Journal of Cancer 2018, Vol.

9 263

Ivyspring
International Publisher
Journal of Cancer
2018; 9(2): 263-268. doi: 10.7150/jca.20059
Review

Cancer vaccine: learning lessons from immune

checkpoint inhibitors
ZhenLong Ye, Qiming Qian, HuaJun Jin, QiJun Qian 
Shanghai Engineering Research Center for Cell Therapy, 75 Qianyang Road, Shanghai 201805, China.

 Corresponding authors: Qi-Jun Qian, Tel: + 86-21-81875371; Fax: + 86-21-65580677; E-mail: [email protected]; Hua-Jun Jin, Tel: + 86-21-81875372; E-mail:
[email protected]

© Ivyspring International Publisher. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution (CC BY-NC) license
(https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/4.0/). See http://ivyspring.com/terms for full terms and conditions.

Received: 2017.03.13; Accepted: 2017.08.28; Published: 2018.01.01

Abstract
Cancer vaccines have been exclusively studied all through the past decades, and have made
exceptional achievements in cancer treatment. Few cancer vaccines have been approved by the US
Food and Drug Administration (FDA), for instance, Provenge, which was approved for the
treatment of prostate carcinoma in 2012. Moreover, more recently, T-VEC got approval for the
treatment of melanoma. While, the overall therapeutic effects of cancer vaccines have been taken
into consideration as below expectations, low antigenicity of targeting antigen and tumor
heterogeneity are the two key limiting barriers encountered by the cancer vaccines. Nonetheless,
recent developments in cancer immune-therapies together with associated technologies, for
instance the unparalleled achievements bagged by immune checkpoint inhibitor based therapies and
neo-antigen identification tools, envisage potential improvements in cancer vaccines in respect to
the treatments of malignancies. This review brings forth measures for the purpose of refining
therapeutic cancer vaccines by learning lessons from the success of PD-1 inhibitor based
immune-therapies.
Key words: Cancer vaccine, immune checkpoint inhibitor, PD-1, combination therapy, immunotherapy

Introduction
Different from preventive vaccines, put to use on (Epithelial-Mesenchymal Transition) factors and TME
healthy individuals for the prevention of diseases, (Tumor Microenvironment) factors [10].
therapeutic cancer vaccines are directly used on Determination of the therapeutic efficacy of cancer
cancer patients for the purpose of eliminating cancer vaccines is made by taking into account many factors,
cells through strengthening patients’ own immune include differential expression of targets between
responses, particularly CD8+ T cell mediated tumor cells and normal cells, the immunogenicity of
responses, with the assistance of suitable adjuvants vaccines and the antigenicity of targets within tumor
[1-3]. Since pioneered by Dr. William Coley for the microenvironment [7, 11, 12]. Thus, the paucity of
stimulation of patient’s immune system with the use TSAs (tumor specific antigens), immune suppressive
of intratumoral injection of Coley's Toxin (inactivated effect of tumor microenvironment and tumor
Streptococcus pyogenes and Serratia marcescens) in 1890s, heterogeneity pose to be the key limiting barriers
the field of cancer vaccine has been quite active, encountered by cancer vaccines [13-16].
introducing several kinds of cancer vaccines, for By targeting immune suppressive
instance DC cell based vaccines [4, 5], peptide/protein microenvironment for the release of cytotoxic T cells,
vaccines [6, 7], genetic vaccines [8] and tumor cell immune checkpoint inhibitors have attained
vaccines [9], targeting various cancer cell antigens, unparalleled success as regards the treatment of
including cancer testis antigens, differentiation cancers [17-19]. Ipilimumab, an anti-CTLA-4
antigens, oncofetal antigens, EMT antibody, received approval from the FDA for the

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treatment of melanoma in 2011 [20, 21]. Nivolumab and GM-CSF fusion protein [41, 42]; 2) heterogeneity,
and pembrolizumab were approved in 2014 for the heterogeneity among tumor cells within the same
treatment of melanoma and squamous non-small cell tissue is likely to lead to the selection of TAA negative
lung cancer (NSCLC) [22-24]. The mechanistic tumor cells, heterogeneity among patients are likely to
research works brought to light the fact that the lead to personalized cancer vaccine requirement that
therapeutic efficacy of anti-PD-1/PD-L1 antibodies is with constrained application in clinic because of
was associated with somatic mutation load of tumor elevated cost and intense labor in personalized
tissue and subsequent neo-antigen number through epitope identification [43, 44].
the comparison of mis-match repair (MMR) proficient
and MMR deficient patients [25-29]. The neo-antigens Table 1. Classification of tumor antigens in cancer vaccine and
are now recognized as determinants for immune related limitations
response of numerous immune-therapies [30-32]. The
Target type Example Limitations Reference
development in associated technologies, for instance Shared Cancer-testis NY-ESO-1, 1. Low antigenicity; [11]
neo-antigen predicting tools and antigenicity TAAs antigens MAGE-A1, 2. Activate limited
SSX-2 type of T cell
assessing tools, together with the decreasing cost of responses;
Differentiation Gp100, [1]
the next-generation sequencing, make scientist antigens Mart-1, PSA 3. Non-driver
capable of identifying tumor specific neo-antigens, Over-expressed hTERT, mutation resources; [27]
antigens surviving, 4. On-target side effect
responsible for immune responses during MUC1 on normal tissues.
immune-therapies [33-35]. TSAs Neo-antigens EGFRVIII, 1. Low antigenicity; [45-48]
Thus, in this review, we primarily throw ERBB2IPE805G, 2. Activate limited
KRASG12D type of T cell
discussion on the barriers that are limiting the BRAFV600E responses;
applications of cancer vaccines. Moreover, thereafter, 3. Non-driver
mutation resources;
it would proceed with exploring the neo-antigens and 4. Difficult to identify.
lessons from the success of immune checkpoint TAAs: tumor associated antigens, TSAs: tumor specific antigens, NY-ESO-1: New
inhibitor based immune-therapies for refining the York esophageal carcinoma antigen 1, MAGE-A1: Melanoma-associated antigen 1,
SSX2: synovial sarcoma X breakpoint 2; gp100: glycoprotein 100, Mart-1: melanoma
cancer vaccines. antigen recognized by T-cells 1, PSA: prostate-specific antigen, hTERT: Human
telomerase reverse transcriptase, MUC1: Mucin 1; EGFRVIII: epidermal growth
Obstacles limiting cancer vaccines factor receptor-variant VIII.

As stated earlier, the therapeutic efficacy of

cancer vaccine is dependent on the differential In theory, the ideal antigens for cancer vaccines
expression of target antigens by tumor cells as well as are clonal immunogenic TSAs that are specifically
normal cells [11]. That is why TSAs are theoretically expressed and shared by all the tumor cells together
given preference to TAAs in cancer vaccine design with being efficient in eliciting immune responses
[14]. Since the first immunogenic antigen MAGE-1 from hosts [11]. Nonetheless, with the paucity of
was brought to light, several immunogenic antigens TSAs, numerous alternative approaches have been
have been reported [36, 37]. But majority of them is suggested whereby one is targeting multiple TAAs or
shared TAAs that are expressed by both tumor cells even full-length protein in combination with immune
and normal cells, despite the fact that, at a relative response enhancers for the purpose of better eliciting
lower level, the on-target/off tumor effects pose to be both CD4+ and CD8+ T cell responses, for instance
potential threats [38, 39]. Furthermore, shared TAAs PANVAC targets CEA and MUC-1 antigens and
can be classified into three groups: 1) cancer-testis encodes enhancing sequences for both targets [49].
antigens; 2) tissue differentiation antigens; and 3) Despite that fact, the cancer vaccine is still
over-expressed antigens (table. 1) [40]. Conversely, encountering the challenges of low-antigenicity and
TAAs are not taken into consideration as the optimal heterogeneity. Thus, novel strategies are in
choices for cancer vaccine because of the two key desperately required to enhance the efficiency of
reasons other than being shared by normal tissues: 1) cancer vaccines.
low antigenicity, implying that TAAs are typically
tolerated even as “self”, in this way, majority of Lessons learned from immune checkpoint
vaccines targeting TAAs are put to application in inhibitors
means of combination with immunogenicity
The immune checkpoint inhibitors based
enhancers, like co-stimulatory cytokine granulocyte-
immunotherapies have attained exceptional
macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF)
achievements in addition to refreshing the field of
together with TLR agonist, for instance, provenge is
cancer treatment [50]. The underlying mechanisms of
developed by loading DCs in vitro through
checkpoint inhibitors and cancer vaccines are to some
co-culturing with prostatic acid phosphatase (PAP)
level similar, harnessing patients’ own immune

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system to fight against cancers [51, 52]. In this way, considered to be driver mutations that are defined
numerous lessons can be learned from immune essential for the development of tumors [59]. This is
checkpoint inhibitor based immunotherapy to cancer how cancer vaccines can be further designed to target
vaccines. immunogenic neo-antigens that are derived from
Tumors are considered to have evolved from driver mutations. This point was affirmed by a recent
thousands of somatic mutations that develop tumor research work, throwing light on the fact that the
cells growth as well as survival benefits over normal heterogeneity of neo-antigens within a single tumor
cells [53, 54]. All through the development of tumors, tissue determines the immuno-reactivity as well as
tumor cells adopt numerous mechanisms for the sensitivity to immune checkpoint inhibitors [60]. All
purpose of escaping from the surveillance of host through the development of tumors, the number of
immune system, a major one is developing immune driver mutations boosts up. In this way, the early
suppressive microenvironment in order to suppress staged NSCLC patients possess higher number of
the function of immune effectors, for instance CD8+ T clonal neo-antigens, clonally encoded and shared by
cells, through expressing immune checkpoints, like tumor cells, together with the lower neo-antigen
CTLA-4, LAG-3, Tim-3 and PD-1 [55]. Through the heterogeneity, associated with improved clinical
discovery of this mechanism, there have been performance of immune checkpoint inhibitor based
developed numerous for the purpose of targeting immunotherapies [61]. Some scientists even proposed
those immune checkpoints, such as PD-1 inhibitors, cancer immuno-prevention by cancer vaccines to
Nivolumab and Pembrolizumab that have been both individuals without cancers, but at high risk of having
appraised and approved by the FDA in respect of the cancers [62].
treatment of melanoma, non-small cell lung cancer Together with targeting multiple immunogenic
(NSCLC) and melanoma respectively [50]. neo-antigens or immunogenic clonal neo-antigens, it
Furthermore, the therapeutic efficiency of PD-1 determines the efficiency of immune checkpoint
inhibitors was reported having association with the inhibitors based immune-therapies. Another lesson
somatic mutation load, which is coupled with the can be learned, among cancers, melanoma is taken
dysfunction of MMR system [38]. It implies that the into account to be the most somatic mutation loaded
higher somatic mutation load of the patients together cancer [59]. Furthermore, speculation can be drawn
with the higher number of neo-antigens will be from this that melanoma patients possess the biggest
encoded, and the higher response rate of the patients number of neo-antigens, and perhaps the clonal
will be attained from PD-1 inhibitors [56]. In this way, neo-antigens, derived from driver mutations, some of
the diversity of neo-antigens within the tumor tissues which are shared by different types of cancers [63].
of patients poses to be a key determinant for Consequently, the whole tumor cell derived from
immunotherapy response. patients, containing shared clonal neo-antigens can be
put to application as autologous cancer vaccines or
Targeting Immunogenic Neo-antigens even allogeneic cancer vaccines catering to HLA
It has been revealed by several research works matching scenario. In the same fashion, autologous
that, among neo-antigens, many are immunogenic, cancer vaccines or even allogeneic cancer vaccines can
effective in eliciting immune response from host in be made out of tumor tissues from the majority of
vitro and in vivo [57, 58]. That is why identification of responsive patients for the purpose of treating the
immunogenic neo-antigens possesses critical same cancers or even different types of cancers under
importance for the application of neo-antigens to HLA matching scenario.
cancer vaccines. With the development of associated To conclude, there are at least three lessons that
technologies, for instance Next-generation can be learned from immune checkpoint inhibitor
Sequencing (NGS), peptide manufacturing and based immunotherapies to cancer vaccines for the
peptide immunogenicity in silico prediction, targeting purpose of overcoming the low antigenicity and
tumor specific neo-antigen is now turning out to be a heterogeneity issues by targeting neo-antigens: 1)
sound reality [33]. For the purpose of overcoming the targeting multiple immunogenic neo-antigens; 2)
low antigenicity issue, cancer vaccines can be targeting immunogenic clonal neo-antigens; 3)
designed in order to target immunogenic deriving tumor cell based cancer vaccines from the
neo-antigens. For the purpose of tackling the most immunogenic clonal neo-antigens loaded
heterogeneity issue, numerous immunogenic patients.
neo-antigens are advised to target in the meantime, in
case of the selection of targeting neo-antigen negative Combine with immune checkpoint inhibitors
tumor cells [56]. Among these somatic mutations that Cancer vaccines are designed to bring forth the
encode immunogenic neo-antigens, there are some immunogenic antigens to excite patients’ own

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Journal of Cancer 2018, Vol. 9 266

immune system, particular tumor specific CD8+ T cell

responses [1]. Immune checkpoint inhibitors are
Table 2. Part of clinical trials investigating combination of cancer
designed for the release of the patients’ own effects or
vaccine with checkpoint inhibitors
cells from suppressed state. Majority of patients is not
responsive to immune checkpoint inhibitors because Agent Malignance Phase Status/ NCT
results Identifier
of the lack of tumor specific effector cells [64-66]. GVAX+Nivolumab Pancreatic cancer I/II Recruiting NCT02451982
While, cancer vaccine has been revealed with the DC AML Acute myelogenous II Recruiting NCT01096602
ability to elicit diverse neo-antigen specific effector Vaccine+CT-011 leukemia
pTVG-HP Plasmid Hormone-Resistant, I/II Recruiting NCT02499835
cells [67, 68]. This is how it is quite adequate to apply DNA Vaccine+ Metastatic
cancer vaccines providing tumor specific T cells Pembrolizumab Prostate Cancer
before immune checkpoint inhibitor based DC Vaccines+ Recurrent Grade III I Recruiting NCT02529072
Nivolumab and Grade IV
immunotherapies [67, 69]. It has been brought to light Brain Tumors
by the studies that this combination showcases more Provenge+ CT-011 Advanced II Recruiting NCT01420965
Prostate Cancer
effectiveness in comparison with either mono-therapy
GVAX+CRS207 With Metastatic II Recruiting NCT02243371
by promotion of cytotoxic T cell activity, facilitation of or Without Adenocarcinoma of
effector T cell infiltration and accumulation of Nivolumab the Pancreas
TLPLDC Vaccine+ Metastatic I/II Recruiting NCT02678741
memory precursor CD8+ T Cells [70-72]. Therefore, checkpoint inhibitors Melanoma
cancer vaccines are considered to be perfectly Vigil™ vaccine+ Advanced I Recruiting NCT02574533
matching immune checkpoint inhibitors [73]. Pembrolizumab Melanoma
6MHP+ Ipilimumab Melanoma I/II Recruiting NCT02385669
Moreover, there are several ongoing clinical trials
GVAX: Granulocyte-macrophage Colony-stimulating Factor (GM-CSF)
(table 2). Gene-transfected Tumor Cell Vaccine; DC: Dendritic Cell; AML: Acute Myelocytic
For the purpose of further delivering diversely Leukemia; CT-011: Pidilizumab, Pembrolizumab and Nivolumab, programmed cell
death 1 blockade inhibitors; pTVG-HP: DNA vaccine encoding Prostatic acid
enough CD8+ T cells with cancer vaccines, numerous phosphatase (PAP); CRS-207: live-attenuated Listeria vaccine expressing
approaches can be followed in order to improve the mesothelin; TLPLDC: tumor lysate particle-loaded dendritic cellvaccine; Vigil™:
GMCSF/bi-shRNA furin DNA engineered autologous tumor cell product;
efficiency of the combination of cancer vaccines and 6MHP:six melanoma-associated helper peptides vaccine; Ipilimumab: cytotoxic
T-lymphocyte-associated antigen 4 (CTLA-4) antibody.
immune checkpoint inhibitors. It has been well
documented that IFN-γ is capable of inducing the
expression of MHC molecules from tumor cells [74, Hence, in addition to targeting neo-antigens,
75]. On these bases of this notion, in whole tumor cells there are still numerous lessons that can be learned
design, for the purpose of better providing from immune checkpoint inhibitor based
stimulations from diversely enough antigens, tumor immuno-therapies to cancer vaccines by combining
cells can be cultured with suitable amount of IFN-γ with immune checkpoint inhibitors; 1) culturing
possessing medium or genetically manipulated to tumor cells with IFN-γ containing medium prior to
express IFN-γ prior to the application in combination application as cancer vaccines in combination with
with immune checkpoint inhibitors. Moreover, the immune checkpoint inhibitors; 2) genetically
expression of PD-L1 on tumor cells that can be further manipulating tumor cells to secrete IFN-γ prior to
induced by IFN-γ, is likely to stand for another factor application as cancer vaccines in combination with
that adversely influences the efficiency of tumor cell immune checkpoint inhibitors; 3) ablating the
vaccines [76]. In this way it is interesting to carry out expression of PD-L1 on tumor cells prior to
the investigation of the influence of knock-down or application as cancer vaccines in combination with
knock-out the expression of PD-L1 of tumor cell immune checkpoint inhibitors (table 3).
vaccines on the combination of cancer vaccines with
immune checkpoint inhibitors.

Table 3. Lessons can be learned from immune checkpoint inhibitors to cancer vaccines
Major Challenges Strategies
Low antigenicity Targeting neo-antigens:
1. targeting multiple immunogenic neo-antigens;
2. targeting clonal neo-antigens;
Cancer Vaccine 3. develop cancer vaccines from immune checkpoint inhibitor responsive
tumor tissues.
Heterogeneity Combine with immune checkpoint inhibitors:
4. culturing tumor cells with IFN-γ containing medium ahead;
5. genetically manipulate tumor cells to secret IFN-γ ahead;
6. delete the expressing of PD-L1 on tumor cell vaccine.

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Figure 1. Cancer vaccines can be designed in a way to target immunogenic neo-antigens, even clonal neo-antigens that are encoded by driver mutations.
Furthermore, cancer vaccines can be put to application in combination with immune checkpoint inhibitors.

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