Activity 4

Scientific Measurement

Objectives:
At the end of the exercise, the students must be able to:
1. Use SI units in recording measured data.
2. Convert one unit of measurement into another.
3. Differentiate accuracy and precision.
4. Estimate errors of measured values.
5. Determine the number of significant figures of measured values.
6. Round-off results of calculations to the correct number of significant figures.
7. Use scientific/exponential notation in writing measured and calculated values.
8. Use dimensional analysis in calculations of desired values from experimental data.
9. Skillfully measure the quantities weight, volume, density, length, etc.

Scientists are interested not only in knowing what happens during the experiment but also in making
quantitative measurements. For example, scientists were not only interested to learn that the moon
and rocks contain both silicon and oxygen, but they also wanted to measure how much of these
elements are present in the rocks. Almost all experiments in the chemistry laboratory include
quantitative measurements and this exercise will show you how to deal with these numerical
measurements.

SI Units
The study of science could not be precise without a suitable system of measurements. The English
System presents many disadvantages in scientific measurements. Its chief disadvantage is that there
is no simple numerical relationship between the different units. The Metric System is a decimal
system that is a radical innovation of the French Revolutions in 1799. It spread gradually throughout
most of the world, first to the scientific community and then to commerce and everyday life. It was
established by an international treaty of the Metric Convention in Paris in 1975 and has since been
extended and improved. The currently established official system is the International System of Units,
abbreviated as SI.

The International System has seven fundamental (base) units from which all others can be derived.
They are tabulated in Table 1.

Table 1. International System of Units

QUANTITY UNIT SYMBOL

Length meter m

Mass kilogram kg

Time second s

Temperature Kelvin K

Electric Current ampere A

Amount of Substance mole mol

Luminous intensity candela cd

The SI rules specify that the symbols are not followed by periods nor are they changed in the plural.
Therefore, “5 g of mercury” is not written “5 g. of mercury” or “5 gs of mercury”.
Larger or smaller units in the SI are expressed by the prefixes shown in Table 2. Those “kilo”, 10 3 to
“pico” 10-12 are most commonly used by chemists.

Table 2. SI prefixes Length. The meter as its fundamental unit is

MULTIPLE OF defined as the distance between two parallel
PREFIX SYMBOL lines engraved on a platinum-iridium bar at the
FRACTION
International Bureau of Weights and Measures
1012 tera T in France. Since 1960, the meter has been
defined as 1,650,763.73 times the wavelength
109 giga G of the orange-red radiation of Krypton-86
atom.
106 mega M

103 kilo k
An older metric unit still in use is the Angstrom
10-1 deci d
(Å). Some handy conversions are shown in
10-2 centi c Table 3.

10-3 milli m

10-6 micro µ

10-9 nano n µ is the Greek letter mu.

10-12 Pico p

10-13 femto f

10-18 Atto a

Area (m2) and volume (m3) are derived units;

hence, no new standards are needed. For
volume, the SI also recognized the liter (L),
which is 10-3 m3 or 1 dm3. The liter was
Table 3. Conversions of some common units
formerly defined as the volume of 1 kg of pure
1Å = 10-10 m water at a temperature of its maximum density
(3.98°C) at one standard atmosphere.
= 10-9 m
However, this relationship, although still quite
10- 1 m accurate, is not exact.

1 in = 2.54 cm
Because the liter is approved for use with the
SI, so are the multiples and fractions of which
1 mile = 1.687 km the most common is the milliliter (mL). One mL
equals 1 cm3.

1 m3 = 1000 L

1L = 1000 mL

= 1.057 quart (U.S. liquid)

1 kg = 2.205 avoirdupois
Mass. The mass of the body is often said to be the quantity of matter it contains. One kilogram is
the mass of one liter of water at 4°C.
Density is the mass per unit volume. The derived SI units are therefore kg m-2 of kg L-1, or the more
familiar g/cm-3 or gm-3.
Time The unit of time, the second, was originally defined as 1/86, 400 of the mean solar day. In
1967, the second was redefined in terms of the frequency of the specific radiation from
Cesium -133 atom.
Temperature is the property of a body that determines the direction of the heat flow. The higher the
temperature, the greater the tendency for heat to flow away from the body. The most familiar
temperature measuring instrument, the mercury thermometer, is based on the nearly linear
expansion and contraction of liquid mercury with changing temperature.

The standard unit of temperature is the Kelvin (K). The temperature at which water, ice and water
vapor coexist together at equilibrium serves as the reference point. This temperature, called the triple
point of water, is assigned the exact value of 273.16 K.

The SI also has Celsius (formerly Centigrade) temperature expressed in °C. On this scale, the triple
point of water is 0.01°C. The relationship between K and °C is
K = °C + 273.15
The Fahrenheit scale used in commerce and engineering in the US defines the ice point to be 32°F
and the steam point to be 212°F. Its relationship to the Celsius scale is
5 9
℃= ( ℉−32 ) ℉= ℃+32
9 5

Uncertainty in Measurement

Chemistry is an experimental science. The measurement of numerous physical quantities is an

important part of the experimental process. Unfortunately, this experiment is subject to some
uncertainty. If a measurement is to have such worth, some idea regarding its reliability is essential. To
this end, the complete expression of a measured quantity must include the number, the units, and
some indications of how reliable the number is.

Contributions to the uncertainty in measurement fall into two general categories: limitations in
accuracy and limitations in precision.

Accuracy denotes the nearness of measurement to its accepted value. It refers to the correctness of
the measurement data. Accuracy is expressed in terms of error. Such errors may be absolute or
relative. An absolute error ( E a) is the difference between the observed value (O v ) and the accepted
value ( A v) or
E a ¿ Ov − A v
In quantitative laboratory experiments, absolute errors are referred to as experiment errors. A relative
error is generally more useful and this is commonly expressed as percentage with the accepted value
as the basis for comparison. The relative error ( Er ) is calculated as

Ea
Er = × 100
Av

The relative error is often referred to as percentage error.

Precision is the agreement between numerical values of two or more measurements that have been
made in the same way. It is a measure of the reproducibility of an experiment. The arithmetic average
of the values is usually taken as the “best” value. The simplest measure of precision is the average
deviation, calculated by determining the average of the deviation of each individual measurement in
a series of measurements from the average of all measurements.
For example:

SAMPLE MASS DEVIATION

1 3.87 g 3.90 – 3.87 = 0.03 g

2 3.95 g 3.95 – 3.90 = 0.05 g

3 3.89 g 3.90 – 3.89 = 0.01 g

MEAN 3.90 g = 0.03 g

The uncertainty in the measurement data is ±0.03 g and the mass of the sample is expressed as 3.90
± 0.03 g.
Precise measurements, however, are not necessarily accurate. Take the following examples.

Student A determined the diameter of a steel rod with a micrometer caliper while Student B
used a plastic ruler. The results of replicate experiments are:

Student A Student B

28.246 mm 27.9 mm

28.244 mm 28.0 mm

28.246 mm 27.8 mm

28.248 mm 28.1 mm

The steel rod has a certified diameter of 28.054 mm. Compare the work of Student A and Student B
and determine which work was more precise? More accurate?

Solution:

Student Student
Trial Deviation Deviation
A B

1 28.246 0.000 27.9 0.1

2 28.244 0.002 28.0 0.0

3 28.246 0.000 27.8 0.2

4 28.248 0.002 28.1 0.1

MEAN 28.246 0.001 28.0 0.1

Student A’s results, having a smaller deviation, are more precise than those of student B. But student
B’s result are more accurate because the error is smaller.

Student A Student B

28.246 The determined value 28.0

 28.054 The accepted value 28.1

+0.192 The error -0.1

Precision of an Instrument

The accuracy of any measured value is limited by the precision of the instrument used. The precision
of an instrument signifies the smallest quantity that the instrument could be sensitive to or detect. It is
defined as half of the smallest graduation or calibration of the instrument.

SC
P=±
2
Where P = precision, SC = smallest calibration. SC is given by the equation below

Difference between any two scales

SC =
Number of divisions

Consider the following section of a platform balance. The unit of measurement is gram, g.

2−1
SC = =0.1 g
10
0.1
P=± =± 0.05 g
2
The reading as indicated by arrows are:

a: 0.70 ± 0.05 g b: 3.25 ± 0.05 g

Note: the number of digits after the decimal point in each reading should be the same as that of the
precision of the instrument.

Hence, the platform balance is up to 0.05 g only and is not able to detect weights of 0.01 g nor 0.07 g.
Thus, the following readings are incorrect: 1.06 g, 2.13 g, 0.71 g.

Significant Figures

A significant figure or digit is defined as a digit that we believe to be correct or nearly so. It gives
reasonable, reliable information of the exactly measured value plus one digit that is estimated or
doubtful. For example, if the reported length of a stick is 96.75 cm, the value 96.7 is exactly known,
while the last digit, 5, is estimated.

Determining the Number of Significant Figures

1. All non-zero digits are significant, hence 19.73 has four significant figures.

2. In case of zeroes:

a. If zeroes appear between non-zero digits, they are considered significant. Thus, 104 has
three significant digits and 10.04 has four significant digits.

b. If the zero appears to the right of the decimal in a number greater than 1, it is considered
significant. Also, if the zero appears to the right of a significant digit in a number less than
1, it is considered significant. In both cases, a measurement has been made and found to
be zero.

Examples: 56.00 has 4 significant digits

0.1200 has 4 significant digits

c. If a zero appears in a number just to fix the position of the decimal point in a number less
than 1, it is not significant, since no measurement has been made.
Example: 0.005 has 1 significant digit

d. Terminal zeroes (zeroes at the end of a number, with no decimal point shown) in a number
are usually not significant. Example: 75,000 has 2 significant digits.

3. In mathematical operations, the following rules apply:

a. Addition and Subtraction. The answer follows the smallest number of decimal places of the
numbers being added or subtracted.
Example: 24.39 + 0.78945 = 25.18 not 25.17945

b. Multiplication and Division. The answer follows the least number of significant figures.
Example: 752 x 13 = 9800, not 9776

Rounding Off Numbers

It is clear from the above rules that the significant digits must be rounded off. The following rules apply
to rounding off the significant digits.

1. If the non-significant digit is less than 5, it is dropped, and the significant digit remains in the
answer.

47.21 is rounded off to 47.2

7.53 could be rounded off to 7.5

2. If the nonsignificant digit is 5 or more than 5, the nonsignificant digit is dropped, and the preceding
digit is increased by 1.

47.26 and 47.251 are both rounded off to 47.3

27.65 is rounded off to 27.7
27.35 is rounded off to 27.4

Exponential or Scientific Notation

Exponential notation is a form for expressing a number using a product of two numbers, one of the
numbers is a decimal less than 10 but more than or equal to 1 and the other is a power of 10.

For example, 24100 = 2.41 x 104

1. Changing a number by shifting the decimal point to the left of its original position involves a factor
of power of 10 and uses a positive exponent; changing a number by shifting the decimal point to
the right of its original position involves a factor of a power of 10 and uses a negative exponent.
2. In moving the decimal point to the left or to the right, the exponent is equal numerically to the
number of places the decimal point has been moved. A positive exponent means a number larger
than 1 while the negative exponent means a number smaller than 1.

Addition and Subtraction of Exponential Numbers. To add or subtract, the power of 10 must be the
same before adding or subtracting the decimal. If the power of the numbers is not the same, change
the one with the smaller power to the bigger one before adding or subtracting.

Multiplication and Division of Exponential Numbers. For multiplying or dividing numbers, the only
requirement is that the numbers are expressed to the same base. In multiplication, the decimal is
multiplied in the same manner, but the exponents are added algebraically, while in the division, the
exponents are subtracted.

Dimensional Analysis

This is the problem-solving method, which is also known as Factor Method/Unit Method. This makes
use of conversion factors, which could bridge the given information to the answer one is looking for.
Organize the given data, which should include its units with the units of the unknown.

Examples: 1. Convert 3.85 meters to millimeters

Conversion factor: 1000 mm = 1 m

1000 mm
? mm = 3.85 m x = 3850 mm
1m

2. How many kg are there in 10 lb?

Conversion factor: 1 lb = 0.454 kg

0.454 kg
? kg = 10 lb x = 4.54 kg
1 lb

Procedure

A. Measurement of Length

Secure a piece of wood from the counter. Measure its length, width, and thickness using the
centimeter scale of a ruler. Record your measurement in your data sheet using proper number
of significant figures. Calculate the volume of the wood sample by the formula:
 Volume = length x width x thickness

B. Measurement of Liquid Volume

1. Fill a 13 x 100 mm test tube with water up to the brim of the test tube. Carefully pour the
water into the graduated cylinder without spillage. Read the volume of the water and
record using the proper number of significant figures.
2. Dry the test tube used above and fill it to the brim with water using a pipet. Record the
volume delivered from the pipet using the proper number of significant figures. Compare
the volume measured by the pipet with that using the graduated cylinder above.
Note: In any volume measurement, read the position of the liquid meniscus (curved
surface) at the same level with your eyes (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Reading of liquid meniscus in a pipet

C. Measurement of Weight
Note: Always keep the balance clean. Never place any chemical directly on the balance pan;
always use a clean piece of paper or a weighing dish. Before using the balance, see to it that
the pointer is set to zero point. Ask assistance from your instructor if needed.
1. Weigh a clean and dry 50-mL beaker using a triple beam balance. To do this, place the
beaker at the center of the pan. Adjust the weights on the beams until the pointer is at
zero point. Record the weight to correct significant figures. Without removing the beaker
from the pan, pour into it a previously measured 20 mL of water in a graduated cylinder.
Adjust the weights on the beams again until the pointer points to zero. Record the total
weight of the beaker and the water. Determine the weight of the 20 mL water by
subtracting the weight of the beaker from the total weight of the beaker and the 20 mL
water.
2. Weigh a piece of clean paper. Record. Add to the paper a piece of iron bolt and record the
total weight. Pour the weighed iron bolt carefully (avoid spillage) into a graduated cylinder
containing 20.0 mL of water. Read the new volume of the water and determine the volume
of the iron bolt. This method of obtaining the volume of an irregular solid is called volume
measurement by water difference or water displacement method.

D. Determination of Density
From the data obtained in Part C, determine the density of the water and of the iron bolt. Make
sure that the density is reported with the correct number of significant figures. Compare the
measured density with the true density value and calculate the percentage error of the
measurement.
 Activity 4
Scientific Measurement

Group No. : __________ Group Members:

Class Section : __________ ______________________________
Class Schedule : __________ ______________________________
Date : __________ ______________________________
Score : __________ ______________________________
______________________________

A. Measurement of Length

1. Dimension of the piece of wood:

Length = __________ cm Precision of ruler = __________ cm
Width = __________ cm
Thickness = __________ cm

2. Volume of the piece of wood:

Volume = length x width x thickness
= _______ x _______ x _______
= _______ cm3

B. Measurement of Volume: Precision of graduated cylinder = __________ mL

Precision of pipet = __________ mL

1. Volume of test tube using a graduated cylinder = __________ mL

2. Volume of test tube using a pipet = __________ mL
3. Difference between (1) and (2) = __________ mL

C. Measurement of Weight and Volume

1. Weight of 50-mL beaker with 20-mL water = __________ g

Weight of 50-mL beaker = __________ g
Weight of 20-mL water = __________ g
2. Weight of a piece of paper with iron bolt = __________ g
Weight of a piece of paper = __________ g
Weight of iron bolt = __________ g
Volume of water with iron bolt = __________ mL
Volume of water = __________ mL
Volume of iron bolt = __________ mL

D. Determination of Density

weight of water weight of water g

Density of water = = = __________
volume of water volume of water mL
g mL—1

weight of iron bolt weight of water g

Density of Fe = = =
volume of iron bolt volume of water mL
__________g mL—1