UNIT I SOFTWARE PROCESS

Basics − S/W engineering paradigm − Life cycle models (Water fall, Incremental, Spiral,
WINWIN, Spiral, Evolutionary, Prototyping, Object Oriented) − System engineering −
Computer based system −Verification − Validation − Life cycle process – Development
process − System engineering hierarchy
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1.1 Basics:
● Software is m o re th an ju s t a p ro g ra m c o d e . A p ro g ra m is a n e xe c u ta b le c o d e, w h ic h
s erv es s o m e c o m p u ta tio n a l p u rp o s e. S o ftw a re is c o n s id ered to b e c o lle c tio n o f
ex ec u ta b le p ro g ra m m in g c o d e , d a ta s tru c tu re s a n d d o c u m en ta tio n s . S o ftw a re , w h e n
m a d e fo r a s p e c ific re q u ire m e n t is c a lled software product.

● Engineering o n th e o th er h a n d , is a ll a b o u t d ev elo p in g p ro d u c ts , u s in g w e ll-d e fine d ,

s c ie n tific p rin c ip les a n d m eth o d s .

Software engineering is a n e n g in ee rin g b ra n c h a s s o c ia te d w ith d e ve lo p m en t o f s o ftw a re

p ro d u c t u s in g w ell-d efin ed s c ien tific p rin c ip les , m eth o d s a n d p ro c ed u re s . T h e o u tc o m e o f
s o f tw a re en g in eerin g is a n e ffic ie n t a n d relia b le s o ftw a re p ro d u c t.

Definitions

IE E E d efin e s s o ftw a re e n g in ee rin g a s :

(1 ) T h e a p p lic a tio n o f a s ys tem a tic , d is c ip lin e d , q u a n tif ia b le a p p ro a c h to th e

d e ve lo p m e n t, o p e ra tio n a n d m a in ten a n c e o f s o ftw a re ; th a t is , th e a p p lic a tio n o f
en g in eerin g to s o f tw a re.

(2 ) T h e s tu d y o f a p p ro a c h e s a s in th e a b o v e s ta te m en t.

Characteristics of the software

● S o f tw a re is e n g in e ered o r d ev elo p ed , n o t m a n u fa c tu re d .
● S o f tw a re d o es n o t w ea r o u t.
● M o s t s o ftw a re is c u s to m b u ilt ra th er th a n b e in g a s s em b le d fro m c o m p o n en ts .

Need of Software Engineering

T h e n e ed o f s o ftw a re en g in e erin g a ris e s b e c a u s e o f h ig h er ra te o f c h a n g e in u s er
req u irem e n ts a n d e n viro n m en t o n w h ic h th e s o ftw a re is w o rk in g .
● Large software - It is ea s ier to b u ild a w a ll th a n to a h o u s e o r b u ild in g , lik e w is e , a s th e
s iz e o f s o ftw a re b ec o m e la rg e e n g in ee rin g h a s to s tep to g iv e it a s c ie n tific p ro c e s s .
● Scalability- If th e s o ftw a re p ro c es s w ere n o t b a s e d o n s c ien tif ic a nd en g in e erin g
c o n c ep ts , it w o u ld b e ea s ier to re -c re a te n e w s o ftw a re th a n to s c a le a n ex is tin g o n e .
● Cost- A s h a rd w a re in d u s try h a s s h o w n its s k ills a n d h u g e m a n uf a c tu rin g h a s lo w er
d o w n h e p ric e o f c o m p u ter a n d elec tro n ic h a rd w a re . B u t th e c o s t o f s o ftw are re m a in s
hig h if p ro p e r p ro c e s s is n o t a d a p te d .
● Dynamic Nature- T h e a lw a ys g ro w in g a n d a d a p tin g n a tu re o f s o ftw a re h u g ely
d ep en d s up o n th e en v iro n m e n t in w hic h u s e r w o rk s . If th e n a tu re o f s o ftw a re is
alw a ys c h a n g in g , n ew en h a n c em en ts n eed to b e d o n e in th e ex is tin g o n e . T h is is
w h e re s o ftw a re en g in e erin g p la ys a g o o d ro le.
● Quality Management- B e tter p ro c es s o f s o ftw are d ev elo p m en t p ro v id es b e tte r a n d
q u a lity s o ftw a re p ro d u c t.
Software engineering Layers
S o f tw a re en g in e erin g is a fu lly la ye red tec h n o lo g y, to d e ve lo p s o ftw a re w e n e ed to g o fro m
o n e la ye r to a n o th e r. A ll th e la yers a re c o n n e c ted a n d ea c h la ye r d e m a n d s th e fu lf ilm en t o f
th e p rev io u s la yer.
S o f tw a re en g in e erin g is th e e s ta b lis h m e n t a n d u s e o f s o u n d e n g in ee rin g p rin c ip les in o rd er
to o b ta in ec o n o m ic a lly s o ftw a re th a t is relia b le a n d w o rk s e ffic ien tly in rea l m a c h in es .

1. Quality focus : A n y en g in e erin g a p p ro a c h (in c lu d in g s o ftw a re en g in eerin g ) m u s t re s t o n

a n o rg a n iz a tio n a l c o m m itm e n t to q u a lity. T o ta l q u a lity m a n a g e m e n t, S ix S ig m a , a n d s im ila r
p h ilo s o p h ies fo s te r a c o n tin u o u s p ro c e s s im p ro v em e n t c u ltu re , a n d it is th is c u ltu re th a t
u ltim a te ly lea d s to th e d ev elo p m en t o f in c re a s ing ly m o re ef fec tiv e a p p ro a c h es to s o ftw a re
en g in ee rin g . T h e b ed ro c k th a t s u p p o rts s o ftw a re en g in e erin g is a q u a lity f o c u s .
2. Process: T h e f o u n d a tio n fo r s o ftw a re en g in e erin g is th e p ro c e s s la ye r. T h e s o ftw a re
en g in ee rin g p ro c e s s is th e g lu e th a t h o ld s th e te c h n o lo g y la yers to g e th er a n d en a b le s
ra tio na l a n d tim ely d ev elo p m en t o f c o m p u ter s o ftw a re . P ro c es s d e fin es a fra m ew o rk th a t
m u s t b e e s ta b lis h e d fo r e ffe c tive d e liv ery o f s o ftw a re e n g in e erin g tec h n o lo g y. T h e s o ftw a re
p ro c e s s f o rm s th e b a s is fo r m a n a g e m en t c o ntro l o f s o ftw are p ro je c ts a n d e s ta b lis h e s th e
c o n tex t in w h ic h tec h n ic a l m e th o d s a re a p p lied , w o rk p ro d uc ts (m o d els , d o c u m en ts , d a ta ,
rep o rts , fo rm s , e tc .) a re p ro d u c e d , m iles to n e s a re es ta b lis h ed , q u a lity is en s u red , a n d
c h a n g e is p ro p erly m a n a g e d .
3. Methods: S o ftw a re e n g in ee rin g m eth o d s p ro vid e th e tec h n ic a l h o w -to ’s fo r b u ild in g
s o f tw a re. M eth o d s en c o m p a s s a b ro a d a rra y o f ta s k s th a t in c lud e c o m m u n ic a tio n ,
req u irem e n ts a n a lys is , d es ig n m o d elin g , p ro g ra m c o n s tru c tio n , te s tin g , a n d s u p p o rt.
S o f tw a re en g in e erin g m e th o d s rely o n a s e t o f b a s ic p rinc ip les th a t g o ve rn e a c h a re a o f th e
tec h n o lo g y a n d in c lud e m o d elin g a c tivitie s a n d o th er d e s c rip tive tec h n iq u es .
4. Tools: S o ftw a re en g in e erin g to o ls p ro v id e a uto m a ted o r s e m i a u to m a te d s u p p o rt fo r th e
p ro c e s s a n d th e m eth o d s . W h en to o ls a re in teg ra ted s o th a t in f o rm a tio n c re a te d b y o n e to o l
c a n b e u s e d b y a n o th er, a s ys tem f o r th e s u p p o rt o f s o f tw a re d e ve lo p m en t, c a lled
c o m p u ter-a id e d s o ftw a re en g in e erin g , is es ta b lis h ed .

Software Evolution
T h e p ro c es s o f d e ve lo p in g a s o ftw a re p ro d u c t u s in g s o ftw a re e n g in ee rin g p rin c ip le s a n d
m eth o d s is refe rre d to a s software evolution. T h is in c lu d e s th e in itia l d ev elo p m en t o f
s o f tw a re a n d its m a in te n a n c e a n d u p d a tes , till d es ired s o ftw a re p ro d u c t is d ev elo p e d , w h ic h
s a tis f ie s th e e xp ec ted req u ire m e n ts .
E v o lu tio n s ta rts fro m th e req u ire m e n t g a th erin g p ro c es s . A fter w h ic h d ev elo p ers c re a te a
p ro to typ e o f th e in ten d ed s o ftw a re a n d s h o w it to th e u s e rs to g e t th eir fee d b a c k a t th e e a rly
s ta g e o f s o ftw a re p ro d u c t d ev elo p m e n t. T h e u s e rs s u g g e s t c h a n g es , o n w h ic h s ev era l
c o n s ec u tiv e u p d a te s a n d m a in ten a n c e k e ep o n c h a n g in g to o . Th is p ro c es s c h a n g e s to th e
o rig in a l s o ftw a re , till th e d es ired s o ftw a re is a c c o m p lis h ed .

E v en a fte r th e u s e r h a s d es ired s o f tw a re in h a n d , th e a d va n c in g tec h n o lo g y a n d th e

c h a n g in g re q u ire m en ts fo rc e the s o ftw a re p ro d u c t to c h a n g e a c c o rd in g ly. R e-c re a tin g
s o f tw a re fro m s c ra tc h a n d to g o o n e -o n -o n e w ith re q u irem en t is n o t fea s ib le . T h e o n ly
fe a s ib le a n d e c o n o m ic a l s o lutio n is to u p d a te th e e xis tin g s o ftw a re s o th a t it m a tc h e s th e
la te s t req u ire m e n ts .

Software Evolution Laws

Le h m a n h a s g ive n la w s f o r s o ftw a re e vo lu tio n . H e d ivid ed th e s o ftw a re in to th re e d iffe ren t
c a te g o ries :

● S-type (static-type) - T h is is a s o ftw a re , w h ic h w o rk s s tric tly a c c o rd in g to

d ef in e d s p e c ific a tio n s a n d s o lu tio n s . T h e s o lu tio n a n d th e m eth o d to a c h iev e it, b o th
are im m e d ia tely u n d e rs to o d b efo re c o d in g . T h e s -typ e s o ftw a re is lea s t s u b jec te d to
c h a n g e s h en c e th is is th e s im p les t o f a ll. F o r e xa m p le , c a lc u la to r p ro g ra m fo r
m a th em a tic a l c o m p u ta tio n .
● P-type (practical-type) - T h is is a s o ftw a re w ith a c o lle c tio n o f p ro c e d u res . T h is is
d ef in e d b y e xa c tly w h a t p ro c e d u res c a n d o . In th is s o f tw a re, th e s p ec ific a tio n s c a n b e
d es c rib ed b u t th e s o lu tio n is n o t o b v io u s in s ta n tly. F o r e xa m p le , g a m in g s o ftw a re .
● E-type (embedded-type) - T h is s o ftw a re w o rk s c lo s e ly as th e req u ire m e n t o f
re a l-w o rld e n viro n m en t. T h is s o ftw a re h a s a h ig h d e g ree o f ev o lu tio n as th ere a re
va rio u s c h a n g e s in la w s , ta x es e tc . in th e rea l w o rld s itu a tio n s . F o r ex a m p le , O n lin e
tra d in g s o ftw a re.

1.2 Software Paradigms

● S o ftw a re p a ra d ig m re fe rs to m e th o d a n d s te p s , w h ic h a re ta k e n w h ile d e s ig n in g th e
s o ftw a re .
● P ro g ra m m in g p a ra d ig m is a s u b s e t o f s o f tw a re d e s ig n p a ra d ig m w h ic h is f u tu re f o r
o th er a s u b s et o f s o ftw a re d e v elo p m en t p a ra d ig m .
● S o ftw a re is c o n s id ere d to b e a c o lle c tio n o f e x e c u ta b le p ro g ra m m in g c o d e,
a s s o c ia te d lib ra ries , a n d d o c u m e n ta tio n .
● S o ftw a re d ev e lo p m en t p a ra d ig m is a ls o k n o w n a s s o ftw a re e n g in ee rin g , a ll th e
e n g in ee rin g c o n c ep ts p erta in in g to d e v elo p m e n ts s o f tw a re a p p lie d .
● It c o n s is ts o f th e f o llo w in g p a rts a s R e q u irem e n t G a th e rin g , S o f tw a re d es ig n ,
P ro g ra m m in g , etc . The s o ftw a re d es ig n p a ra d ig m is a p a rt of s o ftw a re
d ev e lo p m en t. It in c lu d es d e s ig n , m a in te n a n c e , p ro g ra m m in g .
● These can be combined into various categories, though each of them is contained in one another:
1.Software Development Paradigm
T h is P a ra d ig m is k n o w n a s s o ftw a re e n g in ee rin g p a ra d ig m s w h ere a ll th e e n g in ee rin g
c o n c e p ts p erta in in g to th e d e ve lo p m en t o f s o ftw a re a re a p p lied . It in c lu d e s v a rio u s
res e a rc h es an d req u ire m e n t g a th erin g w h ic h h elp s th e s o f tw a re p ro d u c t to b u ild . It c o n s is ts
of –

● R e q u irem en t g a th erin g
● S o f tw a re d e s ig n
● P ro g ra m m in g
2.Software Design Paradigm
T h is p a ra d ig m is a p a rt o f S o ftw a re D ev elo p m en t a n d in c lud es –
● D e s ig n
● M a in ten a n c e
● P ro g ra m m in g
3. Programming Paradigm
is a s ub s et o f S o ftw a re d e s ig n p a rad ig m w h ic h is fu rth e r a s u b s e t o f S o ftw a re d ev elo p m en t
p a ra d ig m .

T h is p a ra d ig m is rela ted c lo s ely to p ro g ram m ing a s p e c t o f s o ftw a re d e ve lo p m en t. T h is

in c lu d e s
● C o d in g
● T es tin g
● In teg ra tio n

Advantages of using a software paradigm:

● P ro vid e a c o n s is te n t s tru c tu re f o r d e ve lo p in g s o ftw a re s ys te m s .
● H e lp d e ve lo p e rs u n d e rs ta n d th e p ro b le m th e y a re tryin g to s o lv e.
● H e lp d e ve lo p e rs d es ig n a n d im p le m e n t s o lu tio n s m o re e ff e c tiv ely .
● H e lp d e ve lo p e rs o rg a n iz e a n d reu s e c o d e m o re ef fic ien tly .
● H e lp d e ve lo p e rs c re a te m o re relia b le a n d m a in ta in a b le s o f tw a re .

Disadvantages of using a software paradigm:

● C a n b e d iffic u lt to le a rn a n d u n d e rs ta n d fo r n ew d e ve lo p e rs .
● C a n b e lim itin g if a p ro b lem d o e s n o t fit w e ll in to a s p e c if ic p a ra d ig m .
● C a n m a k e it d iff ic u lt to in te g ra te s ys te m s d ev e lo p e d u s in g d iff ere n t p a ra d ig m s .
● C a n m a k e it d iff ic u lt to a d a p t to n e w te c h n o lo g ie s o r c h a n g in g req u ire m en ts .
1.3SOFTWARE PROCESS

A s o ftw a re p ro c e s s is a c o llec tio n o f a c tivitie s , a c tio n s , a n d ta s k s th a t a re req u ire d

to b u ild h ig h -q u a lity s o ftw a re .

A p ro c e s s d e fin e s w h o is d o in g w h a t w h e n a n d h o w to re a c h a c e rta in g o a l.
T h e a im o f s o ftw a re p ro c e s s is e ff e c tiv e o n -tim e d eliv e ry o f s o f tw a re w ith q u a lity.

Elements of a software Process

1.Activity: A n a c tiv ity h elp s to a c h ie v e a b ro a d o b je c tiv e ( e .g ., c o m m u n ic a tio n w ith
s ta k e h o ld ers ) a n d is a p p lied re g a rd le s s o f th e a p p lic a tio n d o m a in , s ize , c o m p lex ity a n d
d eg re e o f rig o r w ith w h ic h s o ftw a re en g in e e rin g is to b e a p p lie d .

2Action: A c tio n s c o n s is t o f th e s e t o f ta s k s th a t is u s e d to p ro d u c e th e p ro d u c t.

3 .Task : A ta s k fo c u s e s o n a s m a ll, b u t w ell-d e fin ed o b je c tiv e th a t p ro d u c es a ta n g ib le

o u tc o m e .

Process framework

▶ A p ro c e s s fra m ew o rk e s ta b lis h e s th e fo u n d a tio n f o r a c o m p le te s o f tw a re

e n g in ee rin g p ro c e s s b y id en tif yin g a s m a ll n u m b er o f fra m e w o rk a c tiv ities th a t a re
a p p lic a b le to a ll s o ftw a re p ro je c ts .
Process framework activities:

1.Communication

▶ B e fo re s ta rtin g a n y te c h n ic a l w o rk , it is im p o rta n t to c o m m u n ic a te a n d c o lla b o ra te

w ith th e c u s to m e r a n d o th e r s ta k e h o ld e rs .
▶ T h e m a in o b jec tiv e is to u n d ers ta n d s ta k e h o ld ers ’ o b je c tiv e s fo r th e p ro je c t a n d to
g a th e r re q u irem e n ts th a t h e lp s to d ef in e s o f tw a re f ea tu re s a n d fu n c tio n s .

2.Planning

▶ S o ftw a re p ro je c t p la n d e fin e s th e s o ftw a re e n g in e erin g w o rk b y d e s c rib in g th e

te c h n ic a l ta s k s to b e c o n d u c ted , th e ris k s th a t a re lik ely , th e re s o u rc e s th a t w ill b e
re q u ire d , th e w o rk p ro d u c ts to b e p ro d u c e d , a n d a w o rk s c h e d u le .
3.Modeling

▶ M o d e l h e lp s to b e tter u n d ers ta n d s o ftw a re re q u ire m en ts a n d th e d es ig n th a t w ill

a c h ie ve th o s e re q u irem e n ts .
4.Construction

▶ T h is a c tiv ity c o m b in e s c o d e g e n e ra tio n a n d th e te s tin g th a t is req u ire d to u n c o v er

th e erro rs in th e c o d e.

5.Deployment

▶ T h e s o f tw a re is d e live re d to th e c u s to m e r, w h o e v a lu a te s th e p ro d u c t a n d p ro v id e s
fe e d b a c k b a s e d o n th e ev a lu a tio n .
▶ G en e ra lly, th e f ra m ew o rk a c tivitie s a re a p p lie d ite ra tive ly a s a p ro je c t p ro g re s s e s .
▶ E a c h p ro je c t itera tio n p ro d u c e s a s o f tw a re in c rem e n t th a t p ro v id es s ta k e h o ld ers
w ith a s u b s e t o f o v e ra ll s o ftw a re f ea tu res a n d f u n c tio n a lity.
▶ A s ea c h in c re m en t is p ro d u c e d , th e s o f tw a re b e c o m es m o re a n d m o re c o m p le te.
▶ T h e P ro c e s s fra m e w o rk a c tiv ities a re c o m p lem e n te d b y a n u m b er o f u m b rella
a c tivitie s w h ic h h e lp s to m a n a g e a n d c o n tro l p ro g re s s , q u a lity , c h a n g e , a n d ris k .

Umbrella activities:
 1 . Software project tracking and control - h e lp s to a s s e s s p ro g re s s a g a in s t th e p ro je c t
p la n a n d ta k e a n y n e c es s a ry a c tio n to m a in ta in th e s c h e d u le .
2. Risk management- a s s e s s e s ris k s th a t m a y a ffe c t th e o u tc o m e a n d q u a lity o f th e
p ro jec t.S o ftw a re q u a lity a s s u ra n c e d ef in e s th e a c tiv ities re q u ired to e n s u re s o ftw a re
q u a lity.
3. Technical reviews- a s s e s s th e p ro d u c ts to u n c o v e r a n d re m o v e e rro rs b ef o re th e y
a re p ro p a g a te d to th e n e xt a c tiv ity .
4. Measurement- d ef in es a n d c o lle c ts p ro c e s s , p ro jec t, a n d p ro d u c t m ea s u res th a t
a s s is t th e te a m in d e liv erin g s o ftw a re th a t m ee ts s ta k eh o ld ers ’ n ee d s .
5. Software configuration managemen- m a n a g es th e e ff ec ts o f c h a n g e th ro u g h o u t
th e s o ftw a re p ro c e s s .
6. Reusability management- d e fin e s c rite ria fo r w o rk p ro d u c t re u s e a n d es ta b lis h e s
m e c h a n is m s to a c h ie v e re u s a b le c o m p o n e n ts .
7. Work product preparation and production en c o m p a s s es th e a c tivitie s req u ire d to
c rea te w o rk p ro d u c ts s u c h a s m o d e ls , d o c u m e n ts , a n d lis ts .

S o a p ro c e s s a d o p te d fo r o n e p ro je c t m ig h t b e s ig n ific a n tly d if fe ren t th a n a p ro c e s s

a d o p te d f o r a n o th e r p ro je c t.

PROCESS MODEL

▶ A p ro c es s w a s d ef in e d a s a c o lle c tio n o f w o rk a c tiv ities , a c tio n s , a n d ta s k s th a t

a re p erf o rm e d w h e n s o m e w o rk p ro d u c t is to b e c re a ted . E a c h o f th e s e a c tiv itie s ,
a c tio n s , a n d ta s k s re s id e w ith in a f ra m e w o rk o r m o d e l th a t d ef in e s th eir
 re la tio n s h ip w ith th e p ro c e s s a n d w ith o n e a n o th e r. T h e s o ftw a re p ro c e s s is
re p re s e n te d s c h e m a tic a lly in a b o v e fig u re.
▶ A s s h o w n in f ig u re e a c h fra m ew o rk a c tiv ity is p o p u la ted b y a s e t o f s o ftw a re
e n g in e erin g a c tio n s .
▶ E a c h s o ftw a re en g in e e rin g a c tio n is d e f in ed b y a ta s k s e t th a t id en tif ies th e w o rk
ta s k s th a t a re to b e c o m p le ted , th e w o rk p ro d u c ts th a t w ill b e p ro d u c e d , th e
q u a lity a s s u ra n c e p o in ts th a t w ill b e re q u ire d , a n d th e m iles to n e s th a t w ill b e
u s ed to in d ic a te p ro g re s s .
▶ T h e im p o rta n t a s p e c t o f th e s o ftw a re p ro c es s c a lled p ro c es s flo w d e s c rib e s h o w
th e fra m e w o rk a c tiv itie s a n d th e a c tio n s a n d ta s k s th a t o c c u r w ith in ea c h
f ra m ew o rk a c tivity a re o rg a n ize d w ith re s p e c t to s eq u e n c e a n d tim e .
1 . linear process flow: A lin e a r p ro c e s s f lo w e x ec u te s e a c h o f th e f ive
fra m e w o rk a c tiv ities in s e q u e n c e , b eg in n in g w ith c o m m u n ic a tio n a n d
c u lm in a tin g w ith d e p lo ym e n t
2 . iterative process flow : A n ite ra tiv e p ro c e s s flo w re p e a ts o n e o r m o re o f th e
a c tivitie s b ef o re p ro c ee d in g to th e n ex t.

3 . evolutionary process flow : A n e v o lu tio n a ry p ro c e s s flo w e xe c u tes th e

a c tivitie s in a “ c irc u la r” m a n n e r. E a c h c irc u it th ro u g h th e fiv e a c tiv ities lea d s
to a m o re c o m p le te ve rs io n o f th e s o f tw a re .

4 . Parallel process flow: A p a ra llel p ro c e s s flo w e xe c u tes o n e o r m o re

a c tivitie s in p a ra lle l w ith o th e r a c tiv ities

Defining a Framework Activity

D ef in in g re fe rs to s p e c if yin g w h a t a c tio n s a re a p p ro p ria te fo r a

f ra m ew o rk a c tivity , g iv en th e n a tu re o f th e p ro b lem to b e s o lv e d , th e
c h a ra c te ris tic s o f th e p eo p le d o in g th e w o rk , a n d th e s ta k e h o ld e rs .

F o r a s m a ll s o f tw a re p ro je c t, th e c o m m u n ic a tio n a c tiv ity in c lu d e s

c o n ta c tin g th e s ta k eh o ld er, d is c u s s th e req u ire m e n ts , g en era te a b rief
s ta te m e n t o f th e req u ire m en t a n d g e t th e rev ie w a n d a p p ro v a l o f it fro m
th e s ta k e h o ld e r.
F o r c o m p lex P ro jec ts , th e c o m m u n ic a tio n a c tivity m ig h t h a v e s ix
d is tin c t a c tio n s : in c e p tio n , elic ita tio n , e la b o ra tio n , n e g o tia tio n ,
s p e c if ic a tio n , a n d va lid a tio n .
Identifying a Task Set

A ta s k s et d e f in es th e a c tu a l w o rk to b e d o n e to a c c o m p lis h th e
o b je c tiv e s o f a s o ftw a re en g in e e rin g a c tio n .
● A lis t o f th e ta s k to b e a c c o m p lis h e d
● A lis t o f th e w o rk p ro d u c ts to b e p ro d u c e d
● A lis t o f th e q u a lity a s s u ra n c e f ilte rs to b e a p p lie d
E g : F o r a s m a ll p ro jec t, th e ta s k s et m a y in c lu d e :
● M a k e a lis t o f s ta k e h o ld e rs fo r th e p ro je c t.
● In fo rm a l m e e tin g w ith s ta k e h o ld ers to id e n tify th e f u n c tio n s re q u ired
● D is c u s s req u ire m en ts a n d b u ild a fin a l lis t.
● P rio ritiz e re q u irem e n ts .
C h o o s e th e ta s k s e ts th a t a c h ie ve th e g o a l a n d s till m a in ta in q u a lity a n d a g ility .

Process Patterns
A p ro c e s s p a ttern p ro v id es a tem p la te f o r d e s c rib in g p ro b le m s o lu tio n s th a t is
en c o u n te red d u rin g s o ftw a re e n g in ee rin g w o rk
T h e tem p la te fo r d e s c rib in g a p ro c es s p a tte rn :
Pattern Name. - a m e a n in g fu l n a m e d e s c rib in g th e p a tte rn w ith in th e c o n te x t ( e .g .,
T e c h n ic a l R e v iew s ).
Forces - T h e e n v iro n m e n t w h e re th e p a tte rn is e n c o u n tere d .
Type - T h e p a ttern ty p e is s p ec ifie d . T h e y a re th re e typ e s o f p a tte rn s :

1 .Stage patterns d ef in e a p ro b le m a s s o c ia te d w ith a fra m ew o rk a c tivity f o r th e

p ro c es s . A s ta g e p a tte rn h a s m u ltip le re la te d ta s k p a tte rn s . E g : E s ta b lis h in g
C o m m u n ic a tio n in c lu d e s th e ta s k p a ttern R e q u ire m en ts G a th e rin g a n d o th e rs .
2.Task patterns d e fin e a p ro b lem a s s o c ia te d w ith a s o f tw a re e n g in ee rin g a c tio n o r
w o rk ta s k a n d rele v a n t to s u c c e s s f u l s o ftw a re e n g in e erin g p ra c tic e .
3. Phase patterns d e fin e th e s e q u e n c e o f f ra m ew o rk a c tiv itie s th a t o c c u r w ith th e
p ro c es s . E g : S p ria l M o d e l o r P ro to ty p in g
Initial context - T h is d e s c rib e s th e c o n d itio n s u n d e r w h ic h th e p a tte rn a p p lie s .

Problem - T h e s p e c ific p ro b le m to b e s o lve d b y th e p a ttern .

Solution - D e s c rib e s h o w to im p le m e n t th e p a tte rn s u c c e s s f u lly a n d

h o w th e in itia l s ta te o f th e p ro c e s s is m o d ifie d a s a c o n s eq u e n c e o f th e
in itia tio n o f th e p a tte rn .

Resulting Context - D e s c rib e s th e c o n d itio n s th a t w ill res u lt o n c e th e p a ttern h a s

b e en s u c c e s s fu lly im p le m en te d .

Related Patterns - P ro vid e a lis t o f a ll p ro c e s s p a tte rn s th a t a re d irec tly re la te d to

th is o n e . E g : th e s ta g e p a ttern C o m m u n ic a tio n en c o m p a s s e s th e ta s k p a tte rn s :
P ro je c t T e a m , C o lla b o ra tiv e G u id e lin e s , S c o p e Is o la tio n , R e q u ire m e n ts G a th e rin g ,
 C o n s tra in t D e s c rip tio n , a n d S c e n a rio C re a tio n .
Known Uses and Examples - In d ic a te th e s p e c if ic in s ta n c e s in w h ic h th e p a ttern is
a p p lic a b le .
P ro c e s s p a tte rn s p ro v id e a n ef fe c tiv e m ec h a n is m fo r a d d res s in g p ro b le m s
a s s o c ia te d w ith a n y s o f tw a re p ro c e s s .
A fter d e ve lo p e d th e p ro c e s s p a tte rn s c a n b e re u s e d fo r th e d ef in itio n o f
p ro c e s s v a ria n ts .

1 . 4 Software development life cycle (SDLC):

S D LC is th e a c ro n ym fo r s o ftw a re d e ve lo p m e n t lif e c y c le . It is a ls o c a lle d th e s o ftw a re
d ev e lo p m en t p ro c e s s . A ll th e ta s k s re q u ired fo r d e v elo p in g a n d m a in ta in in g s o ftw a re . It
c o n s is ts o f a p la n d es c rib in g h o w to d e v elo p , m a in ta in , rep la c e a n d a lte r th e s p e c ific
s o ftw a re . It is a p ro c e s s fo r p la n n in g , c rea tin g , te s tin g , a n d in f o rm a tio n s ys tem . It is a
fra m e w o rk o f d es c rib es th e a c tiv ity p erf o rm e d a t ea c h s ta g e o f s o ftw a re d e v elo p m en t. It
is a p ro c es s u s e d b y a s ys te m a n a lys t to d e v elo p a n in f o rm a tio n s y s tem in c lu d in g
re q u ire m en ts , v a lid a tio n , tra in in g , a n d o w n ers h ip .
Stages of SDLC model:
B rie f o ve rv iew o f S D LC s ta g e s a re a s fo llo w s .

Stage-1: Requirement gathering: T h e fe a s ib ility rep o rt is p o s itiv e to w a rd s th e p ro je c t a n d

n e x t p h a s e s ta rt w ith g a th e rin g re q u irem e n t f ro m th e u s e r. E n g in e e r c o m m u n ic a te s w ith
th e c lie n t a n d en d -u s e rs to k n o w th e ir Id e a a n d w h ic h fe a tu re s th e y w a n t to s o ftw a re to
in c lu d e.
Stage-2: Software design: It is a p ro c es s to tra n s fo rm u s e r re q u ire m e n ts in to a s u ita b le
fo rm . It h e lp s p ro g ra m m e rs in s o ftw a re c o d in g . T h e re is a n ee d fo r m o re s p e c ific a n d
d eta ile d re q u irem e n ts in s o f tw a re. T h e o u tp u t o f th e p ro c e s s c a n d ire c tly b e u s ed in
im p le m e n ta tio n in a p ro g ra m m in g la n g u a g e. T h e re a re th re e d e s ig n le v els a s fo llo w s .
1. Architectural design – It is th e h ig h e s t a b s tra c t ve rs io n o f th e s ys te m . In a
s o ftw a re s ys te m , m a n y c o m p o n e n ts in te ra c t w ith e a c h o th er.
2. High-level design – It f o c u s e s o n h o w th e s ys te m a lo n g w ith a ll its c o m p o n en ts
a n d its c a n b e im p lem e n ted in f o rm o f m o d u le s .
3. Detailed design – It d ef in es th e lo g ic a l s tru c tu re o f ea c h m o d u le a n d its in te rfa c e to
c o m m u n ic a te w ith ea c h m o d u le .
Stage-3: Developing Product – In th is p h a s e o f S D L C , yo u w ill s e e h o w th e p ro d u c t w ill b e
d ev e lo p e d . It is o n e o f th e c ru c ia l p a rts o f S D L C , It is a ls o c a lled th e Im p lem e n ta tio n p h a s e.

Stage-4: Product Testing and Integration – In th is p h a s e , w e w ill in te g ra te th e m o d u les

a n d w ill tes t th e o ve ra ll p ro d u c t b y u s in g d iff ere n t tes tin g te c h n iq u es .
Stage-5: Deployment and maintenance – In th is p h a s e , th e a c tu a l d ep lo ym en t o f th e
p ro d u c t, o r y o u c a n s a y th e fin a l p ro d u c t w ill b e d e p lo y ed , a n d a ls o w e w ill d o m a in te n a n c e
o f p ro d u c t f o r a n y fu tu re u p d a te a n d rele a s e o f n e w fe a tu re s .

Advantages of SDLC:
● P ro vid e s a s tru c tu re d a p p ro a c h to s o ftw a re d e ve lo p m e n t, w h ic h h elp s to e n s u re
th a t im p o rta n t s te p s a re n o t o ve rlo o k e d .
● H e lp s to id en tif y a n d m a n a g e ris k s ea rly in th e d e ve lo p m e n t p ro c es s .
● H e lp s to d eliv e r s o f tw a re o n tim e a n d w ith in b u d g e t.
● H e lp s to e n s u re th a t s o ftw a re m e e ts th e n e e d s o f th e c u s to m er o r en d -u s e r.
● H e lp s to im p ro v e c o m m u n ic a tio n a n d c o lla b o ra tio n a m o n g te a m m e m b e rs .
● Better Resource Management: T h e S D L C h e lp s to e n s u re th a t re s o u rc es , s u c h a s
p ers o n n e l, eq u ip m e n t, and m a teria ls , a re a llo c a te d ef fe c tiv e ly th ro u g h o u t th e
d ev e lo p m en t p ro c e s s . T h is h e lp s to en s u re th a t th e p ro je c t s ta ys o n s c h ed u le a n d
w ith in b u d g e t.
● Quality Assurance: T h e S D LC in c lu d e s m u ltip le s ta g es o f q u a lity a s s u ra n c e,
in c lu d in g te s tin g , v a lid a tio n , a n d v erific a tio n . T h is h elp s to en s u re th a t th e f in a l p ro d u c t
is fre e o f b u g s a n d e rro rs a n d m e ets q u a lity s ta n d a rd s .
● Flexibility: T h e S D L C c a n b e a d a p te d to s u it th e n e ed s o f d iffe re n t typ e s o f p ro je c ts
and o rg a n iz a tio n s . T h is fle xib ility a llo w s o rg a n iz a tio n s to c ho os e th e SDLC
m e th o d o lo g y th a t w o rk s b e s t f o r th e m .
● Improved Documentation: T h e S D LC req u ire s d o c u m e n ta tio n a t e v ery s ta g e o f th e
d ev e lo p m en t p ro c e s s . T h is h e lp s to e n s u re th a t im p o rta n t in f o rm a tio n is c a p tu re d a n d
c a n b e re fe rred to la te r if n e e d e d .
● Continuous Improvement: T h e S D L C en c o u ra g es c o n tin u o u s im p ro ve m e n t b y
p ro v id in g o p p o rtu n itie s fo r fe e d b a c k a n d e v a lu a tio n th ro u g h o u t th e d e ve lo p m e n t
p ro c e s s . T h is h e lp s to en s u re th a t th e fin a l p ro d u c t m e ets th e c h a n g in g n e e d s o f th e
c u s to m e r o r e n d -u s er.
● Compliance: T h e S DLC can h e lp o rg a n iza tio n s to c o m p ly w ith re g u la to ry
re q u ire m en ts a n d in d u s try s ta n d a rd s b y e n s u rin g th a t s o f tw a re is d e v elo p ed in a
c o n tro lled a n d s tru c tu red m a n n e r.

Disadvantages of SDLC:
● C a n b e in fle x ib le , m a k in g it d iff ic u lt to a c c o m m o d a te c h a n g es o r u n e x p e c te d
e ve n ts .
● C a n b e tim e-c o n s u m in g a n d c o s tly, p a rtic u la rly in th e ea rly s ta g e s o f d ev e lo p m e n t.
● C a n lea d to d e la ys o r in c rea s ed c o s ts if req u ire m en ts c h a n g e d u rin g d e ve lo p m e n t.
● C a n lea d to a fo c u s o n d o c u m en ta tio n ra th e r th a n w o rk in g s o f tw a re .
● C a n lea d to a la c k o f c u s to m e r in v o lv e m e n t d u rin g d e ve lo p m e n t, w h ic h c a n re s u lt in
a p ro d u c t th a t d o e s n o t m e e t th e c u s to m er’s n ee d s .
● Limited scope for creativity: T h e S D L C is a s tru c tu re d a p p ro a c h to s o ftw a re
d ev e lo p m en t th a t c a n b e q u ite rig id in its p ro c es s es a n d p ro c ed u re s . T h is c a n lim it th e
a b ility o f d e v elo p ers to b e c rea tiv e a n d c o m e u p w ith in n o v a tiv e s o lu tio n s .
● Overemphasis on planning : T h e S D L C p la c e s a g re a t d ea l o f em p h a s is o n p la n n in g
a n d d o c u m e n ta tio n , w h ic h c a n s o m e tim es re s u lt in to o m u c h tim e a n d re s o u rc es b e in g
s p e n t o n th e s e a c tivitie s a t th e ex p en s e o f a c tu a lly d e ve lo p in g th e s o ftw a re .
● Difficulty in handling complex or large projects: T h e S D L C c a n b e d iffic u lt to
m a n a g e f o r c o m p le x o r la rg e p ro je c ts , a s it in v o lv e s a lo t o f c o o rd in a tio n a n d
c o m m u n ic a tio n a m o n g te a m m e m b ers a n d s ta k eh o ld ers .
● Risk of waterfall model: T h e S D L C fo llo w s a s e q u e n tia l p ro c es s , o f ten re fe rre d to
a s th e w a te rf a ll m o d e l. T h is m ea n s th a t ea c h s ta g e o f th e d e ve lo p m e n t p ro c e s s m u s t
b e c o m p le te d b e fo re m o v in g o n to th e n e x t s ta g e. T h is c a n re s u lt in d e la ys a n d
in c rea s ed c o s ts if p ro b lem s a re e n c o u n te re d la te r in th e d e ve lo p m e n t p ro c es s .
● Can be too rigid for agile projects: T h e S D LC is n o t w ell s u ite d fo r a g ile
d ev e lo p m en t m eth o d o lo g ie s , w h ic h re q u ire a m o re f lex ib le a n d itera tiv e a p p ro a c h to
s o ftw a re d e v elo p m en t.
● May not be suitable for all types of software: T h e S D L C m a y n o t b e s u ita b le fo r a ll
typ es o f s o ftw a re , p a rtic u la rly th o s e th a t req u ire a ra p id d e v elo p m e n t c yc le o r f req u e n t
u p d a te s .

1.5 LIFE CYCLE MODELS/ PROCESS MODELS/ PRESCRIPTIVE PROCESS MODELS

P re s c rip tiv e p ro c e s s m o d e ls s tre s s d e ta iled d ef in itio n , id en tif ic a tio n , and

a p p lic a tio n o f p ro c es s a c tiv itie s a n d ta s k s .
T h e ir in ten t is to im p ro v e s ys te m q u a lity , m a k e p ro je c ts m o re m a n a g e a b le, m a k e
d eliv e ry d a tes a n d c o s ts m o re p re d ic ta b le , a n d g u id e te a m s o f s o ftw a re
e n g in ee rs a s th e y p e rf o rm th e w o rk re q u ired to b u ild a s ys te m .

1. Waterfall Model:
T h e w a te rf a ll m o d e l is th e o ld es t p a ra d ig m f o r s o ftw a re en g in e e rin g .
T h e w a te rf a ll m o d e l, s o m etim e s c a lled th e c la s s ic lif e c yc le , s u g g es ts a s ys te m a tic ,
s e q u en tia l a p p ro a c h to s o ftw a re d e v elo p m e n t th a t b eg in s w ith c u s to m er
s p e c if ic a tio n o f req u ire m en ts a n d p ro g re s s e s th ro u g h p la n n in g , m o d e llin g ,
c o n s tru c tio n , a n d d e p lo ym e n t, c u lm in a tin g in o n g o in g s u p p o rt o f th e c o m p le ted
s o ftw a re
T h is m o d el is u s ed fo r d e v elo p in g p ro je c ts w h ere th e re q u irem e n ts a re w ell d e fin e d
a n d rea s o n a b ly s ta b le , it le a d s to a lin ea r f a s h io n .

Phases:
1. Communication: C u s to m er s p e c if ic a tio n o f re q u ire m e n ts
2. Planning - id e n tif yin g th e w o rk ta s k , a n a lys in g th e ris k in v o lv e d , s c h e d u lin g th e
p ro jec t a n d es tim a tin g th e ef fo rt a n d tim e n e ed e d to c o m p le te th e p ro je c t e tc
3. Modelling w h ic h in v o lve s tra n s la tin g th e req u ire m en ts g a th e red in to a d e s ig n
4. Construction – c o n v e rtin g th e d e s ig n in to th e ex e c u ta b le c o d e a n d te s tin g to
u n c o ve r th e erro rs .
5. Deployment in c lu d es d e live ry o f th e p ro d u c t a n d e v a lu a tio n o f th e s o f tw a re .
Problems/Drawbacks of waterfall model

1. Real projects rarely follow the sequential flow that the model proposes . A lth o u g h
th e lin ea r m o d el c a n a c c o m m o d a te itera tio n , it d o es s o in d ire c tly. A s a re s u lt,
c h a n g es c a n c a u s e c o n fu s io n a s th e p ro je c t te a m p ro c ee d s
2 . It is often difficult for the customer to state all requirements explicitly. T h e
w a te rfa ll m o d e l re q u ires th is a n d h a s d if fic u lty a c c o m m o d a tin g th e n a tu ra l
u n c e rta in ty th a t e xis ts a t th e b eg in n in g o f m a n y p ro je c ts .
3 . The customer must have patience. A w o rk in g v e rs io n o f th e p ro g ra m (s ) w ill n o t b e
a v a ila b le u n til la te in th e p ro je c t tim e s p a n . A m a jo r b lu n d e r, if u n d e tec te d u n til th e
w o rk in g p ro g ra m is re vie w e d , c a n b e d is a s tro u s .
T h e lin e a r n a tu re o f th e c la s s ic life c yc le le a d s to “b lo c k in g s ta te s ” in w h ic h
s o m e p ro je c t te a m m em b e rs m u s t w a it fo r o th er m em b ers o f th e te a m to
c o m p lete d e p en d e n t ta s k s . T h e tim e s p e n t w a itin g c a n e x c e e d th e tim e s p en t o n
p ro d u c tiv e w o rk . T h e b lo c k in g s ta te s te n d to b e m o re p re v a le n t a t th e b e g in n in g
a n d e n d o f a lin ea r s e q u e n tia l p ro c e s s .
It c a n s e rv e a s a u s e fu l p ro c es s m o d e l in s itu a tio n s w h ere re q u ire m e n ts a re f ixe d
a n d w o rk is to p ro c e ed to c o m p le tio n in a lin ea r m a n n er.

V-model
A va ria tio n in th e re p re s e n ta tio n o f th e w a terf a ll m o d el is c a lle d th e V -m o d e l
w h ic h in c lu d es th e q u a lity a s s u ra n c e a c tio n s a s s o c ia te d w ith c o m m u n ic a tio n ,
m o d elin g a n d e a rly c o d e c o n s tru c tio n a c tiv ities .
T e a m firs t m o v e s d o w n th e le ft s id e o f th e V to re fin e th e p ro b le m
re q u irem e n ts .
O n c e c o d e is g e n e ra ted , th e te a m m o v es u p th e rig h t s id e o f th e V ,
p e rfo rm in g a s erie s o f tes ts th a t va lid a te e a c h o f th e m o d e ls c rea te d .
T h e V -m o d e l p ro v id e s a w a y o f v is u a lizin g h o w v e rif ic a tio n a n d va lid a tio n
a c tio n s a re a p p lie d a t th e d iff ere n t s ta g es o f d e v elo p m e n t.

2.Incremental Models
▶ T h e in c rem e n ta l m o d el delivers a series of releases, called increments, th a t
p ro v id e p ro g re s s iv e ly m o re fu n c tio n a lity fo r th e c u s to m er a s e a c h in c rem e n t is
 d e liv ere d
In c re m e n ta l m o d e ls c o n s tru c t a partial implementation of a total system and then
slowly add increased functionality
T h e in c re m en ta l m o d el p rio ritiz es re q u irem e n ts o f th e s ys te m a n d th e n im p le m e n ts
th em in g ro u p s .
In c re m e n ta l M o d e l, a ls o k n o w n a s th e successive version model , is a w id e ly
a d o p ted m o d e l o f s o f tw a re d e ve lo p m e n t p ro c es s
H ere th e s o f tw a re re q u irem e n ts a re d iv id ed or b ro k en d ow n in to m u ltip le
s ta n d -a lo n e m o d u le s / in c re m e n ts in th e S D L C ( S o ftw a re D e ve lo p m e n t Lif e C yc le ).
E a c h in c rem e n t is trea te d a s a s u b -p ro je c t a n d g o es th ro u g h a ll p h a s es o f th e S D LC
in c re m e n ta l m o d e l.
T h is s o u n d s s im ila r to a n ite ra tiv e m o d e l. H o w e v er, th is m o d e l is a n en h a n c em e n t
to th e itera tiv e m o d el a n d d u e to th is , th e in c re m en ta l m o d e l is a ls o c a lle d th e
Iterative Enhancement Model.
E a c h ite ra tio n p a s s es th ro u g h th e requirements, design, coding and testing phases .
A n d ea c h s u b s e q u en t re lea s e o f th e s ys te m a d d s f u n c tio n to th e p re v io u s re le a s e
u n til a ll d e s ig n e d f u n c tio n a lity h a s b ee n im p lem e n ted .

▶ F o r e x a m p le , w o rd -p ro c es s in g s o ftw a re d e ve lo p e d u s in g th e in c re m en ta l p a ra d ig m
m ig h t d e live r b a s ic file m a n a g e m e n t, e d itin g , a n d d o c u m e n t p ro d u c tio n f u n c tio n s in
th e firs t in c rem e n t; m o re s o p h is tic a ted e d itin g a n d d o c u m e n t p ro d u c tio n
c a p a b ilitie s in th e s e c o n d in c rem e n t; s p ellin g a n d g ra m m a r c h ec k in g in th e th ird
in c rem e n t; a n d a d va n c e d p a g e la yo u t c a p a b ility in th e fo u rth in c re m e n t.
When to use Incremental models?
● R eq u ire m e n ts o f th e s ys te m a re c le a rly u n d e rs to o d
● W h e n d e m a n d f o r a n e a rly re le a s e o f a p ro d u c t a ris e s
● W h e n s o ftw a re e n g in ee rin g te a m a re n o t v e ry w e ll s k illed o r tra in e d
● W h e n h ig h -ris k fe a tu re s a n d g o a ls a re in v o lv e d
● S u c h m e th o d o lo g y is m o re in u s e f o r w e b a p p lic a tio n a n d p ro d u c t b a s e d
c o m p a n ie s

Types of Incremental Model

Staged Delivery Model: T h is ty p e o f in c rem e n ta l m o d e l in vo lv es o n ly o n e p a rt o f th e

p ro jec t b e in g b u ilt a t a tim e . In th e s ta g e d -d e liv e ry m o d e l, yo u d o n o t d eliv e r th e s o ftw a re
a ll a t o n c e, b u t ra th e r in s u c c es s ive s ta g e s th ro u g h o u t th e p ro je c t a s s h o w n b elo w .
Parallel Development Model: T h is in c re m en ta l m o d el in v o lve s th e s im u lta n e o u s
d ev e lo p m en t o f d iff ere n t s u b -s ys te m s a s s h o w n b elo w . A s lo n g a s s u ff ic ie n t re s o u rc e s
a re a v a ila b le , it c a n d e c re a s e th e a m o u n t o f tim e n ee d ed fo r th e d e v elo p m e n t p ro c e s s , i. e .,
T T M (T im e to M a rk et).

Advantages of incremental model

● T h e s o ftw a re w ill b e g e n e ra ted q u ic k ly d u rin g th e s o ftw a re life c y c le
● It is f lex ib le a n d le s s e x p e n s iv e to c h a n g e re q u irem e n ts a n d s c o p e
● T h ro u g h o u t th e d ev e lo p m e n t s ta g e s c h a n g e s c a n b e d o n e
● T h is m o d el is le s s c o s tly c o m p a red to o th e rs
● A c u s to m e r c a n re s p o n d to ea c h b u ild in g
● E rro rs a re ea s y to b e id e n tifie d

Disadvantages of incremental model

● It re q u ire s a g o o d p la n n in g d e s ig n in g
● P ro b le m s m ig h t c a u s e d u e to s y s tem a rc h itec tu re a s s u c h n o t a ll req u ire m en ts
c o lle c te d u p fro n t f o r th e e n tire s o ftw a re life c y c le
● E a c h ite ra tio n p h a s e is rig id a n d d o e s n o t o v erla p e a c h o th e r
● R ec tifyin g a p ro b le m in o n e u n it re q u ire s c o rre c tio n in a ll th e u n its a n d c o n s u m e s a
lo t o f tim e

3.RAD (Rapid Application Development) Model

▶ T h e R A D m o d el is a ty p e o f incremental process model in w h ic h th e re is ex trem e ly

s h o rt d e v elo p m en t c yc le.
▶ W hen th e re q u ire m e n ts a re fu lly u n d e rs to o d and th e c o m p o n e n t-b a s e d
c o n s tru c tio n a p p ro a c h is a d o p te d th e n th e R A D m o d e l is u s ed .
▶ V a rio u s p h a s e s in R A D a re Requirements Gathering, Analysis and Planning,
Design, Build or Construction, and finally Deployment.
▶ A s o ftw a re p ro je c t c a n b e im p le m en te d u s in g th is m o d e l if th e p ro je c t c a n b e
 b ro k e n d ow n in to s m a ll m o d u le s w h ere in e a ch m o d u le can be a s s ig n e d
in d ep e n d en tly to s e p a ra te te a m s . T h e s e m o d u le s c a n fin a lly b e c o m b in e d to fo rm
th e fin a l p ro d u c t.
▶ D ev e lo p m en t o f ea c h m o d u le in v o lv e s th e va rio u s b a s ic s te p s a s in th e w a terf a ll
m o d e l i.e . a n a ly zin g , d e s ig n in g , c o d in g , a n d th e n te s tin g , etc . a s s h o w n in th e
fig u re .
▶ A n o th e r s trik in g fe a tu re o f th is m o d e l is a s h o rt tim e s p a n i. e. th e tim e fra m e fo r
d eliv e ry(tim e-b o x ) is g e n e ra lly 6 0 -9 0 d a y s .

T h is m o d el c o n s is ts o f 4 b a s ic p h a s e s :
1. Requirements Planning – It in vo lv es th e u s e o f v a rio u s tec h n iq u e s u s e d in
re q u ire m en ts elic ita tio n lik e b ra in s to rm in g , ta s k a n a lys is , f o rm a n a lys is , u s e r
s c e n a rio s , F A S T (F a c ilita te d A p p lic a tio n D e ve lo p m e n t T e c h n iq u e ), e tc . It a ls o
c o n s is ts o f th e en tire s tru c tu re d p la n d es c rib in g th e c ritic a l d a ta , m e th o d s to o b ta in
it, a n d th e n p ro c e s s in g it to fo rm a fin a l re fin e d m o d el.
2. User Description – T h is p h a s e c o n s is ts o f ta k in g u s e r fe e d b a c k a n d b u ild in g th e
p ro to typ e u s in g d ev e lo p e r to o ls . In o th e r w o rd s , it in c lu d es re -ex a m in a tio n a n d
v a lid a tio n o f th e d a ta c o llec te d in th e firs t p h a s e . T h e d a ta s e t a ttrib u te s a re a ls o
id en tif ied a n d elu c id a te d in th is p h a s e.

3. Construction – In th is p h a s e , re fin e m en t o f th e p ro to ty p e a n d d eliv e ry ta k es p la c e.

It in c lu d e s th e a c tu a l u s e o f p o w e rfu l a u to m a te d to o ls to tra n s fo rm p ro c es s es a n d
d a ta m o d e ls in to th e f in a l w o rk in g p ro d u c t. A ll th e re q u ire d m o d ific a tio n s a n d
e n h a n c e m en ts a re to o d o n e in th is p h a s e.
4. Cutover – A ll th e in te rfa c e s b e tw e en th e in d e p e n d e n t m o d u le s d ev e lo p e d b y
s e p a ra te tea m s h a ve to b e tes te d p ro p e rly. T h e u s e o f p o w e rf u lly a u to m a te d to o ls
a n d s u b p a rts m a k e s tes tin g ea s ier. T h is is f o llo w e d b y a c c e p ta n c e te s tin g b y th e
u s e r.

T h e p ro c es s in v o lve s b u ild in g a ra p id p ro to ty p e , d eliv e rin g it to th e c u s to m er, a n d ta k in g

fe e d b a c k . A fte r va lid a tio n b y th e c u s to m er, th e S R S d o c u m en t is d e v elo p e d a n d th e
d es ig n is f in a liz ed .
Advantages

▶ U s e o f re u s a b le c o m p o n e n ts h e lp s to re d u c e th e c y c le tim e o f th e p ro je c t.
▶ E n c o u ra g e s u s e r in v o lv e m e n t
▶ R ed u c ed c o s t.
▶ F le x ib le a n d a d a p ta b le to c h a n g es

Disadvantages

▶ F o r la rg e s c a la b le p ro je c ts , R A D re q u ires s u ff ic ie n t h u m a n re s o u rc es to c re a te th e
rig h t n u m b e r o f R A D te a m s .
▶ If d e v elo p ers a n d c u s to m ers a re n o t c o m m itted to th e ra p id -fire a c tiv ities , th e n
p ro jec t w ill fa il.
If a s ys te m c a n n o t p ro p e rly b e m o d u la riz e d , b u ild in g th e c o m p o n e n ts n e c es s a ry fo r
R A D w ill b e p ro b le m a tic .
T h e u s e o f p o w e rfu l a n d e ffic ie n t to o ls req u ire s h ig h ly s k ille d p ro fe s s io n a ls .

C u s to m e r in v o lv e m e n t is re q u ire d th ro u g h o u t th e lif e c yc le .

Evolutionary Process Models

E vo lu tio n a ry p ro c es s m o d e ls a re ite ra tive m o d e ls th a t p ro d u c e a n in c re a s in g ly m o re
c o m p lete v ers io n o f th e s o ftw a re w ith e a c h itera tio n .
T w o ty p e s o f e v o lu tio n a ry a p p ro a c h e s a re th ere n a m e ly
i. P ro to typ in g a n d
ii. S p ira l m o d els .
i). Prototyping Model:

Prototyping Model is a s o f tw a re d e v elo p m en t m o d e l in w h ic h p ro to typ e is b u ilt,

tes ted , a n d re w o rk ed u n til a n a c c ep ta b le p ro to typ e is a c h ie v e d .
It a ls o c rea te s b a s e to p ro d u c e th e f in a l s ys te m o r s o f tw a re.
It w o rk s b e s t in s c en a rio s w h e re th e p ro jec t’s re q u ire m en ts a re n o t k n o w n in
d eta il. It is a n ite ra tiv e, tria l a n d e rro r m e th o d w h ic h ta k e s p la c e b e tw e en
d ev e lo p e r a n d c lie n t.
Phases:
● B e g in s w ith c o m m u n ic a tio n b y m e e tin g w ith s ta k e h o ld ers to d e fin e th e
o b jec tiv e, id en tif y w h a tev e r re q u ire m en ts a re k n o w n , o u tlin e a re a s w h ere
fu rth e r d ef in itio n is n ec e s s a ry.
● A q u ic k p la n fo r p ro to ty p in g a n d m o d e lin g is d e term in e d .
● Q u ic k d es ig n fo c u s e s o n a re p re s e n ta tio n o f th o s e a s p e c ts th e s o f tw a re th a t
w ill b e v is ib le to en d u s e rs .
● D es ig n lea d s to th e c o n s tru c tio n o f a p ro to ty p e w h ic h w ill b e d e p lo ye d a n d
e va lu a ted . S ta k eh o ld er’ s c o m m en ts w ill b e u s e d to ref in e re q u irem e n ts .
Advantages of Prototype Model
● T h e c u s to m e r g e ts to s e e p a rtia l p ro d u c ts e a rly in th e life c yc le, h e n c e e n s u rin g
c u s to m e r s a tis f a c tio n .
● T h e d ev e lo p e d p ro to typ e c a n b e reused fo r b ig g er p ro je c ts in th e fu tu re.
● T h e re is s c o p e to a c c o m m o d a te n e w re q u irem e n ts .
● Errors and missing functionalities c a n b e id e n tifie d m u c h e a rly in th e life c yc le
b ec a u s e th e u s e rs a re a c tiv e ly in v o lv e d .
● U s er f ee d b a c k is a c c o m m o d a ted q u ic k ly .
● T h e m o d e l is ve ry s tra ig h tfo rw a rd a n d d o es n o t re q u ire s k ille d ex p erts to im p le m en t.

Disadvantages of Prototype Model

● P ro to typ in g is a slow and time taking process.
● D o c u m e n ta tio n is p o o r a s th e re q u ire m e n ts change frequently.
● W h e n th e c u s to m e r e va lu a tes th e p ro to typ e, th ere m a y b e m u c h to o m a n y
v a ria n c es in s o f tw a re n ee d s .
● T h e re is a ris k o f in a d eq u a te re q u ire m en t a n a lys is o w in g to to o m u c h d ep e n d en c y
o n th e p ro to typ e .

Example for Understanding

L et u s u n d e rs ta n d e vo lu tio n a ry p ro to typ in g w ith th e e xa m p le o f a s im p le d a ta b a s e
a p p lic a tio n . In th is a p p lic a tio n , o n e c y c le m a y im p lem e n t th e graphical user interface
(GUI) , a n o th e r file m a n ip u la tio n , a n o th er q u e ry, a n d y et a n o th e r u p d a te . B e fo re a w o rk a b le
p ro d u c t is a va ila b le , a ll fo u r c yc le s m u s t b e c o m p le ted . T h e g ra p h ic a l u s er in te rfa c e (G U I)
le ts u s e rs en g a g e w ith th e s y s tem ; f ile m a n ip u la tio n a llo w s d a ta to b e s a ve d a n d re triev e d ;
in q u iries a llo w u s ers to ex it th e s ys te m , a n d u p d a tes a llo w u s e rs to p u t d a ta in to th e
s ys tem .

Types of Prototyping Models

T h e re a re f o u r typ e s o f P ro to typ in g M o d e ls , w h ic h a re d e s c rib e d b e lo w .

● Rapid Throwaway Prototyping- T h is te c h n iq u e o ffe rs a u s e fu l m eth o d o f e x p lo rin g

id ea s a n d g ettin g c u s to m er f ee d b a c k fo r ea c h o f th e m . In th is m e th o d , a d e ve lo p e d
p ro to typ e n e e d n o t n ec e s s a rily b e a p a rt o f th e u ltim a te ly a c c e p ted p ro to typ e.
C u s to m e r fe e d b a c k h e lp s in p rev e n tin g u n n e c e s s a ry d es ig n f a u lts a n d h e n c e , th e fin a l
p ro to typ e d ev e lo p e d is o f b e tte r q u a lity.
● Evolutionary Prototyping - In th is m eth o d , th e p ro to typ e d e v elo p ed in itia lly is
in c rem e n ta lly re fin e d o n th e b a s is o f c u s to m e r fe ed b a c k till it fin a lly g e ts a c c e p te d . In
c o m p a ris o n to R a p id T h ro w a w a y P ro to typ in g , it o f fe rs a b e tter a p p ro a c h th a t s a v e s
 tim e a s w e ll a s e ff o rt. T h is is b e c a u s e d ev e lo p in g a p ro to typ e fro m s c ra tc h f o r ev e ry
ite ra tio n o f th e p ro c es s c a n s o m e tim es b e v ery f ru s tra tin g f o r th e d ev e lo p e rs .
● Incremental Prototyping - In th is typ e o f in c re m en ta l P ro to typ in g , th e fin a l e x p e c te d
p ro d u c t is b ro k en in to d if fe ren t s m a ll p iec e s o f p ro to typ es a n d d e ve lo p e d in d iv id u a lly.
In th e e n d , w h e n a ll in d iv id u a l p ie c es a re p ro p e rly d e v elo p ed , th en th e d iffe re n t
p ro to typ e s a re c o lle c tiv ely m e rg e d in to a s in g le fin a l p ro d u c t in th e ir p re d ef in e d o rd er.
It’ s a ve ry e ff ic ie n t a p p ro a c h th a t re d u c e s th e c o m p le x ity o f th e d e ve lo p m e n t p ro c e s s ,
w h e re th e g o a l is d iv id ed in to s u b -p a rts a n d ea c h s u b -p a rt is d e ve lo p e d in d iv id u a lly.
T h e tim e in terv a l b e tw e en th e p ro je c t’ s b e g in n in g a n d fin a l d eliv e ry is s u b s ta n tia lly
re d u c e d b e c a u s e a ll p a rts o f th e s ys te m a re p ro to typ ed a n d tes te d s im u lta n e o u s ly. O f
c o u rs e, th ere m ig h t b e th e p o s s ib ility th a t th e p ie c e s ju s t d o n o t fit to g e th er d u e to
s o m e la c k o f n es s in th e d e v elo p m e n t p h a s e – th is c a n o n ly b e fix ed b y c a re fu l a n d
c o m p lete p lo ttin g o f th e e n tire s ys te m b e fo re p ro to typ in g s ta rts .
● Extreme Prototyping- T h is m e th o d is m a in ly u s e d fo r w e b d e ve lo p m e n t. It c o n s is ts
o f th re e s e q u e n tia l in d e p en d e n t p h a s e s :
1 . In th is p h a s e , a b a s ic p ro to typ e w ith a ll th e ex is tin g s ta tic p a g e s is p re s e n ted in
H T M L f o rm a t.
2 . In th e 2 n d p h a s e, F u n c tio n a l s c re e n s a re m a d e w ith a s im u la te d d a ta p ro c e s s u s in g a
p ro to ty p e s e rvic e s la ye r.
3 . T h is is th e f in a l s tep w h ere a ll th e s e rvic e s a re im p le m e n ted a n d a s s o c ia te d w ith th e
fin a l p ro to typ e.
● E xtre m e P ro to typ in g m eth o d m a k e s th e p ro jec t c yc lin g a n d d e liv ery ro b u s t a n d fa s t
a n d k ee p s th e e n tire d ev e lo p e r te a m fo c u s e d a n d c e n tra lize d o n p ro d u c t d e live rie s
ra th e r th a n d is c o ve rin g a ll p o s s ib le n e ed s a n d s p ec ific a tio n s a n d a d d in g
u n -n e c e s s ita te d fe a tu res .

(ii) Spiral Model:

● O rig in a lly p ro p o s e d b y B a rry B o eh m [B o e 8 8 ], th e s p ira l m o d e l is a n ev o lu tio n a ry

s o ftw a re p ro c e s s m o d e l th a t c o u p le s th e ite ra tiv e n a tu re o f p ro to typ in g w ith th e
c o n tro lled a n d s ys tem a tic a s p ec ts o f th e w a terf a ll m o d el.
● It p ro v id es th e p o te n tia l fo r ra p id d ev e lo p m en t o f in c re a s in g ly m o re c o m p le te
v ers io n s o f th e s o ftw a re

S p ira l m o d el c o u p le s th e ite ra tiv e n a tu re o f p ro to typ in g w ith th e s ys te m a tic a s p e c ts

o f th e w a terfa ll m o d el
It is a ris k -d riv en p ro c e s s m o d e l g e n era to r th a t is u s ed to g u id e m u lti-s ta k e h o ld e r
c o n c u rre n t en g in e e rin g o f s o ftw a re in te n s iv e s y s tem s .
T w o m a in d is tin g u is h in g f ea tu res :
(i) C yc lic a p p ro a c h fo r in c re m en ta lly g ro w in g a s ys te m ’s d eg re e o f d e fin itio n a n d
im p lem e n ta tio n w h ile d e c re a s in g its d eg re e o f ris k .
(ii) S e t o f a n c h o r p o in t m ile s to n es fo r e n s u rin g s ta k eh o ld er c o m m itm e n t to f ea s ib le
a n d m u tu a lly s a tis fa c to ry s ys te m s o lu tio n s .
A s erie s o f e vo lu tio n a ry re lea s es a re d eliv e red .
D u rin g th e ea rly itera tio n s , th e rele a s e m ig h t b e a m o d e l o r p ro to ty p e . D u rin g la te r
itera tio n s , in c re a s in g ly m o re c o m p le te v e rs io n o f th e e n g in ee re d s y s tem a re
p ro d u c ed .
T h e firs t c irc u it in th e c lo c k w is e d irec tio n m ig h t re s u lt in th e p ro d u c t s p ec ific a tio n ;
s u b s e q u en t p a s s e s a ro u n d th e s p ira l m ig h t b e u s e d to d e ve lo p a p ro to typ e a n d th e n
p ro g res s ive ly m o re s o p h is tic a ted v ers io n s o f th e s o ftw a re .
A fter e a c h itera tio n , th e p ro je c t p la n h a s to b e re fin e d . C o s t a n d s c h e d u le a re
a d ju s te d b a s e d o n fe ed b a c k . A ls o , th e n u m b e r o f ite ra tio n s w ill b e a d ju s te d b y
 p ro jec t m a n a g er.

▶ T h e S p ira l M o d e l is a ris k -d rive n m o d e l, m e a n in g th a t th e fo c u s is o n m a n a g in g ris k

th ro u g h m u ltip le ite ra tio n s o f th e s o f tw a re d e ve lo p m e n t p ro c es s
▶ The Radius of the spiral at any point represents the expenses(cost) of the project
so far, and the angular dimension represents the progress made so far in the
current phase .
▶ T h e a rro w s p o in tin g in w a rd a lo n g th e a x is s e p a ra tin g th e d ep lo ym en t reg io n fro m
th e c o m m u n ic a tio n re g io n in d ic a te a p o te n tia l fo r lo c a l itera tio n a lo n g th e s a m e
s p ira l p a th .

Win-Win Spiral Model

T h e s p iral m o d e l s u g g es ts a fra m ew o rk a c tivity th a t ad d res s es c us to m er c o m m un ic a tio n .
T h e o b jec tive o f th is a c tivity is to e lic it p ro jec t req u irem e n ts fro m th e c u s to m er. In a n id ea l
c o n te xt, th e d ev elo p e r s im p ly a s k s th e c u s to m e r w h a t is req uired a n d th e c u s to m e r p ro vid e s
s u ffic ien t d e ta il to p ro c e ed . U nf o rtu n a te ly, this ra rely h a p p en s . In rea lity, the c u s to m er a nd
the d ev elo p e r en ter in to a p ro c e s s o f n eg o tia tio n , w h ere the c u s to m er m a y b e a s ke d to
b a la n c e fu n c tio n a lity, p erfo rm an c e, an d o th er p ro d u c t o r s ys tem c h a ra c teris tic s a g a in s t c o s t
a n d tim e to m a rk et.
“T h e o rig in a l s p ira l m o d e l u s es a c yc lic a p p ro ac h to d e velo p in c rea s in g ly d etailed
ela b o ra tio ns o f a s o ftw a re s ys tem ’s d e fin itio n, c u lm in a tin g in in c rem en tal re le a s es o f th e
s ys te m ’s o p era tio n a l c a p a b ility.
T h e w in -w in s p ira l p ro c e ss ex p lic itly e m p ha s ize s c o n tin u o u s c o llab o ra tive
in vo lve m e n t o f a s o ftw a re p ro d u c t’s s ta k e ho ld er in it’s ea rly d e fin itio n a n d d e velo p m e nt
s ta g es .
Example: F o r o b ta in in g th e p ro jec t req u irem en ts , c u s to m er c o m m u n ic a tio n is v ery
im p o rta n t a n d es s en tial in the s p ira l m o d e l, th e W IN -W IN m o d e l a ls o su g g es ts a n d
s u p p o rts w e ll a nd p ro p er c o m m u n ic a tio n w ith th e c u s to m er. In a c tu a l p ra c tic e, the
p ro c es s o f n eg o tia tio n w hic h s im p ly m e an s to c o m p ro m is e h a s to b e fa c ed b y the
c us to m ers a n d d e ve lo p ers . W he n b o th s id es a g ree , o n ly th e n s u c c es s fu l n eg o tia tio n
o c c u rs . T h is is c a lle d th e W IN -W IN situ atio n .
T h e b es t ne g o tia tio n s s triv e fo r a “w in -w in” res u lt. T ha t is ,
● Customer’s win means –
O b ta in in g the sys tem th a t fu lfill m o s t o f th e re q u ire m e nts o f c u s to m e rs .
● Developer’s win means –
G e ttin g th e w o rk d o ne b y fu lfillin g th e rea lis tic req u irem en ts o f c us to m ers in a g ive n
d e a d lin e a n d a c h ieva b le b u d g e ts .
Features of win-win spiral process model
● It p ro vid es a n e xp lic it s et o f g o a ls f o r c o lla b o ra tiv e s o ftw a re d e fin itio n a n d
d e ve lo p m e n t.
● It e m b ed s c o lla b o ra tiv e a c tiv itie s e xp lic itly w ithin a ro b u s t life-c yc le m o d el th e
s p ira l m o d el.
T h e re s ultin g p ro c es s u se s th e “T h eo ry W ” o f w in -w in m o d e l a p p ro a c h to c o n verg e o n a
s ys te m ’s n e xt lev el o b je c tiv es , c o ns train ts, a n d a ltern a tive s .
B o e hm ’s W IN W IN s p ira l m o d e l d efin es a s e t o f n eg o tia tio n a c tivities a t th e b eg in n in g o f
ea c h p a s s a ro un d th e s p ira l.

T h ere a re following seven steps in a win-win spiral model.

Step 1. Identifying the next-level stakeholders.
● In th is s tep yo u id en tif y th e ne xt le vel s ta k eh o ld e rs .
● T h es e a re th e p e o p les w ho yo u n e ed to m a k e h a p p y a fte r the c u rren t p h as e o f
d e ve lo p m e n t.
Step 2. Identify stakeholder’s win conditions
Step 3. Reconcile win conditions. Establish next level objectives, constraints, alternatives.
Step 4. Evaluate product and process alternatives, resolves the risks.
● In th is s tep , th e c u rre n t p ro je c t is e xa m in e d c a re fu lly to c o n s id er a lte rn a tiv es an d
to re so lv es a n y ris k s th a t m a y h a ve b ee n fo u n d .
● If th e y h a ve n o t b e en fo u n d b u t la te r c a u s e p ro b lem s , b la m e s o m eo n e n o lo ng er
o n th e p ro jec t.
Step 5. Defining next level of product and process, Including partitions
● A t th is s tep , th e n ext le vel is fu rth er d efin ed a n d m ay p a rtitio n th e sys tem in to
s u b s ys te m tha t c a n b e d ev elo p ed in p a ra llel c yc le s.
● T h is is p a rtic ula rly u s efu l if a s ys te m c a n b e b ro k e n in to e as y p a rt a n d h ard p a rt
b e c a u s e yo u c a n d eleg a te th e h a rd p a rt o f s o m eo n e e ls e.
Step 6. Validate Product and Process Definition
Step 7. Review Commitment
In a d d itio n to th e em p h a s is p la c ed o n ea rly n e g o tiatio n , th e W IN W IN s p ira l m o d e l in tro d u c e s
three process milestones, called anchor points [B O E 9 6 ], th at h elp e s ta b lis h th e c o m p letio n
o f o n e c yc le a ro un d th e sp ira l an d p ro vid e d e c isio n m ile sto n e s b efo re th e so ftw a re p ro je c t
p ro c eed s .
In es s e nc e, th e a n c h o r p o in ts re p res en t th ree d ifferen t view s o f p ro g re ss a s th e p ro je c t
tra ve rs e s th e s p ira l.
● T h e first anchor point, life cycle objectives (LCO ), d e fine s a s et o f o b je c tiv es fo r e ac h
m ajo r s o ftw a re en g in ee rin g a c tivity. F o r ex a m p le , a s p a rt o f LC O , a s et o f o b jec tive s
es ta b lis h e s th e d efin itio n o f to p -lev el s ys tem / p ro d uc t req u ire m e n ts .
 ● T h e second anchor point, life cycle architecture (LCA), e sta b lish e s o b jec tive s th a t
m us t b e m et a s th e s ys tem a n d s o ftw a re a rc h itec tu re is d efin ed . F o r ex a m p le , a s p a rt
o f LC A , th e so ftw a re p ro jec t tea m m u s t d em o n s tra te th a t it h a s e va lu a ted th e
a p p lic a b ility o f o ff-the -s h elf a n d reu s a b le s o ftw a re c o m p o n e nts a n d c o n sid e re d th eir
im p ac t o n a rc h itec tu ral d ec isio n s .
● Initial operational capability (IOC) is the third anchor point a n d re p re s en ts a s et o f
o b jec tive s a s s o c ia ted w ith th e p rep ara tio n o f th e so ftw a re fo r in s ta lla tio n /d is trib u tio n ,
s ite p rep a ra tio n p rio r to ins ta lla tio n, a n d a s s is ta n c e req u ire d b y a ll p a rties th a t w ill u s e
o r su p p o rt th e s o ftw a re.

Object-Oriented Life Cycle Model

● T h e o b je c t-o rie n te d life c yc le m o d el c o n s id ers 'o b jec ts ' a s th e b a sis o f th e s o ftw a re

en g in ee rin g p ro c es s .
● T h e d ev elo p m en t tea m s tarts b y o b s e rv in g a n d a n a lyzin g th e s ystem th ey in ten d to
d e ve lo p b efo re d efin in g th e re q u irem en ts .
● O n c e th e p ro c es s is o ver, th ey fo c u s o n id en tif yin g th e o b jec ts o f the s ys te m . N o w , a n
o b jec t c o u ld b e an yth in g ; it c an h av e a p h ys ic a l ex is ten c e lik e a c us to m er, c a r, etc . A n
o b jec t a ls o c o n s titutes inta n g ib le elem en ts lik e a p ro c es s o r a p ro jec t.

AdvantagesofObject-OrientedLifeCycleModel
● S in c e it is d a ta -fo c u s e d an d e a sy to w o rk w ith p ro b le m d o m a in s .
● It u s e s en c a p s u la tio n a n d d a ta h id in g p ro c e s s th at a llo w s a d e velo p er to b u ild ta m p er-
p ro o f s ys tem s.
● It en a b les s o f tw a re m o d u la rity, m a k in g it ea s ier to m a n a g e an d m a in ta in c o m p lex
s o ftw are.
● It a llo w s d e ve lo p ers to c rea te n ew m o d u le s u s in g exis tin g m o d e ls , s a vin g tim e a nd
d e ve lo p m e n t c o s t o f o rg a n iz a tio n s .

TheprimaryobjectivesoftheObject-OrientedModel
● O b jec t-o rien ted A n a lysis
● O b jec t-o rien ted D e s ig n
● O b jec t-o rien ted Im p lem en ta tio n
Object-OrientedAnalysis(OOA)
● T h e o b jec t-o rien te d a n alys is c o n s is ts o f th e p ro c es s w h ere a d ev elo p m en t tea m
ev a lu a tes th e s ys te m a n d o rg a n iz es th e req u irem e n ts a s o b je c ts . C o n tra ry to
tra d itio na l s tru c tura l a n a lys is , th e O O A he a vily d e p en d s o n a d v an c ed d a ta lik e U s e
C a s es a n d O b je c t M o d els .
● Use case- U s e C a s es a re w ritten d es c rip tio n s a b o ut h o w u s ers w ill b e ha v e w h e n th ey
en ter yo u r w e b s ite o r a p p lic a tio n . It c o m p rise s th e g o als o f ea c h u s er fro m th e p o in t
o f th eir en try to e xit.
● Object Model- A n o b jec t m o d el a llo w s th e d e velo p m e n t te a m to c re a te a n
a rc h itec tu ra l s o ftw a re o r s ys tem m o d el b efo re im p le m e ntin g o r p ro g ra m m in g . It h elp s
in d efinin g a so ftw a re/s ys tem in o b je c ts a n d c la s s es . It in fo rm s th e d eve lo p ers ab o u t
● In terac tio n b e tw ee n d iffe re nt m o d els
● In h erita n c e
● E n c ap s u la tio n
● O th er typ e s o f o b jec t-o rien ted in te rfa c es
T h e O O A s ta rts w ith a n a lyz in g th e p ro b lem d o m a in a n d p ro d u c e a c o n c ep tu a l m o d e l b y
tho ro u g h ly eva lu a tin g th e in fo rm a tio n in th e g iven area . Th e re is an ab u nd a nc e o f d a ta
a va ila b le fro m va rio us s o u rc es like Formal document, Requirement statements and Primary data
collected through stakeholders
O n c e th e an a lys is is c o m p lete, th e d eve lo p m en t tea m p rep a res a c o nc ep tu a l m o d el
d e s c rib in g th e sys tem 's fu n c tio n a litie s a n d re q u ire m e nts .

Object-orientedDesign(OOD)
● It is th e ne xt d e velo p m e n t s ta g e o f th e o b jec t-o rien ted life c yc le m o d el w he re th e
a n a lys ts d es ig n th e d e sired s ys te m 's o ve ra ll a rc h itec tu re.
● T h e s ystem is d ivid e d in to a s e t o f intera c tin g s u b s ys tem s.
● T h e an a lys t c o n s id e rs th e s p e c ific a tio n s f ro m th e s ys te m an a lys is . Its a ll a b o u t
ev a lu a tin g w h a t th e e nd -u s ers e xp e c t fro m th e n ew s ys tem .
● A s p er th e o b jec t-o rien ted d es ig n , th e sys tem is c o ns id e re d a c o lle c tio n o f o b je c ts,
w ith e a c h o b je c t h a n d lin g a s p e c ific s ta te d a ta .
● F o r exa m p le, in b a n k in g so ftw a re, ea c h a c c o u n t m a y fea tu re so m e exc lu s ive o b je c ts
w ith s e p a ra te d a ta a n d fu n c tio n s.
● T h e p h ilo s o p h y b e h in d a n o b jec t-o rien te d d es ig n is to c re a te a s et o f intera c ting
o b jec ts a s s ee n in th e rea l w o rld .
● In s te a d o f p ro c es s -b as e d s tru c tu ra l p ro g ra m m in g , d eve lo p ers c re ate o b jec ts th ro u g h
d a ta s tru c tu res .

UsefuldefinitionsforObject-orienteddesign

Class
● A c la s s re fers to a c o lle c tio n o f s im ila r o b jec ts . It is c rea ted a s a b lu ep rin t to d e fin e
va riab le s a n d m etho d s th a t s h a re c erta in s im ila ritie s w ith o b je c ts . A s s ta te d ab o ve , a n
o b jec t-o rien ted d e s ig n b ea rs res em b la nc es w ith th e re a l w o rld .
● Le t's s a y yo u h a v e p u rc h a s ed a s m a rtp ho n e. N o w , yo u r s m a rtp h o n e is ju s t o ne o f th e
s ev era l 's m a rtp ho n es ' av a ila b le in th e w o rld . W e c a n c o n s id er 's m a rtp h o n e s ' a s a
c la s s o f o b je c ts , an d yo ur s m a rtp h o n e o b je c t is a n in s ta n c e o f a c la s s o f o b je c ts .
S m a rtp h o n es fe a tu re m a ny s ta tes (o p era tin g S ys te m , R A M , a n d m o th erb o ard ) a nd
b e h av io r (p la y m u sic , c all, m es s a g in g ) in c o m m o n . H o w ev er, th e s ta te o f e ac h
s m a rtp h o n e is in d ep en d e n t a nd c a n b e d ifferen t fro m o th e r s m a rtp ho n es .
● W h ile m a n ufa c tu rin g s m a rtp h o n es , m a nu fa c tu rers c an u s e th e e xa c t b lue p rin t to b u ild
m an y s m a rtp h o n es a s th ey sh a re c o m m o n c h a ra c teristic s . T his a llo w s m a n u fac tu rers
to c rea te n e w b lu ep rin ts m o re e ffic ie n tly.
● Lik ew is e, in o b je c t-o rie nted p ro g ra m m in g , d ev elo p ers c a n u s e m a n y s im ilar o b je c ts to
c rea te b lu ep rin ts . T his is c a lle d a c la s s .
Abstraction
● A b s tra c tio n is th e es s en c e u s e d b y d e velo p ers to b u ild c la ss e s . D e ve lo p ers o b s erve a
s et o f sim ila r o b jec ts a n d c h a ra c teris tic s o f im p o rta n c e to d efin e c la s s es .
● T h e a b s tra c tio n o f o b je c ts va ries a s p er th e a p p lic atio n . F o r exa m p le, w h ile d efin in g a
s m a rtp h o n e c la s s o f us e rs , d e ve lo p ers m ig h t s e t a ttrib utes lik e c o lo r, fea tu res , p ric e,
etc . H o w ev er, fo r m a n u fac tu ring firm s , d eve lo p ers m a y s et a ttrib u tes c o n ta in in g s uc h
a s th e m a n u fa c tu rin g c o sts p er sm a rtp h o ne , q u a lity c o n tro l, tu rn a ro un d , e tc .
Inheritance
 ● T h e c o nc ep t o f inh e ritan c e in o b jec t-o rien ted d es ig n d efin es th e p ro c es s o f reu s ing
'o b jec ts .' D eve lo p e rs c a n d efin e a n e w c la s s typ e u s ing a s im ila r e xis tin g c la s s .
Object-orientedImplementation

● In th is p h a se , d eve lo p e rs tra n s la te th e c la s s o b jec ts a n d th e in terrela tio ns h ip s o f

c la s s es a n d c o d e th e m u sin g a p ro g ra m m in g la n g u a g e . T h is is th e p h as e to c rea te
d a ta b a s es a nd e s ta b lis h fu n c tio n a litie s fo r th e s ys tem .
● T h e o b jec t-o rien ted m e th o d o lo g y fo c u s es o n id en tifyin g o b jec ts in th e s ys tem .
D e velo p ers c lo s ely o b s e rv e ea c h o b jec t to id en tify c h a ra c teristic s a n d b eh a v io ra l
p a tte rn s . T h e d eve lo p ers en s u re th a t th e o b je c t re c o g n iz es a n d re s p o n d s p erfec tly to
a n e ve nt.
● Le t's c o n s id er a s m artp h o n e s c reen a s a n o b je c t a n d th e to u c h o n a s p ec ific ic o n a s
a n e ven t. N o w , w he n th e u s e r to uc h es a n ic o n , th e s c reen o p en s u p a n a p p lic a tio n .
T h is m e an s th e s m a rtp ho n e s c re en (o b je c t) res p o nd s to th e eve n t (to u c h ) b y o p en ing
a n a p p lic atio n .

Types of Models:

T h e o b jec t-o rien te d im p lem en ta tio n m e th o d o lo g y s u p p o rts th ree b a s ic m o d els

1. Class Model:

● T h e c la s s m o d e l s h o w s a ll th e c la s s e s p re s e n t in th e s ys te m . T h e c la s s m o d e l
s h o w s th e a ttrib u te s a n d th e b e h a v io r a s s o c ia te d w ith th e o b je c ts .
● T h e c la s s d ia g ra m is u s ed to s h o w th e c la s s m o d e l.
● T h e c la s s d ia g ra m s h o w s th e c la s s n a m e fo llo w ed b y th e a ttrib u te s fo llo w e d b y th e
fu n c tio n s o r th e m e th o d s th a t a re a s s o c ia te d w ith th e o b jec t o f th e c la s s .
● G o a l in c o n s tru c tin g c la s s m o d e l is to c a p tu re th o s e c o n c e p ts fro m th e re a l w o rld
th a t a re im p o rta n t to a n a p p lic a tio n .

2. State Model:

● S ta te m o d el d e s c rib e s th o s e a s p e c ts o f o b jec ts c o n c e rn e d w ith tim e a n d th e

s e q u en c in g o f o p e ra tio n s – e v en ts th a t m a rk c h a n g e s , s ta te s th a t d e fin e th e
c o n te x t fo r e v e n ts , a n d th e o rg a n iz a tio n o f ev e n ts a n d s ta te s .
● A c tio n s a n d e ve n ts in a s ta te d ia g ra m b e c o m e o p e ra tio n s o n o b je c ts in th e c la s s
m o d e l.
● S ta te d ia g ra m d es c rib es th e s ta te m o d e l.

3.Interaction Model:

● In t era c tio n m o d e l is u s ed t o s h o w t h e v a rio u s in t e ra c t io n s b e t w e e n o b jec t s ,

h o w th e o b je c ts c o lla b o ra te t o a c h iev e t h e b e h a v io r o f t h e s y s te m a s a w h o le .
● T h e fo llo w in g d ia g ra m s a re u s e d to s h o w th e in t e ra c t io n m o d e l:
1 . U s e C a s e D ia g ra m
2 . S e q u e n c e D ia g ra m
3 . A c tivity D ia g ra m

T h e o b je c t m o d el d e s c rib es th e e s se n tia l elem en ts o f a s ys tem . W h en a ll th e m o d els a re

c o m b in e d , it re p res en ts th e c o m p lete fu n c tio n o f th e s ystem .
E x a m p le :

Class diagram State transition diagram

Sequence diagram

1.6System Engineering
Computer Based Ssytem:
Is d e fin e d as s et o f arran g em en t o f e le m en ts w h ic h are c o m b in e d to p e rfo rm a s p e c ific
ta s k ie. P re d efin ed g o a l. T h is p re d efin ed g o a l is a c hiev ed b y p ro c es s in g
in fo rm a tio n (w h e n in p u t is g iv en it is p ro c e s se d a n d o u tp u t is p ro d uc ed ).
T h e g o al m a y b e to s u p p o rt s o m e b us in es s fu nc tio n o r to d e ve lo p a p ro d u c t th at c a n b e
s o ld to g en e ra te b u s in e s s rev en u es . T o ac c o m p lis h th e g o a l, a c o m p u te r b a s ed s ys tem
m a k es u s e o f v a riety o f s ys tem e le m e n ts a s fo llo w s .
1. S o ftw a re
2. H a rd w a re
3. P eo p le
4. D a ta b a s e
5. D o c u m e n ta tio n
6. P ro c ed u re s
1. Software: So ftw a re is a c o m p u te r p ro g ra m o r s et o f in s tru c tio n s, d a ta s tru c tu res
a n d re la ted d o c u m en ta tio n th a t s erve to effe c t lo g ic a l m e th o d , p ro c e d u re o r
c o n tro l th a t is req u ired .
2. Hardware: It is
Electronic device th a t p ro vid e c o m p u tin g c a p a b ility,
T h e interconnectivity devices th a t e n ab le th e flo w o f d a ta (ex :ne tw o rk s w itc h ,
telec o m m u n ic atio n d ev ic e),
Electromechanical devices(S en s o rs , m o to rs , p u m p s ) th a t p ro v id es extern a l w o rld
fu n c tio n .(E x . F ire ala rm s ystem )
3. People: U s e rs o r o p era to rs o f h a rd w a re a nd s o ftw a re .
4. Database: L a rg e , o rg a nis ed c o lle c tio n o f in fo rm a tio n th a t is a c c es s ed v ia
s o ftw are.
5. Documentation: D es c rip tiv e info rm a tio n th a t p o rtra ys th e u se an d /o r o p e ra tio n o f
s ys te m . It is a h a rd c o p y o r m a n u a l o r re p o rt. (E x: w h e n u p u rc h as e a n yth in g
m an u a l is as s o c iated w ith it)
6. Procedure: T he s tep s th a t d ef in e th e sp ec ific u s e o f ea c h o f s ys te m elem en t o r
the p ro c e d u re c o n te xt in w h ic h th e s ys tem res id es .

These elements(software, hardware, people, database, documentation,

procedure) combine in variety of ways to transform information

Example:
Y o u a re h av in g a R o b o t. Th is ro b o t is g o in g to tra n s fo rm e ac h a n d ev ery
c o m m a n d in to s et o f s ig n a ls a n d th e se c o n tro l s ig n a ls c a u s e s o m e s et o f a c tio n .
Example:
C o ns id e r a fac to ry a u to m a tio n s ys te m w he re m u ltip le p ro d u c ts o r s o ftw a re is
b e in g d eve lo p ed in b u lk. It is g o in g to ha v e d ifferen t lev els o f h iera rc h y.
At the lowest level of hierarchy, yo u a re g o in g to ha v e c o n tro l m ac h in e s , th e
ro b o ts o r a n y d a ta en try d e vic e s. E ac h o f th em is a c o m p o n en t b a s ed s ys te m
b e c a u s e it is g o in g to ta k e in p u t a n d p ro d u c e o u tp u t.
W ith in th e c o ntro l m a c h in e s u r g o in g to h a ve a n y e le c tro m e c h a n ic al h ard w a re o r
elec tro n ic s ta ff w ill b e th ere. H ere the
H a rd w a re- c a n b e p ro c es s o r, m e m o ry, s en s o rs
S o ftw a re- C o m m u nic atio n , m a c h in e c o ntro l
D a ta b a s e- p ro g ra m
D o c u m e n ta tio n - m a n ua l, re p o rts
P ro c ed u re s - a c tio n s -> ta s k .
At the next level of hierarchy, w e c a n ha v e a m a n ufa c tu rin g c ell. W ith in th is a ls o
it h a s d iffe re n t c o m p u ter b a s ed s ys te m s w h ic h h as d iffe re nt elem en ts o f its o w n .
 E x : C o m p uters , m e c h a n ic a l fixers , h o w to in teg ra te th e d iffe re n t elem en ts w ith th e
s o ftw are.

1.7 System Engineering Hierarchy

● It e n c o m p a s s es a c o lle c tio n o f to p d o w n a n d b o tto m u p m etho d to n a vig a te the
h iera rc h y.
● S ys tem en g in e er na rro w s th e fo c u s o f w o rk a s it m o v es d o w n w a rd in th e h ie ra rc h y
● T h e s ys tem en g in e erin g p ro c es s u s u a lly b eg in s w ith a “w o rld vie w . ” Th a t is , th e en tire
b u s in e s s o r p ro d u c t d o m a in is ex a m in ed to e n s u re th a t the p ro p er b u s in es s o r
tec h n o lo g y c o n tex t c a n b e e s ta b lis h e d .
● T h e w o rld view is re fin ed to fo c u s m o re fu lly o n s p ec ific d o m a in o f in teres t.
● W ith in a s p e c ific d o m a in , th e n e ed fo r ta rg e te d s ys tem elem en ts (e. g ., d a ta, s o ftw a re ,
h a rd w a re , p e o p le) is a n a lyz ed .
● F in a lly, th e a n a lys is ,d e s ig n , a n d c o n s tru c tio n o f a ta rg e te d s ys tem elem e n t is in itia te d .
● A t th e to p o f th e h iera rc h y, a v ery b ro a d c o n tex t is es ta b lis h ed a n d , a t th e b o tto m ,
d e ta ile d te c h n ic a l a c tivities , p erfo rm ed b y th e re le va n t en g in e erin g d is c ip lin e (e.g .,
h a rd w a re o r s o ftw a re e n g in e erin g ), a re c o n d u c te d .

1. World view:
● T h e s ys tem en g in e erin g p ro c es s u s u a lly b eg in s w ith a "w o rld v iew ," T h at is , th e en tire
b u s in e s s o r p ro d u c t d o m a in is ex a m in ed to e n s u re th a t the p ro p er b u s in es s o r
tec h n o lo g y c o n tex t c a n b e e s ta b lis h e d .
● S ta te d in a s lig h tly m o re fo rm a l m a n n e r, th e w o rld v ie w ( W V ) is c o m p o s e d o f a s e t o f
d o m ain s (D i), w h ic h c a n e a c h b e a s ys te m o r s ys tem o f s ys tem s in its o w n rig h t.
WV = {D1, D2, D3, . . . , Dn}
2 . Domain View
E a c h d o m a in is c o m p o s ed o f s p ec ific ele m e n ts (E j) ea c h o f w h ic h s erve s s o m e ro le in
a c c o m p lis h in g the o b jec tiv e a n d g o a ls o f th e d o m a in o r c o m p o n en t:
Di = {E1, E2, E3, . . . , Em}

3.Element View
F in a lly, ea c h elem en t is im p lem en ted b y s p ec ifyin g th e te c h n ic a l c o m p o n e n ts (C k ) th a t
a c h ie ve th e n ec es s a ry fu n c tio n fo r an e lem en t:
Ej = {C1, C2, C3, . . . , Ck}

4.Detailed View
In th e s o ftw a re c o n te xt, a c o m p o n e n t c o u ld b e a c o m p u ter p ro g ra m , a reu s a b le p ro g ra m
c o m p o n e n t, a m o d u le , a c la s s o r o b jec t, o r e ve n a p ro g ra m m in g la n g u a g e s ta tem en t. It
is im p o rta n t to n o te th a t th e s ys te m e n g in ee r n a rro w s th e fo c u s o f w o rk a s he o r s h e
m o v es d o w n w a rd in th e h ie ra rc h y ju s t d e s c rib e d .

Example:ProductEngineeringSystemHierarchy

SystemModelling
System engineering is a modeling process. Whether the focus is on the world view or the detailed
view,the engineercreatesmodels that
• Define the processes that serve the needs of the view under consideration.
• Represent the behavior of the processes and the assumptions on which the behavior is based.
• Explicitly define both exogenous and endogenous input3 to the model.
• Represent all linkages (including output) that will enable the engineer to better understand the
view.

To construct a system model, the engineer should consider a number of restraining

factors
1. Assumptions
2. Simplification
3. Limitation
4. Constraints
5. Preferences
1. Assumptions:
● It reduce the number of possible permutations and variations, thus enabling a model to
reflect the problemina reasonable manner.
● Example: considera three-dimensional rendering product used bythe entertainment industry
to create realistic animation. One domain of the product enables the representation of 3D
human forms. Input to this domain encompasses the ability to specify movement from a live
human actor, from video, or by the creation of graphical models. The system engineermakes
certain assumptions about the range of allowable human movement (e.g., legs cannot be
wrappedaroundthe torso)so that therange of inputsand processing canbe limited.
2.Simplifications:
● It enable the model tobe created ina timelymanner.
● Example: consider an office products company that sells and services a broad range of
copiers, faxes, and related equipment. The system engineer is modeling the needs of the
service organization and is working to understand the flow of information that spawns a
service order. Although a service order can be derived from many origins, the engineer
categorizes only two sources: internal demand and external request. This enables a
simplified partitioning ofinput that isrequired to generate the service order.
3.Limitations:
● It help to bound thesystem.
● Example: an aircraft avionics system is being modeled for a next generation aircraft. Since
the aircraft will be a two-engine design, the monitoring domain for propulsion will be
modeled to accommodate a maximumof two enginesand associated redundant systems.
4.Constraints:
● It will guide the manner in which the model is created and the approach taken when the
model is implemented.
● Example: the technology infrastructure for the three-dimensional rendering system
described previously is a single G4-based processor. The computational complexity of
problems must be constrainedtofit withintheprocessing bounds imposed bythe processor.
5.Preferences:
● This indicatesthepreferred architectureforall data,functions, andtechnology.
● Thepreferred solutionsometimescomesinto conflict with otherrestrainingfactors.
● Yet, customersatisfactionisoftenpredicatedonthe degree to which thepreferred approach
isrealized.
The resultant system model (at any view) may call for a completely automated solution, a
semi-automated solution, or a nonautomated approach. In fact, it is often possible to characterize
models of each type that serve as alternative solutions to the problem at hand. In essence, the
system engineer simply modifies the relative influence of different system elements (people,
hardware, software) to derive modelsof each type.

SystemSimulation
● In the late 1960s, R. M. Graham [GRA69] made a distressing comment about the way we
build computer-based systems: "We build systems like the Wright brothers built airplanes—
build thewhole thing, push it offa cliff, let it crash, andstart overagain."
● Manycomputer-based systemsinteract with the real world ina reactivefashion.
● That is, real-world events are monitored by the hardware and software that form the
computer-based system, and based on these events, the system imposes control on the
machines, processes, and evenpeople who cause theeventstooccur.
 ● Real-time and embeddedsystemsoften fall into the reactivesystemscategory.
Problems/Complicationsinreactivesystems
● Thedevelopersof reactive systemssometimes struggletomakethemperformproperly.
● It is difficult to predict the performance, efficiency, and behavior of such systems prior to
building them.
● If the system crashed due to incorrect function, inappropriate behavior, or
poorperformance,we picked upthepiecesand startedoveragain.
● Many systems in the reactive category control machines and/or processes (e.g.,
commercial aircraft or petroleum refineries) that must operate with an extremely high
degree of reliability. If the system fails, significant economic or human loss could occur. For
this reason, the approach describedbyGrahamisboth painfuland dangerous.

Today, software tools for system modeling and simulation are being used to help to eliminate
surprises when reactive, computer-based systems are built. These tools are applied during the
system engineering process, while the role of hardware and software, databases and people is
being specified. Modeling and simulation tools enable a system engineer to "test drive" a
specificationof thesystem.

1.8Verification and Validation

Verification and Validation is th e p ro c e s s o f in v e s tig a tin g w h eth e r a s o ftw a re
s ys tem s a tis fie s s p ec ific a tio n s a n d s ta n d a rd s a n d fu lf ills th e req u ire d p u rp o s e . Barry
Boehm d e s c rib e d v e rific a tio n a n d v a lid a tio n a s th e f o llo w in g :

Verification
● V e rific a tio n is th e p ro c e s s o f c h ec k in g th a t s o f tw a re a c h ie ve s its g o a l w ith o u t a n y
b ugs .
● It is th e p ro c e s s to e n s u re w h e th e r th e p ro d u c t th a t is d e v e lo p ed is rig h t o r n o t.
● It v e rifie s w h eth er th e d e v elo p ed p ro d u c t f u lfills th e re q u ire m en ts th a t w e h a ve .
● V e rific a tio n is s im p ly k n o w n a s Static Testing.
● H e re a re s o m e o f th e a c tivitie s th a t a re in vo lv ed in v e rif ic a tio n .
■ In s p e c tio n s
■ R ev ie w s
■ W a lk th ro u g h s
■ D es k -c h e c k in g
Validation
● It is th e p ro c e s s o f c h e c k in g th e va lid a tio n o f th e p ro d u c t i.e . it c h e c k s w h a t w e a re
d ev e lo p in g is th e rig h t p ro d u c t. it is a v a lid a tio n o f a c tu a l a n d e xp e c te d p ro d u c ts .
● V a lid a tio n T es tin g is k n o w n a s Dynamic Testing in w h ic h w e ex a m in e w h e th er w e
h a v e d e v elo p ed th e p ro d u c t rig h t o r n o t a n d a ls o a b o u t th e b u s in e s s n ee d s o f th e
c lien t. H ere a re s o m e o f th e a c tiv ities th a t a re in v o lve d in V a lid a tio n .
■ B la c k B o x T es tin g
■ W h ite B o x T e s tin g
■ U n it T es tin g
■ In te g ra tio n T es tin g
● V e rific a tio n is f o llo w e d b y V a lid a tio n .

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