MAJLIS ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE

PURAMANNUR
PG DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
(Affiliated to the University of Calicut)

OPERATIONS RESEARCH
FIFTH MODULE

Second Semester BCA

(Academic Year 2019-20 Onwards and 2017 Admissions)

 Questions and Answers based on Fifth Module

Module 5

Network Scheduling: Concept of network, basic components, PERT and CPM, Rules of
network construction, maximal flow problem, project scheduling critical path
calculations, advantages of network (PERT/CPM).

Sequencing models: processing n jobs through two machines, n jobs through three
machines, two jobs through m machines.

1. Sequencing problem involving processing of two jobs on n machines:

Ans: Have a condition that the processing of two jobs must be in the same order.
2. In critical path analysis, CPM is:
Ans: event oriented
3. In PERT analysis, the shortest possible time to perform an activity, assuming that
everything goes well is called:
Ans: most likely
4. In sequencing problem, the time interval between starting the first job and
completing the last job including the idle time in the particular order by the given
set of machines is called
Ans: Total elapsed time
5. Total float related to critical activity is
Ans: zero
6. An activity which started immediately after the completion of one or more activities
is known as .... activity.
Ans: Successor activity
7. The time for which a machine does not have a job to process is called...
Ans: idle time
8. Define Optimistic Time Estimates.
Ans: Optimistic time is a concept in PERT to represent the shortest estimated time
period within which a task is likely to be completed, and is used in project planning.
9. Define slack time and total float in the context of network model.
Ans: Total float is the difference between the finish date of the last activity on the
critical path and the project completion time. Any delay in an activity on the critical
path would reduce the amount of total float available on the project.
 Slack time can be defined as the amount of time a task can be delayed without
causing another task to be delayed or impacting the completion date of your project.
10. Describe an event in Network Scheduling.
Ans: An event is a specific instant of time, which makes the start or end of an
activity. Event consumes neither time nor resources.
11. Define Sequencing problem.
Ans. It is the selection of an appropriate order in which large number of jobs can be
assigned to a finite number of machines to optimize the outputs in terms of time,
cost or profit.
12. Explain Network Analysis.
Ans: Network Analysis is used to plan, monitor and control the projects to minimize
cost, project time, optimum utilization of resources, avoiding delays.
13. What is no passing rule in sequencing problem?
Ans: No passing rule means that the passing is not allowed, i.e., the same order of
jobs is maintained over each machine. If n jobs are to be processed through two
machines A and B in the order AB, then this means that each job will go to machine
A first and then to B.
14. Define critical activity
Ans: Critical Activity that is referred to a specific schedule activity that is occurred
to be an element of a critical path that happens to be placed within a project
schedule. Critical activities are single-minded that helps in the process of
implementation and utilization of the critical path method.
15. Explain the procedure of problems with n jobs and two machines.
Ans:
Step 1: find the shortest processing time among jobs not yet scheduled.
Step 2: if the shortest processing time is on machine 1, assign the job as early as
possible.
Otherwise assign it as late as possible (machine 2).
Step 3: eliminate the last job scheduled.
Step 4: repeat steps 1,2 until all jobs scheduled.

16. Distinguish between PERT and CPM analysis.

Ans:
Project Evaluation and Review Technique (PERT):
PERT is appropriate technique which is used for the projects where the time
required or needed to complete different activities are not known. PERT is majorly
applied for scheduling, organization and integration of different tasks within a
project. It provides the blueprint of project and is efficient technique for project
evaluation.

Critical Path Method (CPM):

CPM is a technique which is used for the projects where the time needed for
completion of project is already known. It is majorly used for determining the
approximate time within which a project can be completed. Critical path is the
largest path in project management which always provide minimum time taken for
completion of project.

PERT CPM
PERT is that technique of project CPM is that technique of project
management which is used to manage management which is used to manage
uncertain (i.e., time is not known) only certain (i.e., time is known)
activities of any project. activities of any project.

It is event-oriented technique which It is activity-oriented technique which

means that network is constructed on means that network is constructed on
the basis of event. the basis of activities.

It is a probability model. It is a deterministic model.

It majorly focuses on time as meeting It majorly focuses on Time-cost trade off

time target or estimation of percent as
completion is more important. minimizing cost is more important.

It is appropriate for high precision time It is appropriate for reasonable time

estimation. estimation.

It has Non-repetitive nature of job. It has repetitive nature of job.

There is no chance of crashing as there There may be crashing because of

is no certainty of time. certain time boundation.

It doesn’t use any dummy activities It uses dummy activities for

representing sequence of activities.

It is suitable for projects which required It is suitable for construction projects.

research and development.
17.

18.
19.
 MAJLIS ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE
PURAMANNUR
PG DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
(Affiliated to the University of Calicut)

OPERATIONS RESEARCH
FOURTH MODULE

Second Semester BCA

(Academic Year 2019-20 Onwards and 2017 Admissions)

 Questions and Answers based on Fourth Module

Module IV
Assignment model: Mathematical formulation of the problem - assignment
algorithm-impossible algorithms - travelling salesman problem

Short answers and Essay Questions

1. Define Assignment problem

Assignment problem is a special LPP which deals with assignment of workers to machines, clerks to
various checkout counters, salesman to different sales areas, service crews to different districts
and so on. Thus in an assignment problem, the question is how the assignments should be made in
order that the total cost involved is minimized.

2. Explain the method to solve assignment problem

This method is specially designed to handle assignment problems in an efficient way. HAM is based
on the concept of opportunity cost. For a typical balanced assignment problem involving a certain
number of people and an equal number of jobs, with an objective function of minimization type,
the method is applied as listed in the following steps.
Step 1: Locate the smallest cost element in each row of the cost table and subtract it from each
element in that row. As a result there shall be at least one zero in each row of this new table,
called the reduced cost table.
Step 2: In the reduced cost table obtained, consider each column and locate the smallest element
in it. Subtract the smallest value from every other entry in the column. As a result of this , there
would be at least one zero in each of the rows and columns of the second reduced cost table.
Step 3: Draw the minimum number of horizontal and vertical lines (not diagonal lines) that are
required to cover all 0 elements. If the number of lines drawn is equal to n (i.e. the number of rows
or columns) the solution is optimal and proceeds to step 6. If the number of lines drawn is less than
n, go to step 4.
Step 4: Select the smallest uncovered cost element. Subtract this element from all uncovered
elements including itself and add this element to each value located at the intersection of any two
lines. The cost elements through which only one line passes remain unaltered.
Step 5: Repeat step 3 and 4 until an optimal solution is obtained.

Step 6: Given the optimal solution, make the job assignments as indicated by the zero elements.
This can be done as follows:
a) Locate a row which contains only one ‘zero’ element. Assign the job corresponding to
this element to its corresponding person. Cross out the zeros, if any, in the column
corresponding to the element, which is indicative of the fact that the particular job and
person are no more available.
b) Repeat (a) for each of such rows, which contain only one zero. Similarly, perform the
same operation in respect of each column containing only one zero element, crossing
out the zero(s), if any, in the row in which the element lies.
c) If there is no row or column with only a single 0 element left, then select a row or
column arbitrarily and choose one of the jobs (or persons) and make the assignment.
Now cross the remaining zeros in the column and row in respect of which the
assignment is made.
d) Repeat steps (a) through (c) until all assignments are made.
e) Determine the total cost with reference to the original cost table.
3. Problems
A production supervisor is considering how he should assign the four jobs that are to be
performed, to four of the workers. He wants to assign the jobs to the workers such that
the aggregate time to perform the jobs is the least. Based on previous experience, he has
the information on the time taken by the four workers in performing these jobs, as given in
the table:

Worker Job
A B C D
1 45 40 51 67
2 57 42 63 55
3 49 52 48 64
4 41 45 60 55
Table 1: Time taken (in minutes) by 4
Workers

Solution: The solution to this problem has been discussed in a step wise manner:
Step 1: The minimum elements of each row is subtracted from all elements in the row as shown in
the following table known as the reduced cost table or opportunity cost table:
Worker Job
A B C D
1 5 0 11 27
2 15 0 21 13
3 1 4 0 16
4 0 4 19 14
Step 2: For each column of the above table the minimum value is subtracted from all other values
giving us another reduced cost table:

Worker Job
A B C D
1 5 0 11 14
2 15 0 21 0
3 1 4 0 3
4 0 4 19 1
Step 3: Draw the minimum number of lines covering all zeros. We will first cover those
rows/columns which contain larger number of zeros such that we obtain the following reduced
cost table.

Worker Job
A B C D
1 5 0 1 1 14
2 15 0 2 1 0
3 1 4 0 3
4 0 4 1 9 1
Step 4: Since the number of lines drawn=4(=n), the optimal solution is obtained. The assignments
are made after scanning the rows and columns for unit zeros. Assignments made are shown with
squares as depicted in the table.
 Worker Job
A B C D
1 5 0 11 14
2 15 0 21 0

3 1 4 0 3

4 0 4 19 1
Assignments are made in the following order. Since row 1, 3 and 4 contain 1 zero each, we assign
1-B, 3-C and 4-A. Since worker 1 has been assigned the job B, we cross the zero in the second
column of the second row. After making these assignments, only worker 2 and job D are left for
assignment. The final pattern of assignments is 1-B, 2-D, 3-C and 4-A involving a total time of
40+55+48+41=184 minutes ( as taken from the original table).

4. What is an unbalanced assignment problem?

The Hungarian method of solving assignment problems require that the number of columns should
be equal to the number of rows in which case the problem is known as balanced problem and
when the rows and columns are unequal, it is called an unbalanced assignment problem. In case of
such class of problems, one to one match is not possible.
In such situations, dummy columns / rows, whichever is smaller in number are inserted with zeros
as the cost elements. For example, in case of 4x5 cost matrix, a dummy row is added. In each
column in respect of this row, a zero would be placed. After this process of adding dummy rows/
columns, the problem is solved in a usual manner.
5. Problem
You are given information about cost of performing different jobs by different persons.
The job-person marking x indicates that the individual involved cannot perform the
particular job. Using this information, state (a) the optimal assignment of jobs (b) the
cost of such assignment.

Person Job
J1 J2 J3 J4 J5
P1 27 18 X 20 21
P2 31 24 21 12 17
P3 20 17 20 X 16
P4 22 28 20 16 27

Solution: Balancing the problem and assigning a high cost to the pairings P1-J3 and P3-J4, we obtain
the following cost table:

Person Job
J1 J2 J3 J4 J5
P1 27 18 M 20 21
P2 31 24 21 12 17
 P3 20 17 20 M 16
P4 22 28 20 16 27
P5(dummy) 0 0 0 0 0

From the above table a reduced cost table is derived as depicted below. However the cells with
prohibited assignments continue to be shown with the cost element M, as M is defined to be
extremely large such that subtraction or addition of a value does not practically affect it.To test
optimality, lines are drawn to cover all zeros.

Job
Person
J1 J2 J3 J4 J5
P1 9 0 M 2 3
P2 19 12 9 0 5
P3 4 1 4 M 0
P4 6 12 4 0 11
P5(dummy) 0 0 0 0 0

Since the number of lines covering zeros is less than n, we select the lowest uncovered cell which
equals
4. With this value we obtain the revised reduced cost table as depicted below:
Job
Person
J1 J2 J3 J4 J5
P1 9 0 M 6 3
P2 15 8 5 0 1
P3 4 1 4 M 0
P4 2 8 0 0 7
P5(dummy) 0 0 0 4 0

Since in the above table, the number of lines covering zeros equals 5(=n), an optimal assignment
can be made which is : P1-J2, P2-J4, P3-J5, P4-J3 while job J1 would remain unassigned. The
assignment pattern would cost 18+12+16+20=66 in aggregate.
6. What is the Maximization Case of Assignment Problem?

In some situations the assignment problem may call for maximization of profit, revenue etc. as the
objective. For dealing with such problems, we first change it into an equivalent minimization
problem. This is achieved by subtracting each of the elements of the given pay-off matrix from a
constant value (say K). Usually the largest of all values in the given matrix is located and then each
one of the values is subtracted from it. Then the problem is solved the same way as the
minimization problem.
7. Problem
A company plans to assign 5 salesmen to 5 districts in which it operates. Estimates of
sales revenue in thousands of rupees for each salesman in different districts are given in
the following table. In your opinion, what should be the placement of the salesmen if
the objective is to maximize the expected sales revenue?
 Salesman Distric t
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
S1 40 46 48 36 48
S2 48 32 36 29 44
S3 49 35 41 38 45
S4 30 46 49 44 44
S5 37 41 48 43 47
Solution:

Since this is a maximization problem, we first subtract each of the entries in the table from the
largest one (i.e. 49) to obtain the following opportunity loss matrix:

Salesman Distric t
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
S1 9 3 1 13 1
S2 1 17 13 20 5
S3 0 14 8 11 4
S4 19 3 0 5 5
S5 12 8 1 6 2

Now we can proceed the same way as in case of minimization problems by following the below
mentioned steps:
Step 1: Subtract minimum value in each row from every value in the row so as to obtain the
following reduced cost table:

Salesman Distric t
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
S1 8 2 0 12 0
S2 0 16 12 19 4
S3 0 14 8 11 4
S4 19 3 0 5 5
S5 11 7 0 5 1

Step 2:Now subtract minimum value in each column from each value in that column in the above
reduced cost table to obtain the following table. Test for optimality by drawing lines to cover zeros.

Salesman Distric
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
S1 8 0 0 7 0
S2 0 14 12 14 4
S3 0 12 8 6 4
S4 9 1 0 0 5
S5 1 5 0 0 1
Since the number of lines covering all zeros is fewer than n, we select the least uncovered cell
value, which equals 4 and obtain a modified table as shown below:
Salesman District
D1 D2 D3 D4 D5
 S1 12 0 0 7 0
S2 0 10 8 10 0
S3 0 8 4 2 0
S4 23 1 0 0 5
S5 15 5 0 0 1

There are more than one optimal assignments possible in this case because of existence of multiple
zeros in different rows and columns. The following assignments are possible:
S1-D2,S2-D1,S3-D5,S4-D3,S5-D4
or S1-D2,S2-D5,S3-D1,S4-D3,S5-
D4 or S1-D2,S2-D5,S3-D1,S4-
D4,S5-D3 or
S1-D2,S2-D1,S3-D5,S4-D4,S5-D3

Each of these assignment patters would lead to an expected aggregate sales equal to 231
thousand rupees.
9. Which method is used for solving assignment problem?
Ans:-Hungarian Method
10. What is travelling salesman problem?
The traveling salesman problem consists of a salesman and a set of cities.
The salesman has to visit each one of the cities starting from a certain one (e.g. the
hometown) and returning to the same city. The challenge of the problem is that
the traveling salesman wants to minimize the total length of the trip.
11.

Solution:
12. Problem solution
.
 MAJLIS ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE
PURAMANNUR
PG DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
(Affiliated to the University of Calicut)

OPERATIONS RESEARCH
FIRST MODULE

Second Semester BCA

(Academic Year 2019-20 Onwards and 2017 Admissions)

 Questions and Answers based on First Module

Module I
Operation research and LPP: Operation Research and Decision
making, Advantages of O R, Approach in decision making,
Application of O R, uses and limitations of O R.

(1 Mark Questions)

1. Operations Research (OR), which is a very powerful tool for ___________.

Ans: Decision Making.
2. Who coined the term Operations Research?
Ans:J.F.McCloskey and F.N. Trefethen.
3. Who defined Operations Research as scientific method of providing executive
departments with a quantitative basis for decisions regarding the operations
under their control?
Ans: Morse and Kimball
4. Which technique is used in finding a solution for optimizing a given objective,
such as profit maximization or cost minimization under certain constraints?
Ans: Linear programming
5. Define Operations Research?
Ans: Operations research (OR) is an analytical method of problem-solving and
decision-making that is useful in the management of organizations. In operations
research, problems are broken down into basic components and then solved in
defined steps by mathematical analysis.
(2 Mark Questions)
6. Cite any two limitations of Operations Research?
Ans: Costly : Operations Research (OR) is very costly. This is because OR makes
mathematical models for taking decisions and solving problems. The company
has to make various models for solving different problems. All this increments
the cost.
Not Realistic : OR experts make very complex models for solving problems. These
models may not be realistic. Hence, they may not be useful for real-life situations.
 Complex : OR is very complex concept. It is very difficult for an average manager
to understand.
7. Cite the uses of Operations Research?

Ans :

● Scheduling and time management.

● Urban and agricultural planning.
● Enterprise resource planning (ERP) and supply chain management
(SCM).
● Inventory management in Organizations.
● Network optimization and engineering.
● Packet routing optimization.
● Risk management

(4 Mark /Short Essay Questions)

8. What are the advantages of Operations Research?

Ans:
● Enhanced productivity. Operations research helps in improving the
productivity of the organizations
● Linear programming. Management is responsible for making important
decisions about the organization.
● Improved coordination.
● Lower risks of failure.
● Control on the system.
9. What are the main characteristics of Operations research techniques?
Ans:
Some significant characteristics or features of OR are given below:
1. Decision Making: A major premise of OR is that decision making,
irrespective of the situation involved, can be considered as a general
systematic process. OR improves the quality of decisions.
2. Scientific Approach: OR applies scientific methods for the purpose of
analysis and solution of the complex problems. It is a formalized process of
reasoning. In this approach there is no place for guess work and the
person bias of the decision maker.
 3. Objective-Oriented Approach: OR attempts to locate the best or optimal
solution to the problem under consideration. OR tries to find the best
(optimum) decisions relative to largest possible portion of the total
organization.
4. Inter-disciplinary team Approach: OR is the inter-disciplinary in nature
and requires a team approach to a solution of the problem. Managerial
problems have economic, physical, biological and engineering aspects.
This requires a blend of people with expertise in the areas of
mathematics, statistics, engineering, economics, management, computer
science and so on.
5. Imperfectness of solutions: By OR techniques, we cannot obtain perfect
answers to our problems but, only quality of the solution is improved from
worse to bad answers.
6. Use of Digital Computer: The models of OR need lot of computation and
therefore, the use of computers becomes necessary. With the use of
computers it is possible to handle complex problems requiring large
amount of calculations.
7. Optimize the total output: OR tries to optimize the total output by
maximizing the profit and minimizing the cost.

(8 Mark /Essay Questions)

10. Explain the Phases of OR?

Ans: OR study generally involves the following major phases

a) Defining the problem and gathering data

b) Formulating a mathematical model
c) Deriving solutions from the model
d) Testing the model and its solutions
e) Preparing to apply the model
f) Implementation

a) Defining the problem and gathering data

The first task is to study the relevant system and develop a well-defined statement
of the problem. This includes determining appropriate objectives, constraints,
interrelationships and alternative course of action. The OR team normally works in
an advisory capacity. The team performs a detailed technical analysis of the problem
and then presents recommendations to the management. Ascertaining the
appropriate objectives is very important aspect of problem definition. Some of the
objectives include maintaining stable price, profits, increasing the share in market,
improving work morale etc. OR team typically spends huge amount of time in
gathering relevant data.∙

b)Formulating a mathematical model

This phase is to reformulate the problem in terms of mathematical symbols and

expressions. The mathematical model of a business problem is described as the
system of equations and related mathematical expressions.

 Decision variables (x1, x2 … xn) – ‘n’ related quantifiable decisions to be

made.

 Objective function – measure of performance (profit) expressed as

mathematical function of decision variables. For example P=3x 1 +5x2 + … +
4xn

 Constraints – any restriction on values that can be assigned to decision

variables in terms of inequalities or equations. For example x1 +2x2 ≥ 20

 Parameters – the constant in the constraints (right hand side values) The
advantages of using mathematical models are Describe the problem more
concisely and indicates clearly what additional data are relevant for analysis∙
Forms a bridge to use mathematical technique in computers to analyze∙

c)Deriving solutions from the model

This phase is to develop a procedure for deriving solutions to the problem. A common
theme is to search for an optimal or best solution.

d)Testing the model and its solutions

After deriving the solution, it is tested as a whole for errors if any. The process of
testing and improving a model to increase its validity is commonly referred as
Model validation. The OR group doing this review should preferably include at least
one individual who did not participatein the formulation of model to reveal
mistakes.
 e)Preparing to apply the model

After the completion of testing phase, the next step is to install a well-documented
system for applying the model. This system will include the model, solution
procedure and operating procedures for implementation. The system usually is
computer-based. Databases and Management Information System may provide up-
to-date input for the model. An interactive computer based system called Decision
Support System is installed to help the manager to use data and models to support
their decision making as needed. A managerial report interprets output of the model
and its implications for applications.

f) Implementation

The last phase of an OR study is to implement the system as prescribed by the

management. The success of this phase depends on the support of both top
management and operating management. The implementation phase involves
several steps.

 OR team provides a detailed explanation to the operating management

 If the solution is satisfied, then operating management will provide the

explanation to the personnel, the new course of action.

 The OR team monitors the functioning of the new system

 Feedback is obtained

 Documentation

11. What are the OR Techniques?

Probability: analyze uncertainties and bring out necessary data with
reasonable accuracy for the purpose of decision making
Linear Programming: This model is used for resource allocation when the
resources are limited and there are number of competing candidates for the use
of resources.
Decision theory: OR technique of Decision theory is applied to select best
alternative course of action
Game theory: Game theory helps to determine the best course of action for a
firm in view of the expected counter moves from the competitors.
Transportation problem: The aim of this technique is find out the minimum
transportation cost.
The assignment problem: This technique is used to assign jobs to efficient and
suitable persons at minimum cost.
Network analysis: Program evaluation and review technique and critical path
method are powerful tools for planning and control of complex jobs involving a
large number of complex activities.
Dynamic programming: this technique deals with the problems that arise in
connection with multi period analysis and decisions.
Nonlinear programming: it is that form of programming in which some or all
variables are curvy linear.
Market analysis: it is a method of analyzing the current movement of the
same variable in an effort to predict the future movement of same variable.
MAJLIS ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE
PURAMANNUR
PG DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
(Affiliated to the University of Calicut)

OPERATIONS RESEARCH

THIRD MODULE

Second Semester BCA

(Academic Year 2019-20 Onwards and 2017 Admissions)

 Questions and Answers based on Third Module
Module III
Transportation Model: North West Corner rule, Least Cost method, Vogel’s approximation
Method, Loops in transportation table, Degeneracy in transportation table, transshipment
problem.

(1 Mark Questions)
1. While Solving a transportation problem the occurrence of degeneracy means that
Ans: the solution so obtained is not feasible.
2. A transportation problem is said to be balance if
Ans: total demand=total supply
3. A feasible solution of a transportation problem involves exactly m+n-1 possible
variables is known as
Ans: Basic Feasible Solution.

(2 Mark Questions)
4. What is an unbalanced transportation problem?
Ans: The problem of transporting a product from several factories (supply origins) to a
number of warehouses (demand destinations) is generally considered as a very good
application area for linear programming technique. When the total number of units
available at the supply origins is equal to the total number of items available at the
demand destinations, it is termed a balanced transportation problem. If these two
values are not equal, it is termed an unbalanced problem.
5. Explain transportation problem? Show that it can be considered as LPP.
Ans: The Transportation Method of linear programming is applied to the problems
related to the study of the efficient transportation routes i.e. how efficiently the
product from different sources of production is transported to the different
destinations, such as the total transportation cost is minimum.
(4 Mark /Short Essay Questions)
6. Explain transportation problem? Give its Mathematical Formulation?
Ans: Let there be m origins and n destinations. Let the amount of supply at the i
th origin is ai . Let the demand at j th destination is bj.The cost of transporting one
unit of an item from origin i to destination j is cij and is known for all
combinations (i,j). Quantity transported from origin i to destination j be xijThe
objective is to determine the quantity xij to be transported over all routes (i,j) so as to
minimize the total transportation cost. The supply limits at the origins and the
demand requirements at the destinations must be satisfied. The above transportation
 problem can be written in the following tabular form:

Now the linear programming model representing the transportation problem is given by

7. Define degeneracy in transportation problem? How it is resolved?

Ans: The objective of transportation problem is to determine the amount to be
transported from each origin to each destination such that the total transportation
cost is minimized. In a transportation problem, if a basic feasible solution with m
origins and n destinations has less than m+ n -1 positive Xij i.e. occupied cells, then
the problem is said to be a degenerate transportation problem. The degeneracy
problem does not cause any serious difficulty, but it can cause computational problem
wile determining the optimal minimum solution. There fore it is important to identify
a degenerate problem as early as beginning and take the necessary action to avoid any
computational difficulty. The degeneracy can be identified through the following
results:“In a transportation problem, a degenerate basic feasible solution exists if and
only if some partial sum of supply (row) is equal to a partial sum of demand (column).
8. Explain MODI method to find optimal solution in transportation problem?
Ans: The Modified Distribution Method, also known as MODI method or u-v method,
which provides a minimum cost solution (optimal solution) to the transportation
problem. The following are the steps involved in this method.
Step 1: Find out the basic feasible solution of the transportation problem using any
one of the three methods discussed in the previous section.
Step 2: Introduce dual variables corresponding to the row constraints and the column
constraints. If there are m origins and n destinations then there will be m+n dual
variables. The dual variables corresponding to the row constraints are represented by
ui, i=1,2,…..m where as the dual variables corresponding to the column constraints
 are represented by vj, j=1,2,…..n. The values of the dual variables are calculated from
the equation given below ui + vj = cij if xij > 0
Step 3: Any basic feasible solution has m + n -1 xij > 0. Thus, there will be m + n -1
equation to determine m + n dual variables. One of the dual variables can be chosen
arbitrarily. It is also to be noted that as the primal constraints are equations, the dual
variables are unrestricted in sign.
Step 4: If xij=0, the dual variables calculated in Step 3 are compared with the cij
values of this allocation as cij – ui – vj. If al cij – ui – vj ≥ 0, then by the theorem of
complementary slackness it can be shown that the corresponding solution of the
transportation problem is optimum. If one or more cij – ui – vj < 0, we select the cell
with the least value of cij – ui – vj and allocate as much as possible subject to the row
and column constraints. The allocations of the number of adjacent cell are adjusted so
that a basic variable becomes non-basic.
Step 5: A fresh set of dual variables are calculated and repeat the entire procedure
from Step 1 to Step 5.
9. Explain some of the areas where transportation techniques are employed?
Ans: The following are some of areas where transportation techniques are employed.
 Scheduling Airlines
 Deciding appropriate place to site new facilities such as warehouse, factory etc.
 Telecommunication Industry
 Health Services

(8 Mark /Essay Questions)

10.
11. Explain various methods to obtain Initial Basic Feasible Solution in transportation
problem?
Ans:
North West Corner Method:
The method starts at the North West (upper left) corner cell of the tableau (variable
x11).
Step -1: Allocate as much as possible to the selected cell, and adjust the associated
amounts of capacity (supply) and requirement (demand) by subtracting the allocated
amount.
Step -2: Cross out the row (column) with zero supply or demand to indicate that no
further assignments can be made in that row (column). If both the row and column
becomes zero simultaneously, cross out one of them only, and leave a zero supply or
demand in the uncrossed out row (column).
Step -3: If exactly one row (column) is left uncrossed out, then stop. Otherwise, move
to the cell to the right if a column has just been crossed or the one below if a row has
been crossed out. Go to step -1.
Least Cost Method
The least cost method is also known as matrix minimum method in the sense we look
for the row and the column corresponding to which Cij is minimum. This method finds
a better initial basic feasible solution by concentrating on the cheapest routes. Instead
of starting the allocation with the northwest cell as in the North West Corner Method,
we start by allocating as much as possible to the cell with the smallest unit cost.
If there are two or more minimum costs then we should select the row and the column
corresponding to the lower numbered row. If they appear in the same row we should
select the lower numbered column. We then cross out the satisfied row or column, and
adjust the amounts of capacity and requirement accordingly. If both a row and a
column is satisfied simultaneously, only one is crossed out. Next, we look for the
uncrossed-out cell with the smallest unit cost and repeat the process until we are left
at the end with exactly one uncrossed-out row or column.
Vogel Approximation Method (VAM):
VAM is an improved version of the least cost method that generally produces better
solutions. The steps involved in this method are:
Step 1: For each row (column) with strictly positive capacity (requirement), determine
a penalty by subtracting the smallest unit cost element in the row (column) from the
next smallest unit cost element in the same row (column).
Step 2: Identify the row or column with the largest penalty among all the rows and
columns. If the penalties corresponding to two or more rows or columns are equal we
select the topmost row and the extreme left column.
 Step 3: We select Xij as a basic variable if Cij is the minimum cost in the row or
column with largest penalty. We choose the numerical value of Xij as high as possible
subject to the row and the column constraints. Depending upon whether ai or bj is the
smaller of the two ith row or jth column is crossed out.
Step 4: The Step 2 is now performed on the uncrossed-out rows and columns until all
the basic variables have been satisfied.

12. Obtain the initial basic feasible solution for the following transportation problem
by various methods?

Ans:
North West Corner Method

Least Cost Method

Vogels Approximation Method
MAJLIS ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE
PURAMANNUR
PG DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE
(Affiliated to the University of Calicut)

OPERATIONS RESEARCH
SECOND MODULE

Second Semester BCA

(Academic Year 2019-20 Onwards and 2017 Admissions)

 Questions and Answers based on Second Module

Module II
LPP: Introduction, mathematical formulation the problem, canonical and standard
forms of LPP. Simplex method, artificial variable technique - Big M and two phase
method - problem of degeneracy - concept of duality - dual simplex method.

(1 Mark Questions)
1. Minimization of objective function in LPP means
Ans: Least value chosen among the allowable decisions
2. For maximization LPP, the objective function coefficient for an artificial variable
is :
Ans: - M
3. The dual of the Primal maximization LPP having m constraints and n non
negative variables Should:
Ans: have n constraints and non negative variables.

4. The variable that we seek to determine in a LPP are called

Ans: Decision variables

5. A basic solution to the system is degenerate if one or more -------vanishing

Ans: variable
6. The basic Solution in which non of the basic variable is zero is called ------
Ans: non degenerated
7. A variable that is added to an inequality to transform it into equality :
Ans: Slack variable
8. Dual of a dual problem of a LPP is is
Ans:Primal.

(2 Mark Questions)
9. State the general linear programming problem in standard form?

A: Standard form of LPP must have following three characteristics:

 Objective function should be of maximization type

 All the constraints should of equality type

 All the decision variables should be nonnegative

10. What is Role of pivot element in simplex table?

A: To determine the leaving variable in from a feasible solution.

11. What is linear programming problem?

A: A linear programming problem consists of a linear function to be maximized or
minimized subject to certain constraints in the form of linear equations or
inequalities.

12. Define feasible solution ? Optimal solution?

A:A nonnegative vector of variables that satisfies the constraints of (P) is called a
feasible solution to the linear programming problem. A feasible solution that
minimizes the objective function is called an optimal solution. A nonnegative vector
of variables that satisfies the constraints of (P) is called a feasible solution to the
linear programming problem. A feasible solution that minimizes the objective
function is called an optimal solution.

13. Define slack surplus and artificial variables in LPP.

A: Slack variable: It is used o convert a Less than or equal to (≤) constraint into
equality to write standard form. It is ADDED to ≤ constraint.

Surplus & Artificial variables: They are used to convert Greater than or equal to (≥)
constraint into equality to write standard form.

14. What are the advantages of LPP?

A: LP makes logical thinking and provides better insight into business problems.
Manager can select the best solution with the help of LP by evaluating the cost and
profit of various alternatives.

 LP provides an information base for optimum allocation of scarce resources.

 LP assists in making adjustments according to changing conditions.

 LP helps in solving multi-dimensional problems.

15. Write any two applications of LPP?

 Financial Management

 Inventory Management

16. Explain Duality?

A: The duality in Linear Programming states that every LPP has another LPP
related to it and thus can be derived from it. The original LPP is called Primal
while the Derived LP is called Dual.

(4 Mark /Short Essay Questions)

17. What are the Components of linear programming problem?

 A:Decision Variables: The decision variables are the variables which will decide my
output. They represent my ultimate solution. To solve any problem, we first need to
identify the decision variables. For the above example, the total number of units for
A and B denoted by X & Y respectively are my decision variables.

Objective Function: It is defined as the objective of making decisions. In the above

example, the company wishes to increase the total profit represented by Z. So, profit
is my objective function.

Constraints: The constraints are the restrictions or limitations on the decision

variables. They usually limit the value of the decision variables. In the above
example, the limit on the availability of resources Milk and Choco are my
constraints.

Non-negativity restriction: For all linear programs, the decision variables should
always take non-negative values which mean the values for decision variables should
be greater than or equal to 0.

(8 Mark /Essay Questions)

18. Explain the procedure of Simplex Method?
Ans: Step1. Check if the linear programming problem is a standard maximization
problem in standard form, i.e., if all the following conditions are satisfied: It’s to
maximize an objective function. All variables should be non-negative (i.e. ≥ 0).
Constraints should all be ≤ a non-negative.

Step2. Create slack variables to convert the inequalities to equations.

Step3. Write the objective function as an equation in the form "left hand side"= 0 where
terms involving variables are negative. Example: Z = 3x + 4y becomes – 3x – 4y + Z = 0.

Step4. Place the system of equations with slack variables, into a matrix. Place the
revised objective equation in the bottom row.

Step 5. Select pivot column by finding the most negative indicator. (Indicators are those
elements in bottom row except last two elements in that row)

Step 6. Select pivot row. (Divide the last column by pivot column for each corresponding
entry except bottom entry and negative entries. Choose the smallest positive result. The
corresponding row is the pivot row. In case there is no positive entry in pivot column
above dashed line, there is no optimal solutions)

Step 7. Find pivot: Circle the pivot entry at the intersection of the pivot column and the
pivot row, and identify entering variable and exit variable at mean time. Divide pivot by
itself in that row to obtain 1. Also obtain zeros for all rest entries in pivot column by row
operations.
Step 8. Do we get all nonnegative indicators? If yes, we may stop. Otherwise repeat step
5 to step 7.

Step 9. Read the results: Correspond the last column entries to the variables in front of
the first column. The variables not showing are automatically equal to 0.

19. Explain Two phase method with an example?

Ans: In the first phase of this method, the sum of the artificial variables is minimized
subject to the given constraints (known as auxiliary L.P.P.) to get a basic feasible
solution to the original L.P.P. Second phase then optimizes the original objective
function starting with the basic feasible solution obtained at the end of Phase 1. The
iterative procedure of the algorithm may be summarizing as below:

Step 1:

Write the given L.P.P into its standard form and check whether there exists a starting
basic feasible solution.

 If there is a ready starting basic feasible solution, go to Phase 2.

 If there does not exist a ready starting basic feasible solution, go on to the next
step.

PHASE 1

Step 2:

Add the artificial variable to the left side of the each equation that lacks the needed
starting basic variables. Construct an auxiliary objective function aimed at minimizing
the sum of all artificial variables

Thus, the new objective is to

Minimize z = A1 +A2 + A3 + ............ +An

Maximize z* = - A1 - A2 - A3 - ......... ..-An

where Ai (i = 1,2,3…m)are the non-negative artificial variables.

Step 3:

Apply simplex algorithm to the specially constructed L.P.P. The following three cases
arise at the least interaction:

 Max z* < 0 and at least one artificial variable is present in the basis with positive
value. In such case, the original L.P.P does not possess any feasible solution.

 Max z* = 0 and at least artificial variable is present in the basis at zero value. In
such a case, the original L.P.P possess the feasible solution. In order to get basic
 feasible solution we may proceed directly to Phase 2 or else eliminate the
artificial basic variable and then proceed to Phase 2.

 Max z* = 0 and no artificial variable is present in the basis. In such a case, a basic
feasible solution to the original L.P.P has been found. Go to Phase 2.

PHASE 2

Step 4:

Consider the optimum basic feasible solution of Phase 1 as the starting basic feasible
solution for the original L.P.P. Assign actual coefficients to the variables in the objective
function and a value zero to the artificial variables that appear at zero value in the final
simplex table of Phase 1.

Apply usual simplex algorithm to the modified simplex table to get the optimum solution
of the original problem.

Example:

Minimize z = -3x1 + x2 - 2x3

Subject to

x1 +3x2 +x3 ≤5
2x1 –x2 +x3 ≥2
4x1 + 3x2 - 2x3 = 5

x1, x2, x3 ≥ 0

Solution:
If the objective function is in minimization form, then convert it into maximization form
Changing the sense of the optimization
Any linear minimization problem can be viewed as an equivalent linear maximization
problem, and vice versa. Specifically:

Minimize = Maximize

If z is the optimal value of the left-hand expression, then -z is the optimal value of the
right-hand expression.

Maximize z = 3x1 – x2 + 2x3

Subject to

x1 +3x2 +x3 ≤5
2x1 –x2 +x3 ≥2
4x1 + 3x2 - 2x3 = 5
Where x1, x2, x3 ≥ 0

Converting inequalities to equalities

x1 +3x2 +x3 +x4 =5
2x1 –x2 +x3 –x5 =2
4x1 + 3x2 - 2x3 = 5

x1, x2, x3, x4, x5 ≥ 0

Where x4 is a slack variable, x5 is a surplus variable. Now, if we let x1, x2 and x3 equal to
zero in the initial solution, we will have x4 = 5 and x5 = -2, which is not possible because
a surplus variable cannot be negative. Therefore, we need artificial variables.

x1 +3x2 +x3 +x4 =5

2x1 –x2 +x3 –x5 +A1 =2
4x1 + 3x2 - 2x3 + A2 = 5

x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, A1, A2 ≥ 0

where A1 and A2 are artificial variables.

PHASE 1

In this phase, we remove the artificial variables and find an initial feasible solution of
the original problem. Now the objective function can be expressed as

Maximize 0x1 + 0x2 + 0x3 + 0x4 + 0x5 + (–A1) + (–A2)

subject to

x1 +3x2 +x3 +x4 =5

2x1 –x2 +x3 –x5 +A1 =2
4x1 + 3x2 - 2x3 + A2 = 5

x1, x2, x3, x4, x5, A1, A2 ≥ 0

Initial basic feasible solution

The intial basic feasible solution is obtained by setting x1 = x2 = x3 = x5 = 0.
Then we shall have A1 = 2 , A2 = 5, x4 = 5
Iteration 1:

cj 0 0 0 0 0 -1 -1

Basic variables Solution values

cB x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 A1 A2
B b (= XB)
 0 x4 1 3 1 1 0 0 0 5

-1 A1 2 -1 1 0 -1 1 0 2

-1 A2 4 3 -2 0 0 0 1 5

zj–cj -6 -2 1 0 1 0 0

Keycolumn=x1 column
Minimum(5/1,2/2,5/4)=1
Keyrow = A1 row
Pivot element = 2
A1 departs and x1 enters.

Iteration 2:

cj 0 0 0 0 0 -1

Basic Solution
cB variables x1 x2 x3 x4 x5 A2 values
B b (= XB)

0 x4 0 7/2 1/2 1 1/2 0 4

- -
0 x1 1 1/2 0 0 1
1/2 1/2

-1 A2 0 5 -4 0 2 1 1

zj-cj 0 -5 4 0 -2 0

A2 departs and x2 enters.Here, Phase 1 terminates because both the artificial variables
have been removed from the basis.

PHASE 2

The basic feasible solution at the end of Phase 1 computation is used as the initial basic
feasible solution of the problem. The original objective function is introduced in Phase
2 computation and the usual simplex procedure is used to solve the problem.
Iteration 3:

cj 3 -1 2 0 0

Basic variables Solution values

cB x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
B b (= XB)

0 x4 0 0 33/10 1 -9/10 33/10

3 x1 1 0 1/10 0 -3/10 11/10

-1 x2 0 1 -4/5 0 2/5 1/5

zj-cj 0 0 -9/10 0 -13/10

Iteration 4:

cj 3 -1 2 0 0

Basic variables Solution values

cB x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
B b (= XB)

0 x4 0 9/4 3/2 1 0 15/4

3 x1 1 3/4 -1/2 0 0 5/4

0 x5 0 5/2 -2 0 1 1/2

zj-cj 0 13/4 -7/2 0 0

Iteration 5:
cj 3 -1 2 0 0
 Basic variables Solution values
cB x1 x2 x3 x4 x5
B b (= XB)

2 x3 0 3/2 1 2/3 0 5/2

3 x1 1 3/2 0 1/3 0 5/2

0 x5 0 11/2 0 4/3 1 11/2

zj-cj 0 17/2 0 7/3 0

Result:

An optimal policy is x1 = 5/2, x2 = 0, x3 = 5/2. The associated optimal value of the

objective function is

Max z = 3 x (5/2) – 0 + 2 x (5/2) = 25/2.

20. Briefly explain the Big M method?

Ans: The Big-M-Method is an alternative method of solving a linear programming
problem involving artificial variables. To solve a L.P.P by simplex method, we have to
start with the initial basic feasible solution and construct the initial simplex table. In
the previous problems we see that the slack variables readily provided the initial basic
feasible solution. However, in some problems, the slack variables cannot provide the
initial basic feasible solution. In these problems atleast one of the constraint is of = or ≥
type. “Big-M-Method is used to solve such L.P.P.
The big M-method or the method of penalties consists of the following basic steps :

Step 1:

Express the linear programming problem in the standard form by introducing slack
and/or surplus variables, if any.

Step 2:

Introduce non-negative variables to the left hand side of all the constraints of (> or = )
type. These variables are called artificial variables. The purpose of introducing artificial
variables is just to obtain an initial basic feasible solution. However, addition of these
artificial variables causes violation of the corresponding constraints. Therefore we would
like to get rid of these variables and would not allow them to appear in the optimum
simplex table. To achieve this, we assign a very large penalty ' — M ' to these artificial
variables in the objective function, for maximization objective function.
Step 3:

Solve the modified linear programming problem by simplex method.

At any iteration of the usual simplex method there can arise any one of the following
three cases :

(a) There is no vector corresponding to some artificial variable, in the basis yb.

In such a, case, we proceed to step 4.

(b) There is at least one vector corresponding to some artificial variable, in the
basis yB, at the zero level. That is, the corresponding entry in XB is zero. Also, the co-
efficient of M in each net evaluation Zj- Cj(j = 1, 2, n) is non- negative.

In such a case, the current basic feasible solution is a degenerate one. This is a case
when an optimum solution to the given L.P.P. includes an artificial basic variable and
an optimum basic feasible solution still exists.

(c) At least one artificial vector is in the basis yB, but not at the zero level. That is, the
corresponding entry in XB is non-zero. Also coefficient of M in each net evaluation Zj -
Cj is non-negative,

In this case, the given L.P.P. does not possess any feasible solution.

Step 4:

Application of simplex method is continued until either an optimum basic feasible

solution is obtained or there is an indication of the existence of an unbounded solution to
the given L.P.P.

Note. While applying simplex method, whenever a vector corresponding to some

artificial variable happens to leave the basis, we drop that vector and omit all the
entries corresponding to its column from the simplex table.

Example:

Maximize z = x1 + 5x2

Subject to

3x1 +4x2 ≤ 6
x1 + 3x2 ≤ 2

x1, x2 ≥ 0
Solution:
Converting inequalities to equalities
By introducing surplus variables, slack variables and artificial variables, the
standard form of LPP becomes

Maximize x1 + 5x2 + 0x3 + 0x4 – MA1

Subject to

3x1 +4x2 +x3 =6

x1 + 3x2 – x4 + A1 = 2

x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0, x3 ≥ 0, x4 ≥ 0, A1≥ 0

where,

x3 is a slack variable
x4 is a surplus variable
A1 is an artificial variable.

Initial basic feasible solution

x1 = x2 = x4 = 0, A1 = 2, x3 = 6
Iteration 1:
cj 1 5 0 0 –M

Solution values
cB Basic variables B x1 x2 x3 x4 A1
b (= XB)

0 x3 3 4 1 0 0 6

–M A1 1 3 0 –1 1 2

zj–cj –M–1 –3M–5 0 M 0

Calculating values for index row (zj – cj)

z1 – c1 = 0 × 3 + (–M) × 1 – 1 = –M – 1
z2 – c2 = 0 × 4 + (–M) × 3 – 5 = –3M – 5
z3 – c3 = 0 × 1 + (–M) × 0 – 0 = 0
z4 – c4 = 0 × 0 + (–M) × (–1) – 0 = M
z5 – c5 = 0 × 0 + (–M) × 1 – (–M) = 0

As M is a large positive number, the coefficient of M in the zj–cj row would decide the
incoming basic variable.
As -3M < -M, x2 becomes a basic variable in the next iteration.
Key column = x2 column.
Minimum (6/4, 2/3) = 2/3
Key row = A1 row
Pivot element = 3.
A1 departs and x2 enters.

Note: The iteration just completed, artificial variable A1 was eliminated from the basis.
The new solution is shown in the following table.

Iteration 2:
cj 1 5 0 0

Basic variables Solution values

cB x1 x2 x3 x4
B b (= XB)

0 x3 5/3 0 1 4/3 10/3

5 x2 1/3 1 0 –1/3 2/3

zj–cj 2/3 0 0 –5/3

Iteration 3:
cj 1 5 0 0

Basic variables Solution values

cB x1 x2 x3 x4
B b (= XB)

0 x4 5/4 0 3/4 1 5/2

5 x2 3/4 1 1/4 0 3/2

zj–cj 11/4 0 5/4 0

Result:
The optimal solution is x1 = 0, x2 = 3/2
Max z = 0 + 5 x 3/2 =15/2

Additional Problems
21.

Ans:
22.
Ans:
 23. Write the dual of following LPP
NiniNize z = 20x1 + 40x2
36 x1 + 6x2 ≥ 108,
3x1 + 12x2 ≥ 36,
20 x1 + 10x2 ≥ 100 and x1 ≥ 0, x2 ≥ 0.
Ans: first we have to write the given LPP in standard form.
Introducing surplus variables s1, s2, s3 ≥ 0, the primal problem in standard form
can be written as
NiniNize z = 20x1 + 40x2 + 0. s1 + 0. s2 + 0. s3
36 x1 + 6x2 − s1 = 108,
3x1 + 12x2 − s2 = 36,
20 x1 + 10x2 − s3 = 100
x1, x2, s1, s2, s3 ≥ 0.
Associated dual is
NaxiNize z ∗ = 108w1 + 36w2 + 100w3
36w1 + 3w2 + 20w3 ≤ 20,
6w1 + 12w2 + 10w3 ≤ 40,
-w1 ≤ 0, -w2 ≤ 0, −w3 ≤0
where w1, w2, w3 are unrestricted in sign dominated by w1 ≥ 0, w2 ≥ 0, w3 ≥0