Evans Report
Evans Report
Evans Report
DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGY
FACULTY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY
UNIVERSITY OF NAIROBI
April, 2024
i
DECLARATION
Student’s Declaration
I hereby declare that this research project report is my original work and has not been submitted
elsewhere, either in part or in full, for the award of either a degree or a diploma in the University of
Nairobi or any other institution.
ii
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my sincere gratitude to several individuals and organizations for supporting me
throughout my Graduate study. Firstly, glory be to God for all was made possible by Him, He gave me
grace and strength to complete this study amidst various challenges. I wish to express my sincere gratitude
to my supervisor, Professor Sheila Okoth, for her enthusiasm, patience, insightful, comments, helpful
information, practical advice and unceasing ideas that have helped me tremendously at all times in my
research and writing of this thesis. Her knowledge, profound experience and professional expertise in
Mycology has enabled me to complete this research successfully. Without her support and guidance, this
project would not have been possible. I could not have imagined having a better supervisor in my study.
I also wish to express my sincere thanks to the University of Nairobi for accepting me into the graduate
program.
I would also like to thank the University of Nairobi Mycology laboratory technician Madam Gertrude
Shikote and Bacteriology laboratory technician Mr. Wachira for assisting me by supplying the equipment
that was essential and vital, without which I would not have been able to perform efficiently on this project.
In addition, I am deeply indebted to the Ministry of Education, University of Nairobi work-study program
for granting me the financial support that enabled me to complete my undergraduate studies successfully.
I’d also like to thank my friends and parents for their support and encouragement as I worked on this
assignment.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT ....................................................................................................................... iii
iv
2.4.4 Molds and Yeasts...................................................................................................................... 11
2.5 Hygiene and Regulatory Challenges ............................................................................................... 11
2.6 Global Perspectives on Street Food Safety ..................................................................................... 11
MATERIALS AND METHODS ........................................................................................................... 13
3.1 Study Area ....................................................................................................................................... 14
3.2 Sample Collection ........................................................................................................................... 14
3.3 Media Preparation ........................................................................................................................... 15
3.3.1 Nutrient Agar ............................................................................................................................ 15
3.3.2 Potato Dextrose Agar................................................................................................................ 15
3.4 Isolation of Microorganisms ........................................................................................................... 16
3.4.1 Serial Dilutions ......................................................................................................................... 16
3.4.2. Isolation of Bacteria on Nutrient Agar .................................................................................... 16
3.4.3 Isolation of Fungi on the PDA .................................................................................................. 16
3.4.5 Sub-culturing ............................................................................................................................ 17
3.5 Characterization of Isolates ............................................................................................................. 17
3.5.1 Colony Morphology Characteristics ......................................................................................... 17
3.5.2 Gram Staining ........................................................................................................................... 17
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS .............................................................................................................. 18
4.1 Bacterial Analysis ............................................................................................................................... 18
4.1.1 Isolated Bacteria on Nutrient Agar ........................................................................................... 18
4.1.2 Subculture bacteria ................................................................................................................... 19
4.1.3 Morphological Characterization of the Isolates........................................................................ 19
4.1.4 Gram Stain ................................................................................................................................ 20
4.2 Fungal Analysis ............................................................................................................................... 20
4.2.1 Isolated Fungi on PDA ............................................................................................................. 20
4.2.2 Characterization of Isolated Fungi ........................................................................................... 22
4.2.3 Microscopic Characterization of Isolated Fungi ...................................................................... 24
4.2.4 Morphological Characterization of the Isolated Fungi ............................................................. 25
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS ....................... 26
5.1 Discussion ....................................................................................................................................... 26
5.2 Conclusion....................................................................................................................................... 27
5.3 Recommendations ........................................................................................................................... 28
v
Lists of Figures
Figure 1: Location of the study area ........................................................................................................ 14
Figure 2: Samples collected for the study ................................................................................................ 15
Figure 3: Isolated bacteria from fish ........................................................................................................ 18
Figure 4: Isolated bacteria from sausage ................................................................................................. 18
Figure 5: Isolated bacteria from banana .................................................................................................. 18
Figure 6: Isolated bacteria from Roasted maize ...................................................................................... 18
Figure 7: Subculture of bacteria isolated from fish ................................................................................. 19
Figure 8: Subculture of bacteria isolated from Sausage .......................................................................... 19
Figure 9: Subculture of bacteria isolated from Roasted maize ................................................................ 19
Figure 10: Subculture of bacteria isolated from Banana ......................................................................... 19
Figure 11: Bacillus sp. ............................................................................................................................. 20
Figure 12: Streptococcus sp. .................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 13: E. coli ..................................................................................................................................... 20
Figure 14: Fungi isolated from Roasted Maize ....................................................................................... 21
Figure 15: Fungi isolated from Sausage .................................................................................................. 21
Figure 16: Fungi isolated from Banana ................................................................................................... 21
Figure 17: Fungi isolated from Fish ........................................................................................................ 22
Figure 18: Sub-culture of Fungi Isolated from Fried Fish ....................................................................... 22
Figure 19: Sub-culture of Fungi Isolated from Sausage .......................................................................... 22
Figure 20: Sub-culture of Fungi Isolated from Roasted Maize ............................................................... 23
Figure 21: Sub-culture of Fungi Isolated from Banana ........................................................................... 23
Figure 22: Fusarium sp. Isolated from Fish ............................................................................................ 24
Figure 23: Trichophyton tonsurans sp. Isolated from sausage ................................................................ 24
Figure 24: Fusarium sp. Isolated from Roasted Maize ........................................................................... 24
Figure 25: Fusarium sp. Isolated from Banana ....................................................................................... 24
vi
List of Tables
Table 1: Morphological characteristics of Bacterial isolates. ................................................................................. 20
Table 2: Table 1: Morphological characteristics of Fungal isolates. ..................................................................... 25
vii
Abbreviations and Acronyms
viii
ABSTRACT
Street foods represent a significant component of the culinary landscape in Nairobi, offering convenience
and diversity to urban consumers. However, concerns regarding the microbiological and mycological
safety of these foods persist. This study aimed to assess the microbial and fungal quality of selected street
foods in Nairobi, focusing on banana, sausage, fried fish, and roasted maize.
Food samples were collected randomly from the City Market street in Nairobi.Using laboratory methods
of isolation of microbial communities, Bacillus species, Enterococci species, Staphylococcus aureus,
Staphylococcal enterotoxins and Aspergillus species, Fusarium species, and penicillium species were
isolated from the food samples. The presence of microorganisms in street foods suggests hygiene practices
should be improved.
microbiological analysis was conducted to enumerate indicator organisms, including total coliforms,
Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Streptococcus., measured in colony-forming units (CFU)
per gram, mycological analysis was performed to identify fungal species present in the samples.
The results revealed microbial contamination in all food items examined. Total coliform counts ranged
from <10 to 10^5 CFU/g, with the highest counts observed in fried fish samples.
Mycological analysis revealed fungal contamination in all food items. The predominant fungal species
identified included Aspergillus spp., Trichophyton app., Penicillium spp., and Fusarium spp.
The presence of pathogenic bacteria and potentially toxigenic fungi in street foods poses a significant
public health risk to consumers. Factors contributing to contamination include poor hygiene practices
during food preparation, inadequate storage conditions, and environmental contamination.
ix
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background Information
Street food plays an important role in the daily diet of many people living in Nairobi, Kenya (Kariuki,
2018). Popular street food includes mandazi, a sweet and fried pastry, nyama choma: grilled spiced
meat. Mutura, is a spicy sausage made from ground meat and spices. Githeri, a hearty mixture of cooked
corn and beans; Viazi Karai (Chips), seasoned fries. Mahindi Choma (Roasted Maize), roasted corn with
spices. Kebabs, skewered, and grilled meat. Chapati, a soft unleavened flatbread. Samosa, triangular
pastry stuffed with spices. Roasted peanuts and corn offer locals and tourists a variety of delicious and
affordable options. These street foods contribute to Nairobi's dynamic and rich culinary offering.
Contribute to local food culture and provide convenient and affordable options for a diverse population.
However, concerns about the safety and hygiene of street food have become a significant public health
issue (Rakha et al., 2022). The unregulated sale of street foods, coupled with poor food handling
practices and lack of hygiene infrastructure, has raised questions about the microbial quality of these
foods and their potential impact on consumer health (Muhonja & Kimathi, 2014).
Nairobi is a bustling city center with a variety of street vendors dotted in different districts. These
providers cater to a wide range of consumers, including office workers, students, and residents, and are
an integral part of local food culture. Despite its popularity, the potential health risks associated with
street food cannot be ignored. Factors such as improper food handling, unhygienic cooking
environments, and improper storage conditions can contribute to microbial contamination, which can
pose a risk of foodborne illness to consumers (Birgen et al., 2020).
Street food is susceptible to many types of microorganisms, including bacteria, viruses, parasites, fungi,
and molds (Aytac & Taban, 2014). The microbial composition of street food depends on factors such as
food handling, storage conditions, and the environment in which the food is prepared. Bacterial
contaminants commonly include Escherichia coli (E. coli), which is associated with fecal contamination
and gastrointestinal infections, Salmonella, which is known to cause food poisoning, and
Staphylococcus aureus, which produces toxins that cause food poisoning (Balali et al., 2020). Viruses
such as norovirus, which is highly contagious and causes gastroenteritis, and hepatitis A virus, which is
transmitted through contaminated food, pose additional health risks.
1
Parasites such as Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium can cause gastrointestinal disease. Fungi such as
Aspergillus spp. They can produce mycotoxins and contaminate stored grains, nuts, and dried fruits.
Certain molds also occur, including Penicillium can produce mycotoxins under certain conditions.
Understanding the presence and distribution of these microorganisms is important for assessing the
health risks associated with street food consumption (Kamala & Kumar, 2018). Hygiene practices,
proper food handling, and effective hygiene measures are important to minimize the risk of microbial
contamination and protect public health. Regular monitoring and analysis play an important role in
ensuring the safety of street food consumption in various urban environments (Ferrari et al., 2021).
In Nairobi, where a large proportion of the population relies on street food for their daily diet,
understanding the microbial quality of these foods is essential for public health management. Despite the
potential risks, there are clear gaps in the scientific literature regarding the specific types of
microorganisms present in Nairobi Street food, their prevalence, and suppliers' compliance with
sanitation and hygiene standards (Kariuki, 2018).
This research project aims to fill this gap by conducting a detailed microbiological analysis of street
food in Nairobi. The results not only contribute to the scientific understanding of the microbial quality
of street foods, but also inform policymakers, regulators, and others about the measures needed to
improve food safety and protect consumer health. The ultimate goal is to establish evidence-based
interventions to reduce the risks associated with microbial contamination of street food, thereby ensuring
a safer and healthier urban food environment in Nairobi, Kenya.
2
1.3 Project Justification
This research project on the microbial analysis of street food is of great importance because these foods
are widely consumed and concerns about their safety and hygiene are important. The fact that street food
sales are unregulated, coupled with the lack of compliance with food handling and hygiene standards,
emphasizes the need for this research. With lack of comprehensive research specific to Nairobi's street
food scene has created a critical knowledge gap, and addressing this gap will be critical in developing
targeted interventions.
The potential health effects of consuming contaminated street food require the identification of specific
microorganisms to quantify the associated risks. Therefore, the results will not only contribute to public
health policy and regulatory frameworks but also provide street vendors with knowledge to improve
their food safety practices. The project aims to improve overall food safety standards in Nairobi, protect
the health of city residents, and maintain the cultural importance of street food.
1.4 Objectives
1.4.1 Broad Objective
i. To assess and quantify the microbial quality of Nairobi Street food and identify potential health risks
associated with consumption.
3
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1 Overview of Street Foods
Street food is a dynamic part of a city's food landscape, reflecting the vibrancy and diversity of local
culture and cuisine (Hanser, 2021). These ready-to-eat or drinkable foods are typically prepared and sold
by vendors in public spaces, providing a convenient, affordable, and culturally significant alternative to
formal eateries. Street food markets in urban environments serve as lively gathering places where people
from all walks of life come together to enjoy a wide range of flavors and traditional foods (Allison,
2020). Street food includes a variety of dishes, from hearty snacks and simple meals to refreshing drinks
and desserts. This traditional recipes and innovative dishes, not only satisfies immediate hunger but also
provide a journey through the flavors and aromas unique to each location. Despite its popularity, the
safety and hygiene of street food have important considerations and require thorough research to ensure
consumer well-being in crowded urban environments.
The migration of people from rural to urban areas increased the demand for quick and affordable meals,
and the ingenuity and creativity of street vendors responded to this need. Another important factor in the
development of street food is the influence of different cultures on culinary traditions. As explorers and
traders traveled across the continent, they encountered new ingredients, flavors, and cooking techniques
(de la Salle, 2019). These culinary exchanges have contributed to the formation of the variety of street
food we see today. Street food has a long and fascinating history that has evolved alongside urban
growth and cultural exchange. It plays an important role in providing affordable and diverse food
options to people on the go.
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2.1.2 Significance of Street Foods in Urban Settings
In urban settings, street food has been a staple for many years, and it holds such importance. The city's
busy streets have been transformed into a vibrant cooking hub, offering locals and tourists alike a variety
of affordable and delicious options. In addition to satisfying hunger, street food has several important
functions in urban areas (Moussavi et al., 2016). It contributes to the local economy, celebrates cultural
diversity, and promotes a sense of community and connection among city residents. The local economy
in urban areas is heavily influenced by the consumption of street food. Street food vendors often run
small businesses that not only earn a living but also create employment opportunities for others. These
microenterprises are part of the informal sector where entrepreneurs can start and operate businesses
with low start-up costs. Street food stalls stimulate economic circulation by purchasing ingredients from
local markets and employing local workers, contributing to the overall economic growth of the city.
Street food celebrates the cultural diversity that enriches urban environments. As cities become melting
pots of different cultures, street food serves as a gastronomic expression of this diversity. By consuming
these various goods, residents, and tourists can develop a greater understanding and respect for other
cultures in the city, which ultimately fosters tolerance and acceptance (Alfiero et al., 2019). Food stalls
serve as meeting places, facilitating social contact and fostering a sense of community among city
residents. The simple act of ordering from a street vendor often requires a short conversation that creates
an opportunity for interpersonal interaction. Whether it's sharing a table with a stranger or striking up a
conversation in line, food stalls are becoming a place for spontaneous encounters where people from all
walks of life come together (Nicula et al., 2018). This shared experience strengthens the social fabric of
urban communities and helps foster a sense of belonging among residents.
They support small businesses and contribute to the local economy by providing employment
opportunities. Street food celebrates cultural diversity and also serves as delicious ambassadors of
different culinary traditions. They promote community and connection among city residents; they also
serve as meeting places for people from all backgrounds to come together (Odundo et al., 2018). As
cities evolve and grow, vibrant street food scenes continue to be an integral part of the urban experience,
delighting the palate and inspiring a sense of togetherness.
5
informal nature of street food vending, has led to problems such as poor hygiene, inappropriate food
handling practices, and increased microbial contamination. The increasing availability of diverse and
convenient food choices on street corners is causing concerns about the safety of public health. Despite
the abundance of food options on the street, there are still many cases of people falling ill due to
foodborne illness that must be addressed through improved hygiene and safety measures (Sousa et al.,
2021). This recognition, in response to the evolving dynamics of urban food consumption, has led to
research initiatives and regulatory efforts aimed at improving food safety standards, promoting provider
education, and promoting safer street food environments.
2.2.1 Bacteria
Street food can harbor a variety of bacteria, depending on factors such as hygiene practices, food
handling, and environmental conditions. Escherichia coli (E. coli), a group of coliform bacteria, serves
as an indicator of fecal contamination and suggests poor hygiene during preparation (Were et al., 2020).
Staphylococcus aureus is known to produce toxins, can contaminate food when handled, and grows in
suboptimal storage conditions. Salmonella bacteria associated with food poisoning can be present in
contaminated meat and eggs used in street food. Listeria monocytogenes found in ready-to-eat foods
poses a risk of causing serious infections. Clostridium perfringens, which has been linked to food
poisoning, can grow in improperly stored prepared foods. Vibrio bacteria occur in seafood-based street
foods. If seafood is not cooked properly, it can cause infections. Campylobacter jejuni is common in
undercooked poultry and can cause gastrointestinal infections (Eromo et al., 2016). When combined
with unsanitary conditions, Shigella can cause gastrointestinal disease. Bacillus cereus, which can
produce toxins, is found in improperly stored starchy foods. Enterobacteriaceae, the bacterial family
6
that includes coliform bacteria, can be indicative of poor hygiene or fecal contamination. To prevent
health hazards caused by street food bacteria, it is crucial to monitor the situation and implement strict
hygiene practices (Alimi, 2016)
2.2.3 Viruses
Street food can contain a range of viruses and could be dangerous for consumers. Hepatitis A virus is of
particular concern because it can be transmitted through contaminated water and food, especially when
raw or minimally processed ingredients are involved. Norovirus is another serious viral threat known to
cause gastroenteritis and is often associated with ingesting contaminated food or water . The presence of
rotavirus, an enteric virus that is most commonly found in infants and young children, can pose a health
risk when street food contains potentially contaminated ingredients. Transmission of these viruses in
street food can occur through improper food handling, contaminated water sources, or contact with
infected food handlers. Protecting public health from viral infections requires implementing strict
hygiene controls, proper food preparation, and regular surveillance to reduce the risk of infection from
street food in various urban settings.
2.2.4 Parasites
The presence of multiple parasites can contaminate street food and pose health risks for consumers. E.g.
Protozoa such as Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium parvum are examples of parasites that can
contaminate street food, especially food that contains raw or undercooked food or contaminated water
sources (Barua et al., 2023). Helminths such as roundworms and tapeworms can also pose a threat if
they are found in undercooked meat or improperly processed foods Transmission of these parasites
7
through street food may be due to poor hygiene, improper cooking methods, or the use of contaminated
water in food preparation (Gemechu et al., 2022). Ensuring the safety of street food requires strict
adherence to hygiene standards, proper cooking procedures, preventing the transmission of parasitic
infections and protecting the health of consumers consuming these popular and diverse food sources in
urban environments.
8
contamination. To ensure food safety on the street, waste management is essential, as well as clean
drinking water for food preparation, and environmental control measures are necessary (Kariuki, 2018).
9
Vibrio bacteria is important for assessing both spoilage and contamination from seafood (Moloi et al.,
2021). Regular monitoring of these indicators is important to detect problems early, facilitate corrective
actions, and maintain safety standards in the diverse and dynamic context of street food vending.
2.4.2 Coliforms
Coliform bacteria, a group of Gram-negative rod-shaped microorganisms, serve as important microbial
indicators for assessing food safety and quality. Among them, Escherichia coli (E. coli) stands out as a
particular type used to measure fecal contamination and the possible presence of pathogens. Monitoring
coliform levels, including other species such as Enterobacter, Klebsiella, and Citrobacter, provides
insight into general hygiene in food processing and handling (Eden, 2014). Regular evaluation of
coliform bacteria serves as an early warning system that facilitates corrective action and ensures
compliance with hygiene standards in food production and handling. By serving as a reliable indicator,
coliform bacteria significantly contribute to maintaining food safety and quality and provides a proactive
approach to foodborne illness prevention and consumer welfare.
10
2.4.4 Molds and Yeasts
Molds and yeasts are important microbial indicators for assessing food safety and quality. Their
presence in food can cause spoilage and, in some cases, the production of harmful mycotoxins. Mold
and yeast detection serves as a valuable tool for preventive measures and contributes to the overall
safety of food and the protection of consumer health.
Despite the presence of regional differences, comparative studies on microbial contamination in street
food demonstrate that specific conditions require context-specific actions. Providing examples of
successful street food regulation and safety protocols in a specific area can be useful in guiding policy
initiatives to improve food safety in other areas (Desye et al., 2023). The integration of global initiatives
11
and endeavors contributes to a more extensive comprehension of street food safety and facilitates the
exchange of knowledge and best practices to ensure consumer well-being in diverse urban settings.
12
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Materials
13
3.1 Study Area
The food samples studied were collected in the stalls within the City Market, CBD Nairobi town. The
stalls sold ready-to-eat food. The research was carried out in the laboratory of the University of Nairobi,
School of Biological Sciences.
https://maps.app.goo.gl/2gMp7Xs3i7ikyHCe6
14
Figure 2: samples collected for the study
16
3.4.5 Sub-culturing
A representative colony from each distinct colony group from the initial isolation of each sample was
picked for sub-culturing and was done on nutrient agar plates for the bacterial analysis and the fungal
analysis in PDA inside a biosafety cabinet. A sterilized wire loop is used to pick a piece of the colony
and transfer it to an appropriately labeled agar plate. The plate streak method was used and the inoculum
was spread evenly on the plate and incubated at 27℃ for 24 hours. For the fungi, it was incubated for 3
days.
17
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS
Figure 3: Isolated bacteria from fish Figure 4: Isolated bacteria from sausage
Figure 5: Isolated bacteria from Roasted maize Figure 6: Isolated bacteria from banana
18
4.1.2 Subculture bacteria
Figure 9: Subculture of bacteria isolated Figure 10: Subculture of bacteria isolated from
Roasted Maize Banana
19
Isolates color Size Shape Margin Elevation Texture Gram
Reaction
1 White Large Irregular Wavy Umbonate Shiny Positive
20
Figure 14: Fungi isolated from Roasted Maize
21
Figure 17: Fungi isolated from Fish
4.2.2 Characterization of Isolated Fungi
23
4.2.3 Microscopic Characterization of Isolated Fungi
Figure 22: Fusarium sp. Isolated from Fish Figure 23: Trichophyton tonsurans sp. Isolated
from sausage
Figure 24: Fusarium sp. Isolated from Roasted Figure 25: Fusarium sp. Isolated from Banana
maize
24
4.2.4 Morphological Characterization of the Isolated Fungi
25
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.1 Discussion
The laboratory tests revealed that all the food samples from the are contaminated with different bacteria
and fungi species. These include Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus sp, Bacillus sp, Flavobacterium
sp, Escherichia coli, Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger, Penicillium sp, Fusarium sp. The finding is in
agreement with the work of Ajao and Atere (2009) and Oranusi and Braide (2012). The presence of
Staphylococcus aureus in the samples is indicative of human contamination after production. This could
be from direct human contact such as through fingers or indirectly through utensils. The organism is
associated with endotoxin characterized by a short incubation period (1-8 hours), violet nausea, vomiting,
and diarrhea. Similar to findings reported by Njage et al. (2019), the study identified high levels of total
coliforms and Escherichia coli in street foods, indicating fecal contamination and poor hygiene practices
during food handling (Njage et al., 2019). Contrary to the study by Osaili et al. (2018), which found lower
prevalence of Streptococcus spp in street foods, the study observed higher counts of this pathogen,
suggesting variability in contamination levels accross the City Market (Osaili et al., 2018).
Consistent with the findings of Hoque et al. (2020), Bacillus spp. Were detected in a considerable
proportion of street food samples, highlighting the potential risk of foodborne illness associated with
consumption of contaminated foods (Hoque et al., 2020). Bacillus cereus is another isolate that is
associated with the production of toxins, diarrheal, and emetics in food which causes food poisoning. It is
found in dust, soil, and raw food and can survive normal cooking temperatures as a heat-resistant spore
(Rajkowski and Bennett, 2003). The presence of E. coli suggested fecal contamination. Although E. coli
is harmless, Enterohaemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) is capable of producing one or more toxins and a
particular serotype O157:H7 have been associated with hemolytic ureamic syndrome and thrombosis.
The Enterotoxigenic E. coli (ETEC) is associated with traveler’s diarrhea similarly shigella dysenteriae
has been associated with severe bacillary dysentery while streptococcus sp, has frequently been associated
with acute sore throat (Adams and Moss, 2008). The presence of Aspergillus flavus, Aspergillus niger,
penicillium sp and Fusarium sp in the food sample is not surprising as they disperse in the form of spores
which is abundant in the environment and can be introduced through dust and soil (Apinis, 2003). Their
presence in these food samples is a serious public health concern as these fungi have all been implicated
in the production of Mycotoxin (Makun et al. 2009). as the study identified Aspergillus spp., Trichophyton
26
spp and Fusarium spp. As predominant fungal species in street foods, consistent with findings reported by
Rai et al. (2017) in similar settings (Rai et al., 2017).
In contrast to the study by Udomkun et al. (2019), which reported lower prevalence of fungal
contamination in street foods, the findings suggest a higher risk of fungal growth, possibly due to
differences in sampling methodologies and environmental conditions (Udomkun et al., 2019). Aspergillus
species produce toxic byproducts (mycotoxins) these toxins cause illness when consumed in high
quantities. Improper storage conditions, particularly warm and humid environments, promote Aspergillus
growth on food. Some fusarium species produce mycotoxins and spoilage of grains and fruits. The
presence of these bacteria and fungi indicates potential hygiene issues throughout the street food
preparation process. The major areas of concern are: Contaminated water source: use of unclean water for
washing ingredients or utensils can introduce E. coli and other harmful microbes. Poor hygiene: vendors
not properly washing their hands can spread bacteria from their bodies to food Improper temperature
control: if cooked food is not kept hot enough or low ingredients are not stored cold enough, bacteria can
multiply rapidly. Cross-contamination: using the same utensils for raw and cooked food can transfer
bacteria from contaminated items to safe ones.
Microbial guidelines for cooked food stipulated that the plate count must be <107 cfu/g for fish <1.0 x 104
cfu/g for banana <1.0 x 105 cfu/g for sausage and roasted maize <1.0 x 104 cfu/g and for coliforms the
plate count must be <10cfu/g (Gilbert et al. 200).
The microbial load of the food samples was higher than stipulated hence their presence constituted a health
risk. It can be adjudged that the street food sold in most streets in Nairobi City Market as obtained are
neither bacteriological nor mycological fit for consumption. The food contamination may have been due
to unhygienic practices and prolonged exposure to the environment.
5.2 Conclusion.
The findings of this study show the significant microbiological and mycological risks associated with
consuming street foods from City Market, Nairobi. The presence of pathogenic bacteria such as
Escherichia coli, Staphylococcus aureus, and Salmonella spp., along with potentially toxigenic fungal
species, highlights the urgent need for interventions to improve the safety and quality of street foods.
27
Several factors contribute to the contamination of street foods, including inadequate hygiene practices
during food preparation, improper storage conditions, and environmental contamination. The high
prevalence of microbial and fungal contamination across all food items examined indicates a systemic
issue that must be addressed to safeguard public health. To mitigate the risks associated with street foods,
multifaceted approaches are necessary. Strengthening food safety regulations and enforcement
mechanisms is paramount to ensure compliance with hygiene standards among street vendors. Regular
monitoring and surveillance of street food establishments should be conducted to detect and address
potential sources of contamination promptly.
Comprehensive food safety education programs targeting both street vendors and consumers are essential.
Vendors need to be trained in proper food handling practices, including hand hygiene, safe food storage,
and equipment sanitation. Consumers should be informed about the risks associated with consuming
contaminated street foods and empowered to make informed choices about their food purchases. Good
partnership with the government authorities, public health agencies, academia, and the food industry is
crucial to implement effective interventions and sustainably improve the safety of street foods in Nairobi.
Additionally, investments in infrastructure, such as providing access to clean water and sanitation facilities
for street vendors, can contribute to reducing the risk of contamination.
Addressing the microbiological and mycological hazards associated with street foods requires a concerted
effort from all stakeholders. By prioritizing food safety and implementing evidence-based interventions,
we can protect public health, promote consumer confidence, and ensure the availability of safe and
nutritious street foods for urban populations in Nairobi and beyond. Most food pathogens are of soil or
intestinal origin and are transmitted through poor food preparation, personal hygiene, or public sanitation
practices. Therefore, to ensure the safety of these foods, producers and hawkers must maintain a high level
of personal hygiene, and a clean environment, minimize contact with food samples after production, and
also utensils should be properly cleaned at all stages of production.
5.3 Recommendations
• Improved hygiene: street food vendors need training on proper hygiene practices including
handwashing, utensil sanitation, and proper food storage to minimize contamination
• Temperature control: maintaining proper cooking temperatures can kill harmful bacteria keeping
cooked food hot and perishable ingredients cold can help prevent bacterial growth.
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• Source tracking: investigating the source of contamination can help identify the critical control points
in the food preparation process.
• Public awareness: educating consumers about the potential risks of street food and how to identify
vendors can empower informed choices.
29
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