Unit-IV Improvement of string efficiency

Question: Discuss various methods to improve the string efficiency of insulators.

Purpose for improve the string efficiency
We know that the following points are observed from suspension insulator string
 The potential distribution in a string of suspension insulators is not uniform
 The voltage across the insulator nearest to the line conductor has maximum voltage and decreases
progressively as the cross arm is approached.
 If the insulation of the nearest to conductor breaks down or flash over takes place, the breakdown
of the other units will take place in succession.
In order to equalize the potential across the various units of string (i.e. to improve the string efficiency).
The various methods are

(a) By using longer cross arm

The value of string efficiency depends upon the value of ‘K’ i.e.,

𝑠ℎ𝑢𝑛𝑡 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐾= The lesser the value of K, the greater is the string efficiency and more uniform is
𝑚𝑢𝑡𝑢𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
the voltage distribution. The value of K can be decreased by reducing the shunt capacitance. In order to
reduce shunt capacitance, the distance of conductor from tower must be increased i.e. longer cross arms
should be used (because capacitance is inversely proportional to distance)

(b) By grading the insulators

In this method, insulators of different dimensions are used that each has a different capacitance. The
insulators are capacitance graded i.e they are assembled in the string in such a way that the top unit has
the minimum capacitance, increasing progressively as the bottom unit (i.e. nearest to conductor) is
reached. Since voltage is inversely proportional to capacitance, this method tends to equalize the potential
distribution across the units in the string.
(c) By using a guard ring
The potential across each unit in a string can be equalized by using
a guard ring which is a metal ring electrically connected to the conductor
and surrounding the bottom insulator as shown in fig. the guard ring
Introduces capacitance between metal fittings and the line conductor. Due to
this, same charging current flows through each unit of string. Consequently
, there will be uniform potential distribution across the units.
Topic: Underground cables
Necessity
The transmission and distribution of an electrical power can be with the help of overhead transmission
line or underground cables. In case of thickly populated areas like towns and cities, the use of overhead
line is not possible. In such cases electrical energy is transmitted and distributed with the help of
underground cables.

An underground cable is basically an insulated conductor, externally protected against mechanical

injury, moisture entry and chemical reaction. The conductor is usually aluminium or an annealed copper
while the insulation is mostly PVC or other chemical compounds.

Major drawback
They have greater insulation cost and introduce insulation problems at high voltages compared with the
equivalent overhead system. Thus the use of underground cables is restricted to low and medium voltage
distribution.

Necessary requirements of cable

1. The conductors (tinned stranded copper or aluminium) used in cables should be flexible and carry more
current.
2. Load current and voltage drop in the cable within permissible limit.
3. The cable must have proper thickness of insulation in order to give high degree of safety.
4. The cable must be provided with suitable mechanical protection so that it may withstand the rough use
in laying it.
5. The material used in the manufacture of cables should be such that there is complete chemical and
physical stability throughout.

Insulating materials for cables

In general, the insulating materials used in the cables should have the following properties
1. High insulation resistance to avoid leakage current.
2. High dielectric strength to avoid electrical breakdown of the cable.
3. High mechanical strength to withstand the mechanical handling of the cable.
4. Non-flammable
5. Unaffected by acids and alkalies to avoid any chemical action
6. It should not absorb moisture from air or soil. It should be enclosed in a waterproof covering like lead
sheath.
7. It should have high temperature withstand capability.

Write short notes on insulating materials used in manufacture of cables.

1. Rubber
Natural rubber is obtained from the milky sap of tropical trees. Synthetic rubber is produced from alcohol
or oil products.
Properties of rubber
relative permittivity is between 2 and 3
dielectric strength is 30kV/mm
It soften when heated to temperature of 60˚ or 70˚C
it swells under the action of mineral oils and ages when exposed to light.
It has high insulation property but it absorbs moisture readily
Uses: Due to some major drawbacks its usage is very little.
2. Vulcanized India Rubber (VIR)
Mixture of pure rubber with zinc oxide, red lead and 3% to 5% of sulphur. The strip of this compound is
the applied to the conductor and is heated to a temperature of about 150˚C. The whole process is called
vulcanization and product obtained is called VIR.
Properties of VIR
greater mechanical strength , durability and wear resistant property than rubber
dielectric strength is 15kV/mm
Main drawback is that sulphur reacts very quickly with copper and for this reason, cable using VIR
insulation have tinned copper conductor.
Uses Generally used for low and moderate voltage cables.

3. Impregnated paper
It consists of chemically pulped paper made from wood chipping and impregnated with some compound
such as paraffinic or naphthenic material.
Advantages
Low cost, low capacitance, high dielectric strength and insulation
Only disadvantage is it absorbs moisture thus lowers the insulation resistance.
Uses: They are used where the cable route has a few joints.

4. Varnished cambric (or empire tape)

This is a cotton cloth impregnated and heated with varnish. The cambric is lapped on to the conductor in
the form of a tape and its surfaces are coated with petroleum jelly compound to allow for the sliding of
one turn over another as the cable is bent.

5. Polyvinyl chloride (PVC)

It is a synthetic material and is obtained from the polymerization of acetylene and is in the form of white
powder.
Uses: it is employed for low and medium domestic and industrial lights and power installations.

Question2: Explain the constructional details underground cable (

armored cable) with the help of neat diagram.
The underground cable employed for transmission of power at high voltage consists of the following
(i) Cores or conductors (ii) Metallic sheath (iii) Bedding (iv) Armoring, serving

(i) Cores or conductors: One central core or number of cores (two, three, or four) of tinned copper
stranded conductors (Use of alluminium conductor is also made) insulated from each other by paper or
varnished cambric or vulcanized bitumen or impregnated paper.
(ii) Metallic sheath: A metallic sheath of lead or alloy or alluminium is provided around the insulation to
protect it against ingress of moisture.
(iii) Bedding: The purpose of bedding is to protect the metallic sheath against corrosion and from
mechanical injury from armoring. It consists of a fibrous material like jute or hessian tape.
(iv) Armoring: Over the bedding armoring is provided which consists of one or two layers of galvanized
steel wire or steel tape. Its purpose is to protect the cable from mechanical injury while laying it and
during the course of handling. Armoring may not be done in the case of some cables.
(v) Serving: In order to protect armoring from atmospheric conditions, a layer of fibrous (like jute) is
provided over the armoring. This is known as armoring.

Classification of cables
Briefly explain the different types of underground cables.
Cables for underground service may be classified in two ways according to
(i) The type of insulating material used in their manufacture
(ii) The voltage for which they are manufactured.
Classification based on voltage
(i) Low tension (LT) cables ---up to 1kV
(ii) High tension (HT) cables --- up to 11kV (a) H- type cables (b) S.L type cables
(iii) Super tension (ST) or screened cables – up to from 22kV to 33kV
(a) H-type cables (b) S.L type cables
(iv) Extra high tension (EHT) cables --- from 33kV to 66kV
(v) Extra super voltage cables ---- up to 132kV

(i) Low tension (LT) cables ---up to 1kV

A fig shows the constructional details of single core low tension cable
It consists of one circular core of conductor tinned stranded copper
( or aluminium ) insulated by impregnated paper.
Note (purpose of serving, lead sheath- refer previous question2)
Advantages 1. simple in construction 2. Availability of large copper
Section

(ii) High Tension (HT) cables --- up to 11kV

(1) Belted cables ---up to 11kV (for 3 phase service)
These are multi core cables and of belt type. It consists of either circular
Shaped or oval or sector shaped cores of stranded copper or aluminium
Conductors wrapped around by impregnated paper.
Paper belt: Another layer of impregnated paper tape, called paper belt is
wound round the grouped insulated cores. The gap between the insulated
core is filled with fibrous insulating material so as to get circular cross
section area to the cable. The cores are generally stranded.
Lead sheath: Refer question 1
Major disadvantages of belted cables
a. electrical stresses are not purely radial
b. high leakage current flow through papers belt thus high power loss
c. resistance and dielectric strength of laminated paper is much less lead to breakdown of the cables

(iii) Super tension (ST) or screened cables – up to from 22kV to 33kV(iv) (EHT) cables --- from
33kV to 66kV
In order to overcome the disadvantages in belted cable, super tension or screened cables are used where
leakage currents are conducted to earth through metallic screens. It can be classified into two types
(a) H- type cables (b) S.L type cables
(a) H- type cables(for 3 phase service)
This type of cable was first designed by H. Hochstetler and hence the
name. Fig. shows a typical 3-core H-type cable. Each core is
insulated by layers of impregnated papers. The insulation of each core is covered with a metallic screen
(i. e. perforated aluminium foil) . The cores are laid in such a way
that metallic screens make contact with one another. An
additional filler (copper woven fabric tape) is wrapped round
three cores. The cable has no insulating belt but lead sheath,
bedding, armoring and serving .
Advantages of H- type cables
1. Due to metallic screen, the air pockets or voids (vacuous spaces)
in the dielectric is eliminated.
2. The metallic screens increase the heat dissipating power and
there are no sheath losses.

(b) S. L Type cables (for 3 phase service)

The S.L (Separate Lead) type is basically H-type cable but the screen
round each core insulation is covered by its own lead sheath. There is no
overall lead sheath but only armoring and serving are provided.
Advantages over H-Type cables
1. The separate sheaths minimize the possibility of core to core
breakdown
2. The bending of cables become easy due to the elimination of
overall sheath.

Advantages of screened type cables over belted type

1. Reduced core to core faults
2. Dielectric stresses are uniformly radial
3. No possibility of formation of voids (air space) within the electric field
4. The current carrying capacity of the cables is increased

Limitations of solid type cables

The above discussed cables are also called solid cables because solid insulation is used and no oil and
gas circulates in the cable sheath. The voltage limit for solid type cable is 66kV due to the following
reasons:
1. The lead sheath stretches and may get damaged due to increase in temperature of the cable under load
condition.
2. As the load on the cable decreases, the conductor cools and Partial vacuum is formed in the cable
sheath. It leads to allow the moisture in it and reduces the dielectric strength of insulation and may cause
the breakdown of the cable.
3. Usually voids are (voids are unintentional spaces in the insulation of cable filled with air or gas,
usually at low pressure) are always present in the insulation of the cable. Under operating conditions,
voids are formed as a result of the differential expansion and contraction of sheath and impregnated
compound. The voids nearest to the conductor are first to breakdown, the chemical and thermal effects of
ionization causing permanent damage to the paper insulation.
(v) Extra super voltage cables ---- up to 132kV (Pressure cables)(3 phase service)
For voltage beyond 66kV, solid type cables are unreliable because there is a danger of breakdown of
insulation due to the presence of voids. When the operating voltages are greater than 66kV, pressure
cables are used. In such cables, voids are eliminated by increasing the pressure of compound and for this
reason they are called pressure cables.
The following are the methods for elimination of void formation in the cables.
1. The use of low viscosity mineral oil (called oil filled cables)
2. The use of inert gas with high pressure (called gas pressure cables)
(a) Oil filled cables
In such type of cables, channels or ducts are provided in the cable for oil circulation. The oil under
pressure is kept constantly, supplied to the ducts by means of external reservoirs placed at suitable
distance (say 500m) along the route of the cable. Oil under the pressure compresses the layers of the
paper insulation and is forced into any voids that may have formed between the layers. Due to the
elimination of voids , oil filled cables can be used for higher voltages from 66kV to 230kV

Oil filled cables are of three types

1. Single core conductor channel
2. Single core sheath channel
3. Three core filler channel

1. Single core conductor channel

In this type oil channel is formed at the centre

by stranding the conductor wire around a hollow
cylindrical steel spiral tape.

2. Single core sheath channel

In this type oil ducts are provided
in the metallic sheath as shown in fig.

3. Three core filler channel

Oil ducts are located in the filler spaces.

Main advantages of oil filled cables

1. Formation of voids and ionization are avoided.

2. Allowable temperature range and dielectric strength are increased
Main disadvantages are high initial cost and complicated system of laying (erection)
 Gas pressure Cables:

In order to overcome the disadvantages of oil filled cables in terms of expansion and contraction oil
during loading cycles, gas filled cables are used. Main advantage is better heat dissipation by natural
convection in the gas.

Fig. shows the section of external pressure cable designed by Hochstetler, Vogel and Bowden. It is of
triangular shape and thickness of lead sheath 75% that of solid cable. The triangular section reduces
the weight and gives low thermal resistance but the main reason for triangular shape is that the lead
sheath acts as a pressure membrane. The sheath is protected by a thin metal tape. The cable is laid in a
gas-tight steel pipe. The pipe is filled with dry nitrogen gas at 12 to 15 atmospheres. The gas pressure
produces radial compression and closes the voids that may have formed between the payers of paper
insulation. Such cables can carry more load current and operate at higher voltages than a normal
cable. Moreover, maintenance cost is small and the nitrogen gas helps in quenching any flame.
However, it has the disadvantage that the overall cost is very high.

Laying of Underground Cables:

There are three main methods of Laying Underground cables viz., direct laying, draw-in system
and the solid system.

1. Direct Laying: In this method, a trench of about 1-5 meters deep and 45cm wide is dug. The trench is
covered with a layer of fine sand (of about 10cm thickness) and the cable is laid over this sand bed. The
sand prevents the entry of moisture from the ground and thus protects the cable from decay. After the
cable has been laid in the trench, it is covered with another layer of sand of about 10cm thickness.
The trench is then covered with bricks and other materials in order to protect the cable from mechanical
injury.
Advantages:

It is a simple and less costly method.

It gives the best conditions for dissipating the heat
generated in the cables.
It is a clean and safe method and the cable is invisible
and free from external disturbances.

Disadvantages:

 The alterations in the cable network cannot be made easily.

  The maintenance cost is very high.
 Localisation of fault is difficult.
 It cannot be used in congested areas where excavation is expensive and inconvenient.

2. Draw –in systems:

In this method, conduit or duct of glazed stone or cast iron or concrete are laid in the ground with
manholes at suitable positions along the cable route. The cables are then pulled into position from
manholes. Fig shows section through four-way underground duct line. Three of the ducts carry
transmission cables and the fourth duct carries relay protection connection, pilot wires. The distance
between the manholes should not be too long so as to simplify the pulling in of the cables. The cables
to be laid in this way need not be armored.

Advantages:
Repairs, alterations or additions to the cable network can be made
without opening the ground.
As the cables are not armored, therefore, joints become simpler and
maintenance cost is reduced considerably.
There are very less chances of fault occurrence due to strong
mechanical protection provided by the system.
Disadvantages:
 The initial cost is very high.
 The current carrying capacity of the cables is reduced due to the close grouping of cables and
unfavourable conditions of dissipation of heat.

3. Solid System:
In this method of laying, the cable is laid in open pipes or troughs dug out in earth along
the cable route. The troughing is of cast iron, stoneware, asphalt or treated wood. After the cable
is laid in position, the troughing is filled with a bituminous or asphaltic compound and covered
over. Cables laid in this manner are usually plain lead covered because troughing affords good
mechanical protection.
Disadvantages:

 It is more expensive than direct laid system.

 It requires skilled labour and favourable weather conditions.
 Due to poor heat dissipation facilities, the current carrying capacity of the cable is
reduced.