exceeded, the WS or PWS must accomplish all the required actions that generally
include public notice within a specified time period. There are two types of coliform MCL
violations, monthly and acute.

What is a MONTHLY coliform MCL exceedance and how is it determined?

A monthly coliform MCL violation occurs when a WS or PWS exceeds the number of allowed
coliform positive samples. The number allowed depends on the number of routine distribution
samples collected during the monthly sample period.

What is an ACUTE coliform MCL exceedance and how is it determined?

Acute MCLs are extremely serious and require immediate action. Coliform sample results have
indicated an immediate threat to the WS or PWS and serious health effects can result. Therefore,
water customers must be notified without delay. All samples that are total coliform positive must
be examined for fecal coliform or E. coli. Always check with your Agency to ensure this rule is
correct, for this rule is different in some States.

What is a monitoring violation and how can I avoid one?

A monitoring violation occurs when the coliform monitoring requirements for a month are not met.
All WS or PWS are required to submit samples for bacteriological analysis during each calendar
month. Do NOT sample before the beginning of the month.

The WS or PWS must meet several criteria to avoid a monitoring violation:

1. At a minimum, collect the required number of distribution samples each month. The number of
distribution samples required is based on population served. It is crucial that every WS or PWS
operator know the coliform monitoring requirements for his or her WS or PWS.

2. Sampling locations used must be in accordance with the approved written coliform sample site
plan. All sampling areas must be represented during each monthly sampling period.

3. All replacement and repeat samples must be returned promptly to the laboratory for analysis.
These samples will be included in determining compliance.

4. Repeat samples and replacement samples for invalid (negative coliform growth) samples must
be collected within 24 hours of notification. If these samples cannot be collected within 24 hours,
you must contact the official State water or health agency for an extension. The time extension
will be given on a case-by-case basis and will always specify exactly how much time the WS or
PWS has to collect and return the repeat samples. Failure to obtain the extension or failure to
meet the terms of the extension will result in a monitoring violation.

5. If a private certified laboratory analyzes samples, it is the responsibility of the WS or PWS to

make sure that copies of the reports are sent to the official State water or health agency within 10
days of the end of the sampling period (month).

6. Collect at least five coliform distribution system samples the month following a coliform positive
finished or distribution system sample.

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How are repeat samples used in determining compliance?
Repeat samples are not counted towards determining monthly distribution monitoring compliance.
However, failure to collect repeats within 24-hours (following notification of a positive routine
sample) will result in a monitoring violation (and possible MCL violation) unless the WS or PWS
obtained a waiver from the 24-hour collection requirement. In addition, if a WS or PWS fails to
collect any of the repeat samples for a positive routine sample, the missing repeats will be
“assumed” positive and included when totaling the number of positive samples for the month. In
most cases, this will result in an MCL violation and require public notification.

Do I need to notify the water customers of a violation?

Yes. Each violation and situation requiring notice has been assigned to one of three categories,
or tiers, based on the risk of adverse health effects. Public notice is required for any of the
following:

Tier 1 Violations or other Situations

Tier 1 violations or problems may result in an immediate adverse health problem for some
consumers. Violation of the MCL for total coliform, when fecal coliform or E. coli are present in
the water distribution system, or failure to test for fecal coliform or E. coli when any repeat
sample tests positive for coliform.

Tier 2 Violations
All violations of the MCL, MRDL, and treatment technique requirements except where Tier 1
notice is required Violations of the monitoring requirements when required by the official State
water or health agency (see Tier 3).

Tier 3 Violations or other Situations

Monitoring violations, except where Tier 1 or Tier 2 notice is required as determined by your
official State water or health agency.

Common Mistakes to Avoid

Below describes some common errors that may result in a violation.
1. WS or PWS does not collect the correct number of repeat samples following a routine positive
sample.
2. Failure of small WS or PWS (that serve a population 4,100 or less) to collect a minimum of 5
routine distribution coliform samples the month following a coliform positive sample.
3. Marking the wrong sample purpose box on the reporting form. Most often, this occurs when
collecting a repeat (due to positive sample) sample and marking it as an invalid replacement or
replacement (due to invalid, TNTC, or broken) sample and vice versa.
4. Failure to use sample site numbers.
5. Failure to report the chlorine residual (if chlorine/chloramines is added) on the reporting form.
6. Failure to monitor early in the month. Waiting until the end of the month to collect the routine
samples does not allow enough time for follow-up actions if required.

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Chain of Custody Procedures
Because a sample is physical evidence, chain of custody procedures are used to maintain and
document sample possession from the time the sample is collected until it is introduced as
evidence. Chain of custody requirements will vary from agency to agency.

However, these procedures are similar and the chain of custody outlined in this manual is only a
guideline. Consult your project manager for specific requirements.

If you have physical possession of a sample, have it in view, or have physically secured it to
prevent tampering then it is defined as being in “custody." A chain of custody record, therefore,
begins when the sample containers are obtained from the laboratory. From this point on, a chain
of custody record will accompany the sample containers.

Handle the samples as little as possible in the field. Each custody sample requires a chain of
custody record and may require a seal. If you do not seal individual samples, then seal the
containers in which the samples are shipped.

When the samples transfer possession, both parties involved in the transfer must sign, date and
note the time on the chain of custody record. If a shipper refuses to sign the chain-of-custody you
must seal the samples and chain of custody documents inside a box or cooler with bottle seals or
evidence tape. The recipient will then attach the shipping invoices showing the transfer dates and
times to the custody sheets. If the samples are split and sent to more than one laboratory,
prepare a separate chain of custody record for each sample. If the samples are delivered to after-
hours night drop-off boxes, the custody record should note such a transfer and be locked with the
sealed samples inside sealed boxes.

Using alcohol to disinfect a special sample tap before obtaining a sample.

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 Chain of Custody Example.

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Carefully follow these steps when collecting a coliform sample:
1. Select the sampling site, which must be a faucet from which water is commonly taken for consumer
use or a dedicated site in the distribution system.
a. The sampling point should be a non-swivel faucet.
b. If it is a faucet with an aerator, remove the aerator, screen and gasket and flush thoroughly.
c. If an outside faucet is used, disconnect any hoses or other attachments and flush the line thoroughly.
d. It should be a faucet that does not leak around the packing or valve mechanism.
Leaking faucets can promote bacterial growth.
e. Do not use fire hydrants or drinking fountains as sampling points.
f. Do not dip sample bottles in reservoirs, spring boxes or storage tanks in order to collect a sample. If
you have any questions about proper sampling sites, please contact your laboratory, environmental or
health department or the state drinking water section.

2. Use only sample bottles provided by the laboratory specifically for bacteriological sampling.
These bottles are sterile and should not be rinsed before sampling. A chemical, usually sodium
thiosulfate, is placed in the bottle by the lab and is used for chlorine deactivation. Do not remove it.
3. Don’t open the sample bottle until the moment you are going to fill it.
4. Flush the line thoroughly. Run water through the faucet for three to five minutes before opening the
bottle and collecting the sample.
5. Uncap the sample bottle, being careful not to touch the inside of the bottle with your fingers or other
objects. Do not set the lid down while taking the sample.
6. Reduce the water flow to a slow steady stream. Continue flushing for at least 1-2 minutes, then gently
fill the sample bottle to the fill mark. At least 100 ml. of water is necessary for analysis. Leave an air space
in the top of the bottle. Do not overfill.
7. Replace the cap immediately, making sure it is tight and does not leak.
8. Label the laboratory form. Complete the following
information:
a. Your Public Water System (PWS) ID number.
b. Your water system name, address, city and phone
number.
c. Collection date and time.
d. Type of sample: Routine, Repeat, and Special.
Refer to previous discussion of definitions.
e. Name of person collecting sample and sample
location.
f. Free chlorine residual if your system is chlorinated.
The residual should be measured at the time of
sample collection.
g. Complete the section for the return address where
the report is to be sent.
9. Package the sample for delivery to the laboratory.
Be sure to include the lab form. The sample should be kept cool if at all possible.
10. Mail or deliver the sample to the lab immediately. Samples over 30 hours old will not be analyzed by
the laboratory. If the sample is too old or leaks in transit, the lab will notify you and you must collect
another.

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Sampling Plan Example
A written sampling plan must be developed by the water system. These plans will be reviewed by the
Health Department or State Drinking Water agency during routine field visits for sanitary surveys or
technical assistance visits. This plan should include:

1. The location of routine sampling sites on a system distribution map. You will need to locate more
routine sampling sites than the number of samples required per month or quarter. A minimum of three
sites is advised and the sites should be rotated on a regular basis.
2. Map the location of repeat sampling sites for the routine sampling sites. Remember that repeat
samples must be collected within five (5) connections upstream and downstream from the routine sample
sites.
3. Establish a sampling frequency of the routine sites.
4. Sampling technique, establish a minimum flushing time and requirements for free chlorine residuals at
the sites (if you chlorinate continuously).

The sampling sites should be representative of the distribution network and pressure zones. If someone
else, e.g., the lab, collects samples for you, you should provide them with a copy of your sampling plan
and make sure they have access to all sample sites.

This fellow is taking a sample from a stream to check the water quality.

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Collection of Surface Water Samples
Representative samples may be collected from rivers, streams and lakes if certain rules are followed:
1. Watch out for flash floods! If a flooding event is likely and samples must be obtained, always go in
two-person teams for safety. Look for an easy route of escape.

2. Select a sampling location at or near a gauging station, so that stream discharge can be related
to water-quality loading. If no gauging station exists, then measure the flow rate at the time of
sampling, using the streamflow method described below.

3. Locate a straight and uniform channel for sampling.

4. Unless specified in the sampling plan, avoid sampling locations next to confluences or point
sources of contamination.

5. Use bridges or boats for deep rivers and lakes where wading is dangerous or impractical.

6. Do not collect samples along a bank, as they may not be representative of the surface water body
as a whole.

7. Use appropriate gloves when collecting the sample.

Streamflow Measurement
Before collecting water quality samples, record the stream's flow rate at the selected station. The flow rate
measurement is important for estimating contaminant loading and other impacts.

The first step in streamflow measurement is selecting a cross-section. Select a straight reach where the
stream bed is uniform and relatively free of boulders and aquatic growth. Be certain that the flow is
uniform and free of eddies, slack water and excessive turbulence.

After the cross-section has been selected, determine the width of the stream by stringing a measuring
tape from bank-to-bank at right angles to the direction of flow. Next, determine the spacing of the
verticals. Space the verticals so that no partial section has more than 5 per cent of the total discharge
within it.

At the first vertical, face upstream and lower the velocity meter to the channel bottom, record its depth,
then raise the meter to 0.8 and 0.2 of the distance from the stream surface, measure the water velocities
at each level, and average them. Move to the next vertical and repeat the procedure until you reach the
opposite bank. Once the velocity, depth and distance of the cross-section have been determined, the
mid-section method can be used for determining discharge. Calculate the discharge in each increment by
multiplying the averaged velocity in each increment by the increment width and averaged depth.

(Note that the first and last stations are located at the edge of the waterway and have a depth and
velocity of zero.) Add up the discharges for each increment to calculate total stream discharge. Record
the flow in liters (or cubic feet) per second in your field book.

Composite Sampling
Composite sampling is intended to produce a water quality sample representative of the total stream
discharge at the sampling station. If your sampling plan calls for composite sampling, use an automatic
type sampler.

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 Common water sample bottles for distribution systems.

Radiochems, VOCs, (Volatile Organic Compounds), TTHMs, Total Trihalomethanes), Nitrate,

Nitrite.

Most of these sample bottles will come with the preservative already inside the bottle.

Some bottles will come with a separate preservative (acid) for the field preservation.

Slowly add the acid or other preservative to the water sample; not water to the acid or
preservative.

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Safe Drinking Water Act (SDWA)

On August 6, 1996, President Clinton signed the Reauthorization of the Safe Drinking Water Act, bringing
to a successful conclusion to years of work on the part of water professionals and a broad range of public
interest groups throughout the nation. This new law strikes a balance among federal, state, local, urban,
rural, large and small water systems in a manner that improves the protection of public health and brings
reason and good science to the regulatory process.

The major elements of this law include:

The law updates the standard-setting process by focusing regulations on contaminants known to pose
greater public health risks.

 It replaces the current law's demand for 25 additional standards every three years with a new process
based on occurrence, relative risk, and cost-benefit considerations.
 It also requires the EPA to select at least five new candidate contaminants to consider for regulation
every five years.
 The EPA is directed to require public water systems to provide customers with annual "Consumer
Confidence Reports" in newspapers and by direct mail.
 The reports must list levels of regulated contaminants along with Maximum Contaminant Levels
(MCLs) and Maximum Contaminant Level Goals (MCLGs), along with plainly worded definitions of
both.
 The reports must also include a plainly worded statement of the health concerns for any contaminants
for which there has been a violation, describe the utility's sources of drinking water and provide data
on unregulated contaminants for which monitoring is required, including Cryptosporidium and radon.
 The EPA must establish a toll-free hot line customers can call to get additional information.
 The EPA is required to publish guidelines for states to develop water source assessment programs
that delineate protection areas and assess contamination risks.
 The EPA is required to identify technologies that are affordable for small systems to comply with
drinking water regulations.
 Technical assistance funds and Small System Technical Assistance Centers are authorized to meet
the training and technical needs of small systems.
 States are authorized to grant variances for compliance with drinking water regulations for systems
serving 3,300 or fewer persons.
 The EPA is required to publish certification guidelines for operators of community and nontransient
noncommunity public water systems.
 States that do not have operator certification programs that meet the requirements of the guidelines
will lose 20 percent of their SRLF grant.
 A source water petition program for voluntary, incentive-based partnerships among public water
systems and others to reduce contamination in source water is authorized.
 The law establishes a new State Revolving Loan Fund (SRLF) of $1 billion per year to provide loans
to public water systems to comply with the new SDWA.
 It also requires states to allocate 15 percent of the SRLF to systems serving 10,000 or fewer people
unless no eligible projects are available for loans.
 It also allows states to jointly administer SDWA and Clean Water Act loan programs and transfer up
to 33 percent between the two accounts.
 States must ensure that all new systems have compliance capacity and that all current systems
maintain capacity, or lose 20 percent of their SRLF grant.
Although the EPA will continue to provide policy, regulations and guidance, state governments will now
have more regulatory flexibility allowing for improved communication between water providers and their
local regulators. Increased collaboration will result in solutions that work better and are more fully
supported by the regulated community. States that have a source water assessment program may adopt
alternative monitoring requirements to provide permanent monitoring relief for public water systems in
accordance with EPA guidance.

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Safe Drinking Water Act of 1974
(PL 93-523) as amended by:
 The Safe Drinking Water Act Amendments of 1986
 National Primary Drinking Water Regulations, 40 CFR 141
 National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations Implementation, 40 CFR142
 National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations, 40 CFR 143

This is the primary Federal legislation protecting drinking water supplied by public water systems (those
serving more than 25 people). The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) is lead agency and is
mandated to set standards for drinking water. The EPA establishes national standards of which the states
are responsible for enforcing.

The act provides for the establishment of primary regulations for the protection of the public health and
secondary regulations relating to the taste, odor, and appearance of drinking water. Primary drinking
water regulations, by definition, include either a maximum contaminant level (MCL) or, when a MCL is not
economically or technologically feasible, a prescribed treatment technique which would prevent adverse
health effects to humans. An MCL is the permissible level of a contaminant in water that is delivered to
any user of a public water system. Primary and secondary drinking water regulations are stated in 40
CFR 141 and 143, respectively. As amended in 1986, the EPA is required to set maximum contaminant
levels for 83 contaminants deemed harmful to humans (with specific deadlines). It also has authority over
groundwater. Water agencies are required to monitor water to ensure it meets standards.

National Drinking Water Regulations

The Act instructs the EPA on how to select contaminants for regulation and specifies how EPA must
establish national primary drinking water regulations once a contaminant has been selected (Section
1412). As of late 1996, the EPA had promulgated 84 drinking water regulations.

Contaminant Selection
P.L. 104-182 establishes a new process for the EPA to select contaminants for regulatory consideration
based on occurrence, health effects, and meaningful opportunity for health risk reduction. By February
1998 and every 5 years thereafter, the EPA must publish a list of contaminants that may warrant
regulation. Starting in 2001, and every 5 years thereafter, the EPA must determine whether or not to
regulate at least 5 of the listed contaminants. The Act directs the EPA to evaluate contaminants that
present the greatest health concern and to regulate contaminants that occur at concentration levels and
frequencies of public health concern.

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The law also includes a schedule for the EPA to complete regulations for disinfectants and disinfection
byproducts (D/DBPs) and Cryptosporidium (a waterborne pathogen).

Standard Setting
Developing national drinking water regulations is a two-part process. For each contaminant that the EPA
has determined merits regulation, the EPA must set a non-enforceable maximum contaminant level goal
(MCLG) at a level at which no known or anticipated adverse health effects occur, and which allows an
adequate margin of safety. The EPA must then set an enforceable standard, a maximum contaminant
level (MCL), as close to the MCLG as is "feasible" using best technology, treatment techniques, or other
means available (taking costs into consideration).

Standards are generally based on technologies that are affordable for large communities; however, under
P.L. 104-182, each regulation establishing an MCL must list any technologies, treatment techniques or
other means that comply with the MCL and that are affordable for three categories of small public water
systems. The 1996 Amendments authorize the EPA to set a standard at other than the feasible level if the
feasible level would lead to an increase in health risks by increasing the concentration of other
contaminants or by interfering with the treatment processes used to comply with other SDWA regulations.
In such cases, the standard or treatment techniques must minimize the overall health risk. Also, when
proposing a regulation, the EPA must now publish a determination as to whether or not the benefits of the
standard justify the costs. If EPA determines that the benefits do not justify the costs, the EPA may, with
certain exceptions, promulgate a standard that maximizes health risk reduction benefits at a cost that is
justified by the benefits.

Risk Assessment
P.L. 104-182 adds risk assessment and communication provisions to SDWA. When developing
regulations, the EPA is now required to: (1) use the best available, peer-reviewed science and supporting
studies and data; and (2) make publicly available a risk assessment document that discusses estimated
risks, uncertainties, and studies used in the assessment.

When proposing drinking water regulations, the EPA must publish a health risk reduction and cost
analysis. The law permits the EPA to promulgate an interim standard without first preparing a benefit-cost
analysis or making a determination as to whether the benefits of a regulation would justify the costs if the
EPA determines that a contaminant presents an urgent threat to public health.

New regulations generally become effective 3 years after promulgation. Up to 2 additional years may be
allowed if the EPA (or a state in the case of an individual system) determines the time is needed for
capital improvements. Section 1412 includes specific provisions for arsenic, sulfate, and radon. The law
authorizes states to grant Systems variances from a regulation if raw water quality prevents meeting the
standards despite application of best technology (Section 1415). A new provision authorizes small system
variances based on best affordable technology.

States may grant these variances to systems serving 3,300 or fewer persons if the system cannot afford
to comply (through treatment, an alternative water source, or restructuring) and the variance ensures
adequate protection of public health; states may grant variances to systems serving between 3,300 and
10,000 persons with EPA approval. To receive a small system variance, the system must install a
variance technology identified by EPA. The variance technology need not meet the MCL, but must protect
public health.

The EPA must identify variance technologies for existing regulations. Variances are not available for
microbial contaminants. The Act also provides for exemptions if a regulation cannot be met for other
compelling reasons (including costs) and if the system was in operation before the effective date of a
standard or treatment requirement (Section 1416). An exemption is intended to give a public water
system more time to comply with a regulation and can be issued only if it will not result in an
unreasonable health risk. Small systems may receive exemptions for up to 9 years.

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State Primacy
The primary enforcement responsibility for public water systems lies with the states, provided they adopt
regulations as stringent as the national requirements, adopt authority for administrative penalties, develop
adequate procedures for enforcement, maintain records, and create a plan for providing emergency water
supplies (Section 1413). Currently, 55 of 57 states and territories have primacy authority. P.L. 104-182
authorizes $100 million annually for the EPA to make grants to states to carry out the public water system
supervision program. States may also use a portion of their SRLF grant for this purpose (Section 1443).
Whenever the EPA finds that a public water system in a state with primary enforcement authority does
not comply with regulations, the Agency must notify the state and the system and provide assistance to
bring the system into compliance. If the state fails to commence enforcement action within 30 days after
the notification, the EPA is authorized to issue an administrative order or commence a civil action.

Nonprimacy State
In a non-primacy state, the EPA must notify an elected local official (if any has jurisdiction over the water
system) before commencing an enforcement action against the system (Section 1414). Primacy states
may establish alternative monitoring requirements to provide interim monitoring relief for systems serving
10,000 or fewer persons for most contaminants, if a contaminant is not detected in the first quarterly
sample. States with approved source water protection programs may adopt alternative monitoring
requirements to provide permanent monitoring relief to qualified systems for chemical contaminants
(Section 1418).

P.L. 104-182 requires states to adopt programs for training and certifying operators of community and
nontransient noncommunity systems. The EPA must publish guidelines specifying minimum standards for
operator certification by February 1999. Two years thereafter, the EPA must withhold 20% of a state's
SRLF grant unless the state has an operator certification program (Section 1419). States are also
required to establish capacity development programs based on EPA guidance. State programs must
include: 1) legal authority to ensure that new systems have the technical, financial, and managerial
capacity to meet SDWA requirements; and 2) a strategy to assist existing systems that are experiencing
difficulties to come into compliance. The EPA is required to withhold a portion of SRF grants from states
that do not have compliance development strategies (Section 1420).

Underground Injection Control

Another provision of the Act requires the EPA to promulgate regulations for state underground injection
control (UIC) programs to protect underground sources of drinking water. These regulations contain
minimum requirements for the underground injection of wastes in five well classes to protect underground
sources of drinking water and to require that a state prohibit, by December 1977, any underground
injection that was not authorized by state permit (Section 1421).

Ground Water Protection Grant Programs

The Act contains three additional ground water protection programs. Added in 1986, Section 1427
established procedures for demonstration programs to develop, implement, and assess critical aquifer
protection areas already designated by the Administrator as sole source aquifers. Section 1428, also
added in 1986, and established an elective state program for protecting wellhead areas around public
water system wells. If a state established a wellhead protection program by 1989, and the EPA approved
the state's program, then the EPA may award grants covering between 50% and 90% of the costs of
implementing the program. Section 1429, added by P.L. 104-182 authorizes the EPA to make 50% grants
to states to develop programs to ensure coordinated and comprehensive protection of ground water
within the states.

Source Water Protection Programs

P.L. 104-182 broadens the pollution prevention focus of the Act to embrace surface water as well as
ground water protection. New Section 1453 directs the EPA to publish guidance for states to implement
source water assessment programs that delineate boundaries of assessment areas from which systems
receive their water, and identify the origins of contaminants in delineated areas to determine systems'
susceptibility to contamination. States with approved assessment programs may adopt alternative
monitoring requirements to provide systems with monitoring relief under Section 1418.

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New Section 1454 authorizes a source water petition program based on voluntary partnerships between
state and local governments. States may establish a program under which a community water system or
local government may submit a source water quality partnership petition to the state requesting
assistance in developing a voluntary partnership to: (1) reduce the presence of contaminants in drinking
water; (2) receive financial or technical assistance; and (3) develop a long-term source water protection
strategy. This section authorizes $5 million each year for grants to states to support petition programs.
Also, states may use up to 10% of their annual SRF capitalization grant for the source water assessment
activities or for the petition program.

State Revolving Funds

Section 1452, added by P.L. 104-182 authorizes a State Revolving Loan Fund (SRF) program to help
systems finance improvements needed to comply with drinking water regulations. The law authorizes the
EPA to make grants to states to capitalize SDWA SRFs, which states then use to make loans to public
water systems. States must match 20% of the federal grant.

Grants will be allotted to states using the formula for distributing state PWSS grants through FY1997;
then, grants will be allotted based on a needs survey. Each state will receive at least 1% of funds. The
District of Columbia will receive 1% of funds as well. A state may transfer up to 33% of the grant to the
Clean Water Act (CWA) SRF, or an equivalent amount from the CWA SRF to the SDWA SRF.

Drinking water SRFs may be used to provide loan and

grant assistance for expenditures that the EPA has
determined will facilitate compliance or significantly
further the Act's health protection objectives. States
must make available 15% of their annual allotment for
loan assistance to systems that serve 10,000 or fewer
persons. States may use up to 30% of their SRF grant
to provide grants or forgive loan principle to help
economically disadvantaged communities. Also, states
may use a portion of funds for technical assistance,
source water protection and capacity development
programs, and for operator certification.

Other Provisions
Public water systems must notify customers of violations with potential for serious health effects within 24
hours. Systems must also issue to customers annual reports on contaminants detected in their drinking
water (Section 1414).

Section 1417 requires any pipe, solder, or flux used in the installation or repair of public water systems or
of plumbing in residential or nonresidential facilities providing drinking water to be "lead free" (as defined
in the Act). As of August 1998, it will be unlawful to sell pipes, plumbing fittings or fixtures that are not
"lead free" or to sell solder or flux that is not lead free(unless it is properly labeled); with the exception of
pipes used in manufacturing or industrial processing. P.L. 104-182 sets limits on the amount of lead that
may leach from new plumbing fixtures, and allows one year for a voluntary standard to be established
before requiring the EPA to take regulatory action. The Administrator has emergency powers to issue
orders and commence civil action if a contaminant likely to enter a public drinking water supply system
poses a substantial threat to public health and state or local officials have not taken adequate action
(Section 1431).

If a chemical necessary for water treatment is not reasonably available, the Administrator can issue a
"certification of need," in which case the President can order an allocation of the chemical to those
needing it (Section 1441). The EPA is provided authority to conduct research, studies, and
demonstrations related to the causes, treatment, control, and prevention of diseases resulting from
contaminants in water. The Agency is directed to provide technical assistance to the states and
municipalities in administering their public water system regulatory responsibilities.

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The law authorizes annually, $15 million for technical assistance to small systems and Indian Tribes, and
$25 million for health effects research (Section 1442). P.L. 104-182 authorizes additional appropriations
for drinking water research, not to exceed $26.6 million annually.

The Administrator may make grants to develop and demonstrate new technologies for providing safe
drinking water and to investigate health implications involved in the reclamation/reuse of waste waters
(Section 1444). Also, suppliers of water who may be subject to regulation under the Act are required to
establish and maintain records, monitor, and provide any information that the Administrator requires to
carry out the requirements of the Act (Section 1445). The Administrator may also enter and inspect the
property of water suppliers to enable him/her to carry out the purposes of the Act. Failure to comply with
these provisions may result in criminal penalties. The Act established a National Drinking Water Advisory
Council, composed of 15 members (with at least 2 representing rural systems), to advise, consult, and
make recommendations to the Administrator on activities and policies derived from the Act (Section
1446).

National Security
Any federal agency having jurisdiction over federally owned and maintained public water systems must
comply with all federal, state, and local drinking water requirements as well as any underground injection
control programs (Section 1447). The Act provides for waivers in the interest of national security.
Procedures for judicial review are outlined (Section 1448), and provision for citizens' civil actions is made
(Section 1449). Citizen suits may be brought against any person or agency allegedly in violation of
provisions of the Act, or against the Administrator for alleged failure to perform any action or duty which is
not discretionary.

The EPA may use the new estrogenic substances screening program created in the Food Quality
Protection Act of 1996 (P .L. 104-170) to provide for testing of substances that may be found in drinking
water if the Administrator determines that a substantial population may be exposed to such substances
(Section 1457). The EPA is directed to conduct drinking water studies involving subpopulations at greater
risk and biological mechanisms, and studies to support several rules including those addressing D/DBPs
and Cryptosporidium.

The Act includes a provision amending the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act, generally requiring the
Secretary of Health and Human Services to issue bottled drinking water standards for contaminants
regulated under the Safe Drinking Water Act. Other provisions of P.L. 104-182 authorize water and
wastewater grants for colonies and Alaska rural and native villages, and authorize the transfer of the
Washington (D.C.) Aqueduct to a regional authority. The 1996 Amendments also authorize a $50 million
per year grant program for additional infrastructure and watershed protection projects; the conference
report lists, and directs the EPA to give priority consideration to 24 such projects.

Because of the events of 9/11, we have to prepare for an attack on our water
distribution system. This includes preparing for hurricanes, floods and terrorist actions.

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National Primary Drinking Water Regulations
2
1 MCL
Inorganic MCLG 3 Potential Health Effects Sources of Contaminant in
4 or TT
Chemicals (mg/L) 4 from Ingestion of Water Drinking Water
(mg/L)
Antimony 0.006 0.006 Increase in blood cholesterol; Discharge from petroleum
decrease in blood glucose refineries; fire retardants;
ceramics; electronics; solder
Arsenic none5 0.010 Skin damage; circulatory Discharge from semiconductor
system problems; increased manufacturing; petroleum
risk of cancer refining; wood preservatives;
animal feed additives;
herbicides; erosion of natural
deposits
Asbestos 7 million 7 MFL Increased risk of developing Decay of asbestos cement in
(fiber >10 fibers per benign intestinal polyps water mains; erosion of natural
micrometers) Liter deposits
Barium 2 2 Increase in blood pressure Discharge of drilling wastes;
discharge from metal refineries;
erosion of natural deposits
Beryllium 0.004 0.004 Intestinal lesions Discharge from metal refineries
and coal-burning factories;
discharge from electrical,
aerospace, and defense
industries
Cadmium 0.005 0.005 Kidney damage Corrosion of galvanized pipes;
erosion of natural deposits;
discharge from metal refineries;
runoff from waste batteries and
paints
Chromium (total) 0.1 0.1 Some people who use water Discharge from steel and pulp
containing chromium well in mills; erosion of natural
excess of the MCL over many deposits
years could experience allergic
dermatitis
Copper 1.3 Action Short term exposure: Corrosion of household
Level=1. Gastrointestinal distress. plumbing systems; erosion of
3; TT6 Long term exposure: Liver or natural deposits; leaching from
kidney damage. Those with wood preservatives
Wilson's Disease should
consult their personal doctor if
their water systems exceed the
copper action level.
Cyanide (as free 0.2 0.2 Nerve damage or thyroid Discharge from steel/metal
cyanide) problems factories; discharge from plastic
and fertilizer factories
Fluoride 4.0 4.0 Bone disease (pain and Water additive which promotes
tenderness of the bones); strong teeth; erosion of natural
Children may get mottled deposits; discharge from
teeth. fertilizer and aluminum factories
Lead zero Action Infants and children: Delays in Corrosion of household
Level=0. physical or mental plumbing systems; erosion of
015; TT6 development. natural deposits
Adults: Kidney problems; high
blood pressure

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Inorganic Mercury 0.002 0.002 Kidney damage Erosion of natural deposits;
discharge from refineries and
factories; runoff from landfills
and cropland

Nitrate (measured 10 10 "Blue baby syndrome" in Runoff from fertilizer use;

as Nitrogen) infants under six months - life leaching from septic tanks,
threatening without immediate sewage; erosion of natural
medical attention. deposits
Symptoms: Infant looks blue
and has shortness of breath.
Nitrite (measured as 1 1 "Blue baby syndrome" in Runoff from fertilizer use;
Nitrogen) infants under six months - life leaching from septic tanks,
threatening without immediate sewage; erosion of natural
medical attention. deposits
Symptoms: Infant looks blue
and has shortness of breath.
Selenium 0.05 0.05 Hair or fingernail loss; Discharge from petroleum
numbness in fingers or toes; refineries; erosion of natural
circulatory problems deposits; discharge from mines
Thallium 0.0005 0.002 Hair loss; changes in blood; Leaching from ore-processing
kidney, intestine, or liver sites; discharge from
problems electronics, glass, and
pharmaceutical companies

2
1 MCL
Organic MCLG 3 Potential Health Effects Sources of Contaminant in
4 or TT
Chemicals (mg/L) 4 from Ingestion of Water Drinking Water
(mg/L)
Acrylamide zero TT7 Nervous system or blood Added to water during
problems; increased risk of sewage/wastewater treatment
cancer
Alachlor zero 0.002 Eye, liver, kidney or spleen Runoff from herbicide used on
problems; anemia; increased row crops
risk of cancer
Atrazine 0.003 0.003 Cardiovascular system Runoff from herbicide used on
problems; reproductive row crops
difficulties
Benzene zero 0.005 Anemia; decrease in blood Discharge from factories;
platelets; increased risk of leaching from gas storage tanks
cancer and landfills
Benzo(a)pyrene zero 0.0002 Reproductive difficulties; Leaching from linings of water
increased risk of cancer storage tanks and distribution
lines
Carbofuran 0.04 0.04 Problems with blood or Leaching of soil fumigant used
nervous system; reproductive on rice and alfalfa
difficulties.
Carbon zero .005 Liver problems; increased risk Discharge from chemical plants
tetrachloride of cancer and other industrial activities
Chlordane zero 0.002 Liver or nervous system Residue of banned termiticide
problems; increased risk of
cancer
Chlorobenzene 0.1 0.1 Liver or kidney problems Discharger from chemical and
agricultural chemical factories
2,4-D 0.07 0.07 Kidney, liver, or adrenal gland Runoff from herbicide used on
problems row crops
Dalapon 0.2 0.2 Minor kidney changes Runoff from herbicide used on
rights of way
1,2-Dibromo-3- zero 0.0002 Reproductive difficulties; Runoff/leaching from soil
chloropropane increased risk of cancer fumigant used on soybeans,
(DBCP) cotton, pineapples, and
orchards

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o-Dichlorobenzene 0.6 0.6 Liver, kidney, or circulatory Discharge from industrial
system problems chemical factories
p-Dichlorobenzene 0.075 0.075 Anemia; liver, kidney or spleen Discharge from industrial
damage; changes in blood chemical factories
1,2-Dichloroethane zero 0.005 Increased risk of cancer Discharge from industrial
chemical factories
1-1- 0.007 0.007 Liver problems Discharge from industrial
Dichloroethylene chemical factories
cis-1, 2- 0.07 0.07 Liver problems Discharge from industrial
Dichloroethylene chemical factories
trans-1,2- 0.1 0.1 Liver problems Discharge from industrial
Dichloroethylene chemical factories
Dichloromethane zero 0.005 Liver problems; increased risk Discharge from pharmaceutical
of cancer and chemical factories
1-2- zero 0.005 Increased risk of cancer Discharge from industrial
Dichloropropane chemical factories
Di(2- 0.4 0.4 General toxic effects or Leaching from PVC plumbing
ethylhexyl)adipate reproductive difficulties systems; discharge from
chemical factories
Di(2- zero 0.006 Reproductive difficulties; liver Discharge from rubber and
ethylhexyl)phthalate problems; increased risk of chemical factories
cancer
Dinoseb 0.007 0.007 Reproductive difficulties Runoff from herbicide used on
soybeans and vegetables
Dioxin (2,3,7,8- zero 0.000000 Reproductive difficulties; Emissions from waste
TCDD) 03 increased risk of cancer incineration and other
combustion; discharge from
chemical factories
Diquat 0.02 0.02 Cataracts Runoff from herbicide use
Endothall 0.1 0.1 Stomach and intestinal Runoff from herbicide use
problems
Endrin 0.002 0.002 Nervous system effects Residue of banned insecticide
Epichlorohydrin zero TT7 Stomach problems; Discharge from industrial
reproductive difficulties; chemical factories; added to
increased risk of cancer water during treatment process
Ethylbenzene 0.7 0.7 Liver or kidney problems Discharge from petroleum
refineries
Ethelyne dibromide zero 0.00005 Stomach problems; Discharge from petroleum
reproductive difficulties; refineries
increased risk of cancer
Glyphosate 0.7 0.7 Kidney problems; reproductive Runoff from herbicide use
difficulties
Heptachlor zero 0.0004 Liver damage; increased risk Residue of banned termiticide
of cancer
Heptachlor epoxide zero 0.0002 Liver damage; increased risk Breakdown of hepatachlor
of cancer
Hexachlorobenzene zero 0.001 Liver or kidney problems; Discharge from metal refineries
reproductive difficulties; and agricultural chemical
increased risk of cancer factories
Hexachlorocyclopen 0.05 0.05 Kidney or stomach problems Discharge from chemical
tadiene factories
Lindane 0.0002 0.0002 Liver or kidney problems Runoff/leaching from insecticide
used on cattle, lumber, gardens
Methoxychlor 0.04 0.04 Reproductive difficulties Runoff/leaching from insecticide
used on fruits, vegetables,
alfalfa, livestock
Oxamyl (Vydate) 0.2 0.2 Slight nervous system effects Runoff/leaching from insecticide
used on apples, potatoes, and
tomatoes
Polychlorinated zero 0.0005 Skin changes; thymus gland Runoff from landfills; discharge
biphenyls (PCBs) problems; immune of waste chemicals
deficiencies; reproductive or
nervous system difficulties;
increased risk of cancer

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Pentachlorophenol zero 0.001 Liver or kidney problems; Discharge from wood
increased risk of cancer preserving factories
Picloram 0.5 0.5 Liver problems Herbicide runoff
Simazine 0.004 0.004 Problems with blood Herbicide runoff
Styrene 0.1 0.1 Liver, kidney, and circulatory Discharge from rubber and
problems plastic factories; leaching from
landfills
Tetrachloroethylene zero 0.005 Liver problems; increased risk Discharge from factories and
of cancer dry cleaners
Toluene 1 1 Nervous system, kidney, or Discharge from petroleum
liver problems factories
Total none5 0.10 Liver, kidney or central Byproduct of drinking water
Trihalomethanes nervous system problems; disinfection
(TTHMs) increased risk of cancer
Toxaphene zero 0.003 Kidney, liver, or thyroid Runoff/leaching from insecticide
problems; increased risk of used on cotton and cattle
cancer
2,4,5-TP (Silvex) 0.05 0.05 Liver problems Residue of banned herbicide
1,2,4- 0.07 0.07 Changes in adrenal glands Discharge from textile finishing
Trichlorobenzene factories
1,1,1- 0.20 0.2 Liver, nervous system, or Discharge from metal
Trichloroethane circulatory problems degreasing sites and other
factories
1,1,2- 0.003 0.005 Liver, kidney, or immune Discharge from industrial
Trichloroethane system problems chemical factories
Trichloroethylene zero 0.005 Liver problems; increased risk Discharge from petroleum
of cancer refineries
Vinyl chloride zero 0.002 Increased risk of cancer Leaching from PVC pipes;
discharge from plastic factories

Xylenes (total) 10 10 Nervous system damage Discharge from petroleum

factories; discharge from
chemical factories

2
1 MCL
MCLG 3 Potential Health Effects Sources of Contaminant in
Radionuclides 4 or TT
from Ingestion of Water Drinking Water
(mg/L) 4
(mg/L)
Beta particles and none5 4 Increased risk of cancer Decay of natural and man-
photon emitters millirems made deposits
per year
Gross alpha particle none5 15 Increased risk of cancer Erosion of natural deposits
activity picocurie
s per
Liter
(pCi/L)
Radium 226 and none5 5 pCi/L Increased risk of cancer Erosion of natural deposits
Radium 228
(combined)

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 2
1 MCL
MCLG 3 Potential Health Effects Sources of Contaminant in
Microorganisms 4 or TT
(mg/L) 4 from Ingestion of Water Drinking Water
(mg/L)
Giardia lamblia zero TT8 Giardiasis, a gastroenteric Human and animal fecal waste
disease
Heterotrophic plate N/A TT8 HPC has no health effects, but n/a
count can indicate how effective
treatment is at controlling
microorganisms.
Legionella zero TT8 Legionnaire's Disease, Found naturally in water;
commonly known as multiplies in heating systems
pneumonia
Total Coliforms zero 5.0%9 Used as an indicator that other Human and animal fecal waste
(including fecal potentially harmful bacteria
10
coliform and E. Coli) may be present
Turbidity N/A TT8 Turbidity has no health effects Soil runoff
but can interfere with
disinfection and provide a
medium for microbial growth. It
may indicate the presence of
microbes.
Viruses (enteric) zero TT8 Gastroenteric disease Human and animal fecal waste

We teach this course in both a conventional classroom setting and in a distance based
CEU course. We have taught over 20,000 students.

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Coliform Bacteria on a Petri Dish. Bottom picture, SimPlate for HPC counts. IDEXX’s
SimPlate for HPC method is used for the quantification of heterotrophic plate count (HPC) in
water. It is based on the Multiple Enzyme Technology which detects viable bacteria in water by
testing for the presence of key enzymes known to be present in these little organisms. This
technique uses enzyme substrates that produce a blue fluorescence when metabolized by
waterborne bacteria. The sample and media are added to a SimPlate Plate, incubated and then
examined for fluorescing wells. The number of wells corresponds to a Most Probable Number
(MPN) of total bacteria in the original sample. The MPN values generated by the SimPlate for
HPC method correlate with the Pour Plate method using the Total Plate Count Agar incubated
at 35oC for 48 hours as described in Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and
Wastewater, 19th Edition.

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National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations
National Secondary Drinking Water Regulations (NSDWRs or secondary
standards) are non-enforceable guidelines regulating contaminants that may
cause cosmetic effects (such as skin or tooth discoloration) or aesthetic effects
(such as taste, odor, or color) in drinking water.

The EPA recommends secondary standards to water systems but does not
require systems to comply. However, states may choose to adopt them as
enforceable standards.

Secondary Standard
Contaminant
Aluminum 0.05 to 0.2 mg/L
Chloride 250 mg/L
Color 15 (color units)
Copper 1.0 mg/L
Corrosivity noncorrosive
Fluoride 2.0 mg/L
Foaming Agents 0.5 mg/L
Iron 0.3 mg/L
Manganese 0.05 mg/L
Odor 3 threshold odor number
pH 6.5-8.5
Silver 0.10 mg/L
Sulfate 250 mg/L
Total Dissolved
500 mg/L
Solids
Zinc 5 mg/L

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Important Notes
1
Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) - The maximum level of a contaminant in drinking
water at which no known or anticipated adverse effect on the health effect of persons would
occur, and which allows for an adequate margin of safety. MCLGs are non-enforceable public
health goals.
2
Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) - The maximum permissible level of a contaminant in
water which is delivered to any user of a public water system. MCLs are enforceable
standards. The margins of safety in MCLGs ensure that exceeding the MCL slightly does not
pose significant risk to public health.
3
Treatment Technique - An enforceable procedure or level of technical performance which
public water systems must follow to ensure control of a contaminant.
4
Units are in milligrams per Liter (mg/L) unless otherwise noted.
5
MCLGs were not established before the 1986 Amendments to the Safe Drinking Water Act.
Therefore, there is no MCLG for this contaminant.
6
Lead and copper are regulated in a Treatment Technique which requires systems to take tap
water samples at sites with lead pipes or copper pipes that have lead solder and/or are served
by lead service lines. The action level, which triggers water systems into taking treatment steps
if exceeded in more than 10% of tap water samples, for copper is 1.3 mg/L, and for lead is
0.015mg/L.
7
Each water system must certify, in writing, to the state (using third-party or manufacturer's
certification) that when acrylamide and epichlorohydrin are used in drinking water systems, the
combination (or product) of dose and monomer level does not exceed the levels specified, as
follows:
 Acrylamide = 0.05% dosed at 1 mg/L (or equivalent)
 Epichlorohydrin = 0.01% dosed at 20 mg/L (or equivalent)
8
The Surface Water Treatment Rule requires systems using surface water or ground water
under the direct influence of surface water to (1) disinfect their water, and (2) filter their water or
meet criteria for avoiding filtration so that the following contaminants are controlled at the
following levels:
 Giardia lamblia: 99.9% killed/inactivated
Viruses: 99.99% killed/inactivated
 Legionella: No limit, but EPA believes that if Giardia and viruses are inactivated,
Legionella will also be controlled.
 Turbidity: At no time can turbidity (cloudiness of water) go above 5 Nephelolometric
turbidity units (NTU); systems that filter must ensure that the turbidity go no higher than
1 NTU (0.5 NTU for conventional or direct filtration) in at least 95% of the daily samples
in any month.
 HPC: NO more than 500 bacterial colonies per milliliter.
9
No more than 5.0% samples total coliform-positive in a month. (For water systems that collect
fewer than 40 routine samples per month, no more than one sample can be total coliform-
positive). Every sample that has total coliforms must be analyzed for fecal coliforms. There
cannot be any fecal coliforms.
10
Fecal coliform and E. coli are bacteria whose presence indicates that the water may be
contaminated with human animal wastes. Microbes in these wastes can cause diarrhea,
cramps, nausea, headaches, or other symptoms.

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New EPA Rules
Arsenic
Arsenic is a chemical that occurs naturally in the earth's crust. When rocks, minerals, and soil
erode, they release arsenic into water supplies. When people either drink this water or eat
animals and plants that drink it, they are exposed to arsenic. For most people in the U.S.,
eating and drinking are the most common ways that people are exposed to arsenic, although it
can also come from industrial sources. Studies have linked long-term exposure of arsenic in
drinking water to a variety of cancers in humans.

To protect human health, an EPA standard limits the

amount of arsenic in drinking water. In January 2001, the
EPA revised the standard from 50 parts per billion (ppb),
ordered that it fall to 10 ppb by 2006. After adopting
10ppb as the new standard for arsenic in drinking water,
the EPA decided to review the decision to ensure that
the final standard was based on sound science and
accurate estimates of costs and benefits. In October
2001, the EPA decided to move forward with
implementing the 10 ppb standard for arsenic in drinking water.

More information on the rulemaking process and the costs and benefits of setting the arsenic
limit in drinking water at 10 ppb can be found at www.epa.gov/safewater/arsenic.html.

ICR
The EPA has collected data required by the Information Collection Rule (ICR) to support future
regulation of microbial contaminants, disinfectants, and disinfection byproducts. The rule is
intended to provide EPA with information on chemical byproducts that form when disinfectants
used for microbial control react with chemicals already present in source water (disinfection
byproducts (DBPs)); disease-causing microorganisms (pathogens), including Cryptosporidium;
and engineering data to control these contaminants.

Drinking water microbial and disinfection byproduct information collected for the ICR is now
available in the EPA's Envirofacts Warehouse website.

Disinfection Byproduct Regulations

In December 1998, EPA established the Stage 1 Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule
that requires public water systems to use treatment measures to reduce the formation of
disinfection byproducts and to meet the following specific standards:

Total trihalomethanes (TTHM) 80 ppb

Haloacetic acids (HAA5) 60 ppb
Bromate 10 ppb
1.0 parts per million
Chlorite
(ppm)

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Currently trihalomethanes are regulated at a maximum allowable annual average level of 100
ppb for water systems serving more than 10,000 people under the Total Trihalomethane Rule
finalized by EPA in 1979. The Stage 1 Disinfectant/Disinfection Byproduct Rule standards
became effective for trihalomethanes and other disinfection byproducts listed above back in
December 2001 for large surface water public water systems. Those standards became
effective in December 2003 for small surface water and all ground water public water systems.

Disinfection byproducts are formed when disinfectants used in water treatment plants react
with bromide and/or natural organic matter (i.e., decaying vegetation) present in the source
water. Different disinfectants produce different types or amounts of disinfection byproducts.
Disinfection byproducts for which regulations have been established have been identified in
drinking water, including trihalomethanes, haloacetic acids, bromate, and chlorite.

Trihalomethanes (THM) are a group of four chemicals that are formed along with other
disinfection byproducts when chlorine or other disinfectants used to control microbial
contaminants in drinking water react with naturally occurring organic and inorganic matter in
water. The trihalomethanes are chloroform, bromodichloromethane, dibromochloromethane,
and bromoform. EPA has published the Stage 1 Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule to
regulate total trihalomethanes (TTHM) at a maximum allowable annual average level of 80
parts per billion. This new standard replaced the old standard of a maximum allowable annual
average level of 100 parts per billion back in December 2001 for large surface water public
water systems. The standard became effective for the first time back in December 2003 for
small surface water and all ground water systems.

Haloacetic Acids (HAA5) are a group of chemicals that are formed along with other
disinfection byproducts when chlorine or other disinfectants used to control microbial
contaminants in drinking water react with naturally occurring organic and inorganic matter in
water. The regulated haloacetic acids, known as HAA5, are: monochloroacetic acid,
dichloroacetic acid, trichloroacetic acid, monobromoacetic acid, and dibromoacetic acid. EPA
has published the Stage 1 Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule to regulate HAA5 at 60
parts per billion annual average. This standard became effective for large surface water public
water systems in December 2001 and for small surface water and all ground water public
water systems in December 2003.

Bromate is a chemical that is formed when ozone, used to disinfect drinking water, reacts with
naturally occurring bromide found in source water. EPA has established the Stage 1
Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule to regulate bromate at an annual average of 10 ppb
in drinking water. This standard became effective for large public water systems in December
2001 and for small surface water and all ground public water systems in December 2003.

Chlorite is a byproduct formed when chlorine dioxide is used to disinfect water. The EPA has
published the Stage 1 Disinfectants/Disinfection Byproducts Rule to regulate chlorite at a
monthly average level of 1 ppm in drinking water.

This new standard became effective for large surface water public water systems in December
2001 and for small surface water and all ground water public water systems in December
2003.

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Microbial Regulations
One of the key regulations developed and implemented by the United States Environmental
Protection Agency (USEPA) to counter pathogens in drinking water is the Surface Water
Treatment Rule.

Among its provisions, the rule requires that a public water system, using surface water (or
ground water under the direct influence of surface water) as its source, have sufficient
treatment to reduce the source water concentration of Giardia and viruses by at least 99.9%
and 99.99%, respectively. The Surface Water Treatment Rule specifies treatment criteria to
assure that these performance requirements are met; they include turbidity limits, disinfectant
residual and disinfectant contact time conditions.

Disinfectant Review Statements:

Disinfectant residual: The CT values for disinfection are used to determine the disinfection
efficiency based upon time and what other parameter?

Bacteria, Virus and Intestinal parasites: What types of organisms may transmit waterborne
diseases?

Disinfection By-Products (DBPs): The products created due to the reaction of chlorine with
organic materials (e.g. leaves, soil) present in raw water during the water treatment process.
The EPA has determined that these DBPs can cause cancer.

How is the effectiveness of disinfection determined? From the results of coliform testing.

The treatment of water to inactivate, destroy, and/or remove pathogenic bacteria, viruses,
protozoa, and other parasites.

What types of source water are required by law to treat water using filtration and disinfection?
Groundwater under the direct influence of surface water, and related surface water sources.

E. Coli, Escherichia coli: A bacterium commonly found in the human intestine. For water
quality analyses purposes, it is considered an indicator organism. These are considered
evidence of water contamination. Indicator organisms may be accompanied by pathogens, but
do not necessarily cause disease themselves.

pH Strips

pH is on a scale from 0-14. 7 is considered neutral and acid is on the 0 to 7 side and the base
is 7-14. pH is known as the Power of Hydroxyl Ion activity.

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Common water distribution sample bottles, Radiochems, VOCs, (Volatile Organic
Compounds), TTHMs, Total Trihalomethanes), Nitrate, Nitrite.

Most of these sample bottles will come with the preservative already inside the bottle.
Some bottles will come with a separate preservative (acid) for the field preservation.
Slowly add the acid or other preservative to the water sample; not water to the acid or
preservative.

Bac-T Sample Bottle, often referred to as a Standard Sample, 100 mls.

Notice the white powder inside the bottle. That is Sodium Thiosulfate, a
de-chlorination agent. Be careful not to wash-out this chemical while
sampling. Notice the custody seal on the bottle.

Coliform bacteria are common in the environment and are generally

not harmful. However, the presence of these bacteria in drinking water is usually a result
of a problem with the treatment system or the pipes which distribute water, and indicates
that the water may be contaminated with germs that can cause disease.

The bottle with the yellow color on the left indicates coliform bacteria is present.
If the bottle fluoresces under a black light, fecal bacteria is present.

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Common Water Quality Definitions

Units of Measurement
mg/l = Milligrams per liter. One milligram per liter equals one packet of artificial
sweetener sprinkled into 250 gallons of iced tea.
μg/l = Micrograms per liter. One microgram per liter is equal to one packet of artificial
sweetener sprinkled into an Olympic-size swimming pool.
NTU = Nephelometric Turbidity Units. A measurement on the cloudiness of the water.
pCi/I = Picocuries per liter. A measure of radioactivity.

Acronyms
Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) - The highest level of a contaminant that is
allowed in drinking water.
Maximum Contaminant Level Goal (MCLG) - The level of a contaminant in drinking
water below which there is no known or expected risk to health.
Treatment Technique (TT) - A required process intended to reduce the level of a
contaminant in drinking water.
Action Level (AL) - The concentration of a contaminant that, if exceeded, triggers
treatment or other requirements which a water system must follow.

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Timeline of Existing Federal Water and State Drinking Water
Quality Regulations

National Interim Primary Drinking Water Regulations (NIPDWR) Promulgated 1975-

1981 Contained 7 contaminants Targeted: Trihalomethanes, Arsenic, and Radionuclides
Established 22 drinking water standards.

Phase 1 Standards Promulgated 1987 Contained 8 contaminants Targeted: VOCs.

Phase 2 Standards Promulgated 1991 Contained 36 contaminants Targeted: VOCs,

SOCs, and IOCs.

Phase 5 Standards Promulgated 1992 Contained 23 contaminants Targeted: VOCs,

SOCs, and IOCs.

Surface Water Treatment Rule (SWTR) Promulgated 1989 Contained 5 contaminants

Targeted: Microbiological and Turbidity.

Stage 1 Disinfectant/Disinfection By-product (D/DBP) Rule Promulgated 1998

Contained 14 contaminants Targeted: DBPs and precursors.

Interim Enhanced Surface Water Treatment Rule (IESWTR) Promulgated 1998

Contained 2 contaminants Targeted: Microbiological and Turbidity.

Radionuclide Rule Promulgated 2000 Contained 4 contaminants Targeted:

Radionuclides.

Arsenic Rule Promulgated 2001 Contained 1 contaminant Targeted: Arsenic.

Filter Backwash Recycling Rule Promulgated 2001 Contained - Targeted:

Microbiological and Turbidity.

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Waterborne Pathogens and Disease Section
Bacteria, viruses, and protozoan that cause disease are known as pathogens. Most pathogens
are generally associated with diseases that cause intestinal illness and affect people in a
relatively short amount of time, generally a few days to two weeks. They can cause illness
through exposure to small quantities of contaminated water or food, or from direct contact with
infected people or animals.

How Diseases are Transmitted

Pathogens that may cause waterborne outbreaks through
drinking water have one thing in common: they are spread by the
fecal-oral or feces-to-mouth route. Pathogens may get into water
and spread when infected humans or animals pass the bacteria,
viruses, and protozoa in their stool. For another person to
become infected, he or she must take that pathogen in through
the mouth. Waterborne pathogens are different from other types
of pathogens such as the viruses that cause influenza (the flu) or
the bacteria that cause tuberculosis. Influenza virus and
tuberculosis bacteria are spread by secretions that are coughed
or sneezed into the air by an infected person.
Cryptosporidium→
Human or animal wastes in watersheds, failing septic systems, failing sewage treatment plants or
cross-connections of water lines with sewage lines provide the potential for contaminating water
with pathogens. The water may not appear to be contaminated because the feces has been
broken up, dispersed, and diluted into microscopic particles. These particles, containing
pathogens, may remain in the water and be passed to humans or animals unless adequately
treated.

Only proper treatment will ensure eliminating the spread of disease. In addition to water, other
methods exist for spreading pathogens by the fecal-oral route. The foodborne route is one of the
more common methods. A frequent source is a food handler who does not wash his hands after a
bowel movement and then handles food with unclean hands. The individual who eats feces-
contaminated food may become infected and ill. It is interesting to note the majority of foodborne
diseases occur in the home, not restaurants.

Day care centers are another common source for spreading pathogens by the fecal-oral route.
Here, infected children in diapers may get feces on their fingers, then put their fingers in a friend’s
mouth or handle toys that other children put into their mouths. The general public and some of the
medical community usually refer to diarrhea symptoms as stomach flu.

Technically, influenza is an upper respiratory illness and rarely has diarrhea associated with it;
therefore, stomach flu is a misleading description for foodborne or waterborne illnesses, yet is
accepted by the general public. So the next time you get the stomach flu, you may want to think
twice about what you’ve digested within the past few days.

Chain of Transmission
Water is contaminated with feces. This contamination may be of human or animal origin. The
feces must contain pathogens (disease-causing bacteria, viruses or protozoa). If the human or
animal source is not infected with a pathogen, no disease will result. The pathogens must survive
in the water. This depends on the temperature of the water and the length of time the pathogens
are in the water. Some pathogens will survive for only a short time in water, others, such as
Giardia or Cryptosporidium, may survive for months.

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The pathogens in the water must enter the water system’s intake and in numbers sufficient to
infect people. The water is either not treated or inadequately treated for the pathogens present. A
susceptible person must drink the water that contains the pathogen. Illness (disease) will occur.

This chain lists the events that must occur for the transmission of disease via drinking water. By
breaking the chain at any point, the transmission of disease will
be prevented.

Bacterial Diseases Giardia→

Campylobacteriosis is the most common diarrhea illness caused
by bacteria. Symptoms include abdominal pain, malaise, fever,
nausea and vomiting, and they usually begin three to five days
after exposure. The illness is frequently over within two to five
days and usually lasts no more than 10 days.
Campylobacteriosis outbreaks have most often been associated
with food, especially chicken and unpasteurized milk, as well as
un-chlorinated water.

Types of Bacteria
These organisms are also an important cause of travelers’ diarrhea. Medical treatment generally
is not prescribed for campylobacteriosis because recovery is usually rapid. Cholera,
Legionellosis, salmonellosis, shigellosis, and yersiniosis are other bacterial diseases that can be
transmitted through water. All bacteria in water are readily killed or inactivated with chlorine or
other disinfectants.

Viral-Caused Diseases
Hepatitis A is an example of a common viral disease that may be transmitted through water. The
onset is usually abrupt with fever, malaise, loss of appetite, nausea and abdominal discomfort,
followed within a few days by jaundice. The disease varies in severity from a mild illness lasting
one to two weeks, to a severely disabling disease lasting several months (rare).

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The incubation period is 15-50 days and averages 28-30 days. Hepatitis A outbreaks have been
related to fecally contaminated water; food contaminated by infected food handlers, including
sandwiches and salads that are not cooked or are handled after cooking and raw or undercooked
mollusks harvested from contaminated waters. Aseptic meningitis, polio and viral gastroenteritis
(Norwalk agent) are other viral diseases that can be transmitted through water. Most viruses in
drinking water can be inactivated by chlorine or other disinfectants.

Protozoan Caused Diseases

Protozoan pathogens are larger than bacteria and viruses but still microscopic. They invade and
inhabit the gastrointestinal tract. Some parasites enter the environment in a dormant form, with a
protective cell wall, called a cyst. The cyst can survive in the environment for long periods of time and
is extremely resistant to conventional disinfectants such as chlorine. Effective filtration treatment is
therefore critical to removing these organisms from water sources.

Giardiasis is a commonly reported protozoan-caused disease. It has also been referred to as

backpacker’s disease and beaver fever because of the many cases reported among hikers and
others who consume untreated surface water. Symptoms include chronic diarrhea, abdominal
cramps, bloating, frequent loose and pale greasy stools, fatigue and weight loss. The incubation
period is 5-25 days or longer, with an average of 7-10 days. Many infections are asymptomatic (no
symptoms). Giardiasis occurs worldwide. Waterborne outbreaks in the United States occur most
often in communities receiving their drinking water from streams or rivers without adequate
disinfection or a filtration system.

Giardia lamblia
Giardia lamblia has been responsible for more community-wide outbreaks of disease in the U.S. than
any other pathogen. Drugs are available for treatment, but these are not 100% effective.

Cryptosporidiosis
Cryptosporidiosis is an example of a protozoan disease that is common worldwide, but was only
recently recognized as causing human disease. The major symptom in humans is diarrhea, which
may be profuse and watery. The diarrhea is associated with cramping abdominal pain. General
malaise, fever, anorexia, nausea and vomiting occur less often.

Symptoms usually come and go, and end in fewer than 30 days in most cases. The incubation period
is 1-12 days, with an average of about seven days. Cryptosporidium organisms have been identified
in human fecal specimens from more than 50 countries on six continents. The mode of transmission
is fecal-oral, either by person-to-person or animal-to-person. There is no specific treatment for
Cryptosporidium infections.

All of these diseases, with the exception of hepatitis A, have one symptom in common: diarrhea.
They also have the same mode of transmission, fecal-oral, whether through person-to-person or
animal-to-person contact, and the same routes of transmission, being either foodborne or
waterborne. Although most pathogens cause mild, self-limiting disease, on occasion, they can cause
serious, even life threatening illness. Particularly vulnerable are persons with weak immune systems
such as those with HIV infections or cancer.

By understanding the nature of waterborne diseases, the importance of properly constructed,

operated and maintained public water systems becomes obvious. While water treatment cannot
achieve sterile water (no microorganisms), the goal of treatment must clearly be to produce drinking
water that is as pathogen-free as possible at all times. For those who operate water systems with
inadequate source protection or treatment facilities, the potential risk of a waterborne disease
outbreak is real. For those operating systems that currently provide adequate source protection and
treatment, operating, and maintaining the system at a high level on a continuing basis is critical to
prevent disease.

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Waterborne Diseases
Name Causative organism Source of organism Disease
Viral Rotavirus (mostly in young Human feces Diarrhea
gastroenteritis children) or vomiting
Norwalk Agent Noroviruses (genus Norovirus, Human feces; also, Diarrhea and
family Caliciviridae) *1 shellfish; lives in polluted vomiting
waters
Salmonellosis Salmonella (bacterium) Animal or human feces Diarrhea or
vomiting
Gastroenteritis -- E. coli O1 57:H7 (bacterium): Human feces Symptoms vary
Escherichia coli Other E. coli organisms: with type caused
Typhoid Salmonella typhi (bacterium) Human feces, urine Inflamed intestine,
enlarged spleen,
high temperature-
sometimes fatal
Shigellosis Shigella (bacterium) Human feces Diarrhea

Cholera Vibrio choleras (bacterium) Human feces; also, Vomiting, severe

shellfish; lives in many diarrhea, rapid
coastal waters dehydration,
mineral loss-high
mortality
Hepatitis A Hepatitis A virus Human feces; shellfish Yellowed skin,
grown in polluted waters enlarged liver,
fever, vomiting,
weight loss,
abdominal pain-
low mortality, lasts
up to four months
Amebiasis Entamoeba histolytica Human feces Mild diarrhea,
(protozoan) dysentery, extra
intestinal infection
Giardiasis Giardia lamblia (protozoan) Animal or human feces Diarrhea,
cramps, nausea,
and general
weakness — lasts
one week to
months
Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium parvum Animal or human feces Diarrhea, stomach
pain — lasts
(protozoan) days
to weeks
Notes:
*1 http://www.cdc.gov/

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Chemical Monitoring
The final federal rules regarding Phase II and V contaminants were promulgated by the U.S. EPA
in 1992 and initial monitoring began in January 1993. This group of contaminants consists of
Inorganic Chemicals (IOC), Volatile Organic Chemicals (VOC) and Synthetic Organic Chemicals
(SOC) and the rule applies to all community and non-transient non-community public water
systems.

The monitoring schedule for these contaminants is phased in by water system population size
according to a “standardized monitoring framework” established by the U.S. EPA. This
standardized monitoring framework establishes nine-year compliance cycles consisting of three
3-year compliance periods. The first compliance cycle began in January 1993 and ended
December 31, 2001, with subsequent compliance cycles following the nine-year timeframe. The
three-year compliance period of each cycle is the standard monitoring period for the water
system.

Turbidity Monitoring
Monitoring for turbidity is applicable to all public water systems using surface water sources or
ground water sources under the direct influence of surface water in whole or part. Check with
your state drinking water section or health department for further instructions.

The maximum contaminant level for turbidity for systems that provide filtration treatment:
1. Conventional or direct filtration: less than or equal to 0.5 NTU in at least 95% of the
measurements taken each month. Conventional filtration treatment plants should be able to
achieve a level of 0.1 NTU with proper chemical addition and operation.
2. Slow sand filtration, cartridge and alternative filtration: less than or equal to 1 NTU in at least
95% of the measurements taken each month. The turbidity levels must not exceed 5 NTU at any
turbidity measurements must be performed on representative samples of the filtered water every
four (4) hours that the system serves water to the public. A water system may substitute
continuous turbidity monitoring for grab sample monitoring if it validates the continuous
measurement for accuracy on a regular basis using a protocol approved by the Health or Drinking
Water Agency, such as confirmation by a bench top turbidimeter. For systems using slow sand
filtration, cartridge, or alternative filtration treatment the Health or Drinking Water Agency may
reduce the sampling frequency to once per day if it determines that less frequent monitoring is
sufficient to indicate effective filtration performance.

Inorganic Chemical Monitoring

All systems must monitor for
inorganics. The monitoring for
these contaminants is also
complex with reductions, waivers
and detections affecting the
sampling frequency. Please refer to
the monitoring schedules provided
by your state health or drinking
water sections for assistance in
determining individual
requirements. All transient non-
community water systems are
required to complete a one-time
inorganic chemical analysis. The
sample is to be collected at entry
points (POE) to the distribution system representative of each source after any application of
treatment.

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Nitrates
Nitrate is an inorganic chemical that occurs naturally in some groundwater but most often is
introduced into ground and surface waters by man. The most common sources are from fertilizers
and treated sewage or septic systems. At high levels (over 10 mg/l) it can cause the “blue baby”
syndrome in young infants, which can lead to serious illness and even death. It is regarded as an
“acute health risk” because it can quickly cause illness.

Every water system must test for Nitrate at least yearly. Systems that use ground water only
must test yearly. Systems that use surface water and those that mix surface and ground water
must test every quarter. A surface water system may go to yearly testing if community and
nontransient noncommunity water must do quarterly monitoring whenever they exceed 5 mg/l in a
test. After 4 quarters of testing and the results show that the nitrate level is not going up, they
may go back to yearly testing.

Radiological Contaminants
All community water systems shall monitor for gross alpha activity every four years for each
source. Depending on your state rules, compliance will be based on the annual composite of 4
consecutive quarters or the average of the analyses of 4 quarterly samples. If the average annual
concentration is less than one half the MCL, an analysis of a single sample may be substituted for
the quarterly sampling procedure.

Total Trihalomethanes (TTHM)

All community water systems serving a population of 10,000 or more and which add a disinfectant
in any part of the drinking water treatment process shall monitor for total trihalomethanes (TTHM).
The MCL is 0.1 mg/l and consists of a calculation of the running average of quarterly analyses of
the sum of the concentrations of bromodichloromethane, di-bromochloromethane, bromoform and
chloroform.

Lead and Copper Rule

The Lead and Copper Rule was promulgated by the U.S. EPA on June 7, 1991, with monitoring
to begin in January 1992 for larger water systems. This rule applies to all community and
nontransient, noncommunity water systems and establishes action levels for these two
contaminants at the consumer’s tap. Action levels of 0.015 mg/l for lead and 1.3 mg/l for copper
have been established.

This rule establishes maximum contaminant level goals (MCLGs) for lead and copper, treatment
technique requirements for optimal corrosion control, source water treatment, public education
and lead service line replacement. Whenever an action level is exceeded, the corrosion control
treatment requirement is triggered. This is determined by the concentration measured in the 90th
percentile highest sample from the samples collected at consumers’ taps. Sample results are
assembled in ascending order (lowest to highest) with the result at the 90th percentile being the
action level for the system. For example, if a water system collected 20 samples, the result of the
18th highest sample would be the action level for the system.

The rule also includes the best available technology (BAT) for complying with the treatment
technique requirements, mandatory health effects language for public notification of violations
and analytical methods and laboratory performance requirements.

Initial monitoring began in January 1992 for systems with a population of 50,000 or more, in July
1992 for medium-sized systems (3,300 to 50,000 population) and in July 1993 for small-sized
systems (less than 3,300 population),

One-liter tap water samples are to be collected at high-risk locations by either water system
personnel or residents. Generally, high-risk locations are homes with lead-based solder installed
after 1982 or with lead pipes or service lines. If not enough of these locations exist in the water
system, the rule provides specific guidelines for selecting other sample sites.

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The water must be allowed to stand motionless in the plumbing pipes for at least six (6) hours
and collected from a cold water tap in the kitchen or bathroom. It is a first draw sample, which
means the line is not to be flushed prior to sample collection. The number of sampling sites is
determined by the population of the system and sample collection consists of two, six-month
monitoring periods; check with your state rule or drinking water section for more information.

Sampling Sites by Population

System size - No. of sites - No. of sites
(no. of persons served) (standard monitoring) (reduced monitoring)
>100,000 100 50
10,001-100,000 60 30
3,301 to 10,000 40 20
501 to 3,300 20 10
101 to 500 10 5
< 100 5 5

If a system meets the lead and copper action levels or maintains optimal corrosion control
treatment for two consecutive six-month monitoring periods, then reduced monitoring is allowed
and sampling frequency drops to once per year. After three consecutive years of reduced
monitoring, sample frequency drops to once every three years. In addition to lead and copper
testing, all large water systems and those medium- and small-sized systems that exceed the lead
or copper action levels will be required to monitor for the following water quality parameters: pH,
alkalinity, calcium, conductivity, orthophosphate, silica and water temperature.

These parameters are used to identify optimal corrosion control treatment and determine
compliance with the rule once treatment is installed. The sampling locations for monitoring water
quality parameters are at entry points and representative taps throughout the distribution system.

Coliform sampling sites can be used for distribution system sampling. The number of sites
required for monitoring water quality during each six-month period is shown below.

Number of Water Quality Parameters per Population

System size # of sites for water (no. of persons served) quality parameters
>100,000 25
10,001-100,000 10
3,301 to 10,000 3
501 to 3,300 2
101 to 500 1
<100 1

Water systems which maintain water quality parameters reflecting optimal corrosion control for
two consecutive six-month monitoring periods qualify for reduced monitoring. After three
consecutive years, the monitoring frequency can drop to once per year.

All large water systems must demonstrate that their water is minimally corrosive or install
corrosion control treatment regardless of lead and copper sampling results.

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QA/QC Measures
In addition to standard samples, the field technicians collect equipment blanks (EB), field cleaned
equipment blanks (FB), split samples (SS), and field duplicate samples (FD).

Overall care must be taken in regards to equipment handling, container handling/storage,

decontamination, and record keeping. Sample collection equipment and non-preserved sample
containers must be rinsed three times with sample water before the actual sample is taken.
Exceptions to this are any pre-preserved container or bac-t type samples.

If protective gloves are used, they shall be clean, new and disposable. These should be changed
upon arrival at a new sampling point. Highly contaminated samples shall never be placed in the
same ice chest as environmental samples. It is good practice to enclose highly contaminated
samples in a plastic bag before placing them in ice chests. The same is true for wastewater and
drinking water samples.

Ice chests or shipping containers with samples suspected of being highly contaminated shall be
lined with new, clean, plastic bags. If possible, one member of the field team should take all the
notes, fill out labels, etc., while the other member does all of the sampling.

Preservation of Samples
Proper sample preservation is the responsibility of the sampling team, not the lab providing
sample containers. The best reference for preservatives is Standard Methods or your local
laboratory.

It is the responsibility of the field team to assure that all

samples are appropriately preserved.

Follow the preservative solution preparation instructions.

Always use strong safety precautions diluting the acid.

Put a new label on the dispensing bottle with the current

date.

Slowly add the acid or other preservative to the water

sample; not water to the acid or preservative.

Wait 3-4 hours for the preservative to cool most samples down to 4 degrees Celsius.

Most preservatives have a shelf life of one year from the preparation date.

When samples are analyzed for TKN, TP, NH4 and NOx 1 mL of 50% Trace Metal grade sulfuric
acid is added to the each discrete auto sampler bottles/bags in the field lab before sampling
collection. The preservative maintains the sample at 1.5<pH<2 after collection. To meet
maximum holding time for these preserved samples (28 days), pull and ship samples every 14
days.

Narrow range pH paper (test strips) can be used to test an aliquot of the preserved sample.

Place the pH paper into the container and compare the color with the manufacturer's color chart.

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Water Disinfectant Terminology
Many water suppliers add a disinfectant to drinking water to kill germs such as giardia and
e coli. Especially after heavy rainstorms, your water system may add more disinfectant to
guarantee that these germs are killed.

Chlorine. Some people who use drinking water containing chlorine well in excess of the EPA
standard could experience irritating effects to their eyes and nose. Some people who drink water
containing chlorine well in excess of the EPA standard could experience stomach discomfort.

Chloramine. Some people who use drinking water containing chloramines well in excess of the
EPA standard could experience irritating effects to their eyes and nose. Some people who drink
water containing chloramines well in excess of the EPA standard could experience stomach
discomfort or anemia.

Chlorine Dioxide. Some infants and young children who drink water containing chlorine dioxide
in excess of the EPA standard could experience nervous system effects. Similar effects may
occur in fetuses of pregnant women who drink water containing chlorine dioxide in excess of the
EPA standard. Some people may experience anemia.

Disinfection Byproducts
Disinfection byproducts form when disinfectants added to drinking water to kill germs
react with naturally-occurring organic matter in water.

Total Trihalomethanes. Some people who drink water containing trihalomethanes in excess of
the EPA standard over many years may experience problems with their liver, kidneys, or central
nervous systems, and may have an increased risk of getting cancer.

Haloacetic Acids. Some people who drink water containing haloacetic acids in excess of the
EPA standard over many years may have an increased risk of getting cancer.

Bromate. Some people who drink water containing bromate in excess of the EPA standard over
many years may have an increased risk of getting cancer.

Chlorite. Some infants and young children who drink water containing chlorite in excess of EPA
standard could experience nervous system effects. Similar effects may occur in fetuses of
pregnant women who drink water containing chlorite in excess of the EPA's standard. Some
people may experience anemia.

MTBE is a fuel additive, commonly used in the United States to reduce carbon monoxide and
ozone levels caused by auto emissions. Due to its widespread use, reports of MTBE detections in
the nation's ground and surface water supplies are increasing. The Office of Water and other
EPA offices are working with a panel of leading experts to focus on issues posed by the
continued use of MTBE and other oxygenates in gasoline. The EPA is currently studying the
implications of setting a drinking water standard for MTBE.

Health advisories provide additional information on certain contaminants. Health advisories are
guidance values based on health effects other than cancer. These values are set for different
durations of exposure (e.g., one-day, ten-day, longer-term, and lifetime).

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Modern water quality or sampling truck set-up. Various tools, rope, hammers are
nice to have but not always necessary. I like that this sampler wears a reflective
vest, I think he is safety conscience, I like the gloves too.

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Troubleshooting Table for Sampling Monitoring
Problem
1. Positive Total Coliform.
2. Chlorine taste and odor.
3. Inability to maintain an adequately free chlorine
residual at the furthest points of the distribution
system or at dead end lines.

Possible Cause
1A. Improper sampling technique.
1B. Contamination entering distribution system.
1C. Inadequate chlorine residual at the sampling
site.
1D. Growth of biofilm in the distribution system.
2A. High total chlorine residual and low free
residual.
3A. Inadequate chlorine dose at treatment plant.
3B. Problems with chlorine feed equipment.
3C. Ineffective distribution system flushing
program.
3D. Growth of biofilm in the distribution system.

Possible Solution
1A/ Check distribution system for low pressure conditions, possibly due to line breaks or
excessive flows that may result in a backflow problem.
1B. Insure that all staff are properly trained in sampling and transport procedures as described in
the TCR.
1C. Check the operation of the chlorination feed system. Refer to issues described in the sections
on pumps and hypochlorination systems. Insure that residual test is being performed properly.
1D. Thoroughly flush effected areas of the distribution system. Superchlorination may be
necessary in severe cases.
2A. The free residual should be at least 85% of the total residual. Increase the chlorine dose rate
to get past the breakpoint in order to destroy some of the combined residual that causes taste
and odor problems. Additional system flushing may also be required.
3A. Increase chlorine feed rate at point of application.
3B. Check operation of chlorination equipment.
3C. Review distribution system flushing program and implement improvements to address areas
of inadequate chlorine residual.
3D. Increase flushing in area of biofilm problem.

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 The jar test is an attempt to duplicate water treatment plant conditions.

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History of the Periodic Table:
Dmitri Mendeleev created the periodic table when he first listed the elements in order of atomic
mass in 1869. He found that the elements with similar properties occur in a periodic
manner. Mendeleev was able to arrange the elements in a table form where similar elements
are found in the same column.

How is the Periodic Table Organized?

The periodic table is organized with eight principal vertical columns called groups and seven
horizontal rows called periods. (The groups are numbered I to VIII from left to right, and the
periods are numbered 1 to 7 from top to bottom.)

All the metals are grouped together on the left side of the periodic table, and all the nonmetals
are grouped together on the right side of the periodic table. Semimetals are found in between
the metals and nonmetals.

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What are the eight groups of the Periodic Table?

 Group I: Alkali Metals - Li, Na, K, Rb, Cs, Fr

known as alkali metals
most reactive of the metals
react with all nonmetals except the noble gases
contain typical physical properties of metals (ex. shiny solids and good conductors
of heat and electricity)
softer than most familiar metals; can be cut with a knife
 Group II: Alkaline Earth Metals-Be, Mg, Ca, Sr, Ba, Ra
known as alkaline earth metals
react with nonmetals, but more slowly than the Group I metals
solids at room temperature
have typical metallic properties
harder than the Group I metals
higher melting points than the Group I metals
 Group III: B, Al, Ga, In, Tl
boron is a semimetal; all the others are metals
 Group IV: C, Si, Ge, Sn, Pb
carbon is a nonmetal; silicon and germanium are semimetals; tin and lead are
metals
 Group V: N, P, As, Sb, Bi
nitrogen and phosphorus are nonmetals; arsenic and antimony are semimetals;
bismuth is a metal
 Group VI: O, S, Se, Te, Po
oxygen, sulfur, and selenium are nonmetals; tellurium and polonium are
semimetals
 Group VII: Halogens-F, Cl, Br, I, At
very reactive nonmetals
 Group VIII: Noble Gases-He, Ne, Ar, Kr, Xe, Rn
very unreactive

How do the properties of metals and nonmetals differ?

Properties of Metals
Solids at room temperature, Conduct heat very well
Have electrical conductivities that increase with decreasing temperature
Have a high flexibility and a shiny metallic luster
Are malleable-can be beaten out into sheets or foils
Are ductile-can be pulled into thin wires without breaking
Emit electrons when they are exposed to radiation of sufficiently high energy or when They are
heated (known as photoelectric effect and thermionic effect)
Properties of Nonmetals
May be gases, liquids, or solids at room temperature, poor conductors of heat
Are insulators-very poor conductors of electricity
Do not have a high reflectivity or a shiny metallic appearance
In solid form generally brittle and fracture easily under stress
Do not exhibit photoelectric or thermionic effects

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The pH Scale

pH: A measure of the acidity of water. The pH scale runs from 0 to 14 with 7 being the
mid-point or neutral. A pH of less than 7 is on the acid side of the scale with 0 as the
point of greatest acid activity. A pH of more than 7 is on the basic (alkaline) side of the
scale with 14 as the point of greatest basic activity.

pH = (Power of Hydroxyl Ion Activity).

The acidity of a water sample is measured on a pH scale. This scale ranges from 0
(maximum acidity) to 14 (maximum alkalinity). The middle of the scale, 7, represents the
neutral point. The acidity increases from neutral toward 0.

Because the scale is logarithmic, a difference of one pH unit represents a tenfold

change. For example, the acidity of a sample with a pH of 5 is ten times greater than that
of a sample with a pH of 6. A difference of 2 units, from 6 to 4, would mean that the
acidity is one hundred times greater, and so on.

Normal rain has a pH of 5.6 – slightly acidic because of the carbon dioxide picked up in
the earth's atmosphere by the rain.

81
Here is a party that will never stop…
Never keep food or drinks in your sample refrigerator. I know all of you have
done this in the past and I know you’ve seen someone work without gloves, but
you need to be strong and remind personnel that you had enough of tasting all
the nastiness. If you are new to this industry, don’t fret, you will get a free taste
very soon, one way or another. My advice, ask for the hepatitis injections and
prepare for a case of the runs that will last for about 1-2 days, after this, you
should be good to go. All of us have suffered through this ordeal.

What are the symptoms of viral gastroenteritis?

The main symptoms of viral gastroenteritis are watery diarrhea and vomiting. The
affected person may also have headache, fever, and abdominal cramps
("stomach ache"). In general, the symptoms begin 1 to 2 days following infection
with a virus that causes gastroenteritis and may last for 1 to 10 days, depending
on which virus causes the illness.

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Microorganism Appendix

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This section will give a close-up and short explanation of the major
microorganisms found in water and in wastewater.

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Protozoa

Protozoa are around 10–50 micrometer, but can grow up to 1 mm and can easily be
seen under a microscope. Protozoa exist throughout aqueous environments and soil.
Protozoa occupy a range of trophic levels. As predators, they prey upon unicellular or
filamentous algae, bacteria, and microfungi.

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Protozoa play a role both as herbivores and as consumers in the decomposer link of the
food chain. Protozoa also play a vital role in controlling bacteria populations and
biomass. As components of the micro- and meiofauna, protozoa are an important food
source for microinvertebrates. Thus, the ecological role of protozoa in the transfer of
bacterial and algal production to successive trophic levels is important. Protozoa such as
the malaria parasites (Plasmodium spp.), trypanosomes and leishmania are also
important as parasites and symbionts of multicellular animals.

Most protozoa exist in 5 stages of life which are in the form of trophozoites and cysts. As
cysts, protozoa can survive harsh conditions, such as exposure to extreme temperatures
and harmful chemicals, or long periods without access to nutrients, water, or oxygen for
a period of time. Being a cyst enables parasitic species to survive outside of the host,
and allows their transmission from one host to another. When protozoa are in the form of
trophozoites (Greek, tropho=to nourish), they actively feed and grow. The process by
which the protozoa takes its cyst form is called encystation, while the process of
transforming back into trophozoite is called excystation.

Protozoa can reproduce by binary fission or multiple fission. Some protozoa reproduce
sexually, some asexually, and some both (e.g. Coccidia). An individual protozoan is
hermaphroditic.

Classification
Protozoa were commonly grouped in the kingdom of Protista together with the plant-like
algae and fungus-like water molds and slime molds. In the 21st-century systematics,
protozoans, along with ciliates, mastigophorans, and apicomplexans, are arranged as
animal-like protists. However, protozoans are neither Animalia nor Metazoa (with the
possible exception of the enigmatic, moldy Myxozoa).

Sub-groups
Protozoa have traditionally been divided on the basis of their means of locomotion,
although this is no longer believed to represent genuine relationships:
* Flagellates (e.g. Giardia lambia)
* Amoeboids (e.g. Entamoeba histolytica)
* Sporozoans (e.g. Plasmodium knowlesi)
* Apicomplexa
* Myxozoa
* Microsporidia
* Ciliates (e.g. Balantidium coli)

There are many ways that infectious diseases can spread. Pathogens usually have
specific routes by which they are transmitted, and these routes may depend on the type
of cells and tissue that a particular agent targets. For example, because cold viruses
infect the respiratory tract, they are dispersed into the air via coughing and sneezing.

Once in the air, the viruses can infect another person who is unlucky enough to inhale
air containing the virus particles.

Agents vary greatly in their stability in the environment. Some viruses may survive for
only a few minutes outside of a host, while some spore-forming bacteria are extremely
durable and may survive in a dormant state for a decade or more.

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Protozoa Section

The diverse assemblage of organisms that carry out all of their life functions within the
confines of a single, complex eukaryotic cell are called protozoa.

Paramecium, Euglena, and Amoeba are well-known examples of these major groups of
organisms. Some protozoa are more closely related to animals, others to plants, and still
others are relatively unique. Although it is not appropriate to group them together into a
single taxonomic category, the research tools used to study any unicellular organism are
usually the same, and the field of protozoology has been created to carry out this
research. The unicellular photosynthetic protozoa are sometimes also called algae and
are addressed elsewhere. This report considers the status of our knowledge of
heterotrophic protozoa (protozoa that cannot produce their own food).

Free-living Protozoa
Protozoans are found in all moist habitats within the United States, but we know little
about their specific geographic distribution. Because of their small size, production of
resistant cysts, and ease of distribution from one place to another, many species appear
to be cosmopolitan and may be collected in similar microhabitats worldwide (Cairns and
Ruthven 1972). Other species may have relatively narrow limits to their distribution.

Marine ciliates inhabit interstices of sediment and beach sands, surfaces, deep sea and
cold Antarctic environments, planktonic habitats, and the algal mats and detritus of
estuaries and wetlands.

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Amoeba proteus, pseudopods slowly engulf the small desmid Staurastrum.

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Amoebas
Amoebas (Phylum Rhizopoda) are unicellular protists that are able to change their
shape constantly. Each species has its own distinct repertoire of shapes.

How does an amoeba locomote?

Amoebas locomote by way of cytoplasmic movement. (cytoplasm is the cell content
around the nucleus of the cell) The amoeba forms pseudopods (false feet) with which
they 'flow' over a surface. The cytoplasma not only flows, it also changes from a fluid into
a solid state.

These pseudopods are also used to capture prey, they simply engulf the food. They can
detect the kind of prey and use different 'engulfing tactics'.

The image from the last page shows several cell organelles. Left from the center we can
see aspherical water expelling vesicle and just right of it, the single nucleus of this
species can be seen. Other species may have many nuclei. The cell is full of brown food
vacuoles and also contains small crystals.

Protozoa Information
Our actual knowledge of salinity, temperature, and oxygen requirements of marine
protozoa is poor (although some groups, such as the foraminifera, are better studied
than others), and even the broadest outlines of their biogeographic ranges are usually a
mystery. In general, freshwater protozoan communities are similar to marine
communities except the specialized interstitial fauna of the sand is largely missing. In
freshwater habitats, the foraminifera and radiolaria common in marine environments are
absent or low in numbers while testate amoebae exist in greater numbers. Relative
abundance of species in the marine versus freshwater habitat is unknown.

Soil-dwelling protozoa have been documented from almost every type of soil and in
every kind of environment, from the peat-rich soil of bogs to the dry sands of deserts. In
general, protozoa are found in greatest abundance near the soil surface, especially in
the upper 15 cm (6 in), but occasional isolates can be obtained at depths of a meter
(yard) or more.

Protozoa do not constitute a major part of soil biomass, but in some highly productive
regions such as forest litter, the protozoa are a significant food source for the
microinvertebrates, with a biomass that may reach 20 g/m2 of soil surface area there.

Environmental Quality Indicators

Polluted waters often have a rich and characteristic protozoan fauna. The relative
abundance and diversity of protozoa are used as indicators of organic and toxic pollution
(Cairns et al. 1972; Foissner 1987; Niederlehner et al. 1990; Curds 1992). Bick (1972),
for example, provided a guide to ciliates that are useful as indicators of environmental
quality of European freshwater systems, along with their ecological distribution with
respect to parameters such as amount of organic material and oxygen levels.

Foissner (1988) clarified the taxonomy of European ciliates as part of a system for
classifying the state of aquatic habitats according to their faunas.

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Symbiotic Protozoa
Parasites
Protozoa are infamous for their role in causing disease, and parasitic species are among
the best-known protozoa. Nevertheless, our knowledge has large gaps, especially of
normally free-living protozoa that may become pathogenic in immunocompromised
individuals. For example, microsporidia comprise a unique group of obligate, intracellular
parasitic protozoa. Microsporidia are amazingly diverse organisms with more than 700
species and 80 genera that are capable of infecting a variety of plant, animal, and even
other protist hosts.

They are found worldwide and have the ability to thrive in many ecological conditions.
Until the past few years, their ubiquity did not cause a threat to human health, and few
systematists worked to describe and classify the species. Since 1985, however,
physicians have documented an unusual rise in worldwide infections in AIDS patients
caused by four different genera of microsporidia (Encephalitozoon, Nosema,
Pleistophora, and Enterocytozoon). According to the Centers for Disease Control in the
United States, difficulties in identifying microsporidian species are impeding diagnosis
and effective treatment of AIDS patients.

Protozoan Reservoirs of Disease

The presence of bacteria in the cytoplasm of protozoa is well known, whereas that of
viruses is less frequently reported. Most of these reports simply record the presence of
bacteria or viruses and assume some sort of symbiotic relationship between them and
the protozoa. Recently, however, certain human pathogens were shown to not only
survive but also to multiply in the cytoplasm of free-living, nonpathogenic protozoa.
Indeed, it is now believed that protozoa are the natural habitat for certain pathogenic
bacteria. To date, the main focus of attention has been on the bacterium Legionella
pneumophila, the causative organism of Legionnaires' disease; these bacteria live and
reproduce in the cytoplasm of some free-living amoebae (Curds 1992). More on this
subject in the following pages.

Symbionts
Some protozoa are harmless or even beneficial symbionts. A bewildering array of
ciliates, for example, inhabit the rumen and reticulum of ruminates and the cecum and
colon of equids. Little is known about the relationship of the ciliates to their host, but a
few may aid the animal in digesting cellulose.

Data on Protozoa
While our knowledge of recent and fossil foraminifera in the U.S. coastal waterways is
systematically growing, other free-living protozoa are poorly known. There are some
regional guides and, while some are excellent, many are limited in scope, vague on
specifics, or difficult to use. Largely because of these problems, most ecologists who
include protozoa in their studies of aquatic habitats do not identify them, even if they do
count and measure them for biomass estimates (Taylor and Sanders 1991).

Parasitic protozoa of humans, domestic animals, and wildlife are better known although
no attempt has been made to compile this information into a single source. Large gaps
in our knowledge exist, especially for haemogregarines, microsporidians, and
myxosporidians (see Kreier and Baker 1987).

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Museum Specimens
For many plant and animal taxa, museums represent a massive information resource.
This is not true for protozoa. In the United States, only the National Natural History
Museum (Smithsonian Institution) has a reference collection preserved on microscope
slides, but it does not have a protozoologist curator and cannot provide species'
identification or verification services. The American Type Culture Collection has some
protozoa in culture, but its collection includes relatively few kinds of protozoa.

Ecological Role of Protozoa

Although protozoa are frequently overlooked, they play an important role in many
communities where they occupy a range of trophic levels. As predators upon unicellular
or filamentous algae, bacteria, and microfungi, protozoa play a role both as herbivores
and as consumers in the decomposer link of the food chain. As components of the
micro- and meiofauna, protozoa are an important food source for microinvertebrates.
Thus, the ecological role of protozoa in the transfer of bacterial and algal production to
successive trophic levels is important.

Factors Affecting Growth and Distribution

Most free-living protozoa reproduce by cell division (exchange of genetic material is a
separate process and is not involved in reproduction in protozoa). The relative
importance for population growth of biotic versus chemical-physical components of the
environment is difficult to ascertain from the existing survey data. Protozoa are found
living actively in nutrient-poor to organically rich waters and in fresh water varying
between 0°C (32°F) and 50°C (122°F). Nonetheless, it appears that rates of population
growth increase when food is not constrained and temperature is increased (Lee and
Fenchel 1972; Fenchel 1974; Montagnes et al. 1988).

Comparisons of oxygen consumption in various taxonomic groups show wide variation

(Laybourn and Finlay 1976), with some aerobic forms able to function at extremely low
oxygen tensions and to thereby avoid competition and predation.

Many parasitic and a few free-living species are obligatory anaerobes (grow without
atmospheric oxygen). Of the free-living forms, the best known are the plagiopylid ciliates
that live in the anaerobic sulfide-rich sediments of marine wetlands (Fenchel et al. 1977).
The importance of plagiopylids in recycling nutrients to aerobic zones of wetlands is
potentially great.

Because of the small size of protozoa, their short generation time, and (for some
species) ease of maintaining them in the laboratory, ecologists have used protozoan
populations and communities to investigate competition and predation.

The result has been an extensive literature on a few species studied primarily under
laboratory conditions. Few studies have been extended to natural habitats with the result
that we know relatively little about most protozoa and their roles in natural communities.
Intraspecific competition for common resources often results in cannibalism, sometimes
with dramatic changes in morphology of the cannibals (Giese 1973). Field studies of
interspecific competition are few and most evidence for such species interactions is
indirect (Cairns and Yongue 1977).

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Contractile Vacuoles
Many protozoa have contractile vacuoles, which collect and expel excess water, and
extrusomes, which expel material used to deflect predators or capture prey. In
multicellular organisms, hormones are often produced in vesicles. In higher plants, most
of a cell's volume is taken up by a central vacuole or tonoplast, which maintains its
osmotic pressure. Many eukaryotes have slender motile projections, usually called
flagella when long and cilia when short. These are variously involved in movement,
feeding, and sensation. These are entirely distinct from prokaryotic flagella. They are
supported by a bundle of microtubules arising from a basal body, also called a
kinetosome or centriole, characteristically arranged as nine doublets surrounding two
singlets. Flagella also may have hairs or mastigonemes, scales, connecting membranes,
and internal rods. Their interior is continuous with the cell's cytoplasm.

Centrioles
Centrioles are often present even in cells and groups that do not have flagella. They
generally occur in groups of one or two, called kinetids that give rise to various
microtubular roots. These form a primary component of the cytoskeletal structure, and
are often assembled over the course of several cell divisions, with one flagellum retained
from the parent and the other derived from it. Centrioles may also be associated in the
formation of a spindle during nuclear division. Some protists have various other
microtubule-supported organelles. These include the radiolaria and heliozoa, which
produce axopodia used in flotation or to capture prey, and the haptophytes, which have
a peculiar flagellum-like organelle called the haptonema.

Figure 1. A diagram of Paramecium sp. with major organelles indicated.

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 Contractile Vacuoles
Figure 2. The contractile vacuole when full (top) and after contraction (bottom).

Paramecium
Members of the genus Paramecium are single-celled, freshwater organisms in the
kingdom Protista. They exist in an environment in which the osmotic concentration in
their external environment is much lower than that in their cytoplasm. More specifically,
the habitat in which they live is hypotonic to their cytoplasm. As a result of this,
Paramecium is subjected to a continuous influx of water, as water diffuses inward to a
region of higher osmotic concentration.

If Paramecium is to maintain homeostasis, water must be continually pumped out of the

cell (against the osmotic gradient) at the same rate at which it moves in. This process,
known as osmoregulation, is carried out by two organelles in Paramecium known as
contractile vacuoles (Figures 1 and 2).

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Here is a wastewater Inspector is utilizing the auto sampler’s manual to help
adjust the time and adjust for the correct flow for a composite sample. You can
see that she is pouring off the pickle jar. This inspector is also the course author.

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Protozoan Diseases
Protozoan pathogens are larger than bacteria and viruses, but still microscopic. They
invade and inhabit the gastrointestinal tract. Some parasites enter the environment in a
dormant form, with a protective cell wall called a “cyst.” The cyst can survive in the
environment for long periods of time and be extremely resistant to conventional
disinfectants such as chlorine. Effective filtration treatment is therefore critical to
removing these organisms from water sources.

Giardiasis
Giardiasis is a commonly reported protozoan-caused disease. It has also been referred
to as “backpacker’s disease” and “beaver fever” because of the many cases reported
among hikers and others who consume untreated surface water. Symptoms include
chronic diarrhea, abdominal cramps, bloating, frequent loose and pale greasy stools,
fatigue and weight loss. The incubation period is 5-25 days or longer, with an average of
7-10 days. Many infections are asymptomatic (no symptoms). Giardiasis occurs
worldwide. Waterborne outbreaks in the United States occur most often in communities
receiving their drinking water from streams or rivers without adequate disinfection or a
filtration system. The organism, Giardia lamblia, has been responsible for more
community-wide outbreaks of disease in the U.S. than any other pathogen. Drugs are
available for treatment but are not 100% effective.

Cryptosporidiosis
Cryptosporidiosis is an example of a protozoan disease that is common worldwide, but
was only recently recognized as causing human disease. The major symptom in humans
is diarrhea, which may be profuse and watery. The diarrhea is associated with cramping
abdominal pain. General malaise, fever, anorexia, nausea, and vomiting occur less
often. Symptoms usually come and go, and end in fewer than 30 days in most cases.
The incubation period is 1-12 days, with an average of about seven days.
Cryptosporidium organisms have been identified in human fecal specimens from more
than 50 countries on six continents. The mode of transmission is fecal-oral, either by
person-to-person or animal-to-person. There is no specific treatment for
Cryptosporidium infections.

All of these diseases, with the exception of hepatitis A, have one symptom in common:
diarrhea. They also have the same mode of transmission, fecal-oral, whether through
person-to-person or animal-to-person contact, and the same routes of transmission,
being either foodborne or waterborne. Although most pathogens cause mild, self-limiting
disease, on occasion, they can cause serious, even life threatening illness. Particularly
vulnerable are persons with weak immune systems such as those with HIV infections or
cancer. By understanding the nature of waterborne diseases, the importance of properly
constructed, operated and maintained public water systems becomes obvious. While
water treatment cannot achieve sterile water (no microorganisms), the goal of treatment
must clearly be to produce drinking water that is as pathogen-free as possible at all
times. For those who operate water systems with inadequate source protection or
treatment facilities, the potential risk of a waterborne disease outbreak is real. For those
operating systems that currently provide adequate source protection and treatment,
operating and maintaining the system at a high level on a continuing basis is critical to
prevent disease.

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Giardia Lamblia

Giardia lamblia (synonymous with Lamblia intestinalis and Giardia duodenalis) is a

flagellated protozoan parasite that colonizes and reproduces in the small intestine,
causing giardiasis. The giardia parasite attaches to the epithelium by a ventral adhesive
disc, and reproduces via binary fission. Giardiasis does not spread via the bloodstream,
nor does it spread to other parts of the gastro-intestinal tract, but remains confined to the
lumen of the small intestine. Giardia trophozoites absorb their nutrients from the lumen
of the small intestine, and are anaerobes.

Giardia infection can occur through ingestion of dormant cysts in contaminated water, or
by the fecal-oral route (through poor hygiene practices). The Giardia cyst can survive for
weeks to months in cold water and therefore can be present in contaminated wells and
water systems, and even clean-looking mountain streams, as well as city reservoirs, as
the Giardia cysts are resistant to conventional water treatment methods, such as
chlorination and ozonolysis. Zoonotic transmission is also possible, and therefore
Giardia infection is a concern for people camping in the wilderness or swimming in
contaminated streams or lakes, especially the artificial lakes formed by beaver dams
(hence the popular name for giardiasis, "Beaver Fever"). As well as water-borne
sources, fecal-oral transmission can also occur, for example in day care centers, where
children may have poorer hygiene practices.

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Those who work with children are also at risk of being infected, as are family members
of infected individuals. Not all Giardia infections are symptomatic, so some people can
unknowingly serve as carriers of the parasite.

The life cycle begins with a non-infective cyst being excreted with feces of an infected
individual. Once out in the environment, the cyst becomes infective. A distinguishing
characteristic of the cyst is 4 nuclei and a retracted cytoplasm. Once ingested by a host,
the trophozoite emerges to an active state of feeding and motility. After the feeding
stage, the trophozoite undergoes asexual replication through longitudinal binary fission.
The resulting trophozoites and cysts then pass through the digestive system in the
feces. While the trophozoites may be found in the feces, only the cysts are capable of
surviving outside of the host.

Distinguishing features of the trophozoites are large karyosomes and lack of peripheral
chromatin, giving the two nuclei a halo appearance. Cysts are distinguished by a
retracted cytoplasm. This protozoa lacks mitochondria, although the discovery of the
presence of mitochodrial remnant organelles in one recent study "indicate that Giardia is
not primitively amitochondrial and that it has retained a functional organelle derived from
the original mitochondrial endosymbiont"

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Cryptosporidium

Cryptosporidium is a protozoan pathogen of the Phylum Apicomplexa and causes a

diarrheal illness called cryptosporidiosis. Other apicomplexan pathogens include the
malaria parasite Plasmodium, and Toxoplasma, the causative agent of toxoplasmosis.
Unlike Plasmodium, which transmits via a mosquito vector, Cryptosporidium does not
utilize an insect vector and is capable of completing its life cycle within a single host,
resulting in cyst stages which are excreted in feces and are capable of transmission to a
new host.

A number of species of Cryptosporidium infect mammals. In humans, the main causes of

disease are C. parvum and C. hominis (previously C. parvum genotype 1). C. canis, C.
felis, C. meleagridis, and C. muris can also cause disease in humans. In recent years,
cryptosporidiosis has plagued many commercial Leopard gecko breeders. Several
species of the Cryptosporidium family (C. serpentes and others) are involved, and
outside of geckos it has been found in monitor lizards, iguanas, tortoises as well as
several snake species.

Cryptosporidiosis is typically an acute short-term infection but can become severe and
non-resolving in children and immunocompromised individuals. The parasite is
transmitted by environmentally hardy cysts (oocysts) that, once ingested, excyst in the
small intestine and result in an infection of intestinal epithelial tissue.

The genome of Cryptosporidium parvum was sequenced in 2004 and was found to be
unusual amongst Eukaryotes in that the mitochondria seem not to contain DNA. A
closely-related species, C. hominis, also has its genome sequence available.
CryptoDB.org is a NIH-funded database that provides access to the Cryptosporidium
genomics data sets.

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When C. parvum was first identified as a human pathogen, diagnosis was made by a
biopsy of intestinal tissue (Keusch, et al., 1995). However, this method of testing can
give false negatives due the "patchy" nature of the intestinal parasitic infection (Flanigan
and Soave, 1993). Staining methods were then developed to detect and identify the
oocysts directly from stool samples. The modified acid-fast stain is traditionally used to
most reliably and specifically detect the presence of cryptosporidial oocysts.

There have been six major outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis in the United States as a result
of contamination of drinking water (Juranek, 1995). One major outbreak in Milwaukee in
1993 affected over 400,000 persons. Outbreaks such as these usually result from
drinking water taken from surface water sources such as lakes and rivers (Juranek,
1995). Swimming pools and water park wave pools have also been associated with
outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis. Also, untreated groundwater or well water public drinking
water supplies can be sources of contamination.

The highly environmentally resistant cyst of C. parvum allows the pathogen to survive
various drinking water filtrations and chemical treatments such as chlorination. Although
municipal drinking water utilities may meet federal standards for safety and quality of
drinking water, complete protection from cryptosporidial infection is not guaranteed. In
fact, all waterborne outbreaks of cryptosporidiosis have occurred in communities where
the local utilities met all state and federal drinking water standards (Juranek, 1995).

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Entamoeba histolytica

Entamoeba histolytica, another water-borne pathogen, can cause diarrhea or a more

serious invasive liver abscess. When in contact with human cells, these amoebae are
cytotoxic. There is a rapid influx of calcium into the contacted cell, it quickly stops all
membrane movement save for some surface blebbing. Internal organization is disrupted,
organelles lyse, and the cell dies. The ameba may eat the dead cell or just absorb
nutrients released from the cell.

On average, about one in 10 people who are infected with E. histolytica becomes sick
from the infection. The symptoms often are quite mild and can include loose stools,
stomach pain, and stomach cramping. Amebic dysentery is a severe form of amebiasis
associated with stomach pain, bloody stools, and fever. Rarely, E. histolytica invades the
liver and forms an abscess. Even less commonly, it spreads to other parts of the body,
such as the lungs or brain.

Scientific classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Phylum: Amoebozoa
Class: Archamoebae
Genus: Entamoeba
Species: E. histolytica

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 Mitochondria

The bacterial cell is surrounded by a lipid membrane, or cell membrane, which encloses
the contents of the cell and acts as a barrier to hold nutrients, proteins and other
essential components of the cytoplasm within the cell. As they are prokaryotes, bacteria
do not tend to have membrane-bound organelles in their cytoplasm and thus contain few
large intracellular structures. They consequently lack a nucleus, mitochondria,
chloroplasts and the other organelles present in eukaryotic cells, such as the Golgi
apparatus and endoplasmic reticulum.

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Paramecia
Paramecia are a group of unicellular ciliate protozoa formerly known as slipper
animalcules from their slipper shape. They are commonly studied as a representative of
the ciliate group. Simple cilia cover the body which allows the cell to move with a
synchronous motion (like a caterpilla). There is also a deep oral groove containing
inconspicuous compound oral cilia (as found in other peniculids) that is used to draw
food inside. They generally feed upon bacteria and other small cells. Osmoregulation is
carried out by a pair of contractile vacuoles, which actively expel water absorbed by
osmosis from their surroundings. Paramecia are widespread in freshwater
environments, and are especially common in scums. Paramecia are attracted by acidic
conditions. Certain single-celled eukaryotes, such as Paramecium, are examples for
exceptions to the universality of the genetic code (translation systems where a few
codons differ from the standard ones).

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Amoeba
Amoeba (sometimes amœba or ameba, plural amoebae) is a genus of protozoa that
moves by means of pseudopods, and is well-known as a representative unicellular
organism. The word amoeba or ameba is variously used to refer to it and its close
relatives, now grouped as the Amoebozoa, or to all protozoa that move using
pseudopods, otherwise termed amoeboids.

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Vorticella
Vorticella is a genus of protozoa, with over 100 known species. They are stalked
inverted bell-shaped ciliates, placed among the peritrichs. Each cell has a separate stalk
anchored onto the substrate, which contains a contracile fibril called a myoneme. When
stimulated this shortens, causing the stalk to coil like a spring. Reproduction is by
budding, where the cell undergoes longitudinal fission and only one daughter keeps the
stalk. Vorticella mainly lives in freshwater ponds and streams - generally anywhere
protists are plentiful. Other genera such as Carchesium resemble Vorticella but are
branched or colonial.

Domain: Eukaryota
Phylum: Ciliophora
Class: Oligohymenophorea
Subclass: Peritrichia
Order: Sessilida
Family: Vorticellidae
Genus: Vorticella

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Rotifer
The rotifers make up a phylum of microscopic and near-microscopic pseudocoelomate
animals. They were first described by John Harris in 1696 (Hudson and Gosse, 1886).
Leeuwenhoek is mistakenly given credit for being the first to describe rotifers but Harris
had produced sketches in 1703. Most rotifers are around 0.1-0.5 mm long, and are
common in freshwater throughout the world with a few saltwater species. Rotifers may
be free swimming and truly planktonic, others move by inch worming along the
substrate, whilst some are sessile, living inside tubes or gelatinous holdfasts. About 25
species are colonial (e.g. Sinantherina semibullata), either sessile or planktonic.

Rotifers get their name (derived from Greek and meaning "wheel-bearer"; they have also
been called wheel animalcules) from the corona, which is composed of several ciliated
tufts around the mouth that in motion resemble a wheel. These create a current that
sweeps food into the mouth, where it is chewed up by a characteristic pharynx (called
the mastax) containing a tiny, calcified, jaw-like structure called the trophi. The cilia also
pull the animal, when unattached, through the water. Most free-living forms have pairs of
posterior toes to anchor themselves while feeding. Rotifers have bilateral symmetry and
a variety of different shapes. There is a well-developed cuticle which may be thick and
rigid, giving the animal a box-like shape, or flexible, giving the animal a worm-like shape;
such rotifers are respectively called loricate and illoricate.

Like many other microscopic animals, adult rotifers frequently exhibit eutely - they have
a fixed number of cells within a species, usually on the order of one thousand. Males in
the class Monogononta may be either present or absent depending on the species and
environmental conditions. In the absence of males, reproduction is by parthenogenesis
and results in clonal offspring that are genetically identical to the parent. Individuals of
some species form two distinct types of parthenogenetic eggs; one type develops into a
normal parthenogenetic female, while the other occurs in response to a changed
environment and develops into a degenerate male that lacks a digestive system, but
does have a complete male reproductive system that is used to inseminate females
thereby producing fertilized 'resting eggs'. Resting eggs develop into zygotes that are
able to survive extreme environmental conditions such as may occur during winter or
when the pond dries up. These eggs resume development and produce a new female
generation when conditions improve again. The life span of monogonont females varies
from a couple of days to about three weeks.

Bdelloid rotifers are unable to produce resting eggs, but many can survive prolonged
periods of adverse conditions after desiccation. This facility is termed anhydrobiosis, and
organisms with these capabilities are termed anhydrobionts. Under drought conditions,
bdelloid rotifers contract into an inert form and lose almost all body water; when
rehydrated, however, they resume activity within a few hours. Bdelloids can survive the
dry state for prolonged periods, with the longest well-documented dormancy being nine
years. While in other anhydrobionts, such as the brine shrimp, this desiccation tolerance
is thought to be linked to the production of trehalose, a non-reducing disaccharide
(sugar), bdelloids apparently lack the ability to synthesize trehalose. Bdelloid rotifer
genomes contain two or more divergent copies of each gene. Four copies of hsp82 are,
for example, found. Each is different and found on a different chromosome, excluding
the possibility of homozygous sexual reproduction.

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Waterborne Diseases
Name Causative organism Source of organism Disease
Viral Rotavirus (mostly in young Human feces Diarrhea
gastroenteritis children) or vomiting
Norwalk Agent Noroviruses (genus Norovirus, Human feces; also, Diarrhea and
family Caliciviridae) *1 shellfish; lives in polluted vomiting
waters
Salmonellosis Salmonella (bacterium) Animal or human feces Diarrhea or
vomiting
Gastroenteritis -- E. coli O1 57:H7 (bacterium): Human feces Symptoms vary
Escherichia coli Other E. coli organisms: with type caused
Typhoid Salmonella typhi (bacterium) Human feces, urine Inflamed intestine,
enlarged spleen,
high temperature-
sometimes fatal
Shigellosis Shigella (bacterium) Human feces Diarrhea

Cholera Vibrio choleras (bacterium) Human feces; also, Vomiting, severe

shellfish; lives in many diarrhea, rapid
coastal waters dehydration,
mineral loss-high
mortality
Hepatitis A Hepatitis A virus Human feces; shellfish Yellowed skin,
grown in polluted waters enlarged liver,
fever, vomiting,
weight loss,
abdominal pain-
low mortality, lasts
up to four months
Amebiasis Entamoeba histolytica Human feces Mild diarrhea,
(protozoan) dysentery, extra
intestinal infection
Giardiasis Giardia lamblia (protozoan) Animal or human feces Diarrhea,
cramps, nausea,
and general
weakness — lasts
one week to
months
Cryptosporidiosis Cryptosporidium parvum Animal or human feces Diarrhea, stomach
pain — lasts
(protozoan) days
to weeks
Notes:
*1 http://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dvrd/revb/gastro/norovirus.htm
http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/preview/mmwrhtml/rr5009a1.htm

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Bacteria Section

Peritrichous Bacteria

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Microbiologists broadly classify bacteria according to their shape: spherical, rod-shaped,
and spiral-shaped. Pleomorphic bacteria can assume a variety of shapes. Bacteria may
be further classified according to whether they require oxygen (aerobic or anaerobic)
and how they react to a test with Gram’s stain. Bacteria in which alcohol washes away
Gram’s stain are called gram-negative, while bacteria in which alcohol causes the
bacteria’s walls to absorb the stain are called gram-positive.

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Shigella dysenteriae

Shigella dysenteriae is a species of the rod-shaped bacterial genus Shigella. Shigella

can cause shigellosis (bacillary dysentery). Shigellae are Gram-negative, non-spore-
forming, facultatively anaerobic, non-motile bacteria.

S. dysenteriae, spread by contaminated water and food, causes the most severe
dysentery because of its potent and deadly Shiga toxin, but other species may also be
dysentery agents. Shigella infection is typically via ingestion (fecal–oral contamination);
depending on age and condition of the host as few as ten bacterial cells can be enough
to cause an infection. Shigella causes dysentery that result in the destruction of the
epithelial cells of the intestinal mucosa in the cecum and rectum. Some strains produce
enterotoxin and Shiga toxin, similar to the verotoxin of E. coli O157:H7. Both Shiga toxin
and verotoxin are associated with causing hemolytic uremic syndrome.

Shigella invades the host through epithelial cells of the large intestine. Using a Type III
secretion system acting as a biological syringe, the bacterium injects IpaD protein into
cell, triggering bacterial invasion and the subsequent lysis of vacuolar membranes using
IpaB and IpaC proteins. It utilizes a mechanism for its motility by which its IcsA protein
triggers actin polymerization in the host cell (via N-WASP recruitment of Arp2/3
complexes) in a "rocket" propulsion fashion for cell-to-cell spread.

The most common symptoms are diarrhea, fever, nausea, vomiting, stomach cramps,
and straining to have a bowel movement. The stool may contain blood, mucus, or pus
(e.g. dysentery). In rare cases, young children may have seizures. Symptoms can take
as long as a week to show up, but most often begin two to four days after ingestion.
Symptoms usually last for several days, but can last for weeks. Shigella is implicated as
one of the pathogenic causes of reactive arthritis worldwide.

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 Bacteria Types

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Type Characteristics
Rod-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; highly tolerant of acidic
Acetic acid
conditions; generate organic acids
Rod-shaped or filamentous, gram-positive, aerobic; common in soils;
Actinomycete essential to growth of many plants; source of much of original antibiotic
production in pharmaceutical industry
Spherical, sometimes in clusters or strings, gram-positive, aerobic and
anaerobic; resistant to drying and high-salt conditions; Staphylococcus
Coccoid
species common on human skin, certain strains associated with toxic
shock syndrome
Rod-shaped, form club or V shapes, gram-positive, aerobic; found in
Coryneform wide variety of habitats, particularly soils; highly resistant to drying;
include Arthrobacter, among most common forms of life on earth
Usually rod-shaped, can be gram-positive or gram-negative; have
Endospore- highly adaptable, heat-resistant spores that can go dormant for long
forming periods, possibly thousands of years; include Clostridium (anaerobic)
and Bacillus (aerobic)
Rod-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic but can live in certain anaerobic
Enteric conditions; produce nitrite from nitrate, acids from glucose; include
Escherichia coli, Salmonella (over 1000 types), and Shigella
Rod-shaped, gram-negative, mostly aerobic; glide on secreted slimy
Gliding
substances; form colonies, frequently with complex fruiting structures
Gram-positive, anaerobic; produce lactic acid through fermentation;
Lactic acid include Lactobacillus, essential in dairy product formation, and
Streptococcus, common in humans
Pleomorphic, spherical or rod-shaped, frequently branching, no gram
Mycobacterium stain, aerobic; commonly form yellow pigments; include Mycobacterium
tuberculosis, cause of tuberculosis
Spherical, commonly forming branching chains, no gram stain, aerobic
but can live in certain anaerobic conditions; without cell walls yet
Mycoplasma
structurally resistant to lysis; among smallest of bacteria; named for
superficial resemblance to fungal hyphae (myco- means 'fungus')
Rod-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; convert atmospheric nitrogen gas
Nitrogen-fixing
to ammonium in soil; include Azotobacter, a common genus
Rod-shaped, pleomorphic, gram-positive, anaerobic; ferment lactic
Propionic acid acid; fermentation produces holes in Swiss cheese from the production
of carbon dioxide
Rod-shaped (straight or curved) with polar flagella, gram-negative,
Pseudomonad
aerobic; can use up to 100 different compounds for carbon and energy
Spherical or rod-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; cause Rocky
Rickettsia Mountain spotted fever and typhus; closely related to Agrobacterium, a
common gall-causing plant bacterium
Filamentous, gram-negative, aerobic; 'swarmer' (colonizing) cells form
Sheathed and break out of a sheath; sometimes coated with metals from
environment

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 Spiral-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; include Bdellovibrio, predatory
Spirillum
on other bacteria
Spiral-shaped, gram-negative, mostly anaerobic; common in moist
environments, from mammalian gums to coastal mudflats; complex
Spirochete
internal structures convey rapid movement; include
Treponemapallidum, cause of syphilis
Sulfate- and
Commonly rod-shaped, mostly gram-negative, anaerobic; include
Sulfur-
Desulfovibrio, ecologically important in marshes
reducing
Sulfur- and Commonly rod-shaped, frequently with polar flagella, gram-negative,
iron-oxidizing mostly anaerobic; most live in neutral (nonacidic) environment
Rod- or comma-shaped, gram-negative, aerobic; commonly with a
Vibrio single flagellum; include Vibrio cholerae, cause of cholera, and
luminescent forms symbiotic with deep-water fishes and squids

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Salmonella

Salmonella is a Gram-negative bacterium. It is found in many turtles and other reptiles.

In clinical laboratories, it is usually isolated on MacConkey agar, XLD agar, XLT agar,
DCA agar, or Önöz agar. Because they cause intestinal infections and are greatly
outnumbered by the bacteria normally found in the healthy bowel, primary isolation
requires the use of a selective medium, so use of a relatively non-selective medium such
as CLED agar is not often practiced. Numbers of salmonella may be so low in clinical
samples that stools are routinely also subjected to "enrichment culture", where a small
volume of stool is incubated in a selective broth medium, such as selenite broth or
Rappaport Vassiliadis soya peptone broth, overnight. These media are inhibitory to the
growth of the microbes normally found in the healthy human bowel, while allowing
salmonellae to become enriched in numbers. Salmonellae may then be recovered by
inoculating the enrichment broth on one or more of the primary selective media. On
blood agar, they form moist colonies about 2 to 3 mm in diameter.

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When the cells are grown for a prolonged time at a range of 25—28°C, some strains
produce a biofilm, which is a matrix of complex carbohydrates, cellulose and proteins.
The ability to produce biofilm (a.k.a. "rugose", "lacy", or "wrinkled") can be an indicator of
dimorphism, which is the ability of a single genome to produce multiple phenotypes in
response to environmental conditions. Salmonellae usually do not ferment lactose; most
of them produce hydrogen sulfide which, in media containing ferric ammonium citrate,
reacts to form a black spot in the centre of the creamy colonies.

Classification
Salmonella taxonomy is complicated. As of December 7, 2005, there are two species
within the genus: S. bongori
(previously subspecies V) and
S. enterica (formerly called
S. choleraesuis), which is divided
into six subspecies:
* I—enterica
* II—salamae
* IIIa—arizonae
* IIIb—diarizonae
* IV—houtenae
* V—obsolete (now designated
S. bongori)
* VI—indica

There are also numerous (over

2500) serovars within both species,
which are found in a disparate
variety of environments and which
are associated with many different
diseases. The vast majority of
human isolates (>99.5%) are
subspecies S. enterica. For the
sake of simplicity, the CDC
recommends that Salmonella
species be referred to only by their
genus and serovar, e.g.

Salmonella Typhi instead of the

more technically correct
designation, Salmonella enterica subspecies enterica serovar Typhi.

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Escherichia Coli Section
Fecal Coliform Bacteria
Fecal coliform bacteria are microscopic organisms that live in the intestines of warm-
blooded animals. They also live in the waste material, or feces, excreted from the
intestinal tract. When fecal coliform bacteria are present in high numbers in a water
sample, it means that the water has received fecal matter from one source or another.
Although not necessarily agents of disease, fecal coliform bacteria may indicate the
presence of disease-carrying organisms, which live in the same environment as the fecal
coliform bacteria.

Reasons for Natural Variation

Unlike the other conventional water quality parameters, fecal coliform bacteria are living
organisms. They do not simply mix with the water and float straight downstream. Instead
they multiply quickly when conditions are favorable for growth, or die in large numbers
when conditions are not. Because bacterial concentrations are dependent on specific
conditions for growth, and these conditions change quickly, fecal coliform bacteria
counts are not easy to predict. For example, although winter rains may wash more fecal
matter from urban areas into a stream, cool water temperatures may cause a major die-
off. Exposure to sunlight (with its ultraviolet disinfection properties) may have the same
effect, even in the warmer water of summertime.

Expected Impact of Pollution

The primary sources of fecal coliform bacteria
to fresh water are wastewater treatment plant
discharges, failing septic systems, and animal
waste. Bacteria levels do not necessarily
decrease as a watershed develops from rural to
urban. Instead, urbanization usually generates
new sources of bacteria. Farm animal manure
and septic systems are replaced by domestic
pets and leaking sanitary sewers. In fact,
stormwater runoff in urbanized areas has been
found to be surprisingly high in fecal coliform
bacteria concentrations.

The presence of old, disintegrating storm and

sanitary sewers, misplaced sewer pipes, and
good breeding conditions are common
explanations for the high levels measured.

Coliform Standards (in colonies/100ml )

Drinking water..................................................................1FC
Total body contact (swimming).............................................200FC
Partial body contact (boating)..............................................1000FC
Threatened sewage effluent ................................not to exceed 200 FC

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*Total coliform (TC) includes bacteria from cold-blooded animals and various soil
organisms. According to recent literature, total coliform counts are normally about 10
times higher than fecal coliform (FC) counts.

Indicator Connection Varies

General coliforms, E. Coli, and Enterococcus bacteria are the "indicator" organisms
generally measured to assess microbiological quality of water. However, these aren't
generally what get people sick. Other bacteria, viruses, and parasites are what we are
actually worried about.

Because it is so much more expensive and tedious to do so, actual pathogens are
virtually never tested for. Over the course of a professional lifetime pouring over indicator
tests, in a context where all standards are based on indicators, water workers tend to
forget that the indicators are not the things we actually care about.

What are these indicators? More information in the Laboratory section.

 General coliforms indicate that the water has come in contact with plant or
animal life. General coliforms are universally present, including in pristine spring
water. They are of little concern at low levels, except to indicate the effectiveness
of disinfection. Chlorinated water and water from perfectly sealed tube wells is
the only water I've tested which had zero general coliforms. At very high levels
they indicate there is what amounts to a lot of compost in the water, which could
easily include pathogens (Ten thousand general coliform bacteria will get you a
beach closure, compared to two or four hundred fecal coliforms, or fifty
enterococcus).
 Fecal coliforms, particularly E. coli, indicate that there are mammal or bird feces
in the water.
 Enterococcus bacteria also indicate that there are feces from warm blooded
animals in the water. Enterococcus are a type of fecal streptococci. They are
another valuable indicator for determining the amount of fecal contamination of
water.
According to studies conducted by the EPA, enterococci have a greater
correlation with swimming-associated gastrointestinal illness in both marine and
fresh waters than other bacterial indicator organisms, and are less likely to "die
off" in saltwater.

The more closely related the animal, the more likely pathogens excreted with their feces
can infect us. Human feces are the biggest concern, because anything which infects one
human could infect another. There isn't currently a quantitative method for measuring
specifically human fecal bacteria (expensive genetic studies can give a
presence/absence result). Ingesting a human stranger's feces via contaminated water
supply is a classic means for infections to spread rapidly. The more pathogens an
individual carries, the more hazardous their feces. Ingesting feces from someone who is
not carrying any pathogens may gross you out, but it can't infect you. Infection rates are
around 5% in the US, and approach 100% in areas with poor hygiene and contaminated
water supplies. Keep in the back of your mind that the ratio of indicators to actual
pathogens is not fixed. It will always be different, sometimes very different. Whenever
you are trying to form a mental map of reality based on water tests, you should include in
the application of your water intuition an adjustment factor for your best guess of the
ratio between indicators and actual pathogens.

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Membrane Filter Total Coliform Technique
The membrane filter total Coliform technique is used at Medina County for drinking water
quality testing. The following is a summary of this test. A sampling procedure sheet is
given to all sample takers by Medina County.

The samples are taken in sterile 100 mL containers. These containers, when used for
chlorinated water samples, have a sodium thiosulfate pill or solution to dechlorinate the
sample.

The sample is placed in cold storage after proper sample taking procedures are
followed. (See sample
procedures below)

The samples are taken to the

laboratory with a chain of
custody to assure no
tampering of samples can
occur.

These samples are logged in

at the laboratory.

No longer than 30 hours can

lapse between the time of
sampling and time of test
incubation. (8 hours for
heterotrophic, nonpotable 6
hours, others not longer than
24 hours)

All equipment is sterilized by oven and autoclave.

Glassware in oven at 170oC + 10oC with foil (or other suitable wrap) loosely fitting and
secured immediately after sterilization.

Filtration units in autoclave at 121oC for 30

minutes.

Use sterile petri dishes, grid, and pads

bought from a reliable company – certified,
quality assured - test for satisfactory known
positive amounts.

Incubators – 35oC + .5oC (60% relative

humidity)
M-endo medium is prepared and heated to
near boiling removed from heat cooled to
45oC pH adjusted to 7.2 + .2 and
immediately dispensed 8ml to plates. Keep
refrigerated and discard after 2 weeks.

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Plates can be stored in a dated box with expiration date and discarded if not used. No
denatured alcohol should be used. Everclear or 95% proof alcohol or absolute methyl
may be used for sterilizing forceps by flame.

Procedure:
Counters are alcohol wiped.
Bench sheets are filled out.
Samples are removed from refrigeration.
Sterile wrapped utensils are placed on counters.
Filtration units are placed onto sterile membrane filters by aseptic technique using sterile
forceps.
Sterile petri dishes are labeled.
The samples closures are clipped.
The sample is shaken 25 times 1 foot in length within 7 seconds.
100 mL is filtered and rinsed with sterile distilled water 3 times.
The membrane filter is aseptically removed from filter holder.
A sterile padded petri dish is used and the membrane filter is rolled onto the pad making
sure no air bubbles form.
The sterile labeled lid is placed on the petri dish.
2 blanks and a known is run with each series of samples.
The samples are placed in the 35oC + .5oC incubator stacked no higher than 3 for 22 –
24 hours (Humidity can be maintained by saturated paper towels placed under
containers holding petri dishes.)
After 22- 24 hours view the petri dishes under a 10 –15 power magnification with cool
white fluorescent light.
Count all colonies that appear pink to dark red with a metallic surface sheen – the sheen
may vary in size from a pin head to complete coverage.
Report as Total Coliform per 100 mL.
If no colonies are present report as <1 coliform/100mL.

Anything greater than 1 is over the limit for drinking water for 2 samples taken 24 hours
apart. Further investigation may be necessary – follow Standard Methods accordingly.

Photograph and Credits to Mary McPherson

AranTM Aqua Analytical Laboratory Director.

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Escherichia coli EPEC
Two types of pathogenic Escherichia coli, enteropathogenic E. coli (EPEC) and
enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC), cause diarrheal disease by disrupting the intestinal
environment through the intimate attachment of the bacteria to the intestinal epithelium.

E. coli O157:H7
E. coli O157:H7 (bacterium) found in human feces. Symptoms vary with type caused
gastroenteritis.

Escherichia coli O157:H7 is an emerging cause of foodborne illness. An estimated

73,000 cases of infection and 61 deaths occur in the United States each year. Infection
often leads to bloody diarrhea, and occasionally to kidney failure. Most illnesses have
been associated with eating undercooked, contaminated ground beef. Person-to-person
contact in families and child care centers is also an important mode of transmission.
Infection can also occur after drinking raw milk and after swimming in or drinking
sewage-contaminated water.

Consumers can prevent E. coli O157:H7 infection by thoroughly cooking ground beef,
avoiding unpasteurized milk, and washing hands carefully. Because the organism lives
in the intestines of healthy cattle, preventive measures on cattle farms and during meat
processing are being investigated.

What is Escherichia coli O157:H7?

E. coli O157:H7 is one of hundreds of strains of the bacterium Escherichia coli.
Although most strains are harmless and live in the intestines of healthy humans and
animals, this strain produces a powerful toxin and can cause severe illness.

E. coli O157:H7 was first recognized as a cause of illness in 1982 during an outbreak
of severe bloody diarrhea; the outbreak was traced to contaminated hamburgers.
Since then, most infections have come from eating undercooked ground beef.

The combination of letters and numbers in the name of the bacterium refers to the
specific markers found on its surface and distinguishes it from other types of E. coli.

Currently, there are four recognized classes of enterovirulent E. coli (collectively

referred to as the EEC group) that cause gastroenteritis in humans. Among these is
the enterohemorrhagic (EHEC) strain designated E. coli O157:H7. E. coli is a normal
inhabitant of the intestines of all animals, including humans. When aerobic culture
methods are used, E. coli is the dominant species found in feces.

Normally E. coli serves a useful function in the body by suppressing the growth of
harmful bacterial species and by synthesizing appreciable amounts of vitamins. A
minority of E. coli strains are capable of causing human illness by several different
mechanisms. E. coli serotype O157:H7 is a rare variety of E. coli that produces large
quantities of one or more related, potent toxins that cause severe damage to the lining
of the intestine. These toxins [verotoxin (VT), shiga-like toxin] are closely related or
identical to the toxin produced by Shigella dysenteriae.

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How does E. coli or other fecal coliforms get in the water?
E. coli comes from human and animal wastes. During rainfalls, snow melts, or other
types of precipitation, E. coli may be washed into creeks, rivers, streams, lakes, or
groundwater. When these waters are used as sources of drinking water and the water is
not treated or inadequately treated, E. coli may end up in drinking water.

How is water treated to protect me from E. coli?

The water can be treated using chlorine, ultra-violet light, or ozone, all of which act to kill
or inactivate E. coli. Systems using surface water sources are required to disinfect to
ensure that all bacterial contamination such as E. coli. is inactivated. Systems using
ground water sources are not required to disinfect, although many of them do.

How does the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency regulate E. coli?

According to EPA regulations, a system that operates at least 60 days per year, and
serves 25 people or more or has 15 or more service connections, is regulated as a
public water system under the Safe Drinking Water Act. If a system is not a public water
system as defined by EPA regulations, it is not regulated under the Safe Drinking Water
Act, although it may be regulated by state or local authorities.

Under the Safe Drinking Water Act, the EPA requires public water systems to monitor for
coliform bacteria. Systems analyze first for total coliform, because this test is faster to
produce results. Any time that a sample is positive for total coliform, the same sample
must be analyzed for either fecal coliform or E. coli. Both are indicators of contamination
with animal waste or human sewage.

The largest public water systems (serving millions of people) must take at least 480
samples per month. Smaller systems must take at least five samples a month unless
the state has conducted a sanitary survey – a survey in which a state inspector
examines system components and ensures they will protect public health – at the
system within the last five years.

Systems serving 25 to 1,000 people typically take one sample per month. Some states
reduce this frequency to quarterly for ground water systems if a recent sanitary survey
shows that the system is free of sanitary defects. Some types of systems can qualify for
annual monitoring. Systems using surface water, rather than ground water, are required
to take extra steps to protect against bacterial contamination because surface water
sources are more vulnerable to such contamination. At a minimum, all systems using
surface waters must disinfect. Disinfection will kill E. coli O157:H7.

What can I do to protect myself from E. coli O157:H7 in drinking water?

Approximately 89 percent of Americans are receiving water from community water
systems that meet all health-based standards. Your public water system is required to
notify you if, for any reason, your drinking water is not safe. If you wish to take extra
precautions, you can boil your water for one minute at a rolling boil, longer at higher
altitudes. To find out more information about your water, see the Consumer Confidence
Report from your local water supplier or contact your local water supplier directly. You
can also obtain information about your local water system on the EPA's website at
www.epa.gov/safewater/dwinfo.htm.

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Positive Tests
If you draw water from a private well, you can contact your state health department to
obtain information on how to have your well tested for total coliforms, and E. coli
contamination. If your well tests positive for E. coli, there are several steps that you
should take: (1) begin boiling all water intended for consumption, (2) disinfect the well
according to procedures recommended by your local health department, and (3) monitor
your water quality to make certain that the problem does not recur. If the contamination
is a recurring problem, you should investigate the feasibility of drilling a new well or
install a point-of-entry disinfection unit, which can use chlorine, ultraviolet light, or ozone.

How is E. coli O157:H7 spread?

The organism can be found on a small number of cattle farms and can live in the
intestines of healthy cattle. Meat can become contaminated during slaughter, and
organisms can be thoroughly mixed into beef when it is ground. Bacteria present on a
cow's udders or on equipment may get into raw milk. Eating meat, especially ground
beef that has not been cooked sufficiently to kill E. coli O157:H7 can cause infection.
Contaminated meat looks and smells normal. Although the number of organisms
required to cause disease is not known, it is suspected to be very small.

Among other known sources of infection are consumption of sprouts, lettuce, salami,
unpasteurized milk and juice, and swimming in or drinking sewage-contaminated water.
Bacteria in diarrheal stools of infected persons can be passed from one person to
another if hygiene or hand washing habits are inadequate. This is particularly likely
among toddlers who are not toilet trained. Family members and playmates of these
children are at high risk of becoming infected. Young children typically shed the
organism in their feces for a week or two after their illness resolves. Older children rarely
carry the organism without symptoms.

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What illness does E. coli O157:H7 cause?
E. coli O157:H7 infection often causes severe bloody diarrhea and abdominal cramps;
sometimes the infection causes non-bloody diarrhea or no symptoms. Usually little or no
fever is present, and the illness resolves in 5 to 10 days. Hemorrhagic colitis is the name
of the acute disease caused by E. coli O157:H7.

In some persons, particularly children under 5 years of age and the elderly, the infection
can also cause a complication called hemolytic uremic syndrome, in which the red blood
cells are destroyed and the kidneys fail. About 2%-7% of infections lead to this
complication. In the United States, hemolytic uremic syndrome is the principal cause of
acute kidney failure in children, and most cases of hemolytic uremic syndrome are
caused by E. coli O157:H7.

How is E. coli O157:H7 infection diagnosed?

Infection with E. coli O157:H7 is diagnosed by detecting the bacterium in the stool. Most
laboratories that culture stool do not test for E. coli O157:H7, so it is important to request
that the stool specimen be tested on sorbitol-MacConkey (SMAC) agar for this organism.
All persons who suddenly have diarrhea with blood should get their stool tested for E.
coli O157:H7.

How is the illness treated?

Most persons recover without antibiotics or other specific treatment in 5-10 days. There
is no evidence that antibiotics improve the course of disease, and it is thought that
treatment with some antibiotics may precipitate kidney complications. Antidiarrheal
agents, such as loperamide (Imodium), should also be avoided. Hemolytic uremic
syndrome is a life-threatening condition usually treated in an intensive care unit. Blood
transfusions and kidney dialysis are often required. With intensive care, the death rate
for hemolytic uremic syndrome is 3%-5%.

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Legionnaires' Disease Legionella Section

Introduction Genus: Legionella Species: pneumophila

The first discovery of bacteria from genus Legionella came in 1976 when an outbreak of
pneumonia at an American Legion convention led to 29 deaths. The causative agent,
what would come to be known as Legionella pneumophila, was isolated and given its
own genus. The organisms classified in this genus are Gram-negative bacteria that are
considered intracellular parasites. The disease has two
distinct forms:
 Legionnaires' disease, the more severe form of
infection which includes pneumonia, and
 Pontiac fever, a milder illness.

What have been the water sources for Legionnaires'

disease?
The major source is water distribution systems of large
buildings, including hotels and hospitals. Cooling towers
have long been thought to be a major source for Legionella, but new data suggest that
this is an overemphasized mode of transmission. Other sources include mist machines,
humidifiers, whirlpool spas, and hot springs. Air conditioners are not a source for
Legionnaires' disease. They were suspected to be the source in the original American
Legion outbreak in a Philadelphia hotel, but new data now
suggests that the water in the hotel was the actual culprit.

Legionnaire’s disease is caused most commonly by the inhalation

of small droplets of water or fine aerosol containing Legionella
bacteria. Legionella bacteria are naturally found in environmental
water sources such as rivers, lakes and ponds and may colonize
man-made water systems that include air conditioning systems,
humidifiers, cooling tower waters, hot water systems, spas and
pools.

How do people contract Legionella?

The most popular theory is that the organism is aerosolized in water and people inhale
the droplets containing Legionella. However, new evidence suggests that another way of
contracting Legionella is more common. "Aspiration" is the most common way that
bacteria enter into the lungs to cause pneumonia. Aspiration means choking such that
secretions in the mouth get past the choking reflexes and instead of going into the
esophagus and stomach, mistakenly, enter the lung. The protective mechanisms to
prevent aspiration is defective in patients who smoke or have lung disease. Aspiration
now appears to be the most common mode of transmission.

Legionella may multiply to high numbers in cooling towers, evaporative condensers, air
washers, humidifiers, hot water heaters, spas, fountains, and plumbing fixtures. Within
one month, Legionella can multiply, in warm water-containing systems, from less than 10
per milliliter to over 1,000 per milliliter of water. Once high numbers of Legionella have
been found, a relatively simple procedure for disinfecting water systems with chlorine
and detergent is available. This procedure is not part of a routine maintenance program
because equipment may become corroded.

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Property owners have been sued for the spread of Legionella, resulting in expensive
settlements. Regular monitoring with a battery of DFA monoclonal antibodies for several
serogroups and species of Legionella morphologically intact bacteria provides a means
for exercising 'reasonable care' to deter potential litigation.

Currently, there are no United States government regulations concerning permissible

numbers of legionella in water systems and there are no federal or state certification
programs for laboratories that perform legionella testing of environmental samples.

Epifluorescence Microscopy DFA Method

The epifluorescence microscopy DFA method that most labs use was published in the
British Journal, Water Research 19:839-848, 1985 "Disinfection of circulating water
systems by ultraviolet light and halogenation", R. Gilpin, et al. so we can count viable-
but-nonculturable (VBNC) legionella.

Most labs will provide a quantitative epifluorescence microscopic analysis of your cooling
tower and potable water samples for 14 serogroups of Legionella pneumophila and 15
other Legionella species (listed below).

Legionella anisa Legionella bozemanii sg 1 & 2

Legionella dumoffi Legionella feeleii sg 1 & 2
Legionella gormanii Legionella hackeliae sg 1 & 2
Legionella jordanis Legionella longbeachae sg 1& 2
Legionella maceachernii Legionella micdadei
Legionella oakridgensis Legionella parisiensis
Legionella pneumophila sg 1-14 Legionella sainthelensi
Legionella santicrucis Legionella wadsworthii

Heterotrophic bacterial CFU are often inversely proportional to numbers of Legionella in

cooling tower samples, in our experience. Routine biocide treatments will not eradicate
Legionella bacteria in the environment, only in laboratory studies.

Culture methods are good during outbreaks for bio-typing; but culture methods lack
sensitivity for routine, quantitative monitoring. Many factors will inhibit growth or
identification of legionella on BCYE with or without antimicrobial agents, heat or acid
treatment.

Culture methods will not identify non-culturable legionella that can still cause outbreaks
(non-culturable, viable legionella have been reported in several peer-reviewed
journals). Only DFA tests performed by trained laboratory personnel can identify these
legionella. Direct fluorescent antibody (DFA) tests using a battery of monoclonal
antibodies provide more useful routine monitoring information than culture methods.
Legionella species of bacteria cause Legionnaire's disease. They are gram negative (but
stain poorly), strictly aerobic rods.

The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency and the U.S. Occupational Safety and Health
Administration recommend routine maintenance of water-containing equipment. Most
State health departments recommend monthly testing for Legionella as part of a routine
maintenance program.

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Bacteriophage
A bacteriophage (from 'bacteria' and Greek phagein, 'to eat') is any one of a number of
viruses that infect bacteria. The term is commonly used in its shortened form, phage.

Typically, bacteriophages consist of an outer protein hull enclosing genetic material. The
genetic material can be ssRNA (single stranded RNA), dsRNA, ssDNA, or dsDNA
between 5 and 500 kilo base pairs long with either circular or linear arrangement.
Bacteriophages are much smaller than the bacteria they destroy - usually between 20
and 200 nm in size.

Phages are estimated to be the most widely distributed and diverse entities in the
biosphere. Phages are ubiquitous and can be found in all reservoirs populated by
bacterial hosts, such as soil or the intestine of animals. One of the densest natural
sources for phages and other viruses is sea water, where up to 9×108 virions per
milliliter have been found in microbial mats at the surface, and up to 70% of marine
bacteria may be infected by phages.

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Release of Virions
Phages may be released via cell lysis or by host cell secretion. In the case of the T4
phage, in just over twenty minutes after injection upwards of three hundred phages will
be released via lysis within a certain timescale. This is achieved by an enzyme called
endolysin which attacks and breaks down the peptidoglycan. In contrast, "lysogenic"
phages do not kill the host but rather become long-term parasites and make the host cell
continually secrete more new virus particles. The new virions bud off the plasma
membrane, taking a portion of it with them to become enveloped viruses possessing a
viral envelope. All released virions are capable of infecting a new bacterium.

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Viruses
Viruses are acellular microorganisms. They are made up of only genetic material and a
protein coat. Viruses depend on the energy and metabolic machinery of the host cell to
reproduce. A virus is an infectious agent found in virtually all life forms, including
humans, animals, plants, fungi, and bacteria. Viruses consist of genetic material—either
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) or ribonucleic acid (RNA)—surrounded by a protective
coating of protein, called a capsid, with or without an outer lipid envelope. Viruses are
between 20 and 100 times smaller than bacteria and hence are too small to be seen by
light microscopy.

Viruses vary in size from the largest poxviruses of about 450 nanometers (about
0.000014 in) in length to the smallest polioviruses of about 30 nanometers (about
0.000001 in). Viruses are not considered free-living, since they cannot reproduce outside
of a living cell; they have evolved to transmit their genetic information from one cell to
another for the purpose of replication. Viruses often damage or kill the cells that they
infect, causing disease in infected organisms. A few viruses stimulate cells to grow
uncontrollably and produce cancers. Although many infectious diseases, such as the
common cold, are caused by viruses, there are no cures for these illnesses. The
difficulty in developing antiviral therapies stems from the large number of variant viruses
that can cause the same disease, as well as the inability of drugs to disable a virus
without disabling healthy cells. However, the development of antiviral agents is a major
focus of current research, and the study of viruses has led to many discoveries important
to human health.

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Virions
Individual viruses, or virus particles, also called virions, contain genetic material, or
genomes, in one of several forms. Unlike cellular organisms, in which the genes always
are made up of DNA, viral genes may consist of either DNA or RNA. Like cell DNA,
almost all viral DNA is double-stranded, and it can have either a circular or a linear
arrangement. Almost all viral RNA is single-stranded; it is usually linear, and it may be
either segmented (with different genes on different RNA molecules) or non-segmented
(with all genes on a single piece of RNA).

Capsids
The viral protective shell, or capsid, can be either helical (spiral-shaped) or icosahedral
(having 20 triangular sides). Capsids are composed of repeating units of one or a few
different proteins. These units are called protomers or capsomers. The proteins that
make up the virus particle are called structural proteins. Viruses also carry genes for
making proteins that are never incorporated into the virus particle and are found only in
infected cells. These viral proteins are called nonstructural proteins; they include factors
required for the replication of the viral genome and the production of the virus particle.

Capsids and the genetic material (DNA or RNA) they contain are together referred to as
nucleocapsids. Some virus particles consist only of nucleocapsids, while others contain
additional structures.

Some icosahedral and helical animal viruses are enclosed in a lipid envelope acquired
when the virus buds through host-cell membranes. Inserted into this envelope are
glycoproteins that the viral genome directs the cell to make; these molecules bind virus
particles to susceptible host cells.

Bacteriophages
The most elaborate viruses are the bacteriophages, which use bacteria as their hosts.
Some bacteriophages resemble an insect with an icosahedral head attached to a tubular
sheath. From the base of the sheath extend several long tail fibers that help the virus
attach to the bacterium and inject its DNA to be replicated, direct capsid production, and
virus particle assembly inside the cell.

Viroids and Prions

Viroids and prions are smaller than viruses, but they are similarly associated with
disease. Viroids are plant pathogens that consist only of a circular, independently
replicating RNA molecule. The single-stranded RNA circle collapses on itself to form a
rod-like structure. The only known mammalian pathogen that resembles plant viroids is
the deltavirus (hepatitis D), which requires hepatitis B virus proteins to package its RNA
into virus particles. Co-infection with hepatitis B and D can produce more severe disease
than can infection with hepatitis B alone. Prions are mutated forms of a normal protein
found on the surface of certain animal cells.

Virus Classification
Viruses are classified according to their type of genetic material, their strategy of
replication, and their structure. The International Committee on Nomenclature of Viruses
(ICNV), established in 1966, devised a scheme to group viruses into families,
subfamilies, genera, and species. The ICNV report published in 1995 assigned more
than 4000 viruses into 71 virus families. Hundreds of other viruses remain unclassified
because of the lack of sufficient information.

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Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or Cyanophyta, is a

phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis. The name
"cyanobacteria" comes from the color of the bacteria (Greek: kyanós = blue). They are a
significant component of the marine nitrogen cycle and an important primary producer in
many areas of the ocean, but are also found on land.

Cyanobacteria include unicellular and colonial species. Colonies may form filaments,
sheets or even hollow balls. Some filamentous colonies show the ability to differentiate
into several different cell types: vegetative cells, the normal, photosynthetic cells that are
formed under favorable growing conditions; akinetes, the climate-resistant spores that
may form when environmental conditions become harsh; and thick-walled heterocysts,
which contain the enzyme nitrogenase, vital for nitrogen fixation. Heterocysts may also
form under the appropriate environmental conditions (anoxic) wherever nitrogen is
necessary. Heterocyst-forming species are specialized for nitrogen fixation and are able
to fix nitrogen gas, which cannot be used by plants, into ammonia (NH3), nitrites (NO2) or
nitrates (NO3), which can be absorbed by plants and converted to protein and nucleic
acids.

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The rice paddies of Asia, which produce about 75% of the world's rice, could not do so
were it not for healthy populations of nitrogen-fixing cyanobacteria in the rice paddy
fertilizer too.

Many cyanobacteria also form motile filaments, called hormogonia, that travel away from
the main biomass to bud and form new colonies elsewhere. The cells in a hormogonium
are often thinner than in the vegetative state, and the cells on either end of the motile
chain may be tapered. In order to break away from the parent colony, a hormogonium
often must tear apart a weaker cell in a filament, called a necridium.

Each individual cell of a cyanobacterium typically has a thick, gelatinous cell wall. They
differ from other gram-negative bacteria in that the quorum sensing molecules
autoinducer-2[4] and acyl-homoserine lactones are absent. They lack flagella, but
hormogonia and some unicellular species may move about by gliding along surfaces. In
water columns some cyanobacteria float by forming gas vesicles, like in archaea.

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Euglena
Euglenas are common protists, of the class Euglenoidea of the phylum Euglenophyta.
Currently, over 1000 species of Euglena have been described. Marin et al. (2003)
revised the genus so, and including several species without chloroplasts, formerly
classified as Astasia and Khawkinea. Euglena sometimes can be considered to have
both plant and animal features.

Euglena gracilis has a long hair-like thing that stretches from its body. You need a very
powerful microscope to see it. This is called a flagellum, and the euglena uses it to swim.
It also has a red eyespot. Euglena gracilis uses its eyespot to locate light. Without light, it
cannot use its chloroplasts to make itself food. In order for Euglena gracilis to make
more Euglena gracilis it will complete a process called mitosis. That means it can split
itself in half and become two Euglena gracilis. It can only do this if it is well-fed and if the
temperature is right. Euglena gracilis can reproduce better in warm temperatures.

Euglena gracilis, and other euglena, are harmless to people, but they are often signs
that water is polluted, since they do well where there is a lot of green algae to eat. Green
algae does well where there is a lot of nitrogen (comes from waste) in the water. If you
don't clean your swimming pool, leaves and twigs get in the water and turn into waste.
Then algae and euglena show up.

KINGDOM: Protist, PHYLUM: Euglenophyta, CLASS: Euglenophyceae, ORDER:

Euglenales, FAMILY: Euglenidae, GENUS: Euglena, SPECIES: Euglena gracilis

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Peptidoglycan
Peptidoglycan, also known as murein, is a polymer consisting of sugars and amino
acids that forms a mesh-like layer outside the plasma membrane of eubacteria. The
sugar component consists of alternating residues of β-(1,4) linked N-acetylglucosamine
and N-acetylmuramic acid residues. Attached to the N-acetylmuramic acid is a peptide
chain of three to five amino acids. The peptide chain can be cross-linked to the peptide
chain of another strand forming the 3D mesh-like layer.

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Hepatitis

There are five types of hepatitis -- A through E -- all of which cause inflammation of the
liver. Type D affects only those who also have hepatitis B, and hepatitis E is extremely
rare in the United States.
 Type A hepatitis is contracted through anal-oral contact, by coming in contact
with the feces of someone with hepatitis A, or by eating or drinking hepatitis A
contaminated food or water.
 Type B hepatitis can be contracted from infected blood, seminal fluid, vaginal
secretions, or contaminated drug needles, including tattoo or body-piercing
equipment. It can also be spread from a mother to her newborn.
 Type C hepatitis is not easily spread through sex. You're more likely to get it
through contact with infected blood, contaminated razors, needles, tattoo and
body-piercing equipment, or manicure or pedicure tools that haven't been
properly sanitized, and a mother can pass it to her baby during delivery.
 Type D hepatitis can be passed through contact with infected blood,
contaminated needles, or by sexual contact with an HIV-infected person.
 Type E hepatitis is most likely to be transmitted in feces, through oral contact, or
in water that's been contaminated.

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Bacteriological Monitoring ©TLC 10/1/2012 136 TLC (928) 468-0665 Fax (928) 468-0675
Common Water Treatment and Distribution Chemicals
Chemical Name Common Name Chemical Formula
Aluminum hydroxide Al(OH)3
Aluminum sulfate Alum, liquid AL2(SO4)3 . 14(H2O)
Ammonia NH3
Ammonium NH4
Bentonitic clay Bentonite
Calcium bicarbonate Ca(HCO3)2
Calcium carbonate Limestone CaCO3
Calcium chloride CaCl2
Calcium Hypochlorite HTH Ca(OCl)2 . 4H2O
Calcium hydroxide Slaked Lime Ca(OH)2
Calcium oxide Unslaked (Quicklime) CaO
Calcium sulfate Gypsum CaSO4
Carbon Activated Carbon C
Carbon dioxide CO2
Carbonic acid H2CO3
Chlorine gas Cl2
Chlorine Dioxide ClO2
Copper sulfate Blue vitriol CuSO4 . 5H2O
Dichloramine NHCl2
Ferric chloride Iron chloride FeCl3
Ferric hydroxide Fe(OH)3
Ferric sulfate Iron sulfate Fe2(SO4)3
Ferrous bicarbonate Fe(HCO3)2
Ferrous hydroxide Fe(OH)3
Ferrous sulfate Copperas FeSO4.7H20
Hydrofluorsilicic acid H2SiF6
Hydrochloric acid Muriatic acid HCl
Hydrogen sulfide H2S
Hypochlorus acid HOCL
Magnesium bicarbonate Mg(HCO3)2
Magnesium carbonate MgCO3
Magnesium chloride MgCl2
Magnesium hydroxide Mg(OH)2
Magnesium dioxide MgO2
Manganous bicarbonate Mn(HCO3)2
Manganous sulfate MnSO4
Monochloramine NH2Cl
Potassium bicarbonate KHCO3
Potassium permanganate KMnO4

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Chemical Name Common Name Chemical Formula
Sodium carbonate Soda ash Na2CO3
Sodium chloride Salt NaCl
Sodium chlorite NaClO2
Sodium fluoride NaF
Sodium fluorsilicate Na2SiF6
Sodium hydroxide Lye NaOH
Sodium hypochlorite NaOCl
Sodium Metaphosphate Hexametaphosphate NaPO3
Sodium phosphate Disodium phosphate Na3PO4
Sodium sulfate Na2SO4
Sulfuric acid H2SO4

Fluoride. Many communities add fluoride to their drinking water to promote dental
health. Each community makes its own decision about whether or not to add fluoride.
The EPA has set an enforceable drinking water standard for fluoride of 4 mg/L (some
people who drink water containing fluoride in excess of this level over many years could
develop bone disease, including pain and tenderness of the bones). The EPA has also
set a secondary fluoride standard of 2 mg/L to protect against dental fluorosis.

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