Laboratory Assignment 3: Tensile Test on Mild Steel
Aim: To study the mechanical properties of Mild Steel specimen under tension load.
Equipment: Universal Testing Machine (UTM), Test Specimen of mild steel, Extensometer, Vernier calliper.
Theory: In tension test ends of a test piece are fixed into grips connected to a straining device and to a load measuring device. The test involves straining a test piece by tensile force generally to fracture for the purpose of determining one or more of the mechanical properties.
The straining unit of universal testing machine consists of main hydraulic
cylinder with robust base inside and piston which moves up and down. The lower table connected to main piston through a ball & the ball seat is joined to ensure axial loading. There is a connection between lower table and upper head assembly that moves up and down with main piston. The control panel consists of a power pack complete with drive motor and an oil tank, control valves and an autographic recorder. Load Indicator system consists of a large dial and a pointer. A dummy pointer is provided to record the maximum load reached during the test.
Load is applied by a hydrostatically lubricated ram. Main cylinder
pressure is transmitted to the cylinder of the pendulum dynamometer system housed in the control panel. The cylinder of the dynamometer is also of self-lubricating design. The load transmitted to the cylinder of the dynamometer is transferred through a lever system to a pendulum. Displacement of the pendulum actuates the rack and pinion mechanism which operates the load indicator pointer and the autographic recorder. The deflection of the pendulum represents the absolute load applied on the test specimen. Return movement of the pendulum is effectively damped to absorb energy in the event of sudden breakage of a specimen.
STRESS STRAIN GRAPH OF MILD STEEL:
The stress strain graph of mild steel is divided into four areas in which the first section represents elastic deformation and in remaining areas only plastic deformation will takes place. However, the material behaves differently in each individual phase of plastic deformation. Area B defines the flow region here the material is stressed beyond its elastic loadability and within the flow region the stress changes very irregularly with increasing strain so that a wavy line results in the graph. In section C the stress increase sharply and the plastic deformation also increases. At the maximum loadability the material’s cross-section begins to reduce in size and ultimately failure occurs. increase sharply and the plastic deformation also increases. At the maximum loadability the material’s cross-section begins to reduce in size and ultimately failure occurs.
Elastic deformation (A):
The first phase of the stress-strain damage is elastic deformation. When the stress acting on the material is removed the material regains its original length. This is called complete recovery or resilience. Again the area of elastic deformation is divided into two phases. In the first phase the material stretches proportionally to the stress acting on it. This extension is also called linear-elastic or proportional deformation. The point at which the linear-elastic elongation is maximum is called the proportional limit. Beyond this limit elastic deformation still takes place, however greater elongation occurs in this section under increasing applied force. Therefore the elongation or strain is greater than the increasing stress.
The flow region (B):
Further small increase in stress can be enough to cause the proportional limit to be exceeded. The highest flow point is the point accompanied by an initial sudden loss of quality. As a result, the stress required to continue to elongate the material reduces immediately and reaches the lowest flow point.
After these points are exceeded even if the forces are removed immediately the material does not regain its original properties. When the stress is increased again the dislocations start to wander and increases, which leads to further quality losses at the first flow point, stress and strain behave irregularly in relation to each other.
Material hardening (C):
If the stress is increased further an increasing number of upright dislocations form in the crystal lattice prevents the movement of the previous still sliding dislocations. At the same time the stress in the crystal lattice continues to increase which causes hardening of the material. Here the metal becomes stronger as the strain increases. Hence, it is called as "Strain Hardening". However, this process cannot be continued infinitely. Each material has its specific maximum force.
Necking (D): If the maximum force is exceeded the material begins to neck. In the crystal lattice of the metal bar so many dislocations have occurred that they can no longer lead to hardening but instead contribute to the formation of voids or cavities. Apart from necking, the voids also cause the material cross-section to reduce. The stress now acts on an increasingly smaller cross-section which enhances this process still further. As the tensile test continues the necking increases until the tapered cross-section can no longer withstand the stress. This is when the metal bar tears at the weakest point. Finally the specimen will have increase in length and reduction in cross sectional area.
Where, Li= initial length
Lf= final length
Percentage reduction in area: Maximum change in cross-sectional area that has
occurred at the neck during the test expressed as a percentage of the original cross- sectional area.
Where, Ai= initial length
Af= final length
Tensile strength: Stress corresponding to the maximum force.
Yield strength: When the metallic material exhibits a yield phenomenon, a point is reached during the test at which plastic deformation occurs without any increase in the force.
Modulus of elasticity: It is the slope of initial linear portion of stress strain curve.
Stages in ductile fracture:
The failure of ductile material under tensile loading can be attributed to
cup and cone fracture. This form of ductile fracture occurs in stages that initiates after necking. First small micro-voids form in the interior of the material. Next deformation continues and the micro-voids enlarge to form cracks. The crack continues to grow and it spreads laterally towards the edges of the specimen. Finally the crack propagation is rapid along a surface that makes about 45 degree angle with the tensile stress axis. The new fracture surface has an irregular appearance. The final shearing of the specimen produces a cup type shape on one fracture surface, and cone type shape on adjacent fracture surface. In this central interior region has an irregular and fibrous appearance, which signifies plastic deformation in material. Detailed and important information on the mechanism of fracture can be obtained from microscopic examination of fracture surfaces. This study is known as fractography.
Variation of local elongation with position along
gauge length of tensile specimen:
The measured elongation from a tension specimen depends on the
gauge length of the specimen or dimension of its cross section. This is because the total extension consists of two components, the uniform extension up to necking and the localized extension once necking begins.
The extent of uniform extension depends on the metallurgical condition of
the material and the effect of specimen size and shapes on the development of neck. The shorter the gauge length, greater is the percentage elongation.
RELEVANT INDIAN STANDARD FOR TENSION
TEST:
IS 1608(2005): Metallic Materials - Tensile Testing At Ambient
Temperature Procedure STEPS: 1) Click on the Tensile Test on Mild Steel file, a window will open as shown.
2) Click on the NEXT button to move to the next step.
3) To measure the diameter of the specimen using Vernier Calliper, click on the calliper knob to adjust to the diameter.
4) Click on the measuring scale to measure the length of the
specimen between the grips. 5) Click on hammer to make a punch mark at a distance of 2.5d, then click NEXT button.
6) Click on the rotating lever to lower the machine bottom part, drag the specimen and place it on the position where the arrow is pointing, then again click on rotating lever to adjust the height and then the dial gauge is mounted. 7) Readings on the dials of extensometer are adjusted to zero by clicking on adjusting knob of extensometer.
8) Click on GREEN button to switch on the machine, the extensometer
reading variation with load is observed and can be downloaded via Download Data. 9) Here the stress strain graph of test is shown, click on View Data to view the data.
10)Click on View Data or View Slope to view test data or the slope drawn to the plot. 11) Click on Join the pieces of the specimen to join it to measure the change in diameter.
12) Join the two specimens to measure the change in specimen
length. 13) Input the calculated result and then click on Check to view the actual result.
Self-Evaluation
Check your understanding after you have gone through the basic theory and the procedure to use the simulator. Mark the correct answer in bold font. 1. The law which influence the material up to yield point. Bernoulli's law Stress law Poisson's law Hooks law
2. Elastic deformation of the material is associated with
Ductility of the material Toughness of material Hardness of the material Permanent deformation of the material 3. While conducting the experiment, the mode of fracture observed in mild steel specimen is Star shape Cup and cone shape Granular shape Fibrous shape
4. What is the distance between the punch marks in the experiment?
2.5d 3d 5d 4.5d
5. Yield point is the point on stress/strain graph where:
Simulator Step 1: Measure the Initial Diameter of the tension test sample in two perpendicular directions using vernier calliper. Note the diameters below:
dix = _12.34__ mm, diy = _12.34__ mm, Average initial diameter d
= __12.34____ mm
Step 2: Measure the length of the specimen between the grips using the scale
Length of specimen between the grips = __213__ mm
Step 3: Punch marks are made at a distance of 2.5 d
Distance 2.5 d = 2.5 x __12.34__ = _30.85___ mm
Step 4: Insert the specimen into its position and mount extensometer on the specimen
Step 5: Readings on the dial A and B of the extensometer are adjusted to
zero
Step 6: Experiment is conducted. Load, extensometer readings are read
at regular intervals of load up to yield point. Ivory scale readings are noted till the specimen failure.
Step 7: Graph Step 8: Graph
Step 9: Join two pieces of the test sample and measure the diameter at the neck of the specimen Final diameter = 8.21_____ mm Step 10: Measure the final length between three punch marks Final length between the punch mark = __87___ mm Step 11: Observations and calculations
