SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES

DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

UNIT – I – Advanced Chemical Kinetics – SCYA5202

 1. ACTIVATED COMPLEX THEORY
Postulates of Activated Complex Theory

Activated complex is formed by the reactants A and B with an equilibrium constant k# and such
equilibrium reaction can be represented as:

k#
A+B X# Product

The rate of the above reaction can be obtained by from the concentration of the two reactants and
their equilibrium conditions as:

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑜𝑓 𝑋 # = 𝑘 ≠ [𝐴][𝐵] . . . (1)

The vibrational degrees of freedom of activated complex is highly unstable, which gives rise to the
product and the frequency of such activated complex will be in the order of kbT and is given as:

𝑘𝑏 𝑇
𝛾= . . . (2)
ℎ

The rate of reaction is therefore found to be:

The rate of formation of X# = The frequency of vibration of X#

𝑘𝑏 𝑇
∴ 𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑘 ≠ [𝐴][𝐵] . . . (3)
ℎ

The rate of reaction under an equilibrium condition may also be written as:

k
A+B Product

𝑅𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑘[𝐴][𝐵] . . . (4)

By comparing equation (3) and (4) to obtain rate equation under equilibrium condition as:

𝑘𝑏 𝑇
𝑘[𝐴][𝐵] = 𝑘 ≠ [𝐴][𝐵] . . . (5)
ℎ

𝒌𝒃 𝑻
(𝑜𝑟) 𝒌 = 𝒌≠ . . . (𝟔)
𝒉

Where, k is the equilibrium constant; kb is the Boltzmann constant; h is the Planck’s constant and T
is the absolute temperature.

2
Thermodynamic Formulation of Activated Complex Theory

The rate constant and the equilibrium constant for the activated complex is given by:

𝒌𝒃 𝑻
𝒌 = 𝒌≠ . . . (𝟏)
𝒉

The relationship between the free energy change and equilibrium constant for the formation of
activated complex is given as:

−∆𝐺 # = 𝑅𝑇𝑙𝑛𝑘 #

−∆𝐺 #
𝑙𝑛𝑘 # =
𝑅𝑇

Taking exponentials on both the sides, we get:

−∆𝐺 #
𝑙𝑛𝑘 #
𝑒 = 𝑒 𝑅𝑇

−∆𝐺 #
≠
𝑘 = 𝑒 𝑅𝑇 . . . (2)

We know that,

−∆𝐺 # = ∆𝐻 # − 𝑇∆𝑆 #

Substituting ∆G# in equation (2), we have:

𝐻 # −𝑇∆𝑆 #
−[ ]
𝑅𝑇
𝑘≠ = 𝑒

−𝐻 # +𝑇∆𝑆 #
[ ]
≠ 𝑅𝑇
𝑘 =𝑒

−𝐻 # 𝑇∆𝑆 #
[ ] [ ]
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇
𝑘≠ = 𝑒 .𝑒

−𝐻 # ∆𝑆 #
[ ] [ ]
≠ 𝑅𝑇 𝑅
𝑘 =𝑒 .𝑒 . . . (3)

Substituting k# in equation (1), we get:

𝒌𝒃 𝑻 −𝑯# ∆𝑺#
𝒌= . 𝒆 𝑹𝑻 . 𝒆 𝑹 . . . (𝟒)
𝒉

The equation (4) is known as Eyring equation.

Taking logarithm on equation (1), we have:

3
 𝑘𝑏
𝑙𝑛𝑘 = 𝑙𝑛 + 𝑙𝑛𝑇 + 𝑙𝑛𝑘 # . . . (5)
ℎ

Differentiating equation (5) with respect to T, we get:

𝑘𝑏
𝑑𝑙𝑛𝑘 𝑑 (𝑙𝑛 ℎ ) 𝑑(𝑙𝑛𝑇) 𝑑(𝑙𝑛𝑘 # )
= + +
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

𝑑𝑙𝑛𝑘 1 𝑑(𝑙𝑛𝑘 # )
= + . . . (6)
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇

The Arrhenius equation for activated complex is given as:

𝐸𝑎
𝑘 = 𝐴𝑒 −𝑅𝑇 . . . (7)

Taking logarithm on both the sides, we have:

𝐸𝑎
𝑙𝑛𝑘 = 𝑙𝑛𝐴 + 𝑙𝑛𝑒 −𝑅𝑇 . . . (8)

Differentiating equation (8) with respect to T, we get:

𝑑𝑙𝑛𝑘 𝑑𝑙𝑛𝐴 𝑑 𝐸𝑎
= − [ ]
𝑇 𝑇 𝑇 𝑅𝑇

𝑑𝑙𝑛𝑘 −𝐸𝑎 1
= [− 2 ]
𝑇 𝑅 𝑇

𝑑𝑙𝑛𝑘 𝐸𝑎
= . . . (9)
𝑇 𝑅𝑇 2

Comparing (6) and (9), we have:

𝐸𝑎 1 𝑑𝑙𝑛𝑘 #
= +
𝑅𝑇 2 𝑇 𝑑𝑇

Multiplying the above equation with RT2 on both the sides:

𝑑𝑙𝑛𝑘 #
𝐸𝑎 = 𝑅𝑇 + 𝑅𝑇 2 . . . (10)
𝑑𝑇

According to Van’t Hoff isochore

𝑑𝑙𝑛𝑘 # ∆𝐸 #
= . . . (11)
𝑑𝑇 𝑅𝑇 2

Comparing equations (10) and (11), we have:

4
𝐸𝑎 = 𝑅𝑇 + ∆𝐸 # . . . (12)

We know that

∆𝐻 # = ∆𝐸 # + 𝑃∆𝑉

∆𝐸 # = ∆𝐻 # − 𝑃∆𝑉

∆𝐸 # = ∆𝐻 # − ∆𝑛𝑅𝑇 . . . (13)

Substituting (13) in (12), we get:

𝐸𝑎 = 𝑅𝑇 + ∆𝐻 # − ∆𝑛𝑅𝑇

Where ∆n is the number of gaseous molecules going from reactants to products.

Limiting Cases

Case (1): For a bimolecular reaction, ∆n = ‒1

∴ 𝐸𝑎 = 𝑅𝑇 + ∆𝐻 # + 𝑅𝑇

𝐸𝑎 = ∆𝐻 # + 2𝑅𝑇

∆𝐻 # = 𝐸𝑎 − 2𝑅𝑇

From Eyring equation, we have:

𝑘𝑏 𝑇 −𝐸𝑎+2𝑅𝑇 ∆𝑆#
𝑘= . 𝑒 𝑅𝑇 . 𝑒 𝑅
ℎ

𝑘𝑏 𝑇 −𝐸𝑎 2 ∆𝑆#
𝑘= . 𝑒 𝑅𝑇 . 𝑒 . 𝑒 𝑅
ℎ

𝒌𝒃 𝑻 −𝑬𝒂 𝟐+∆𝑺#
𝒌= . 𝒆 𝑹𝑻 . 𝒆 𝑹
𝒉

Case (2): For a unimolecular reaction, ∆n = 0

∴ 𝐸𝑎 = 𝑅𝑇 + ∆𝐻 #

∆𝐻 # = 𝐸𝑎 − 𝑅𝑇

From Eyring equation, we have:

𝑘𝑏 𝑇 −𝐸𝑎+𝑅𝑇 ∆𝑆#
𝑘= . 𝑒 𝑅𝑇 . 𝑒 𝑅
ℎ

5
 𝑘𝑏 𝑇 −𝐸𝑎 1 ∆𝑆#
𝑘= . 𝑒 𝑅𝑇 . 𝑒 . 𝑒 𝑅
ℎ

𝒌𝒃 𝑻 −𝑬𝒂 𝟏+∆𝑺#
𝒌= . 𝒆 𝑹𝑻 . 𝒆 𝑹
𝒉

Exercise 1: The value of ∆S# for a unimolecular reaction as obtained is – 80.5 JK–1mol–1. Find the
exponential factor. [Ans: 17378 mol–1 s–1]

Exercise 2: The pre-exponential factor for bimolecular gaseous reaction occurring at 350oC is 8×1010
mol–1 s–1. Calculate ∆S#. [Ans: – 35 JK–1mol–1]

2. LINDEMAN’S MECHANISM OF UNIMOLECULAR REACTIONS

Postulates of Lindeman’s Mechanism

❖ According to Lindemann’s mechanism, at least two molecules must collide so that the kinetic
energy of second molecule will get converted into the vibrational energy and to form an
energised molecule.

❖ The energised molecule in turn gets deactivated with rate constant of k-1 or get decomposed
with the rate constant of k2.

A A
k1
A A* k2
k-1 Product

k1
A +A A [Activation]
k-1
A* + A A [De-activation]
k2
A* P [Decomposition]

Derivation of Lindeman’s Mechanism

−𝑑[𝐴∗ ]
𝑘= = 𝑘1 [𝐴][𝐴] . . . (1)
𝑑𝑡

−𝑑[𝐴∗ ]
𝑘= = 𝑘−1 [𝐴∗ ][𝐴] . . . (2)
𝑑𝑡

+𝑑[𝑃] −𝑑[𝐴∗ ]
𝑘= = = 𝑘2 [𝐴∗ ] . . . (3)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

The concentration of any intermediate species can be determined y applying steady state
approximation [SSA]. According to SSA,

6
Rate of formation of = Rate of decomposition of intermediate species
intermediate species + Rate of deactivation of intermediate species

𝑘1 [𝐴][𝐴] = 𝑘−1 [𝐴∗ ][𝐴] + 𝑘2 [𝐴∗ ]

𝑘1 [𝐴][𝐴] = 𝑘−1 [𝐴∗ ]{𝑘−1 [𝐴] + 𝑘2 }

𝑘1 [𝐴]2
[𝐴∗ ] = . . . (4)
{𝑘−1 [𝐴] + 𝑘2 }

−𝑑[𝐴]
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = 𝑘2 [𝐴∗ ]
𝑑𝑡

−𝑑[𝐴] 𝑘1 𝑘2 [𝐴]2
(𝑜𝑟) 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑎𝑐𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = = . . . (5)
𝑑𝑡 {𝑘−1 [𝐴] + 𝑘2 }

Limiting cases

Case 1: At high pressures, the chances of collisions between A* and A are greater, in turn
deactivation is prominent than product formation. i.e., k-1 [A] >>> k2. Hence, k2 can be neglected.

−𝑑[𝐴] 𝑘1 𝑘2 [𝐴]2
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑘−1 [𝐴]

−𝑑[𝐴] 𝑘1 𝑘2
= [𝐴]
𝑑𝑡 𝑘−1

−𝑑[𝐴] 𝑘1 𝑘2
= 𝑘∞ [𝐴] 𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘∞ =
𝑑𝑡 𝑘−1
−𝑑[𝐴]
𝛼 [𝐴]
𝑑𝑡

∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 at high pressures .

Case 2: At low pressures, the chances of collisions between A* and A are lesser, in turn
deactivation is less than product formation. i.e., k-1 [A] <<< k2. Hence, k-1 [A] can be neglected.

−𝑑[𝐴] 𝑘1 𝑘2 [𝐴]2
=
𝑑𝑡 𝑘2

−𝑑[𝐴]
= 𝑘1 [𝐴]2
𝑑𝑡

−𝑑[𝐴]
𝛼 [𝐴]2
𝑑𝑡

7
∴ 𝑇ℎ𝑒 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑖𝑠 𝑜𝑓 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑡 𝑙𝑜𝑤 𝑝𝑟𝑒𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑟𝑒𝑠.

Rearranging equation (5), we have:

1 𝑑[𝐴] 𝑘1 𝑘2 [𝐴]
− = . . . (6)
[𝐴] 𝑑𝑡 𝑘−1 [𝐴] + 𝑘2

𝑘1 𝑘2 [𝐴]
𝑘′ =
𝑘−1 [𝐴] + 𝑘2

1 𝑑[𝐴]
𝑤ℎ𝑒𝑟𝑒 𝑘′ = − , 𝑖𝑠 𝑘𝑛𝑜𝑤𝑛 𝑎𝑠 𝑓𝑖𝑟𝑠𝑡 𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑒 𝑐𝑜𝑒𝑓𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑖𝑒𝑛𝑡
[𝐴] 𝑑𝑡

At high pressures, k-1 [A] >>> k2, we have:

𝑘′𝛼 [𝐴]

At low pressures, k-1 [A] <<< k2, we have:

𝑘′𝛼 [𝐴]2
At high pressure
koo

k' At low pressure

[A]

Limitations of Lindeman’s Mechanism

Taking reciprocals for the equation (6), we get:

−1
1 𝑑[𝐴] 𝑘−1 [𝐴] + 𝑘2
[− ] = . . . (7)
[𝐴] 𝑑𝑡 𝑘1 𝑘2 [𝐴]

1 𝑘2 𝑘−1 [𝐴]
= +
𝑘′ 𝑘1 𝑘2 [𝐴] 𝑘1 𝑘2 [𝐴]

1 1 𝑘−1
= + . . . (8)
𝑘′ 𝑘1 [𝐴] 𝑘1 𝑘2

The equation (8) is a straight-line equation, and plotting 1/k’ versus 1/[A] gives a straight line which
yields a slope = 1/k1 and an intercept = k-1/k1+k2.

8
 theoretical
experimental

slope=
1
1
k' k1

k-1
intercept=
k1 k2
1
[A]

However, the experimental results prove that there is deviation from linearity.

3. HINSHELWOOD MECHANISM OF UNIMOLECULAR REACTIONS

(LINDEMAN-HINSHELWOOD MECHANISM)
Hinshelwood modified Lindemann’s mechanism as follows:

k1
A +M A* + M
k-1
k2
A* A# P

Where, M is the third molecule (can be another A or an inert molecule); A* is the energised molecule
and A# is the activated molecule.

Those energised molecules which possess a very large internal degrees of vibrations (energy) will
get converted into the product.
For a simple unimolecular reaction, the rate expression is given as:

−𝐸𝑎#
𝑘1 = 𝑧1 𝑒 𝑅𝑇

Where, z1 is the collision number for a bimolecular reaction.

And, for the complex molecule, Hinshelwood derived the rate expression as:

(𝑺−𝟏)
𝒛𝟏 𝑬#𝒂 −𝑬#
𝒂
𝒌𝟏 = [ ] 𝒆 𝑹𝑻
(𝑺 − 𝟏)! 𝑹𝑻

(𝑆−1)
1𝑧 𝐸#
Where S is the number of molecules which possess excess of vibrational energy and (𝑆−1)! [𝑅𝑇𝑎 ] is
the pre-exponential factor [f*].

−𝐸𝑎#
∴ 𝑘1 = 𝑓 ∗ 𝑒 𝑅𝑇

9
 𝐸𝑎#
∴ 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑘1 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑓 ∗ −
𝑅𝑇

Exercise 1: Calculate the frequency factor for a reaction at 300K with an activation energy of 200kJ
mol-1 and S=6 assuming the collision number z1=1012 dm3 mole-1s-1.
[Ans: f*=2.6×1019 dm3 mol-1 s-1].

Exercise 2: Calculate the value for k1 assuming S=1, 3, and 6. Take z1be =1012 dm3 mole-1s-1,
T=300K and Ea# = 60 kg/mol.
[Ans: When S=1, f* =5×1010 and k1 =2; When S=3, f* =1446×1010 and k1 =578; When S=6, f*
=5×67119×1010 and k1 =134238].

Limitations of Hinshelwood Mechanism

According to Hinshelwood theory, we have:

(𝑆−1)
𝑧1 𝐸𝑎# −𝐸𝑎#
𝑘1 = [ ] 𝑒 𝑅𝑇
(𝑆 − 1)! 𝑅𝑇

(𝑆−1)
𝑧1 𝐸𝑎#
[
(𝑆−1)! 𝑅𝑇
] which indicates the strong dependence of pre-exponential factor. But there is no
experimental evidences for it.

The explanation of 1/k’ versus 1/[A] (non-linearity) is not given in Hinshelwood mechanism.

In Hinshelwood theory, the S values are calculated by trial-and-error method. But the experimental
results prove that S values are corresponding to half of the theoretical values.

4. TEMPERATURE DEPENDENCE OF PRE-EXPONENTIAL FACTOR

FROM TRANSITION STATE THEORY (TST)
The transition state theory in terms of partition function is given as:
#
𝑘𝑏 𝑇 𝑄𝐴𝐵 −𝐸𝑎
𝑘=[ ] 𝑒 𝑅𝑇
ℎ 𝑄𝐴# 𝑄𝐵#

#
Where, 𝑄𝐴𝐵 is the total partition function of the activated complex AB#; 𝑄𝐴 and 𝑄𝐵 are total partition
functions of the reactants A and b respectively.
#
𝑘 𝑄𝐴𝐵
Further, the term [ ℎ𝑏 𝑇 # 𝑄# ] is known as temperature dependence of pre-exponential factor,
𝑄𝐴 𝐵
which can be written as:

𝑸#𝑨𝑩
[𝑨 𝜶 𝑻 ]
𝑸#𝑨 𝑸#𝑩

It has been theoretically found that,

1
(i) qT, the translational partition function, for each degree of freedom depends on 𝑇 2

10
 1
(ii) qR, the rotational partition function, for each degree of freedom depends on 𝑇 2

(iii) qV, the vibrational partition function, for each degree of freedom depends on 𝑇 𝑜 at low
temperatures and 𝑇 1 at high temperatures.

These partition functions are used to calculate the temperature dependence of pre-exponential factor
for various specific reactions.

Example:

Let us consider the following reaction:

A + B AB#
Non-linear Non-linear Non-linear Molecule
Molecule Molecule Activated Complex

The temperature dependence of pre-exponential factor from TST is given as:

#
𝑄𝐴𝐵
𝐴𝛼𝑇
𝑄𝐴# 𝑄𝐵#

𝐴 𝛼 𝑇𝑛

Where n is known as temperature exponent.

3(𝑁 )−6
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑞𝑇3 𝑞𝑅3 𝑞𝑉 𝐴
3(𝑁 )
𝑄𝐴 = 𝑞𝑇3 𝑞𝑅3 𝑞𝑉 𝐴 𝑞𝑉−6

3(𝑁𝐴 )−6
𝑄𝐵 = 𝑞𝑇3 𝑞𝑅3 𝑞𝑉

3(𝑁𝐴 )
𝑄𝐵 = 𝑞𝑇3 𝑞𝑅3 𝑞𝑉 𝑞𝑉−6

3(𝑁𝐴 +𝑁𝐵 )−7

#
𝑄𝐴𝐵 = 𝑞𝑇3 𝑞𝑅3 𝑞𝑉

3(𝑁𝐴 ) 3(𝑁𝐵 )
#
𝑄𝐴𝐵 = 𝑞𝑇3 𝑞𝑅3 𝑞𝑉 𝑞𝑉 𝑞𝑉−7

3(𝑁𝐴 ) 3(𝑁𝐵 )
𝑞𝑇3 𝑞𝑅3 𝑞𝑉 𝑞𝑉 𝑞𝑉−7
𝐴𝛼𝑇 3(𝑁𝐴 ) 3(𝑁𝐴 )
𝑞𝑇3 𝑞𝑅3 𝑞𝑉 𝑞𝑉−6 𝑞𝑇3 𝑞𝑅3 𝑞𝑉 𝑞𝑉−6

𝑞𝑉−7
𝐴𝛼𝑇 3 3
𝑞𝑇 𝑞𝑅 𝑞𝑉−12

𝑞𝑉5
𝐴𝛼𝑇
𝑞𝑇3 𝑞𝑅3

11
 (𝑇 1 )5
𝐴𝛼𝑇
1 3 1 3
(𝑇 2 ) (𝑇 2 )

𝐴 𝛼 𝑇3

(or) n = 3.

Exercise 1: The absolute rate theory relates A on temperature T (𝐴 𝛼 𝑇 𝑛 ). Determine the value of
exponent for the following reactions:

(i) Atom + Linear Molecule → Linear Activated Complex

(ii) Linear Molecule + Linear Molecule → Non-Linear Activated Complex

5. EFFECT OF SOLVENT ON REACTION RATES

The rates of reactions are affected by:

(i) the nature of the solvent used and

(ii) the nature and concentration of ionic species present in the reaction mixtures.

For the purpose of describing effect of solvent on reaction rates, the reactions can be generally
grouped into three categories: Reaction between (i) two ions, (ii) an ion and a neutral molecule, and
(iii) two neutral dipolar molecules.

Reaction Between Two Ions

Let us consider the reaction between two ions A and b with charges ZAe and ZBe.

The interpretation of solvent effects on reaction rates based on electrostatic interactions.

Initially the ions are at infinite distance from one another, but they touch each other when form the
activated complex.
ZAe
Infinite distance

ZAe
dAB
ZBe

ZBe

Double sphere model for a simple ionic reaction

The work that must be done in bringing two ions together from infinity to a distance dAB is given by:

Z A Z B e2
w= …..(1)
 d AB

where ε is the dielectric constant of the solvent.

12
This work is equal to the electrostatic contribution to the Gibbs free energy increase where the ions
are going from initial state to final state. If the signs of the on the ions are same, this work is positive,
if they are different, it is negative.

According to thermodynamics, Gibb’s free energy is the measure of useful work (activation work)
and is given by:

∆𝐺 # ∆𝐺𝑜# 𝑍𝐴 𝑍𝐵 𝑒 2
= +
𝑁 𝑁 𝜀𝑑𝐴−𝐵

Where, ∆𝐺𝑜# is the molar Gibbs free energy chnge of the solution.

Multiplying by N on both the sides, we have:

𝑁𝑍𝐴 𝑍𝐵 𝑒 2
∆𝐺 # = ∆𝐺𝑜# +
𝜀𝑑𝐴−𝐵
−1
Multiplying by on both the sides, we get:
𝑅𝑇

−∆𝐺 # −∆𝐺𝑜# 𝑍𝐴 𝑍𝐵 𝑒 2
= − . . . (2)
𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇𝜀𝑑𝐴−𝐵

From TST, we have:

𝒌𝒃 𝑻 −∆𝑮#
𝒌= . 𝒆 𝑹𝑻
𝒉
# 2
𝑘𝑏 𝑇 −∆𝐺 𝑜 − 𝑍𝐴 𝑍𝐵 𝑒
𝑘= . 𝑒 𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇𝜀𝑑𝐴−𝐵
ℎ
2
𝑘𝑏 𝑇 −∆𝐺𝑜# −𝑅𝑇𝜀𝑑
𝑍𝐴 𝑍𝐵 𝑒
𝑘= . 𝑒 𝑅𝑇 . 𝑒 𝐴−𝐵
ℎ

Taking logarithm on both the sides, we have:

𝑘𝑏 𝑇 ∆𝐺𝑜# 𝑍𝐴 𝑍𝐵 𝑒 2
𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑘 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 − −
ℎ 𝑅𝑇 𝑅𝑇𝜀𝑑𝐴−𝐵

𝒁𝑨 𝒁𝑩 𝒆𝟐
(𝑜𝑟) 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒌 = 𝒍𝒐𝒈𝒌𝒐 − . . . (𝟑)
𝑹𝑻𝜺𝒅𝑨−𝑩

𝑘 𝑇 ∆𝐺 #
Where, 𝑙𝑜𝑔𝑘𝑜 = 𝑙𝑜𝑔 ℎ𝑏 − 𝑅𝑇𝑜
𝑘𝑜 is the rate constant of the solvent at zero concentration.

Equation (3) is the straight-line equation which explains the variation of rate constant with the effect
of dielectric constant of the solvent. The measurement of this equation gives the slope in turn is used
to calculate dA-B.

13
 6. EFFECT OF IONIC STRENGTH ON REACTION RATES

Primary Salt Effect: Bronsted-Bjerrum Equation

Let us consider the reaction:

kr k'
A+B X# Product

Where A and B are the ionic species present in solution and X# is the activated complex.

The equilibrium [k] depends only on [X#].

𝑎𝑋 #
𝑘=
𝑎𝐴 . 𝑎𝐵

[𝑋 # ]𝛾𝑋 #
𝑘=
[𝐴]𝛾𝐴 . [𝐵]𝛾𝐵

[𝑋 # ] 𝛾 #
𝑘= . 𝑋
[𝐴]. [𝐵] 𝛾𝐴 . 𝛾𝐵

𝛾𝑋 #
[𝑋 # ] = 𝑘[𝐴][𝐵]. . . . (1)
𝛾𝐴 . 𝛾𝐵

The rate of reaction for product formation is given by:

𝑟 = 𝑘′[𝑋 # ]
𝛾𝑋 #
𝑟 = 𝑘′𝑘[𝐴][𝐵]. . . . (2)
𝛾𝐴 . 𝛾𝐵

The rate of reaction can be written as:

𝑟 = 𝑘𝑟 [𝐴][𝐵] . . . (3)

Comparing (2) and (3), we have:

𝛾𝑋 #
𝑘𝑟 [𝐴][𝐵] = 𝑘′𝑘[𝐴][𝐵].
𝛾𝐴 . 𝛾𝐵
𝛾𝑋 #
𝑘𝑟 = 𝑘′𝑘.
𝛾𝐴 . 𝛾𝐵

Taking logarithm on both the sides, we have:

𝛾𝑋 #
log𝑘𝑟 = log(𝑘′𝑘). log
𝛾𝐴 . 𝛾𝐵

14
 𝛾𝑋 #
log𝑘𝑟 = log𝑘𝑜 + log . . . (4)
𝛾𝐴 . 𝛾𝐵

Where ko = k’k, rate constant of reaction at infinite dilution.

The relationship between activity coefficient and ionic strength is given by Debye-Huckel Limiting
Law as:

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝛾𝑖 = −𝐴𝑍𝑖2 √𝐼

Where, A is Debye-Huckel parameter and I is the ionic strength.

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝛾𝐴 = −𝐴𝑍𝐴2 √𝐼

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝛾𝐵 = −𝐴𝑍𝐵2 √𝐼

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝛾𝑋 # = −𝐴𝑍𝑋2 # √𝐼

𝑙𝑜𝑔𝛾𝑋 # = −𝐴(𝑍𝐴 + 𝑍𝐵 )2 √𝐼

AB
log = 2A Z AZB I
X #
(5)

Substituting equation (5) into equation (4) gives:

log k r = log k o + 2 A Z A Z B I
(6)

This is known as the Bronsted-Bjerrum equation. It explains the variation of specific rate with ionic
strength, which in turn depends on the charges of reacting species.

Rearrangement of equation (6) gives:

k 
log r  = 2 A Z A Z B I (7)
 ko 

Case (1): When Z A Z B = 0 , (i.e: one of the reactants is non-electrolyte), the rate constant would be
independent of ionic strength.

Example: Reaction between iodoacetitic acid and CNS‒

CH 2 ICOOH + CNS − → Products

Case (2): When Z A Z B = Positive , (i.e: ZA and ZB are of opposite sign), the rate constant for such
reaction would decrease with I .

15
Example (1): Reaction between persulphate and iodide ion. The value of Z A Z B = +1 .

S 2 O8− + I − → Products

Example (2): Reaction between mercury ion and cobalto ammonium bromide ion. The value of
Z A Z B = +4 .

Hg 2+ + Co(NH 3 )5 Br  → Products
2+

Case (3): When Z A Z B = Nagative , (i.e: ZA and ZB are of same sign), the rate constant for such
reaction would increase with I .

Example (1): Reaction between hydrogen and bromide ion. The value of Z A Z B = −1 .
H + + Br − → Products

Example (2): Reaction between cobalto ammonium bromide ion and hydroxyl ion. The value of
Z A Z B = −2 .

OH − + Co (NH 3 )5 Br  → Products
2+

k 
Therefore, a plot of log r  against I is linear.
 ko 

)
= (+
Z A.Z B

logk ZA.ZB = 0
ZA .Z
B =(
)

It is seen that for reactions between ions of like charge the slope is positive. Such reactions show a
positive salt effect; that is, the reaction rate increases with increasing ionic strength.

For reactions between ions of opposite charge the slope is negative. This corresponds to a negative
salt effect and the reaction rate decreases with increasing ionic strength.

A reaction between an ion and a neutral molecule such as the acid or alkaline hydrolysis of an ester
does not exhibit a primary salt effect.

16
Secondary Salt Effect

In primary salt effect, addition of an electrolyte (salt) or variation of ionic strength affects the activity
coefficients and hence the rate of reaction.

However, in a reaction where H+ or OH– ions produced from a weak acid or weak base act as
catalysing agent, the addition of salt influences the concentration of H+ or OH– ions.

Since the rate of reaction depends upon the concentration of H+ or OH–, it will be affected by the salt
concentration. This phenomenon is known as secondary salt effect.

Let us consider a reaction which is catalysed by H+ produced by weak acid HA. The dissociation
constant of acid is given as:
HA  H + + A−

K=
H A   
+ −
H+
A −

HA  HA

(or)
H  = K HA
+  
A    −
HA

+
H A−

(or)
H  = K    
+ HA

H+ A−

where K = Constant = Ka [HA]/[A–]; because [HA]/[A–] will remain constant for a given acid salt
mixture.

Since the rate depends on [H+], the rate constant for a given acid salt ratio may be given as:

 HA
k = ko 
H A
+ −

Where ko is the rate constant in absence of secondary salt effect and includes the primary salt effect.
The above equation at 25oC may be given as:

log k = log k o + 1.018 I

When I is increased, the concentration of H+ increases, and therefore, rate of acid catalysed reaction
will also increase. Similar results are obtained for reactions catalysed by hydroxyl ions. The ionic
strength must be kept constant when we examine a general acid/base catalysed reaction because, if
ionic strength is not kept constant the rate constant will change in accordance with equation.

17
References
1. Keith J. Laidler, Chemical Kinetics, Pearson Education India, 3rd Edition, 2003.
2. John W. Moore and Ralph G. Pearson, Kinetics and Mechanism, Wiley, 3rd Edition, 1981.
3. F. Wilkinson, Chemical Kinetics and Reaction Mechanism, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,
2000.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Explain the postulated of activated complex theory.

2. Explain the postulated of Lindemann’s mechanism of unimolecular reactions.
3. Explain the limitations of Lindemann’s mechanism of unimolecular reactions.
4. Explain Lindemann-Hinshelwood mechanism of unimolecular reactions.
5. Determine the frequency factor for a reaction at 300K with an activation energy of 200kJmole‒
1
and S=6, assuming the collision number Z1 = 1012 dm3mole‒1s‒1.
6. Explain the limitations of Hinshelwood mechanism of unimolecular reaction.
7. Discuss the secondary salt effect.
8. The absolute rate theory relates the dependence A on temperature T (A α T n). Determine the
value of exponent for the following reaction:
Atom + Linear Molecule → Activated Non-linear Molecule
9. Develop thermodynamic formulation of activated complex theory.
10. The value of ΔS# for a reaction as obtained is ‒80.5 JK‒1mole‒1. Determine the exponential
factor for the temperature 400K for unimolecular reaction.
11. The pre-exponential factor for a bimolecular gaseous reaction occurring at 350°C is 8 х 1010
mole‒1s‒1. Determine ΔS#.
12. Discuss Lindemann’s mechanism of unimolecular reaction with limiting case.
13. Determine the value for k1 assuming S = 1, 3, 6. Take Z1 to be 5х1012 dm3mole‒1s‒1; T=300K
and Ea# = 60 kJmole‒1.
14. Explain temperature dependence of pre-exponential factor from transition state theory.
15. Discuss the effect of solvent on reaction rates.
16. Explain the effect of ionic strength on reaction rate.

18
 SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

UNIT – II–Kinetics of Fast Reactions–SCYA5202

19
 1. INTRODUCTION
When we carry out conventional studies of solution kinetics, we initiate reactions by mixing
solutions. There are many reactions that are too fast to investigate by ordinary mixing techniques.

Some important examples are proton transfers, enzymatic reactions, and noncovalent complex
formation. Prior to the second half of the 20th century, these reactions were referred to as
instantaneous because their kinetics could not be studied.

It is now possible to measure the rates of such reactions. In this unit, we will find methods for
measuring the fastest reactions that have half-lives of the order 10‒12 s.

The techniques, which have been designed to monitor concentrations and to measure the rate
coefficients, include flash photolysis, relaxation methods and flow techniques.

The other techniques including shock tubes and molecular beams have been used to explore the
dependence of reaction rate on the state of rotational/ vibrational excitation of molecules or on the
energy with which molecules collide and the rate at which the energy is changed from one form into
another.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF CHEMICAL REACTIONS ON THE BASIS OF

RATE OF THE REACTION
1. Fast/Instantaneous Reactions

The chemical reaction which completes in less than 1 ps (one pieco second) (10-12 s) time, is known
as the fast reactions. It is practically impossible to measure the speed of such reactions. The reason
for a very fast rate of such reaction is that no chemical bonds are to be broken among the reactants.

Examples: ionic reactions, organic substitution reactions, neutralization reactions

2. Very Slow Reactions

Chemical reactions which complete in a long time rom some minutes to some years are called slow
reactions. The rates of such reactions are hardly of any physical importance.

Examples: rusting of iron, transformation of carbon into diamond etc.

3. Moderately Slow Reactions

Chemical reactions which are intermediate between slow and fast reactions are called moderately
slow reactions. These reactions proceed at a moderate speed which can be measured easily. Mostly
these reactions are in molecular nature.

The values of rate constant give an idea about the speed of the reaction. Greater the value of the rate
constant, faster is the reaction.

20
Table 2.1: Classification of Chemical Reactions

S. No. Types of Reaction Rate Constant Half Life

(dm3 mol–1 s–1) (sec)
1. Slow 10–7 108
2. Moderate 10–4 – 10–1 105 – 102
3. Fast 101 – 105 10–1 – 10–4
4. Ultrafast 102 – 1011 10–12 – 10–15

Characteristics of Fast Reactions

 The chemical reactions in which the rate constant lies between 101 – 1011 s–1 are called fast
reactions. They have very short half-life of 10–1 – 10–15.
 They are so fast that they occur as soon as the reactants are brough together.
 The special experimental techniques used for measuring the rate constant of fast reactions
include: Relaxation methods, Flow methods, Ultrasonic and Resonance techniques etc.

3. CHEMICAL RELAXATION METHODS

Types of Relaxation Techniques

Relaxation methods are classified into three groups based on the extent of perturbation to attain a
new equilibrium. They include:

1. Small perturbation method

Examples: Temperature jump method and Pressure jump method

2. Large perturbation method

Examples: Shock tube method and Flash photolysis

3. Periodic perturbation method

Example: Ultrasonic method

 In relaxation techniques, a chemical equilibrium is disturbed (perturbed) by a rapid change in

one of the possible parameters like temperature or pressure or electric field intensity.

 The relaxation is followed by using spectrometer or conductivity meter techniques.

 The time during which the reaction gets relaxed from the equilibrium is called relaxation time.

 The relaxation time can be determined by T-jump method or by P-jump method.

21
1. Chemical relaxation by Temperature Jump Method (T-Jump Method)

 In T-jump method, a high voltage power supply charges the capacitor (C).

 When a certain voltage is reached, the spark gap (G) breaks down and thereby discharging the
capacitor and sending a strong current through the cell containing reactive system at
equilibrium (Fig. 2.1).

 As the current passes, the temperature of the reactive system rises by about 10°C in few
microseconds. This temperature rise perturbs the system in such a way that the concentration
of reactive species adjusts to a new equilibrium value.

 The speed with which the system approaches new equilibrium is monitored through
spectrometer in which the intensity of light leaving the cell is measured by using a suitable
photodetector (Photo multiplier tube-PMT).

 The output of PMT is displayed as the variation of concentration versus time on the oscilloscope
screen.

Fig. 2.1: Apparatus for the Temperature Jump Method

Kinetics of Small Perturbation Method (or) Rate Constant Expression for Fast Reactions by T-
Jump Method

If the displacement from equilibrium is very small, the rate of relaxation (restoration of equilibrium)
always follows the first order kinetics.

1. Let us consider the reversible reaction is of first order:

k1
A B
k-1

Let ‘a’ be the total concentration of A, and ‘x’ be the concentration of B at any interval of time ‘t’.

Therefore, the rate of reaction is given by:

𝑑𝑥
= 𝑘1 (𝑎 − 𝑥) − 𝑘−1 𝑥 . . . (1)
𝑑𝑡

22
At equilibrium dx/dt = 0 and x = xe, and from the equation (1) we have:

0 = 𝑘1 (𝑎 − 𝑥𝑒 ) − 𝑘−1 𝑥𝑒 . . . (2)
(or)
𝑘1 (𝑎 − 𝑥𝑒 ) = 𝑘−1 𝑥𝑒 . . . (3)

The deviation from equilibrium (∆x) may be defined as:

∆𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑒

Where xe is equilibrium concentration.

(or)
𝑥 = ∆𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 . . . (4)

The deviation of ∆x with time is given by:

𝑑(∆𝑥)
= 𝑘1 (𝑎 − 𝑥) − 𝑘−1 𝑥
𝑑𝑡

But 𝑥 = ∆𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 and hence, we have:

𝑑(∆𝑥)
= 𝑘1 [𝑎 − ∆𝑥 − 𝑥𝑒 ] − 𝑘−1 [∆𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 ] . . . (5)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(∆𝑥)
= 𝑘1 𝑎 − 𝑘1 ∆𝑥 − 𝑘1 𝑥𝑒 − 𝑘−1 ∆𝑥 − 𝑘−1 𝑥𝑒
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(∆𝑥)
= 𝑘1 (𝑎 − 𝑥𝑒 ) − 𝑘1 ∆𝑥 − 𝑘−1 ∆𝑥 − 𝑘−1 𝑥𝑒
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(∆𝑥)
= 𝑘1 (𝑎 − 𝑥𝑒 ) − 𝑘1 ∆𝑥 − 𝑘−1 ∆𝑥 − 𝑘−1 𝑥𝑒 . . . (6)
𝑑𝑡

From equation (3), we have:

𝑘1 (𝑎 − 𝑥𝑒 ) = 𝑘−1 𝑥𝑒

Therefore, the equation (6) is written as:

𝑑(∆𝑥)
= 𝑘−1 𝑥𝑒 − 𝑘1 ∆𝑥 − 𝑘−1 ∆𝑥 − 𝑘−1 𝑥𝑒
𝑑𝑡
(or)
𝑑(∆𝑥)
= −∆𝑥[𝑘1 + 𝑘−1 ]
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(∆𝑥)
= −∆𝑥. 𝑘𝑟 . . . (7)
𝑑𝑡

Where 𝑘𝑟 = [𝑘1 + 𝑘−1 ] is known as relaxation constant.

23
The reciprocal of relaxation constant is known as relaxation time (τ*).

1 1
𝜏∗ = =
𝑘𝑟 [𝑘1 + 𝑘−1 ]

Rearranging equation (7), we have:

𝑑(∆𝑥)
= − 𝑘𝑟 𝑑𝑡 . . . (8)
∆𝑥

Since the quantity ∆x varies with time, integrating the equation (8) subjected to the boundary
conditions ∆x = ∆xo → ∆x when t = 0 → t, we have:
∆𝑥=∆𝑥 𝑡=𝑡
𝑑(∆𝑥)
∫ = − 𝑘𝑟 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑥
∆𝑥=∆𝑥𝑜 𝑡=0

∆𝑥
𝑙𝑛 = − 𝑘𝑟 𝑡
∆𝑥𝑜

∆𝑥
= 𝑒 − 𝑘𝑟 𝑡
∆𝑥𝑜

∆𝑥 = ∆𝑥𝑜 𝑒 − 𝑘𝑟 𝑡
Where 𝑘𝑟 = 𝑘1 + 𝑘−1.

2. Let us consider a reaction involving first order forward reaction with second order reverse
reaction:

A B+C
k-2

Let ‘a’ be total concentration of A, and ‘x’ be the concentration of B and C at any interval of time ‘t’.
Therefore, the rate equation is given by:

𝑑𝑥
= 𝑘1 (𝑎 − 𝑥) − 𝑘−2 𝑥 2 . . . (1)
𝑑𝑡

At equilibrium dx/dt = 0 and x = xe, and from the equation (1) we have:

0 = 𝑘1 (𝑎 − 𝑥𝑒 ) − 𝑘−2 𝑥𝑒2 . . . (2)

(or)
𝑘1 (𝑎 − 𝑥𝑒 ) = 𝑘−2 𝑥𝑒2 . . . (3)

The deviation from equilibrium (∆x) may be defined as:

∆𝑥 = 𝑥 − 𝑥𝑒

Where xe is equilibrium concentration.

24
(or)
𝑥 = ∆𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 . . . (4)

The deviation of ∆x with time is given by:

𝑑(∆𝑥)
= 𝑘1 (𝑎 − 𝑥) − 𝑘−2 𝑥 2
𝑑𝑡

But 𝑥 = ∆𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 and hence, we have:

𝑑(∆𝑥)
= 𝑘1 [𝑎 − ∆𝑥 − 𝑥𝑒 ] − 𝑘−2 [∆𝑥 + 𝑥𝑒 ]2 . . . (5)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(∆𝑥)
= 𝑘1 𝑎 − 𝑘1 ∆𝑥 − 𝑘1 𝑥𝑒 − 𝑘−2 ∆𝑥 2 − 𝑘−2 𝑥𝑒2 − 2𝑘−2 ∆𝑥𝑥𝑒
𝑑𝑡

Since ∆𝑥 2 is very small, its value can be neglected and hence, we have:

𝑑(∆𝑥)
= 𝑘1 (𝑎 − 𝑥𝑒 ) − 𝑘1 ∆𝑥 − 𝑘−2 𝑥𝑒2 − 2𝑘−2 ∆𝑥𝑥𝑒 . . . (6)
𝑑𝑡

From equation (3), we have:

𝑘1 (𝑎 − 𝑥𝑒 ) = 𝑘−2 𝑥𝑒2

Therefore, the equation (6) is written as:

𝑑(∆𝑥)
= 𝑘−2 𝑥𝑒2 − 𝑘1 ∆𝑥 − 𝑘−2 𝑥𝑒2 − 2𝑘−2 ∆𝑥𝑥𝑒
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(∆𝑥)
= −𝑘1 ∆𝑥 − 2𝑘−2 ∆𝑥𝑥𝑒
𝑑𝑡
(or)
𝑑(∆𝑥)
= −∆𝑥[𝑘1 + 2𝑘−2 𝑥𝑒 ]
𝑑𝑡

𝑑(∆𝑥)
= −∆𝑥. 𝑘𝑟 . . . (7)
𝑑𝑡

Where 𝑘𝑟 = [𝑘1 + 2𝑘−2 𝑥𝑒 ] is known as relaxation constant.

The reciprocal of relaxation constant is known as relaxation time (τ*).

1 1
𝜏∗ = =
𝑘𝑟 [𝑘1 + 2𝑘−2 𝑥𝑒 ]

Rearranging equation (7), we have:

𝑑(∆𝑥)
= − 𝑘𝑟 𝑑𝑡 . . . (8)
∆𝑥

25
Since the quantity ∆x varies with time, integrating the equation (8) subjected to the boundary
conditions ∆x = ∆xo → ∆x when t = 0 → t, we have:
∆𝑥=∆𝑥 𝑡=𝑡
𝑑(∆𝑥)
∫ = − 𝑘𝑟 ∫ 𝑑𝑡
∆𝑥
∆𝑥=∆𝑥𝑜 𝑡=0

∆𝑥
𝑙𝑛 = − 𝑘𝑟 𝑡
∆𝑥𝑜

∆𝑥
= 𝑒 − 𝑘𝑟 𝑡
∆𝑥𝑜

∆𝑥 = ∆𝑥𝑜 𝑒 − 𝑘𝑟 𝑡
Where 𝑘𝑟 = 𝑘1 + 2𝑘−2 .

Exercise: 1
k
The relaxation time for fast reaction A k1 B is 10 ms and the equilibrium constant is
-1
1x10-3. Calculate the rate constant for forward and reversible reaction.

The relaxation time for the given fast reaction is given as:

1
𝜏∗ = = 10 𝜇𝑠 = 10 × 10−6 𝑠 = 10−5 𝑠
[𝑘1 + 𝑘−1 ]

Since the k1 is far greater than k-1 (k1 <<<k-1),

1
𝜏∗ =
𝑘1
(or)
1
10−5 𝑠 =
𝑘1

𝑘1 = 105 𝑠 −1

We know that the equilibrium constant (K) for the given reversible reaction is:

𝑘1
𝐾=
𝑘−1

Given that the equilibrium constant for the given fast reaction is 1×10‒3. Therefore, the rate constant
for reversible reaction is:
𝑘1
𝑘−1 =
𝐾

105
𝑘−1 = 𝑠 −1
1 × 10−3

𝑘−1 = 108 𝑠 −1

26
Exercise: 2

Calculate the rate constants involved in the dissociation of:

k1
NH4OH
k-2
NH4+ + OH- from the following data:
A 0.1 M solution of NH4OH is subjected to a sudden T-jump terminating at 25oC at which
the the equilibrium constant is 1.8 x 10-5 mol dm-3.The observed relaxation time is 0.109 ms
and xe is 4.1 x 10-4mol dm-3.

Given:

K = 1.8×10‒5 mol dm‒3

xe = 4.1×10‒4 mol dm‒3
τ* = 0.109 μs = 0.109 ×10‒6 s

The relaxation constant for the given reaction which is first order forward and second order reverse
is given as:
𝑘𝑟 = 𝑘1 + 2𝑘−2 𝑥𝑒 . . . (1)

Further, we know that the equilibrium constant (K) for the given reversible reaction is:

𝑘1
𝐾= . . . (2)
𝑘−2
(or)
𝑘1
𝑘−2 = . . . (3)
𝐾

Substituting the equation (3) in equation (1), we get:

𝑘1
𝑘𝑟 = 𝑘1 + 2 𝑥
𝐾 𝑒
(or)
2𝑥𝑒
𝑘𝑟 = 𝑘1 [1 + ]
𝐾
(or)
𝑘𝑟
𝑘1 =
2𝑥
[1 + 𝐾𝑒 ]
But,
1
𝑘𝑟 =
𝜏∗
(or)
1
𝑘𝑟 = = 9.2 × 106 𝑠 −1
0.109 × 10−6 s
Therefore,
9.2 × 106 𝑠 −1
𝑘1 =
2 × 4.1 × 10−4
[1 + ]
1.8 × 10−5

27
 9.2 × 106 𝑠 −1
𝑘1 =
46.5

𝑘1 = 1.9 × 105 𝑠 −1

From equation (2), we have:

𝑘1
𝐾=
𝑘−2
(or)
𝑘1
𝑘−2 =
𝐾

1.9 × 105 𝑠 −1
𝑘−2 =
1.8 × 10−5

𝑘−2 = 1.05 × 1010 𝑠 −1

2. Chemical relaxation by Pressure Jump Method (P-Jump Method)

 In P-jump method, the perturbation of a chemical system is achieved by rising the pressure
from ambient to some higher values and a subsequent sudden drop back to the ambient pressure.

 The sudden change in pressure shifts the chemical equilibrium which is described by Van’t
Hoff equation as:

𝜕𝑙𝑛𝐾 ∆𝑉 𝑜
( ) =−
𝜕𝑃 𝑇 𝑅𝑇

Where ∆Vo is the change in volume by the application of pressure.

 In P-jump method, the experimental liquid is placed in a flexible cell. It is provided with two
electrodes and connected with a Wheatstone bridge to follow the attainment of new
equilibrium. When pressure is dropped to the atmospheric pressure (Fig. 2.2).

 The experimental cell is placed in a pressure vessel filled with an inert liquid such as xylene
and by using a pressure gauge, a pressure of about 65 atmospheres is set up in the pressure
vessel.

 Now the pressure is reduced to one atmosphere in about 10‒4 seconds by puncturing a thin metal
disc set into the wall of the pressure vessel.

 The sudden drop of pressure causes the sample to attain a new equilibrium, which is followed
by measuring the electrical conductance of the liquid using the Wheatstone bridge.

28
 Fig. 2.2: Apparatus for Pressure-Jump Method: The Reaction is Followed by Measuring the
Electrical Conductance

4. FLOW METHODS
In flow studies of fast reactions, streams of two reactant solutions are forced under pressure to meet
in a mixing chamber, from which the mixed solution passes to an observation chamber. These
methods have been reviewed by Caldin and Chance.

Flow methods function in the time range of (approximately) 1 millisecond to 10 second, so they very
usefully extend the range of conventional batch mixing. Unlike relaxation kinetics, flow methods are
applicable to irreversible reactions.

1. Continuous Flow Method

 The continuous flow method was developed in 1923 by Hartridge and Roughton in aid of their
study of the kinetics of the reaction between hemoglobin and oxygen.

 The principle is shown schematically in Fig. 2.3.

 In this method, the solutions of reactants A and B are forced by pistons into the mixing chamber,
whose design contributes to rapid mixing.

 The mixed solution flows into an observation tube, where detection by spectroscopy takes place
a distance d downstream from the mixer.

 With continuing injection of reactant solutions, a steady state is set up in the observation tube,
the concentrations at any point being independent of time.

29
 Fig. 2.3: Schematic diagram of continuous flow kinetic system. The quantity d is the distance
from the mixer to the point of observation

 If v is the flow velocity, the distance d is related to reaction time given by:

𝑑
𝑡=
𝑣

 Thus, with a flow velocity of 10 m s‒1, a distance of 1 cm corresponds to 1 millisecond. The

time course of the reaction is determined by varying d or v.

 Continuous flow devices have undergone careful development, and mixing chambers are very
efficient. Mixing is essentially complete in about 1 ms, and half-lives as short as 1 ms may be
measured.

 An interesting advantage of the continuous flow method is that the analytical method need not
have a fast response, since the concentrations are at steady state. Of course, the slower the
detection method, the greater the volumes of reactant solutions that will be consumed.

 In 1923 several liters of solution were required, but now reactions can be studied with 10-100
ml.

 Two techniques conceptually related to classical continuous flow make use of different
injection methods.

 In one of these, a reactant solution formed into a highspeed jet is injected through a sheet or
film of the second solution. The jet speed is 40 ms‒1, and the mixing time is 1 μs.

 In the second technique, two streams of microdroplets (about 100 μm diameter, 40 kHz
generation frequency, 15 ms‒1 velocity) collide to form a single droplet stream, which is
observed by Raman spectroscopy. The mixing time is 200 μs.

Exercise:

Calculate the reaction time when the flow is made at 1, 5, and 10 cm distance along a tube with the
flow rate of 20 ms‒1.

Given:

d = 1, 5, 10 cm

30
v = 20 ms‒1 = 20 × 100 cms‒1

t=?
We know from the continuous flow techniques, the flow velocity (v) and the distance d is related to
reaction time given by:
𝑑
𝑡=
𝑣
When d = 1
1
𝑡= = 5 × 10−4 𝑠
2000

When d = 5
5
𝑡= = 2.5 × 10−3 𝑠
2000
When d = 10
10
𝑡= = 5 × 10−3 𝑠
2000

2. Stopped Flow Method

 Stopped flow is probably the most widely used of methods for the study of fast reactions,
because stopped-flow apparatus is commercially available at modest cost.

 As with continuous flow, the reactant solutions are forced from cylinders or syringes, they meet
in a mixing chamber, and the mixture flows into an observation tube. However, in stopped flow
method, after a few milliseconds the flow is abruptly stopped by forcing of a stopping piston
against an arrest.

Fig. 2.4: Schematic diagram of stopped flow kinetic system

 Progress of reaction is observed by a fast response analytical method (usually

spectrophotometry or fluorimetry) is then made as a function of time by using an oscillopscope.

 The stopped-flow method is, therefore, exactly analogous to conventional batch mixing kinetic
studies.

 The dead time is typically 3-5 milliseconds, so stopped flow is not quite as fast as continuous
flow, but it requires less than a millilitre of each solution per run.

31
 Stopped flow is sometimes described as concentration jump kinetics. Variations on the
technique include the injection of solvent, the combination of stopped flow with T-jump, and
the use of NMR as the analytical method so as to detect short lived intermediates.

5. KINETICS OF LARGE PERTURBATION METHODS

Flash photolysis and shock tube methods apply a large perturbation to a reactive system and thereby
generating one or more reactive species as free radicals and intermediates. The reactions are followed
by spectroscopic methods.

1. Shock Tube Method

 A number of fast gaseous reactions have been investigated using shock tubes.

 The reaction system is taken in a long metal tube, through which a shock wave is passed.

 As the shock wave traverses an element of gas, the temperature of gas rises sharply and reaction
occurs in and behind the shock front.

 The course of reaction and temperature may be determined by various methods. Various
designs of shock tubes have been employed and one such is shown schematically in Fig. 2.5.

 The tube is divided into two parts, viz. a high pressure and low-pressure end, separated by a
thin diaphragm made of a metal foil or other material.

Fig. 2.5: Shock Tube

 The appropriate reactants and precursors are kept in the low-pressure compartment while an
inert gas is kept in a high-pressure compartment.

 The diaphragm is burst either by mechanical means or by increasing the pressure.

 To initiate the reaction, the diaphragm is punctured and a plane shock wave moves along the
tube.

 At start, wave is not sharp because of initial turbulence. After traveling a short distance, the
wave becomes a true shock wave in which there is a very sharp boundary between high and
low-pressure region.

32
 As the wave travels, the gas is rapidly raised to a very high temperature and the reaction of the
species produces excited states of atoms and free radicals. The reaction of these species is
followed by observation of their absorption spectra using the mobile detector.

 The sharp change in temperature, pressure, density or electrical conductivity etc. can also be
used as tool for the detection of the arrival of the shock front.

 The shock wave technique has successfully been applied to study the vibrational and rotational
energy transfers between gaseous molecules.

2. Flash Photolysis

 The reaction is initiated by an intense flash of visible or ultraviolet light generated by a

photoflash lamp.

 The duration of the flash, about 5 to 15 microseconds is shorter than the reaction time scale.

 The intermediates generated can be probed in real time using spectroscopic methods. The
absorption spectrum of the intermediate has to be determined at fixed intervals after the initial
flash

 The reaction cell (RC) is a quartz cylinder of length up to 1 m. Both the ends of the cylinder
are plane windows (Fig. 2.6).

Fig. 2.6: Apparatus for Flash Photolysis

 The photoflash lamp tube is parallel to the reaction cell. Suitably placed reflectors increase the
intensity of light falling on the sample.

 The photoflash lamp has a capacitor connected to the two electrodes of the lamp. For short
flashes (ns) the energy dissipated from the lamp is small (microjoules) for millisecond flashes,
the energy dissipated is several hundred joules.

 The absorption spectrum of intermediates/products is obtained using a second lamp (the

spectroflash) at one end of the reaction cell.

 The spectroflash energy and duration have to be adjusted so that it does not interfere with the
ongoing photochemistry in the reaction cell, but has sufficient intensity to be detected in the
detector, kept at the other end.

33
 6. KINETICS OF PERIODIC PERTURBATION METHODS

Ultrasonic Absorption Technique

 In this technique, the sound waves are passes through the reaction mixture and the velocity (or)
absorption of sound is measured for a series of frequency of the sound waves.

 The periodic relaxation diagram can be drawn by plotting the absorption of ultrasonic wave
through a mixture on its frequency (Fig. 2.7).

tio if
Inflection
xa e
n
ela rv
a r n cu
re tio
the sorp
is
Absorption
Ab

if
on curve
pti ion
Absor no relaxat
is
there

Frequency
Fig. 2.7: Periodic Relaxation Diagram (Absorption versus Frequency)

 From each point of inflection, the maximum relaxation time can be found directly and the rate
constant ca n be calculated by using the expression, τ = 1/k.

References

1. Keith J. Laidler, Chemical Kinetics, Pearson Education India, 3rd Edition, 2003.
2. John W. Moore and Ralph G. Pearson, Kinetics and Mechanism, Wiley, 3rd Edition, 1981.
3. C. Kalidas C, Chemical Kinetic Methods, New Age International, 1996.
4. F. Wilkinson, Chemical Kinetics and Reaction Mechanism, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,
2000.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Explain stopped flow method for studying kinetics of fast reactions.

2. Explain the fast reactions with their characteristics.
3. Discuss pressure jump method for studying fast reactions.
4. Discuss how a fast reaction can be initiated and studied by flash photolysis.
5. Discuss how a fast reaction can be initiated and studied by shock tube method.
6. Discuss ultrasonic absorption technique for studying fast reactions.
7. Explain with a neat diagram, how a fast reaction kinetics studied by temperature jump method.

34
8. Compare stopped flow and continuous flow methods for studying fast reactions.
9. Illustrate the technique used in studying kinetics of fast reactions. What is meant by the term
relaxation time?
10. Explain flow methods for studying fast reactions.
11. Develop the relationship between relaxation time and rate constant for the following reaction?
What is relaxation time?
k1
A k-1 B

12. Develop the relationship between relaxation time and rate constant for the following reaction?
What is relaxation time?
k1
A k-1 B+C

13. Discuss chemical relaxation technique with reference to jump methods.

14. Explain large perturbation methods for studying the kinetics of fast reactions.

35
 SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

UNIT – III –Kinetics of Polymerisation–SCYA5202

36
 1. INTRODUCTION TO POLYMER SCIENCE
1. Monomer

Definition: Monomer is a simple molecule consisting of two or more bonding sites through which it
interacts with other simple molecules to form a polymer.All simple molecules do not qualify as
monomers. The essential requirements of a simple molecule to qualify as a monomer are:

❖ It must possess at least two active centres (bonding sites) in the form of double bonds. (or)

❖ It must have at least two reactive, same or different functional groups.

Examples of Type-I Monomers

H H H H H H H H
C C C C C C C C
H H H Cl H CH3 H
Ethylene Vinylchloride Propylene Styrene
Examples of Type-II Monomers
H2N ( CH2 )6 NH2 HOOC ( CH2 )4 COOH
Hexamethylene diamine Adipic acid

2. Polymer

Definition: Polymer is a macromolecule formed by the combination of large number of one or more
types of small molecules of low molecular weight called monomer.

3. Addition (or) Chain Growth Polymerisation

Monomers having multiple bonds (double or triple bond) undergo addition polymerisation.
Monomers combine to give addition polymer through addition reaction and no other by-products.
Therefore, molecular weight of the resulting polymer will be an integral multiple of the molecular
weight of monomers.

❖ Examples of Condensation Polymerisation

Polymerisation of Ethylene

Polyethylene is obtained by polymerisation of ethylene monomers. The ethylene monomer can be

obtained by dehydrogenation of ethane and by dehydration of ethyl alcohol. The first step in the
polymerisation is molecular rearrangement to produce a bi-functional molecule. In presence of
suitable catalysts, these activated molecules join together to form a long chain polyethylene.

37
 H H

n H2C CH2 n........ C C ........ CH2 CH2

Ethylene n
H H Polyethylene
Bifunctional species

4. Condensation (or) Step Polymerisation

➢ Monomers having same type or different type of functional groups undergo condensation
polymerisation.

➢ The polymerisation proceeds by step wise reaction between reactive functional groups and small
molecules are eliminated.

➢ Therefore, molecular weight of polymer will not be an integral multiple of the molecular weight
of monomers.

➢ Condensation polymers are hard, strong and more brittle. They are insoluble in almost all organic
solvents because of strong bonds and cross linking.

❖ Examples of Condensation Polymerisation

Polyesters

Polyester is obtained by the reaction of a dicarboxylic acid with a diol.

O O
n HO C R C OH + n HO R' OH
Dicarboxylic acid Diol
O O
C R C O R' O
n
Poly(ester)

2. MECHANISM OF ADDITION POLYMERISATION

1. Free Radical Mechanism

Free radical mechanism follows three main steps:

(i) Chain initiation
(ii) Chain propagation and
(iii)Chain termination.

1. Chain Initiation

Chain initiation involves two reactions:

Production of primary free radical by homolytic dissociation of thermal initiator.

38
 70 - 90 C
⎯→ 2CH 3COO• (or) 2R •
CH 3COO - OOCCH 3 ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯
Acetylperoxide Primary free radical

80 - 95 C
⎯→ 2C 6 H 5COO• (or) 2R •
C 6 H 5COO - OOCC6 H 5 ⎯⎯ ⎯ ⎯
Benzoylperoxide Primary free radical

represents free radical.

(i) Addition of this free radical to the first monomer to produce chain initiating species.

R + M R M
Primary First Chain Initiating
Free Radical Monomer Species

H H
R + H2C C R CH2 C
X X
2. Chain Propagation

Propagation consists of the growth of chain initiating species by successive addition of large number
of monomer molecules one by one.

H H H H
R CH2 C + nCH2 C R (CH2 C )n CH2 C
X X X X
Growing Chain (Living Polymer)
The growing chain of the polymer is known as living polymer.

3. Chain Termination

Termination of living polymer may occur due to:

Combination or Coupling of free radical of one chain end to another free radical forming a
macromolecule.
H H H H
R CH2 C + C CH2 R R CH2 C C CH2 R
X X X X
Dead Polymer
Disproportionation involves transfer of a hydrogen atom of one chain end to another to form two
macromolecules (one saturated and another unsaturated).

39
 H H H H H
R CH2 C + C CH2 R R C C + H C CH2 R
X X H X X
Unsaturated Saturated
polymer polymer
The product of addition polymerisation is called as dead polymer.

2. Anionic Mechanism

Monomers containing electronegative groups like Cl−, CN− at one of the carbon atoms connected by
the double bond follow this mechanism. The catalysts used to initiate the reaction are KNH2, NaNH2
(Lewis bases).

❖ Examples: Vinyl chloride, Acrylonitrile.

1. Chain Initiation

It involves the formation of chain initiating carbanion.

+
KNH2 K + NH2

H H H H
NH2 + C C NH2 C C
H CN H CN
Chain initiating carbanion
2. Chain Propagation

It involves the growth of chain initiating carbanion by successive addition of large number of
monomers one by one. The growth involves the transfer of negative charge along the chain.

H H H H H H H H
NH2 C C + nC C NH2 C C C C
H CN H CN CN CN
H nH

3. Chain Termination

Termination of growing chain occurs by the reaction of growing carbanion chain with the medium
of the polymerisation like ammonia.

H H H H H H H H
+
NH2 C C C C + H NH2 NH2 C C C C H + NH2
CN CN CN CN
H nH H nH

40
3. Cationic Mechanism

Monomers containing electropositive groups like CH3, C6H5 at one of the carbon atoms connected
by the double bond follow this mechanism. The catalysts used to initiate the reaction are AlCl3, BF3
(Lewis acids).

❖ Examples: Isoprene, Styrene.

1. Chain Initiation

It involves the formation of chain initiating carbonium ion.

+
AlCl3 + H2O H AlCl3 OH

H H H H
+ +
C C + H AlCl3 OH H C C AlCl3 OH
H C6H5 H C6H5
Chain initiating carbonium ion
2. Chain Propagation

It involves the growth of chain initiating carbonium ion by successive addition of large number of
monomers one by one. The growth involves the transfer of positive charge along the chain.

H H H H H H H H
+
H C C AlCl3 OH +nC C H C C C C + AlCl3 OH
H C6H5 H C6H5 H C6H5 n H C6H5

3. Chain Termination

It involves the splitting of the catalyst from the growing chain of polymer.

H H H H H H H H
+
H C C C C + AlCl3 OH H C C C C + H AlCl3 OH
H C6H5 n H C6H5 H C6H5 n C6H5

3. KINETICS OF FREE RADICAL POLYMERISATION

Kinetics of free radical polymerization involves three steps:

Step 1: Chain Initiation

It consists of two steps: In the first step, the initiator I dissociates into two molecules of primary free
radicals (R•).
𝐼 = 𝐼 − 𝑒 𝑇𝑙 ⋯ ⋯ (1)
𝑜 −
41
 𝒌𝒅
𝑰 → 𝟐𝑹•

The rate of dissociation of the initiator, I is given by:

−𝒅[𝑰]
= 𝒌𝒅 [𝑰] . . . (𝟏)
𝒅𝒕

Or) the rate of formation of free radical is given as:

+𝒅[𝑹• ]
= 𝟐𝒌𝒅 [𝑰] . . . (𝟐)
𝒅𝒕

Since the reaction takes place by two events.

In the second step, the primary free radical combines with the first monomer M to give chain initiating
carrier.
𝒌𝒊
𝑹• + 𝑴 → 𝑴•

Further, the rate of formation of chain carrier is given by:

𝒅[𝑴• ]
= 𝒌𝑰 [𝑹• ][𝑴] . . . (𝟑)
𝒅𝒕

Applying steady state approximation with respect to R•, we have:

The rate of formation of R• = The rate of conversion of R• into M•

𝟐𝒌𝒅 [𝑰] = 𝒌𝑰 [𝑹• ][𝑴]

𝒅[𝑴• ]
= 𝟐𝒌𝒅 [𝑰]
𝒅𝒕

Therefore, the rate of chain initiation is given as:

𝑹𝒊 = 𝟐𝒌𝒅 [𝑰] . . . (𝟒)

Step 2: Chain Propagation

It involves the growth of chain initiating carrier by successive addition of large umber monomers one
by one.
𝒌𝒑
𝑴• + 𝑴 → 𝑴•𝟏
𝒌𝒑
𝑴•𝟏 + 𝑴 → 𝑴•𝟐
𝒌𝒑
𝑴•𝟐 + 𝑴 → 𝑴•𝟑
𝒌𝒑
𝑴• + 𝑴 → 𝑴•𝒏

42
Since the chain growth is independent of chain length, all these steps take place with a rate constant
of kp.

Therefore, the rate of propagation is given as:

𝑹𝒑 = 𝒌𝒑 [𝑴• ][𝑴] . . . (𝟓)

Step 3: Chain Termination

It takes place by mutual combination of chain carriers, and it proceeds with the rate constant, kt.

𝒌𝒕
𝑴• + 𝑴• → 𝑷

Therefore, the rate of chain termination is given as:

𝑹𝒕 = 𝟐𝒌𝒕 [𝑴• ]𝟐 . . . (𝟔)

In any number of terminations, two number of chain carriers are involved.

Applying SSA to M• in order to evaluate in terms of measurable quantities, we have:

Rate of formation of M• = Rate of termination of M•

𝑹𝒊 = 𝑹𝒕

𝟐𝒌𝒅 [𝑰] = 𝟐𝒌𝒕 [𝑴• ]𝟐

𝒌𝒅 [𝑰]
[𝑴• ]𝟐 =
𝒌𝒕
𝟏
𝒌𝒅 𝟐 𝟏
[𝑴• ] = ( ) [𝑰]𝟐 . . . (𝟕)
𝒌𝒕

But, the rate of polymerisation depends upon the rate of propagation, and hence:

The rate of polymerisation = 𝒌𝒑 [𝑴• ][𝑴]

𝟏
𝒌𝒅 𝟐 𝟏
𝑹𝑷 = 𝒌𝒑 ( ) [𝑰]𝟐 [𝑴]
𝒌𝒕

(or)
𝟏
𝒌𝒅 𝟐 𝟏
𝑹𝑷 = 𝒌𝒑 ( ) 𝒇∗ [𝑰]𝟐 [𝑴] . . . (𝟖)
𝒌𝒕

Where f* the fraction of R• which is efficient for the production of chain carrier [𝑴• ].

43
 4. KINETICS OF ANIONIC POLYMERISATION
The monomers like vinyl chloride, acrylonitrile follow anionic polymerisation. The Lewis base like
NaNH2 or KNH2 acts as the catalyst. The kinetics of anionic polymerisation also involves three steps.

Step 1: Chain Initiation

In the first step Lewis base dissociates to give the active species. The active species in turn attacks
the the first monomer to give a carbanion chain carrier.

AB → A+ + B‒
Lewis base Active species

𝒌𝒊
𝑩− + 𝑴 → 𝑩𝑴−

Where, 𝑩𝑴− is a carbanion chain carrier.

Therefore, the rate of initiation is given by:

𝑹𝒊 = 𝒌𝒊 [𝑩− ] [𝑴] . . . (𝟏)

Step 2: Chain Propagation

It consists of the growth of anionic chain carrier by successive addition of large number of monomers
one by one.

𝑴− + 𝑴 → 𝑴 − 𝑴−
𝑴 − 𝑴− + 𝑴 → 𝑴 − 𝑴 − 𝑴−
𝑴 − 𝑴 − 𝑴− + 𝑴 → 𝑴 − 𝑴 − 𝑴 − 𝑴−
(or)
𝒌𝒑
−
𝑴−
𝒏 + 𝑴 → 𝑴𝒏+𝟏

Therefore, the rate of propagation is given by:

𝑹𝒑 = 𝒌𝒑 [𝑴𝒏− ] [𝑴] . . . (𝟐)

Step 3: Chain Termination

The growing chain can be terminated by using excess of suitable solvent.

𝒌𝒕
𝑴−𝒏 + 𝑩 → 𝑴𝒏 + 𝑩
−

Therefore, the rate of termination is given by:

𝑹𝒕 = 𝒌𝒕 [𝑴−
𝒏 ] [𝑩] . . . (𝟑)

Applying SSA to the intermediate species 𝑀𝑛− , we have:

44
The rate of formation of 𝑀𝑛− = The rate of termination of 𝑀𝑛−

𝒌𝒊 [𝑩− ] [𝑴] = 𝒌𝒕 [𝑴−

𝒏 ] [𝑩]

𝒌𝒊 [𝑩− ]
[𝑴−
𝒏] = [𝑴] . . . (𝟒)
𝒌𝒕 [𝑩]
We know that,

The rate of polymerisation = The rate of propagation

𝑹𝒑 = 𝒌𝒑 [𝑴−
𝒏 ] [𝑴] . . . (𝟓)

Substituting [𝑀𝑛− ] in equation (5), we get:

𝒌𝒊 [𝑩− ]
𝑹𝒑 = 𝒌𝒑 [𝑴]𝟐 . . . (𝟔)
𝒌𝒕 [𝑩]

The kinetic chain length of polymers is defined as the average number of monomers reacting with
active species to form a polymer from initiation to termination.

(or)
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
The kinetic chain length = 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒌𝒊 [𝑩− ]
𝒌𝒑 [𝑴]𝟐
𝒌𝒕 [𝑩]
𝑲𝑪𝑳 =
𝒌𝒊 [𝑩− ] [𝑴]

𝒌𝒊 [𝑴]
𝑲𝑪𝑳 =
𝒌𝒕 [𝑩]

5. KINETICS OF CATIONIC POLYMERISATION

The monomers like propylene, styrene follow anionic polymerisation. The Lewis acid like AlCl3 or
BF3 acts as catalyst and water is used as co-catalyst. The kinetics of cationic polymerisation involves
three steps.

Step 1: Chain Initiation

In the first step Lewis acid reacts with the cocatalyst to give the active species. The active species in
turn attacks the first monomer to give a carbonium ion chain carrier.

𝒌
𝑨 + 𝑹𝑯 → 𝑯+ − 𝑨𝑹−
Lewis acid Cocatalyst Active species

𝒌𝒊
𝑯+ − 𝑨𝑹− + 𝑴 → 𝑯𝑴+ − 𝑨𝑹−

Where, 𝑯𝑴+ − 𝑨𝑹− is a carbonium ion chain carrier.

45
Therefore, the rate of initiation is given by:

𝑹𝒊 = 𝒌𝒊 [𝑯+ − 𝑨𝑹− ] [𝑴]

(or)
𝑹𝒊 = 𝒌𝒊 𝒌[𝑨] [𝑹𝑯][𝑴] . . . (𝟏)

Step 2: Chain Propagation

It consists of the growth of cationic chain carrier by successive addition of large number of monomers
one by one.

𝑯𝑴+ − 𝑨𝑹− + 𝑴 → 𝑯 − 𝑴 − 𝑴+ − 𝑨𝑹−

𝑯 − 𝑴 − 𝑴+ + 𝑴 → 𝑯 − 𝑴 − 𝑴 − 𝑴+ − 𝑨𝑹−

(or)
𝒌𝒑
𝑴𝒏+ − 𝑨𝑹− + 𝑴 → 𝑴+
𝒏+𝟏 − 𝑨𝑹
−

Therefore, the rate of propagation is given by:

𝑹𝒑 = 𝒌𝒑 [𝑴+ −
𝒏 − 𝑨𝑹 ] [𝑴] . . . (𝟐)

Step 3: Chain Termination

It involves the transfer of H+ ion from the end of growing chain to 𝐴𝑅 − .

𝒌𝒕
𝑴𝒏+ − 𝑨𝑹− → 𝑴𝒏 + 𝑯+ 𝑨𝑹−

Therefore, the rate of termination is given by:

𝑹𝒕 = 𝒌𝒕 [𝑴𝒏+ − 𝑨𝑹− ] . . . (𝟑)

Applying SSA to the intermediate species 𝑀𝑛+ − 𝐴𝑅 − , we have:

The rate of formation of 𝑀𝑛+ − 𝐴𝑅 − = The rate of termination of 𝑀𝑛+ − 𝐴𝑅 −

𝒌𝒊 𝒌[𝑨] [𝑹𝑯][𝑴] = 𝒌𝒕 [𝑴+ −

𝒏 − 𝑨𝑹 ]

𝒌𝒌𝒊
[𝑴+ −
𝒏 − 𝑨𝑹 ] = [𝑨] [𝑹𝑯][𝑴] . . . (𝟒)
𝒌𝒕

We know that,

The rate of polymerisation = The rate of propagation

𝑹𝒑 = 𝒌𝒑 [𝑴𝒏+ − 𝑨𝑹− ] [𝑴] . . . (𝟓)

Substituting 𝑀𝑛+ − 𝐴𝑅 − in equation (5), we get:

46
 𝒌𝒌𝒊
𝑹𝒑 = 𝒌𝒑 [𝑨] [𝑹𝑯][𝑴]𝟐 . . . (𝟔)
𝒌𝒕

The kinetic chain length of polymers is defined as the average number of monomers reacting with
active species to form a polymer from initiation to termination.

(or)
𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒑𝒐𝒍𝒚𝒎𝒆𝒓𝒊𝒔𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏
The kinetic chain length = 𝑹𝒂𝒕𝒆 𝒐𝒇 𝒊𝒏𝒊𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

𝒌𝒌𝒊
𝒌𝒑 [𝑨] [𝑹𝑯][𝑴]𝟐
𝒌𝒕
𝑲𝑪𝑳 =
𝒌𝒊 𝒌[𝑨] [𝑹𝑯][𝑴]

𝒌𝒑
𝑲𝑪𝑳 = [𝑴]
𝒌𝒕

6. MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF POLYMERS

Polymers are normally a mixture consisting of different chain lengths. Hence it is not possible to
assign a definite molecular weight to a polymer. In practice, statistical methods are adopted for
assigning average molecular weight of polymers.

1. Number Average Molecular Weight ( M n )

It is defined as the ratio of sum of molecular weights of individual molecules to the total number of
molecules in the mixture.

If a polymer mixture contains n1 molecules with molecular weight M1, n2 molecules with molecular
weight M2 …. till ni molecules with molecular weight Mi then,

n M + n2 M 2 +  + ni M i
Mn = 1 1
n1 + n2 +  + ni

 ni M i
Mn =
 ni

2. Weight Average Molecular Weight ( M w )

It is defined as the ratio of sum of weights of individual polymer molecules to the total weight of
polymer molecules in the mixture.

In a polymer mixture, if w1 is the weight of polymer with molecular weight M1, w2 is the weight of
polymer with molecular weight M2 …. till wi is the weight of polymer with molecular weight Mi then,

47
 w M + w2 M 2 +  + wi M i
Mw = 1 1
w1 + w2 +  + wi

 wi M i
Mw =
 wi
w
But, number of moles n = and w = nM .
M

Therefore, replacing w1 by n1M1, w2 by n2M2, …. and wi by niMi, then we have:

n1M 12 + n2 M 22 +  + ni M i2
Mw =
n1M 1 + n2 M 2 +  + ni M i

 ni M i2  ni M i
Mw = =
 ni M i  ni

3. Viscosity Average Molecular Weight

From the measurements of viscosity of solutions of polymers, it is possible to determine the average
molecular weight of the polymer.

The molecular weight of a polymer is proportional to the intrinsic viscosity of its solution (ηi) when
the polymer molecular chain is extended to its full contour length.

The relationship between intrinsic viscosity and molecular weight is given by Mark-Hownik’s
equation.
 i = KM 
Where,
✓ K and α are constants that depend on the polymer, solvent and temperature.
✓ M is the average molecular weight of the polymer.

log i − log K
(or) log M =


➢ The intrinsic viscosity of the polymer can be determined by U-tube viscometer.

1  
 i =   − 1
C  o 
Where,

✓ ηo and η are the viscosity of the solvent and the solution respectively.
✓ C is the concentration of the polymer, usually in wt. %.

48
 7. DETERMINATION OF MOLECULAR WEIGHT OF POLYMERS
BY LIGHT SCATTERING METHOD

1. Determination of Molecular Weight of Polymers by Light Scattering Method

 Light scattering method is useful in case of polymers of very high molecular weights, particularly
above 10,000 – 1,00,000.

 This method is based on the scattering of light by a colloidal solution, i.e., Tyndal effect.

 The fraction of incident light scattered in all direction increases with the increase in the number
and size of particles in the solution and this causes the turbid appearance of the most of the
polymer or colloidal solution.

 The intensity of transmitted light (I) can be obtained from well-known Beer-Lambert’s and is
given by:

I = I o − e −Tl  (1)

✓ Where Io is the intensity of incident light falling on solution column;

✓ I is the intensity of transmitted light after travelling length l in solution column
✓ and T is solution turbidity.
 Polymer solution turbidity is defined as the fraction of incident light scattered per centimeter
length of solution through which it passes.

 The polymer solution turbidity can be determined by measuring the decrease in intensity of
transmitted light from the intensity of incident light after scattering.

 Turbidity of polymer solution is related to molecular weight of the macromolecule by the

equation:

T = HCM (2)
1 HC
(or ) =  (3)
M T

 Where T is solution turbidity and is inversely is inversely proportional to the fourth power of the
wave length of light used (λ); M is the molecular weight of macromolecule; C is the concentration
of sol (gm/cc) and H is constant.
 The constant H is defined as:

 n − no 
32 3 no2  
H=  C 
 (4)
3N4
where no is the refractive index of the pure solvent, n is the refractive index of the polymer
solution, dn/C is the refractive index increment of the solute/solvent system, λ is the wavelength
of the light used and N is the Avogadro’s number.

49
 The refractive index increment is a measure of the optical contrast between the solute molecules
and the solvent. The value of refractive index increment dn/C can be determined by measuring the
refractive index of solutions of different concentrations of the solute molecules.

 Equation (3) is strictly valid when C→0, so we get:

1  HC 
(or ) =   (5)
M  T  C →0

 In order to determine M of the polymer, we must find out T values at different dilutions of the
polymer solution so that the quantity HC/T can be calculated for different concentrations.

 If a graph is plotted between HC/T against C, a straight line is obtained. When this line is
extrapolated to zero concentration, we get the intercept on HC/T-axis which gives value of 1/M,
and thus the molecular weight is calculated.

2. Determination of Molecular Weight of Polymers by Ultracentrifuge Method

(Sedimentation Velocity Method)

Principle
 When a colloidal solution is left in vessel, the solution particles tend to settle to bottom under the
influence of gravity. This phenomenon is called sedimentation.

 Unless the solution particles are large, the sedimentation under gravity occurs at very slow rate.

 However, the rate of sedimentation can be highly increased if the solution is put under very large
gravitational force, which can be artificially created by means of ultracentrifuge. This technique
was introduced by Svederg.
 Ultracentrifuge is a very high-speed centrifuge in which the sedimentation occurs under very high
centrifugal force of rotation.

 The speed of rotation is so high that an acceleration as high as million times that of gravity is
attained.
 The polymer solution is kept in ultracentrifuge and the rate of sedimentation is noted.

 Knowing rate of sedimentation (velocity of sedimentation), it is possible to calculate the

molecular weight of polymer.

50
 The determination of molecular weight of polymers by ultracentrifuge can be done by two
methods: Sedimentation velocity method and Sedimentation equilibrium method.

Sedimentation Velocity Method

 The acceleration in a centrifugal field is given by:

Acceleration in a centrifugal field =  2 x (1)

Where,
ω is the angular velocity (radian/sec) = 2π × revolutions per second (speed of rotation of
centrifuge);
x is the distance of setting particles from the axis of rotation.
 The velocity of sedimentation under centrifugal field is given by:

dx 2r (d p − d m ) 2 x
2

=  (2)
dt 9

Where,
dx/dt is velocity of sedimentation;
r is the radius of the particle (cm);
dp is the density of particle (gm/cc);
dm is the density of medium (solvent) and
η is the viscosity of medium (poise).
 Rewriting equation (2)

dx 2r (d p − d m ) 2 dt
2

=  (2)
x 9

 On integration

dx 2r (d p − d m ) 2
x2 2 t2

x=
x1
9  dt
t1
 (3)

2r 2 (d p − d m ) 2 (t 2 − t1 )
ln x2 − ln x1 = (4)
9

ln  x 2  2r 2 (d − d )
 x1  = p m
(5)
 2 (t 2 − t1 ) 9

2r 2 (d p − d m ) ln  x 2 
where S = 2
x1 
(or ) S =  (6)  (7)
9  (t 2 − t1 )
 S is called sedimentation constant of coefficient.

51
 The sedimentation constant S can be calculated by equation (7) knowing x and t at two stages of
sedimentation and speed of rotation of centrifuge (ω).

 Knowing S, the radius of particle (r) can be calculated by using the equation (6).
 Assuming the polymer particle to be spherical, its volume can be taken as the mass of the particle
and is given by:
4
M = r 3  (8)
3
 Molecular Weight = Mass of Particle (mass = volume × density) × N (where N is Avogadro’s
number)
4
M = r 3 d p N  (9)
3
 This method gives weight average molecular weight of polymer. It is important to note that the
equation (6) applies to uniform spherical particles of polymer.

References
1. Keith J. Laidler, Chemical Kinetics, Pearson Education India, 3rd Edition, 2003.
2. John W. Moore and Ralph G. Pearson, Kinetics and Mechanism, Wiley, 3rd Edition, 1981.
3. F. Wilkinson, Chemical Kinetics and Reaction Mechanism, Van Nostrand Reinhold Co.,
2000.
4. V.R. Gowarikar, N.V. Vishwanathan and Jayadev Sreedhar, Polymer Science, 2nd Edition,
New Age International Publishers, 2006.
5. F.W. Billmeyer, Textbook of Polymer Science, John Wiley & Sons, 3rd Edition, 1990.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Distinguish chain growth and step growth polymerization.

2. Explain the mechanism of cationic polymerization.
3. Explain carbanion mechanism of addition polymerization.
4. Illustrate number average molecular weight.
5. Explain weight average molecular weight of polymers.
6. Explain the kinetic chain length of polymers.
7. Discuss free radical mechanism of addition polymerization.
8. Discuss the kinetics of free radical polymerization.
9. Discuss the kinetics of anionic polymerization. What is kinetic chain length?
10. Discuss the kinetics of cationic polymerization. What is kinetic chain length?
11. Explain different ways for expressing molar masses of polymers.
12. Discuss light scattering method for determining the molar mass of polymers.
13. Explain an ultracentrifuge method for the determination of molecular weight of polymers.

52
 SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

UNIT – IV – Adsorption – SCYA5202

53
 1. ADSORPTION ISOTHERMS

 The amount of gas adsorbed on the surface of adsorbent depends on pressure and temperature,
i.e., the amount of gas adsorbed is a function of temperature and pressure only. If ‘x’ is the amount
gas adsorbed on mass ‘m’ of adsorbent at pressure (P) and temperature (T), it may be
mathematically expressed as:

x
m = f (P, T ) …(1)

 This mathematical equation is called adsorption curve. The equation (1) gives three types
adsorption curves under different conditions of P, T and x/m.

1. Adsorption Isotherm: If T is kept constant, then the equation (1) becomes:

x
m = f (P ) …(2)

Equation (2) explains the variation of x/m with pressure at constant temperature. Adsorption isotherm
is defined as the variation of amount of substance adsorbed per unit mass of adsorbent with pressure
at constant temperature.

2. Adsorption Isobar: If P is kept constant, then the equation (1) becomes:

x
m = f (T ) …(3)

Equation (3) explains the variation of x/m with temperature at constant pressure. Adsorption isobar
is defined as the variation of amount of substance adsorbed per unit mass of adsorbent with
temperature at constant pressure. Equation (3) is called adsorption isobar. It explains the variation
of adsorption with temperature at constant pressure.

3. Adsorption Isostere: If the amount of adsorbed gas x/m is kept constant, then the equation (1)
becomes:

P = f (T ) …(4)

The equation (4) is called adsorption isostere. It explains the variation of pressure with temperature
when the amount of gas adsorbed is kept constant.

Types of Adsorption Isotherms

 A plot obtained between the amounts of substance adsorbed per unit mass of the adsorbent and
the equilibrium pressure (in the case of a gas) or concentration (in the case of solution) at constant
temperature is known as adsorption isotherm.

 Five different types of adsorption isotherms have been observed in the adsorption of gases on
solids. In the case of chemisorption, only Type I is observed while in the case of physical
adsorption all the five isotherms are observed.

54
1. Type I Adsorption Isotherm

 Type 1 adsorption isotherm is a typical Langmuir isotherm because the adsorption leads to
monolayer formation. The curve represents that after certain value of P, there is no change in x/m
with the increase of pressure. i.e., it shows limiting or saturation state after certain value of P (Fig.
4.1).

Limiting Value
-------------

x
m T - Constant

Fig. 4.1: Type I Adsorption Isotherm: Adsorption of N2 on charcoal at −183oC

2. Type II Adsorption Isotherm

 It represents a multi-molecular layer physical adsorption on non-porous materials. The curve

shows that there is a transition point, B that represents the pressure at which the formation of
monolayer is complete and that of multilayer is being started (Fig. 4.2).

T - Constant
x
m

---- B
----

Fig. 4.2: Type II Adsorption Isotherm: Adsorption of N2 on silica gel at −195oC

3. Type III Adsorption Isotherm

 It represents a case of physical adsorption on porous materials. The curve represents that multi
molecular layer formation starts even before the completion of monomolecular layer formation
(Fig. 4.3).

T - Constant
x
m

Fig. 4.3: Type III Adsorption Isotherm: Adsorption of I2 vapours on silica gel at 83oC

55
4. Type IV Adsorption Isotherm
 It also represents a case of physical adsorption on porous materials accompanied by capillary
condensation. This isotherm indicates that there is a tendency for saturation state to be reached
in the multi molecular region (Fig. 4.4).

T - Constant
x
m

Fig. 4.4: Type IV Adsorption Isotherm: Adsorption of benzene vapours on ferric oxide gel at
50oC

5. Type V Adsorption Isotherm

 It also represents a case of physical adsorption on porous material. It indicates that the formation
of multi molecular layer starts in the beginning (Fig. 4.5).

T - Constant
x
m

Fig. 4.5: Type V Adsorption isotherm: Adsorption of water vapour on charcoal at 100 oC

2. THE LANGMUIR ADSORPTION ISOTHERM

Postulates Assumptions of Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm

 The adsorbed gas forms only a unimolecular layer on the solid adsorbent (i.e.: adsorbed gas is
unimolecular in thickness).

 The adsorbed molecules on the surface do not interact with each other.

 The molecules of a gas are adsorbed only on vacant sites of the adsorbent surface. Each site can
hold only one molecular species of the adsorbate.

 The process of adsorption is a dynamic process, which consists of two opposite processes.

56
 • Condensation (Adsorption) Process: It involves the condensation (adsorption) of molecules
of the gas on the surface of the solid.

• Evaporation (Desorption) Process: It involves evaporation (desorption) of molecules of the

adsorbate from the surface of the adsorbent.

Derivation of Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm

 Consider an adsorbing surface of area 1 square centimeter is exposed to a gas (Fig. 4.6).
Molecules of the gas will strike the surface and stick for an appreciable time due to condensation
while other gas molecules will evaporate from the surface due to thermal agitation.

 If θ is the fraction of surface area covered by gas molecules at any instant, then the fraction of the
remaining surface available for adsorption is (1−θ).
Free gas at constant
temperature

Vacant
surface, (1- )

Covered
surface, ( )

Fig. 4.6: Equilibrium between free molecules and adsorbed molecules

 If P is the pressure of the gas, then the rate of condensation (adsorption) molecules is expected to
be the proportional to the pressure, P and fraction of uncovered surface, (1−θ). Hence,
The rate of adsorption = k1 (1 −  )P …(1)

 The rate at which gas molecules evaporates from the surface (desorption) will depend on the
fraction of the surface covered by the gas molecules, (θ). Hence,

The rate of evaporation of gas = k 2 …(2)

molecules
where k1 and k2 are proportionality constants for a given system.
 At equilibrium, the rate of adsorption and the rate of evaporation are equal, then,

k1 (1 −  )P = k 2

k1 P − k1 P = k 2

k1 P = k 2 + k1 P

k1 P =  (k 2 + k1 P )

57
 k1 P …(3)
 =
k 2 + k1 P

 Dividing the numerator and denominator of the right-hand side of equation (3) by k2, we get:

 k1  P
 k 
 =  2

1 +  1  P
k
 k2 

bP
=
 1 + bP …(4)

where b = k1/k2 and is called adsorption coefficient.

 If x is the amount of gas adsorbed on the mass m of the adsorbent, then x/m is the amount of gas
adsorbed per unit mass of the adsorbent.
 Since the amount of gas adsorbed per unit mass of adsorbent (x/m) is proportional to the fraction
(θ) of the surface covered, then
x
m 

x
m =k

x
=
 km …(5)

where k is proportionality constant.

 Substituting the value of θ in equation (4), we have

x bP
=
km 1 + bP

x kbP
=
m 1 + bP

x aP
=
m 1 + bP …(6)

where the constant a = kb.

 Equation (6) relates the amount of gas adsorbed to the pressure of the gas at constant temperature
and is known as the Langmuir adsorption isotherm.

58
 The constant a and b depend on the nature of the system and on the temperature. In order to test
this isotherm, the equation (6) is divided by P on both sides, we get:

(x m) =
1  aP 
P 1 + bP  …(7)
P

 Further taking reciprocals, we get:

P P(1 + bP)
=
( )
x
m
aP

P (1 + bP)
=
( )
x
m
a

P 1 b
( )
x
m
= +  P
a a
...(8)

 This equation is similar to an equation for a straight line (y = mx +c). Hence if P / ( x / m) is

plotted against P, a straight line should be obtained with a slope equal to (b/a) and intercept equal
to (1/a).

b
Slope = a
P
(x/m)

1
a

Fig. 4.7: Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm

❖ Testing of Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm

 We shall now consider three special cases of Langmuir isotherm.

P 1 + bP
=
( )
x
m
a …(9)

Case 1: At very low pressures, bP can be neglected in comparison with unity (i.e: bP <<1) and
hence,
P 1
=
x ( )
m
a

59
 x
m =aP
At very low pressures, the amount of gas adsorbed is directly proportional to the pressure.
Case 2: At high pressures bP>>1, and hence 1 can be neglected in comparison with bP.

P b
( ) x
m
=  P
a

x a
=
m b …(10)

At very high pressures, the extent of adsorption at a given temperature is independent of pressure of
the gas. This condition arises when the surface of the adsorbent is completely covered by the
unimolecular layer of gas molecules.

x a
m = b
ie: Rate of Adsorption = Rate of Desorption

x 1
= kP n
m
P
(x/m) Saturation Pressure
x (or) Equilibrium Pressure
m =aP

P
Fig. 4.8: Testing of Langmuir Adsorption Isotherm

Case 3: At intermediate pressure, Langmuir equation becomes Freundlich equation.

At very low pressure,
x
m P

x
m =k P
At very high pressure,
x
m =k

At intermediate pressure, the equation becomes:

1
x
= kP n
m
where the value n lies between 0 and 1. This equation is known as Freundlich equation.

60
 3. THE BET THEORY OF MULTIMOLECULAR LAYER ISOTHERM AND
DETERMINATION OF SURFACE AREA OF ADSORBENTS

Postulates of Brunauer-Emett-Teller (BET) adsorption isotherm

 The adsorption involves the formation of multimolecular layer of adsorbate molecules on the
surface of solid adsorbent.

 The multilayer adsorption takes place the following manner:

Vapour + Free surface of adsorbent Monolayer
Vapour + Monolayer Bimolecular layer
Vapour + Bimolecular layer Trimolecular layer
Vapour + Trimolecular layer Multimolecular layer
 Langmuir assumption applies to each layer and there is sa dynamic equilibrium exits between the
successive layer. Further, the rate of from the first layer is equal to the rate of condensation of
preceding layer.

 The heat of adsorption in each layer (except the first layer) is involved in each of the evaporation
process. After the formation of first layer, the heat of adsorption is equal to the latent heat of
condensation of vapours.

Derivation BET adsorption isotherm

 We can represent the formation of multilayer of gas molecules on the surface of adsorbent can be
explained with following equilibrium equations:
M+S MS
M + MS M2S
M + M2S M3 S
M + Mn-1S MnS

 Where M is the unadsorbed gas molecules and S is the active sites on the adsorbent surface;
MS is the single layer formed; M2S is the second layer formed and so on. There is always an
equilibrium exists between the adsorbate and adsorbent.

 The equilibrium constant can be written as:

k1 =
MS  ; k2 =
M 2 S  ; k2 =
M 3 S  and so on (1)
M S  M MS  M M 2 S 
 We know that P is the pressure of gas molecules and M is the un-adsorbed molecules. Further,
let θo be free surface area available for adsorption; θ1 is fraction of free surface area available
after formation of monolyer; θ2 is fraction of free surface area available after formation of second
layer; θ23is fraction of free surface area available after formation of third layer and so on.

61
 Therefore, the adsorption of unadsorbed molecule on the surface of adsorbent, [S] α P and [M]
= θo; [MS] = θ1; [M2S]= θ2; [M3S] = θ3 and so on.

 Substituting the above θ values in equation (1), we have:

1  
k1 = ; k 2 = 2 ; k3 = 3 (2)
P o P1 P 2

 The value of k1 is usually very large as compared to the other equilibrium constant. This is due
to the increase in distance from the adsorbent surface and the interaction gas molecules and solid
adsorbent.

 Therefore, k2, k3, k4 etc. much smaller than k1.

 So, k2 ≈ k3 ≈ kL, (3)

 where kL is the equilibrium constant corresponding to saturated vapour liquid equilibrium system
and it may be represented mathematically as:

1
kL = (4)
Po
 Where Po is the total vapour pressure using approximation of (3), and the various equilibria of (2)
can be written as:

1  
k1 = ; k 2 = 2 = k L ; k3 = 3 = k L and so on (5)
P o P1 P 2

 Rearranging the above equation by making use of (4), we have:

1 = k1 P o ;  2 = k L P1 ;  3 = k L P 2 and so on (6)

 If we assume that the entire adsorbent surface is covered, then the total coverage of the first layer
is given by:

 tot =  o + 1 +  2 +  3 +  = 1 (7)

 Substituting (6) in (7), we get:

 tot =  o + k1 P o + k1 P P P   o + k1 P P P  2  o + 

 o   o 

 
 tot =  o k1 P + k1 P P P  + k1 P P P  2 + 
  o o  o  

 tot =  o 1 + k1 P1 + P P  +  P P  2 +   (8)

  o  o 

62
  
 k1 P  1
1 =  o 1 +  1 + x + x 2 +  =
 1 −  P   1− x
  Po  

1
o =
k1 P
1+
1 −  P 
 Po 

1 −  P 
o =  Po  (9)
1 −  P  + k1 P
 Po 

 Let Vtot be the total number of molecules adsorbed by unit mass of adsorbent and Vm be the total
number of surface sites occupied by the adsorbed molecules per unit mass of the adsorbent.
Further Vmθ1 is the number of sites carrying one molecule thick, Vmθ2 is the number of sites
carrying two molecules thick and so on and hence,

Vtot = Vm (1 + 2 2 + 3 3 + ) (10)

 Substituting θ1, θ2, θ3 values in equation (10), we have

 
Vtot = Vm k1 P o 1 + 2 P  + 3 P  2 +    (11)
  o  o
P P 

 
 
 1  1
Vtot = Vm k1 P o 2 
1 + 2 x + 3x + ... =  (12)
  P (1 − x )2
1 −  
  Po  


 Substituting θo,in (12), we get

  P 
 1 −  
 k1 P  Po  
Vtot = Vm     (13)
 1 − P  1 − P  + k1 P 
2

  Po   Po  
 

 
 
= Vm  
k1 P
Vtot  (14)
 P P  
 1 −  1 −  + k1 P 
  Po   Po  

63
 Expansion of P in terms of partial pressure can be written as:

= Po  P  =
Po 1 P 
P = P    kL = 1
Po  o  k L  Po 
P Po

 Replacing P by 1/kL (P/Po) in equation (14), we get

 
  k1   P  
 k  P 
Vtot = Vm   L o   (15)
    
 1 −  1 −  +  k1   P  
P P
  Po   Po   k L   P o  

 
 Vm c  P  
=  Po   where c =  k1   (16)
Vtot
   k 
P   L 
 1 −  1 −  P  + c  P  
  Po    P o  P o  

 Equation (16) is the required equation for adsorption of gaseous molecules on adsorbent surface
and it is known as BET adsorption equation for multi-molecular layer formation.

Determination of surface area covered using BET adsorption equation (Testing of BET
adsorption equation)

 Let P/Po as x and hence BET equation may be represented as:

 Vm cx 
Vtot =    (1)
 (1 − x ) 1 − x + cx 

Vtot (1 − x )  Vm c 
=   (2)
x 1 − x + cx 

x 1 − x + cx
=
Vtot (1 − x ) Vm c

x 1 + x − 1 + c
=
Vtot (1 − x ) Vm c

x 1 x c − 1
= +
Vtot (1 − x ) Vm c Vm c

x 1 x c − 1
= +
Vtot (1 − x ) Vm c Vm c

64
 P  1
=
1
+
c − 1  P 
 P
 o (P − P ) Vm c Vm c  Po 
Vtot o
P

P
=
1
+
c − 1  P 
   (3)
Vtot (Po − P ) Vm c Vm c  Po 

 Where P/Po is the relative pressure of the adsorbate; Vtot is the total number of gas molecules
adsorbed; Vm is the total number of sites occupied by adsorbed molecules per unit mass of the
adsorbent; and c is the characteristic constant which depends on nature of adsorbent and
adsorbate.
 If we plot
P
versus  P  , we get slope =
c − 1 and intercept = 1 .
Vtot (Po − P )  o
P Vm c Vm c

c-1
slope =
P Vmc
Vtot(Po/P)

intercept = 1
Vmc

(P/Po)

 Adding slope and intercept, we get:

slope + intercept =
c − 1 + 1
Vm c Vm c

c −1+1
slope + intercept =
Vm c
1
Vm =  (4)
slope + intercet

 At standard temperature and pressure,

22.4 L will have = NA molecules

Vm N A
Vm L will have =  (5)
22.4
 Let one molecule of an adsorbate occupies an surface area = σ
σVm N A
 Total number of molecules present in one volume will occupy surface area, S =
22.4

65
 4. THE GIBBS ADSORPTION ISOTHERM

❖ Relationship between surface tension of the solution and the concentration of the solute

 Excess concentration of solute present at the surface of liquid is called Gibb’s surface excess, τ.

 Surface tension is due to the presence of unbalanced forces in the surface of liquid; the liquid
contracts the area and attain minimum value of surface energy (forces of surface tension).

 For a system consisting of a solvent (n1 – number of moles) and a solute (n2 – number of moles)
[two component system], the Gibb’s free energy is given by:

G = n1 m1 + n2 m 2 +  S (1)

 Where µ1 and µ2 are the chemical potentials of the two components respectively and S is the
surface area and γ is the surface energy per unit area.

 The complete differential of equation (1) gives the variation of the total Gibb’s free energy and
is given by:

dG = n1dm1 + m1dn1 + n2 dm 2 + m 2 dn +  dS + Sd (2)

 Therefore the free energy G depends upon five independent variables: G = f (T, P, n1, n2, S).
Taking partial differentials of (2), we get:

 G   G   G   G
 S 
dG =   dT +   dP +  
 dn1 + 
dn2 +   dS  (3)
 T  P ,n1 ,n2 , S  P  T ,n1 ,n2 , S  n1  T , P ,n2 , S
 T , P ,n1 , S  nn 2
 T  T , P ,n1 ,n2
 According to thermodynamics, the partial derives are represented as:

 G   G   G   G 
  = −S ;   = V;   = m1 ; and   = m 2 (4)
 T  P  P  T  n1   n2 

 Substituting (4) in (3), we have:

dG = −SdT + VdP + m1dn1 + m 2 dn2 +  dS (5)

 At constant T and constant P, the equation (5) reduces to:

(dG )T , P = m1 dn1 + m 2 dn2 +  dS  ( 6)

 Comparing (2) and (6),

n1dm1 + m1dn1 + n2 dm 2 + m 2 dn +  dS + Sd = m1dn1 + m 2 dn2 +  dS (7)

 n1dm1 + n2 dm 2 + Sd = 0 (8)

66
 The expression for the free energy change in the bulk phase (devoid of surface energy) is given
by:

n1o dm1 + n2o dm 2 = 0 (9)

n2o
dm1 = − dm 2  (10)
n1o
 Substituting (10) in equation (8), we get,

 − no 
n1  o 2 dm 2  dm1 + n2 dm 2 + Sd = 0  (11)
 n1 

 n2o 
dm 2 n2 − o  + Sd = 0  (12)
 n1 

 no 
Sd = −dm 2 n2 − 2o   (13)
 n1 

 no 
 n2 − 2o 
d
= 
n1
−  (14)
dm 2 S

 The above equation involves the difference of two terms: i.e., the amount of solute associated
with liquid at the surface and in the bulk phase. The numerator term gives the excessive
concentration of solute present at the surface and when it is divided by S gives the excessive
concentration of solute per unit surface area, τ2.
d
− =2  (15)
dm 2

 Further the chemical potential of the solute is given by Van’t Hoff equation as:

m 2 = m * + RT ln a2 (16)

 The equation (16) upon differentiation,

dm 2 = RTd ln a2 (17)

 Substituting dµ2 in (15), we have

d
− =2
RTd ln a 2

67
 − d a 2
 =2
RT da 2

da 2 a
 d (ln a 2 ) =
1
(or ) = 2
a2 d (ln a 2 ) da2

 For very dilute solution, the term activity is replaced by concentration, c. So, the above equation
may be written as:

− c 2 d
2 =   (18)
RT dc2

 The equation (18) is the require Gibb’s adsorption isotherm.

5. SURFACTANTS
Surface-active materials (or surfactants) consist of molecules containing both polar and non-polar
parts (amphiphilic).

Classification of Surfactants

1. Anionic surfactants: The head-group of an anionic surfactant is negatively charged, which is

electrically neutralized by an alkali metal cation. The soaps (RCOO‒ Na+), alkyl sulfates (RSO4‒
Na+) and alkyl benzene sulfonates (RC6H4SO3‒ Na+) are the well known examples of the anionic
surfactants. These surfactants readily adsorb on the positively charged surfaces.

2. Cationic surfactants: The head-group of a cationic surfactant has a positive charge. The cationic
surfactants are useful for adsorption on negatively charged surfaces.

Some well known cationic surfactants are, long chain amines (RNH3+ X‒), quaternary ammonium
salts [RN(CH3)3+ X‒] and quaternary salts of polyethylene oxide-amine derivatives [RN(CH3)
{(C2H4O)xH}2+ Cl‒].

3. Zwitterionic surfactants: These surfactants have both positive and negative charges on the
surface-active part of the molecule. The long chain amino acids (RN+H2CH2COO‒), sulfobetaine,
[RN+(CH3)2(CH2)xSO3‒] are the well known examples of the zwitterionic surfactants.

The main advantage of these surfactants is that they are compatible with both anionic and cationic
surfactants due to the presence of both positive and negative charges.

4. Non-ionic surfactants: The nonionic surfactants are second most widely used surfactants in the
industry. They do not have any significant electric charge on their surface-active part. Therefore,
there is very little or no electrical interaction between the head-groups. These surfactants are
stable in presence of electrolytes

The alkyl phenol ethoxylate [RC6H4(OC2H4)xOH], alcohol ethoxylates [R(OC2H4)xOH],

polyoxyethylene mercaptants [RS(C2H4O)xH] are the well known examples of the Non-ionic
surfactants.

68
Formation of Micelles

 One fundamental property of the surfactants is to adsorb at the interfaces. Surfactants have
another very important property-the property of self-assembly.

 When sufficient amount of a surfactant is dissolved in water, the surfactant molecules form
colloidal clusters. For many ionic surfactants, typically 40–100 surfactant molecules assemble to
form such clusters. These are called micelles, and the process of formation of micelles is known
as micellization (Fig.4.9).

 The number of surfactant molecules in a micelle is known as aggregation number. These clusters
can have a wide variety of shape such as spherical, cylindrical and lamellar.

Fig. 4.9: Micelles of various Types

Critical Micelle Concentration (CMC)

 The threshold concentration at which the formation of micelle begins is known as critical micelle
concentration (CMC).

Fig. 4.10: Variation of properties of surfactant solution near the CMC

 Several properties of surfactant solution show sharp change in the vicinity of CMC, such as
surface tension, equivalent conductivity, osmotic pressure and Turbidity (Fig. 4.10).

69
 These variations can be explained as follows. Near the CMC, the surface is almost saturated by
the adsorption of the surfactant molecules. Therefore, the surface tension ceases to decrease when
the surfactant concentration is increased beyond the CMC.
 The equivalent conductivity of the solution decreases at the CMC owing to the lower mobility of
the micelles as compared to the surfactant molecules.
 When the critical micelle concentration is approached, the slope of the osmotic pressure curve
decreases and the slope of the turbidity curve increases due to the increase in the average
molecular weight of the solute.

Thermodynamics of Micellization
 Let us consider a surfactant which is represented as S. If the surfactant is ionic, it represents the
surface-active part. The effects associated with counterions (e.g., their binding effects) are not
considered in the following derivation for simplicity.

 When the micelle (SN) forms, the clustering can be represented by the following reaction.

NS  S N (1)

Where, N is the aggregation number. The aggregation number actually has a statistical
distribution rather than a single value as used here.

 The reaction represented by Eq. (1) is reversible. The equilibrium constant for this reaction is
given by,
a micelle
K=  (2)
a SN

Where, a represents activity in Eq. (2), expressed in terms of mole fraction. The standard Gibbs
free energy change for micelle formation per mole of surfactant is given by,

RT ln K RT
Go = − =− ln a micelle + RT ln a S  (3)
N N

 At the critical micelle concentration, aS = aCMC . Since N is large, Eq. (3) becomes,

G o  RT ln aCMC  ( 4)

 The standard Gibbs free energy change due to micellization can be calculated from Eq. (4). The
activity is expressed as the product of mole fraction and activity coefficient. For most surfactants,
the critical micelle concentration is small (< 1 mol/m3). Setting the activity coefficient to unity
under the assumption of ideal behavior of the surfactant solution at CMC, Eq. (4) becomes,

G o  RT ln xCMC  (5)

where xCMC is the mole fraction of surfactant in the solution at CMC. The experimentally
determined value of CMC (expressed as mole fraction) can be put in Eq. (5) to calculate ΔGo. .

70
 The optimum HLB number for forming an emulsion depends to some extent on the nature of the
particular system. Suppose that 20 percent sorbitan tristearate (HLB 2.1) plus 80 per cent
polyoxyethylene sorbitan monostearate (HLB 14.9) is the optimum composition of a mixture of
these emulsifiers for preparing a particular O/W emulsion. The HLB of the mixture is, therefore,
(0.2 × 2.1) + (0.8 × 14.9) = 12.3. The theory is that an HLB of 12.3 should be optimum for the
formation of this particular O/W emulsion by use of other emulsifier systems; for example, the
optimum proportions in a mixture of sorbitan mono-oleate (HLB 4.3) and polyoxyethylene
sorbitan monopalmitate (HLB 15.6) should be approximately 30 per cent and 70 percent,
respectively.

6. EMULSIONS

 An emulsion is a dispersed system in which the phases are immiscible or partially miscible
liquids.

 If the oil is the dispersed phase, the emulsion is termed an oil-in-water (O/W) emulsion; if the
aqueous medium is the dispersed phase, the emulsion is termed a water-in-oil (W/O) emulsion.

 The emulsions are generally prepared by shaking strongly the mixture of two colloids and these
emulsions are generally unstable. The substances added to stabilize the emulsions are called
emulsifiers or emulsifying agent.

 Emulsions are also classified according to the size of the dispersed droplets.

 Macroemulsions: At least one immiscible liquid dispersed in another as drops whose diameters
generally exceed 100 nm. The stability is improved by the addition of surfactants and/or finely
divided solids. Considered only kinetically stable.
 Miniemulsions: An emulsion with droplets between 100 and 1000 nm, reportedly
thermodynamically stable.
 Microemulsions: A thermodynamically stable, transparent solution of micelles swollen with
solubilizate. Microemulsions usually require the presence of both a surfactant and a co-surfactant
(e.g. short chain alcohol).

 Typical O/W macroemulsions are milk, water-soluble paint, body lotion and mayonnaise,
whereas butter and certain skin creams are W/O macroemulsions.

 Emulsion is the dispersion of one liquid into another liquid in the form of droplets in presence of
one or more surfactants, which act as stabilizer.

 Depending on the liquid that forms the dispersed phase, emulsions are classified as oil-in-water
(O/W) and water-in-oil (W/O) emulsions. These emulsions have relationship with the HLB values
of the surfactants which stabilize them

Hydrophilic‒Lipophilic Balance (HLB)

 A major commercial use of the surfactants is to formulate emulsion-stabilizing agents, or
emulsifiers.

71
 Emulsions can be divided into two types: oil-in-water (O/W) emulsions, and water-in-oil (W/O)
emulsions. In the oil-in-water type of emulsions, oil droplets are dispersed in the continuous
aqueous phase whereas, in water-in-oil type of emulsions, the aqueous phase is dispersed in the
continuous oil phase.

 Some surfactants stabilize the O/W emulsions whereas the other surfactants are more efficient in
stabilizing the W/O emulsions. A rule of thumb is that the most stable emulsion is formed when
the surfactant has higher solubility in the continuous phase.

 Therefore, according to this rule, a water-soluble surfactant should stabilize oil-in-water

emulsions more than water-in-oil emulsions, and the reverse is expected for a surfactant that is
soluble in oil. This rule is known as Bancroft’s rule.
 Griffin (1949) developed a method to correlate the structural properties of the surfactants with
their ability to act as emulsifiers. This method is known as hydrophilic‒lipophilic balance (HLB)
method.

 The solubility of surfactants in water varies depending on their HLB value,

Table 4.2: HLB Values and Types of Emulsion Formed

Range of HLB value Solubility in water Emulsion type
1‒4 Insoluble Water-in-oil
4‒7 Poor unstable dispersion Water-in-oil
7‒9 Stable opaque dispersion -
10‒13 Hazy solution Oil-in-water
13 and higher Clear solution Oil-in-water

 As the name suggests, the balance between the hydrophilic and lipophilic parts of the surfactant
molecule is important in this method. Values have been assigned to these parts for various
surfactants. A group-number method is used for calculating the HLB value of a surfactant from
its chemical formula.

HLB =  Hydrophilic group numbers − Group number per CH 2 group + 7

Stability of Emulsions
 Emulsions are thermodynamically unstable systems and their free energy of formation (ΔGf) is
greater than zero. Therefore, they show a tendency to destabilize.

 This instability is a result of the energy associated with the large interfacial area of the droplets
and γ the interfacial tension between the aqueous and nonaqueous area of the droplets and phases.
This energy term outweighs the entropy of formation, ΔSf associated with the formation of the
droplets from the bulk constituents

 The free energy of formation of the emulsion is given by,

G f = A − TS f

 The interfacial tension in emulsions is generally in the range of 1–10 mN/m. The product of
interfacial tension and the large interfacial area produces a large positive interfacial energy term.
72
 The entropy of formation of emulsions is not very large because the number of droplets formed
is rather small in entropic terms. These two factors result in ΔGf > 0, which leads to the
thermodynamic instability of the emulsions.

 Emulsions are, however, kinetically stable due to the presence of an adsorbed layer of surfactant
molecules at the oil‒water interface. This layer may provide electrostatic (in the case of an ionic
surfactant) or steric (for a nonionic surfactant) repulsion when the droplets approach each other.
These monolayers therefore act as barriers and prevent the emulsion droplets from coming into
direct contact. They serve to stabilize the thin film of liquid between two adjacent droplets.
Coalescence occurs when this thin film becomes unstable and then ruptures. Therefore, the
presence of adsorbed surfactants can reduce the likelihood of rupture.

 As a result of their thermodynamic instability, emulsions tend to reduce their total free energy
through an increase in droplet diameter, and hence reduce their total interfacial area. This leads
to the degradation of the emulsion.

References
1. Julian R.H. Ross, Heterogeneous Catalysis: Fundamentals and Applications, Elsevier, 1st
Edition, 2011.
2. G.C. Bond, Heterogeneous Catalysis: Principles and Application. Oxford University Press,
USA, 1987.
3. B. Vishwanathan, S. Sivasankar and A.V. Ramaswamy, Catalysis: Principles and
Applications, Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, 2004.
4. R. Aveyard and D.A Haydon, An Introduction to the Principles of Surface Chemistry,
Cambridge University Press, 1973.

REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Explain different types of adsorption isotherms.

2. Develop an expression for the determination of surface area of an adsorbent by BET method?
3. Predict and explain the condition under which Langmuir isotherm becomes Freundlich
adsorption isotherm.
4. Discuss the postulates of Langmuir adsorption isotherm.
5. Explain the classification of surfactants.
6. Discuss the concept of Hydrophilic-Lipophilic Balance.
7. Discuss critical micelle concentration.
8. Explain the formation of micelles.
9. Discuss in detail emulsions.
10. Discuss Langmuir adsorption isotherm with the limiting cases.
11. Develop BET adsorption isotherm.
12. Develop Gibb’s adsorption isotherm.
13. Discuss thermodynamics of micellization.
14. Discuss in detail surfactants.

73
 SCHOOL OF SCIENCE AND HUMANITIES
DEPARTMENT OF CHEMISTRY

UNIT – V – Catalysis – SCYA5202

74
 1. CATALYSTS / CATALYSIS

 A catalyst is a substance which alters the rate of chemical reaction but remains chemically
unchanged at the end of the reaction. This phenomenon is called catalysis. Those catalysts which
increase the reaction rate are called positive catalysts while those which slow down the reaction
rate are called negative catalysts or inhibitors.

Criteria of Catalytic Reactions

The following are the general characteristics of most catalysts and catalytic reactions.

1. A catalyst remains unaltered in amount and in chemical composition at the end of the reaction;
however it may undergo physical changes.
For example, granular MnO2 used as the catalyst in the thermal decomposition of potassium
chlorate and it recovered back as a fine powder at the end of the reaction.

2. A small amount of catalyst is generally sufficient to change the rate of reaction.

For example, 10-3 gm. ions/litre of Cu2+ is sufficient to change the rate of oxidation of sodium
sulphate by oxygen in an aqueous solution.

3. A catalyst cannot initiate a reaction. It can only accelerate or retard the speed of a chemical
reaction by decreasing or increasing the energy of activation.

4. A catalyst does not alter the equilibrium state of a reversible reaction: It simply alters the rate of
both the forward and backward reactions so that the equilibrium condition is reached more
quickly.

5. Every catalyst has a specific action. For a particular reaction, there is a particular catalyst. Even
the same reactants in presence of different catalysts give different products.

For example, hydrogen and carbon monoxide combine in presence of different catalysts to
produce different products.

CO + 2H 2 ⎯ +⎯
⎯ZnO ⎯→ CH 3 OH
Cr2O3

250°C
CO + 3H 2 ⎯⎯→ CH 4 + H 2 O
Ni3

6. A catalyst can be poisoned by the presence of small amount of certain substances called catalytic
poison.
Examples of catalytic poisons are carbon monoxide, arseneous oxide, hydrogen cyanide,
hydrogen sulphide etc.

7. The activity of a catalyst is enhanced by the presence of substances called promoters.

Examples of catalytic promoters are molybdenum, bismuth, zinc oxide, chromium oxide etc.

2. CLASSIFICATION OF CATALYSIS
Catalyzed reactions are divided into two classes namely homogeneous and heterogeneous depending
on the physical state of reactants, products and catalysts.

75
1. Homogeneous Catalysis
 In homogeneous catalysis, the catalyst is present in the same phase as the reactants. It can occur
in gas or liquid phase.
• Homogeneous catalysis in gas phase
(a) Oxidation of sulphur dioxide in lead chamber for the manufacture of sulphuric acid is catalyzed
by gaseous nitric oxide.
2SO2 (g ) + O2 (g ) ⎯NO
⎯⎯ (g )
→ 2SO3
(b) Decomposition of acetaldehyde is catalyzed by iodine vapour.
CH 3CHO(g ) ⎯I⎯ ⎯⎯→ CH 4 + CO
2 vapour

• Homogeneous catalysis in liquid phase: Acid-base catalysis

 Homogeneous catalyzed reactions in a solution are mostly catalyzed by acids or bases. These are
often referred to as acid-base catalysis. The most common acid catalyst in water solution is the
hydronium ion; the most common base is hydroxyl ion.
 If any acid catalyses the reaction, it is referred to as general acid catalysis. Similarly if any base
catalyses the reaction, it is referred to as general base catalysis. If only certain acids or hydroxyl
ions are effective, the phenomenon is called specific acid or specific base catalysis.
• General acid catalysis
 Under general acid catalysis, not only H+ ions catalyses the reactions but also all Bronsted acids
(proton donors) can catalyze the reaction. Examples: H+ ions; undissociated acid (CH3COOH);
cations of weak base (NH4+) etc.
 In general acid catalysis, the H+ ion or a Bronsted acid transfers a proton to the reactant to form
an intermediate complex which then decomposes and gives back the proton.
 Examples: The mechanism of keto-enol tautomerism of acetone.
- OH
O O
+
H
H3C C CH3 H3C C CH3 H3C C CH2 + H+

Acetone H End form

Intermediate complex

• General base catalysis

 Under general base catalysts, not only OH ions catalyses the reactions but also all Bronsted bases
(proton acceptors) can catalyse the reaction. Examples: OH− ions; anions of weak acid
(CH3COO–); undissociated base.

 In general base catalysis, the OH– ion or a Bronsted base accepts a proton to form an intermediate
complex which then decomposes to regenerate OH– or Bronsted base.

 Examples: Decomposition of nitramide by OH− ions.

−
NH 4 NO2 ⎯⎯→ NH 4 NO 2− + H 2 O
⎯OH

76
 Nitramide Intermediate complex
NH 4 NO2− → N 2 O + OH −
• Specific acid catalysis

 Inversion of cane-sugar and hydrolysis of ester are the typical examples of specific acid catalysis.
C12 H 22O11 + H 2O ⎯H⎯ +
⎯→ C 6 H 12 O6 + C 6 H 12 O6
3O

Cane sugar Glucose Fructose

CH 3COOC2 H 5 + H 2 O ⎯H⎯
+
⎯→ CH 3 COOH + C 2 H 5 OH
3O

Ethyl aceate Acetic acid Ethanol

 The reactions are catalysed by certain acids or H3O+ ions only. However, different acids have
different activities.

 For example, HCl has a greater activity than CH3COOH. It is evident that the actual catalysts are
H+ or H3O+ ions. The rate of reaction is found to be proportional to the concentrations of H3O+
ions and the concentration of the reacting molecules or ions.

• Specific base catalysis

 Conversion of acetone to diacetonyl alcohol is an example of specific base catalysis. This

reaction is catalysed by OH− ions only.

CH 3COCH 3 + CH 3COCH 3 ⎯→ CH 3 COCH 2 C (CH 3 )2 OH

−
⎯OH
⎯
Acetone Acetone Diacetonylalcohol

2. Heterogeneous Catalysis

 In heterogeneous catalyzed reactions, the catalyst is present in a different phase from that of the
reactants. In most of the cases, gaseous reactants are catalyzed by solid catalysts and the reactions
proceed at the surface of the solid catalysts. This type of process is referred to as contact catalysis.

Some important examples of heterogeneous catalysis are given below.

(i) Combination of SO2 and oxygen in the presence of finely divided platinum or V2O5 (Contact
process for sulphuric acid).
2SO2 (g ) + O2 (g ) ⎯Pt V2 O5 ( S )..
⎯or⎯ ⎯⎯→ 2 SO 3

(ii) Combination of nitrogen and hydrogen to form ammonia in the presence of finely divided iron
(Haber process for ammonia).
N 2 (g ) + 3H 2 (g ) ⎯Fei
⎯⎯ (S )
→ 2NH 3

(iii)Hydrogenation of unsaturated organic compounds is catalyzed by finely divided nickel.

H 2 C = CH 2 (g ) + H 2 (g ) ⎯Ni
⎯ ⎯(S )
→ H 3 C − CH 3

77
 3. CONCEPT OF LANGMUIR-HINSHELWOOD MECHANISM
Surface reactions: Involve the reactions between gaseous reactants catalysed by solid state catalysts.

 According to Langmuir-Honshelwood mechanism (LHM), a gaseous reaction takes place on the

surface of a solid catalyst. That is, the surface reaction involves the following elementary steps
and these steps are consecutive (taking place one after another):

1. Diffusion of reactants to the surface (very fast)

2. Adsorption of reactants at the surface
3. Chemical reaction at the surface (decomposition) (slowest and rate determining step-RDS)
4. Desorption of products from the surface
5. Diffusion of products from the surface (very fast)

Assumptions of LHM

1. RDS is the chemical reactions at the surface i.e., decomposition

2. Chemisorption plays an important role in heterogeneous catalysis. Chemical bonds are formed
between the adsorbate and the surface, which results into the formation of a monolayer (Langmuir
adsorption)
3. The reaction rate per unit surface area is proportional to the fraction of the surface covered, θ
which is calculated by the Langmuir adsorption isotherm.

Kinetics of Surface Reaction (Unimolecular Surface Reaction)

A + S ⎯⎯→
k1
AS ( Adsorption)

AS ⎯⎯→ A+ S
k
−1
( Desorption )

AS ⎯⎯→
k2
Pr oduct ( Decomposition)

 According to Langmuir-Hinshelwood hypothesis:

 Rate of the reaction, r = k 2 (1)
Where θ is the fraction of surface covered.
 Assuming steady state approximation for the intermediate [AS], we have:

 k1 AS  − k −1 AS  − k 2 AS  = 0

 k1 AS  = k −1 + k 2 AS 

 AS  = k1 AS  (2)

k −1 + k 2 
Let, θ is the fraction of sites occupied; 1‒θ is the fraction of sites which are unoccupied and Cs is the
total concentration of active sites on the surface

78
  Concentration of reac tan t sites, S  = (1 −  )Cs (3)

 and the concentration of sites occuppied by A is given as :

 AS  =  Cs (4)

 From equations (2), (3) and (4), we have,

k1 AS 
  Cs =
k −1 + k 2 
1 k1 AS 
 (or ) =  (5)
C s k −1 + k 2 

 Putting the equation (3) in (5), we get

1 k1 A(1 −  )C s
 = 
Cs k −1 + k 2 

k1 A(1 −  )
 =
k −1 + k 2 


(1 −  ) = k −1 + k 2 
 k1 A


1
−1 =
k −1 + k 2  (or )
1
= 1+
k −1 + k 2 
 k1 A  k1 A

1 k1 A + k −1 + k 2
 =
 k1 A

k1 A
 = (6)
k1 A + k −1 + k 2

 Substituting the value of θ in rate of reaction equation (1), we get

k 2 k1 A
 r= (7 )
k1 A + k −1 + k 2

 For gaseous adsorbates, concentration is expressed in terms of partial pressures.

k 2 k1 PA
  r= (8)
k1 PA + k −1 + k 2

79
 The equation (8) can be rearranged and written as:

1 k P k + k2
 = 1 A + −1
r k 2 k1 PA k 2 k1 PA

1 1 k + k2 1
 (or ) = + −1 (9)
r k2 k 2 k1 PA

 The equation (9) is corresponding to y = mx + c

k-1+k2
slope =
1 k2 k 1
r

1
intercept =
k2

1
PA

❖ Limiting cases
 Case 1: When k2 >> (k-1 + k1PA)

k 2 k1 PA
 r=
k2

 r = k1 PA The reaction is of first order.

 Case 2: When k2 << (k-1 + k1PA)

k 2 k1 PA
 r=
k −1 + k1 PA

 Dividing both the numerator and denominator of RHS by k‒1, we ger,

k 2 k1 PA
k −1
r=
k −1 + k1 PA
k −1

k 2 k1
PA
k −1
 r=
k −1 k1 PA
+
k −1 k −1

80
 K k 2 PA
 r= (10)
1 + K PA
k1
Where, K = and is known as adsorption equilibrium constant.
k −1
1. At low pressures, the reactants are slightly adsorbed, i.e., θ → 0 and KPA << 1.
 The equation (10) reduces to :

 r = K k 2 PA

 r = k PA i.e : The reaction is of first order

where k = K k 2

− dPA
  r= = k PA
dt

 (or ) PA = PAo exp(− kt )

 That is the partial pressure of gas decreases exponentially with time.
2. At high pressures, the reactants are strongly adsorbed, i.e., θ → 1 and KPA >> 1.

K k 2 PA
 r=
K PA

 r = k2 i.e : The reaction is of zero order

− dPA
  r= = k2
dt

 (or ) PA = PAo − k 2 t
 That is the partial pressure of gas decreases linearly with time.

Zero order
Reaction rate, r

First order

Pressure

4. PHOTOCATALYSIS USING SEMICONDUCTING OXIDES

Photocatalysis
 Photocatalyst: A photocatalyst is a semiconducting substance that mediates a chemical reaction
on its surface when activated by uv or visible light.

81
 Photocatalysis: Photocatalysis is a catalytic reaction which occurs in the presence of light and a
photocatalyst, semiconductor.
 Photocatalytic reactions are initiated by the absorption of a photon with appropriate energy that
is equal to or higher than the band gap energy of the photocatalyst.
 There are two types of photocatalysis: homogeneous and heterogeneous.
 Homogeneous photocatalysis: When the reactant and photocatalyst exist in the same phase, the
reaction is called homogeneous photocatalysis. Coordination compounds, dyes, natural pigments
are the most common examples of homogenous photocatalysts.
 Heterogeneous photocatalysis: In this type, the reactant and photocatalyst exist in different
phases. Transition metal chalcogenides are the most common examples of heterogeneous
photocatalysts.

Semiconducting Materials for Photocatalysis

 Binary semiconductors such as TiO2, ZnO, Fe2O3, CdS, and ZnS can be used as photocatalysts
because of a favorable combination of their electronic structure, light absorption properties,
charge transport characteristics, and excited-state lifetime.
 Apart from the binary chalcogenides, some ternary chalcogenides such as SrZrO3, PbCrO4,
CuInS2, Cu2SnS3 can also be used as photocatalysts.
 Examples of quaternary oxides and sulfides as photocatalysts are Bi2AlVO7, Cu2ZnSnS4,
FeZn2Cu3O6.5

Basic Principle and Mechanism of Photocatalysis

 Photocatalysis involves the absorption of photons energy (hν) equal to or greater than the band
gap energy (E ) of a semiconductor material, and generate electron hole pairs.
g

 The absorbed photon creates a charge separation as the electron (e‒) is elevated from the valence
band (VB) of a semiconductor to the conduction band (CB), creating a hole (h+) in the VB
(Equation 1).

Semiconductor ( photocatalyst ) + h → eCB

− +
+ hVB (1)

 But in most of cases the holes and electrons can recombine and discharge the energy in the form
of heat (Equation 2).
− +
eCB + hVB → Energy (Heat ) ( 2)

 This excited electron can reduce any substrate or react with electron acceptors such as O2 present
on the semiconductor surface or dissolved in water, reducing it to an unstable superoxide radical
anion O2− • (Equation 3)
−
O2 + eCB → O2− • ( Super oxide radical ) (3)

 On the other hand, the hole can oxidize the organic molecule to form R+, or react with H2O, or
−
OH, oxidizing them to an unsatble •OH radicals (Equation 4).

82
 +
H 2 O + hVB → • OH ( Hydroxyl radical ) + H + ( 4)

 These unstable radicals further react with the organic pollutant and subsequently mineralize it to carbon
dioxide and water, forming a number of intermediate products (Equatios 5 and 6).
•
OH + Organic pollu tan t → Intermediate → CO2 + H 2 O (5)
 O − • + Organic pollu tan t → Intermediate → CO + H O (6)
2 2 2

 The overall photocatalytic process involves three major steps:
(i) Absorption of light by the semiconductor to generate of electron-hole pairs,
(ii) Charge separation and migration to the surface of the semiconductor and
(iii) Surface reaction for the water reduction or oxidation reactions.

Fig. 5.1: Basic Principle and Mechanism of Photocatalysis

 The main drawback of this process is low efficiency due to recombination of charge carriers.

Application of Photocatalysis in Water Remediation

 Photocatalysis has been widely used for photocatalytic degradation of all kinds of organic
pollutants in water such as dye and microbial pathogens.

 In a photocatalysis procedure, electrons and holes are generated from semiconductors under light
irradiation, organic molecules are oxidized by photo-generated holes, and reactive radical species
such as O2− • , •OH are formed from the reduction of O2. Because all these radical species are
strong oxidizing agents, all organic molecules in water could be non-selectively destroyed.

 Under a certain pH condition, the photogenerated hole has a stronger oxidation capacity when the
VB potential is more positive while photogenerated electron exhibits more powerful reduction
capacity when the CB potential is more negative.

 Therefore, a semiconductor photocatalyst should have a suitable energy band structure in order
to remove organic pollutants effectively.

 It is generally accepted that the VB should have a potential of +1.0 to +3.5 V versus the normal
hydrogen electrode (NHE) and the CB should have a potential of +0.5 to ‒1.5 V versus the NHE.

83
Role of TiO2 as photocatalyst in water remediation

 TiO2, a typical semiconductor photocatalyst is considered to be one of the best candidates for
water purification, because of strong oxidising power at ambient temperature and pressure; high
photocatalytic activity for degrading a wide range of environmental pollutants; chemical
inertness; physical stability; non-toxicity; super hydrophilicity and cheapness and ready
availability.

 In case of heterogenic photocatalysis organic compounds present in aqueous phase are

transformed into by-product and finally mineralized to carbon dioxide and water at proper
radiation.

 Photochemical degradation of various chemical compounds such as phenols, chlorophenols, dyes,

pesticides, herbicides, humic and fulvic acids, pharmaceuticals, endocrine disruptors, heavy
metals and other inorganic compounds on TiO2 surface can be done.

 The aromatic compounds are hydroxylated by reactive OH• radicals and undergo
oxidation/addition which is finished with the ring opening. The byproducts obtained like
aldehydes and carboxylic acids are next oxidized to carbon dioxide and water.

 Some key steps during photocatalysis are given as follows.

( )
TiO 2 + h → TiO 2 eCB
−
( )
+
+ TiO 2 hVB (1)

+
H 2 O + hVB → • OH ( Hydroxyl radical ) + H + (2)

−
O2 + eCB → O2− • ( Super oxide radical ) (3)

H 2 O + O2− • → HO2• + •OH (4)

2HO2• → H 2 O2 + O2 (5)

H 2 O2 + O2• − → 2OH • + OH − + O2 (6)

•
OH + Organic pollu tan t → CO2 + H 2 O (7)

 It is also possible to use TiO2 as photocatalyst for the destruction of microorganisms. All
microorganisms such as bacteria cell consisting of water (70‒90%) and major cell compounds
like polysaccharides, lipids, lipopolysaccharides, proteins and nucleic acids can be attacked by
oxygen containing radicals and completely destroyed.

 The viruses like Streptococcus natuss, Streptococcus cricetus, faecalis and aureus, Escherichia
coli and total Coli, Scaccharomyces cerevisisas, Lactobacillus acidophilus, Enterobacter cloacae
Chlorella vulgaris, Candida albicans, Fusarium solami, Aspergillusniger, Polio 1 virus have
been successfully inactivated using heterogenic photocatalysis.

84
Application of Photocatalysis in Air Purification

 Photocatalysis is a promising technique used for removing nitrogen oxides (NOx), sulphur oxides
(SOx) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs) from polluted urban air and for reducing
concentrations of toxic and irritating ozone.

 The photocatalysis process has great potential applications to contaminant control in indoor
environments such as residences, office buildings, factories, aircrafts, and spacecrafts.
Disinfection is of importance in indoor air applications because of the risk of exposure to harmful
airborne contaminants.

 Bioaerosols are a major contributor to indoor air pollution, and more than sixty bacteria, viruses,
and fungi are documented as infectious airborne pathogens. Diseases transmitted via bioaerosols
include tuberculosis, Legionaries, influenza, colds, mumps, measles, rubella, small pox,
aspergillosis, pneumonia, meningitis, diphtheria, and scarlet fever. Photocatalytic oxidation can
destroy these infectious airborne pathogens.

 Titanium dioxide (TiO2) nanoparticles can act as a photocatalyst to form reactive hydroxyl (●OH)
radicals in the presence of atmospheric moisture. These radicals can oxidize and destroy most
pollutant molecules.

 For example airborne pollutant molecules adsorb on the TiO2 particle surface, where they react
with adsorbed hydroxyl radicals until they are fully oxidized (benzene, C6H6 ultimately forms six
CO2 molecules and three H2O molecules).

 TiO2 nanoparticles can also catalyze the breakdown of oxides of nitrogen (NOx) and sulfur (SOx).

 Nanocrystalline materials like TiO2 and ZnO show good photocatalytic activities to uv light and
hence they are used to characterize the photocatalytic rates and reaction pathways for various
polluting volatile organic compounds such as benzene, toluene, terpenes, etc. that act as smog
precursors. To make them work at visible light (wavelength >420 nm), non-metals like C, S, N
and B as well as Mn and other transition metals are used as dopants.

5. HETEROGENEOUS CATALYSIS BY INTERCALATION COMPOUNDS

Graphite Intercalation Compounds as Model Compounds in Catalysis Research

 Graphite is able to react with both elements and compounds to form interstitial compounds, in
which the reactant is found between the graphite layers and the layer structure of the graphite
crystal is sealed.

 These interstitial compounds will not have all the characteristic graphite properties such as bond
distance, bond direction and stacking frequency, however, it retains the strong bond by which
each carbon atom is coupled to its three nearest-neighbor atoms.

 As the graphite layer structure is sealed, formation of most interstitial compounds is a reversible
process.

85
 The graphite can readily intercalate with alkali metals, transition metal chlorides or combinations
of these materials. Alkali metal-graphite intercalation compounds can be considered as electron
donor-acceptor (EDA) complexes, which have been shown to possess catalytic activity for a
number of interesting reactions.
 Graphite intercalation compounds have been used as model compounds in catalysis research for
studying reaction mechanisms, graphitization reactions, structural aspects, and radiation damage.

 The catalytic activity of the graphite intercalation compounds has also been used for dimerization,
oligomerization, and polymerization reactions.

 In addition, graphite intercalation compounds are used for chemical separations, oxidation
inhibitors, electrode reactions, graphite synthesis, battery components, and semipermeable
membranes.

The Interstitial Compounds of Graphite

 In chemistry, intercalation describes the reversible insertion of guest species into a lamellar host
structure with maintenance of the structural features of the host. The interstitial compounds of
graphite can be divided into three main classes:

1. The first class of interstitial compounds is known non-conducting compounds as they lack
completely the metallic properties of graphite. These compounds contain graphite oxide and
graphite monofluoride. In these compounds covalent bonding exists between the intercalated
substance and the carbon layer planes. The possible use of these compounds as catalysts is poor
because of their thermal instability.
2. In the second class of interstitial compounds, the bonding is predominantly ionic in character. In
these compounds, all the characteristic properties of graphite are retained. The group mainly
comprises the alkali metal-graphite compounds and the molecular compounds of graphite with
metal halides, metal oxides and sulfides.

3. The third class of interstitial compounds is formed by the decomposition of a lamellar compound
leaving behind a residue of the intercalated material in the graphite. These compounds cannot be
considered as true compounds because their properties generally differ substantially from
graphite itself.

Types of Ionic Compounds

 Both elements and molecular compounds are capable of forming ionic lamellar compounds with
graphite.
 The ionic compounds can be subdivided into three groups: the alkali metal-graphite compounds,
the halogen-graphite compounds and the molecular graphite compounds.

1. Alkali Metal-Graphite Intercalate Compounds

 Graphite intercalation compounds of potassium, rubidium and cesium can be easily prepared by
heating the metal with finely divided graphite in vacuum at 300-400°C or in an inert gas at 100-
200°C.

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 These intercalation compounds can have stoichiometric compositions C8Me, C24Me, Ca36Me,
C48Me, and C60Me (Me = K, Rb, Cs).

2. Halogen-Graphite Compounds

 Although the halogens often behave similarly, their reactivities towards graphite differ.

 Only fluorine and bromine react readily with graphite.

 Fluorine yields only covalent compounds.

 When bromine in either the liquid or vapor phase is brought into contact with graphite, the
compound C8Br is formed. In addition, the existence of C9Br, C10Br, and C16Br has been reported.

 Reaction of graphite with chlorine takes place under favorable conditions (low temperature)
leading to the formation of C8Cl.

 In compare, iodine does not intercalate at all.

3. Molecular Graphite Intercalation Compounds

 Molecules that can be intercalated are metal halides, metal oxides, and sulfides.

 Preparations of molecular graphite compounds are usually carried out by simply heating mixtures
of the reactants at temperatures between 200 and 600°C.

 The most extensively studied molecular compound is graphite-ferric chloride.

Structural Aspects of Graphite Intercalation Compounds

 The layered structure of the graphite intercalation compounds offers unique properties of both
activity and selectivity of a catalytic reaction through a geometric effect.

 A necessary condition that has to be satisfied for these compounds to act as catalysts is the
presence of sufficient and proper surface sites that can act as adsorption centers for the reactants
participating in the reaction.
 Moreover, these compounds must also possess a high thermal stability, since catalytic reactions
often have to be carried out at elevated temperatures.

 Therefore, only two groups of intercalation compounds are considered for application in catalysis,
the alkali metal-graphite intercalates and the molecular graphite compounds.

 In the former case, the alkali metal atoms themselves are considered to act as the catalytic sites
whereas in the latter case, the metals are either present in the intercalated molecules (halides,
oxides, sulfides) or generated by suitable reduction of the molecular compound.

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1. Structural Aspects of Alkali Metal-Graphite Intercalate Compounds
(Staging Sequence of Alkali Metal-Graphite Intercalate Compounds)

 Stage 1 of lamellar structure of K-, Rb-, and Cs-graphite intercalation compounds: X-ray
studies carried out by Schleede and Wellmann (1932) on C8K revealed that in the first stage
compound, every interlayer space is filled with a layer of potassium atoms (Fig. 5.2).

 As a result of this intercalation, the interplanar distance is increased from 3.34 in graphite to 5.40
Ǻ.

 The metal atoms are located above the centers of alternate carbon hexagons, forming a regular
triangular net with an edge of 4.91 Ǻ.

 Four orientations are possible (α, β, γ, δ, refer Fig. 2a) for the location of the metal layers with
respect to each other.

 The period of the metal lattice in the c-axis direction therefore comprises four layers.

Fig. 5.2: Lamellar structure of K-, Rb-, and Cs-graphite intercalation compounds
(—) carbon layer, (‒ ‒ ‒ ) K, Rb, or Cs layer
A, B, C denote graphite stacking sequence; and
α, β, γ, δ denote alkali metal stacking sequence in C8Me

Fig. 5.2 (a) Arrangement of metal atoms (●) within each intercalate layer of Stage 1 K‒, Rb‒,
Cs‒ graphite compounds
Fig. 5.2 (b) Arrangement of metal atoms in Stages 2‒5 according to Rüdorff and Schulze (1954)
and Herold (1955); the hexagons are carbon hexagon

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 Staging sequence according to Rüdorff and Schulze & Daumas and Herold models: In Stages
2‒5, according to Rüdorff and Schulze (1954), intercalation of metal atoms is taking place in each
2nd, 3rd, 4th and 5th interlayer space, respectively as shown in Fig.5. 2a.

 X-ray diffraction studies showed that the carbon layer planes are exactly superimposed when in
contact with the intercalate layer in contrast to the stacking sequence of the carbon layers in
graphite which is either ABAB . . . (hexagonal) or ABC ABC . . . (rhombohedral).

 Since in the higher Stages, the metal content of each inserted layer has been reduced by one-third,
the triangular arrangement of potassium atoms in C8K does not apply to these compounds.

 For these Stages Herold and Rüdorff and Schulze proposed a hexagonal pattern, which results
from the triangular net with every third metal atom removed (Fig. 5.2b).

 However, recent X-ray investigations reveal that the potassium atoms are distributed irregularly
over the centers of the carbon hexagons. Lowering the temperature results in ordering of the
intercalate structure in the Stage 2 compound; however the final structure was not the one
proposed by Herold and Rüdorff.
 Daumas and Herold proposed the structure depicted in Fig. 5.3. In this model the metal layers
extend only themselves over certain short distances and the transition from one stage to another
becomes a relatively easy process.

F i g.5.3: Interlamellar structure of alkah metal-graphite intercalation compounds according to

Daumas and Herold; (—) carbon layer; (‒ ‒ ‒) alkali metal layer.

2. Structural Aspects of Molecular-Graphite Intercalation

 As most of the molecular compounds are formed with the metal halides, we discuss with the
structural analysis of FeCl3‒graphite intercalation compounds. The other molecular compounds
are analogous.
 The FeCl3 molecule, which crystallizes into a layer lattice, tends to preserve its layer structure
when intercalated into graphite (Fig. 5.4a).

 The Fe3+ ions, which are centered between the carbon layers, form a hexagonal net, as in
crystalline FeCl3. Even the distance between the Fe3+ is nearly the same as in FeCl3.

 A preferred orientation of the Fe3+ ions with respect to the carbon atoms does not exist, because
the dimensions of the carbon and iron networks do not agree with each other.

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 Fig. 5.4: (a) Lamellar structure of Stage 1 FeCl3-graphite
(b) Preferred positions of chlorine atoms (O) relative to carbon atoms in FeCl3-graphite
 For the chlorine atoms of the first-stage FeCl3 compound, the preferred positions have been
observed (Fig. 5.4b). Due to excessive distortion, however, more than half of the atoms cannot
occupy these preferred positions.

 Consequently, they are distributed, more or less at random, among the chloride planes.

Catalytic Reactions

 Two factors have to be considered when evaluating the change in catalytic activity of a compound
upon intercalation into the graphite lattice.

 First, it can be expected that the electronic properties will be altered by the exchange of electrons
between the intercalated substance and graphite.

 Hence, for the alkali metal-graphite compounds, the increase in conductivity in the a-axis
direction is due to the electron transfer from the alkali metal to the upper π bond of graphite.
 Since these levels possess an anti-bonding character, the transfer should result in an increase of
the C-C bond distance of the graphite hexagons.

 In the case of K-graphite, the effect of this change in electronic characteristics of the intercalated
substance is an altered adsorption behavior with the pure substance.
 Second, the geometrical arrangement of the catalytic sites may be altered by intercalation.

 In pure compounds, the distance between the active centers as well as their chemical environment
are determined mainly by the crystal lattice parameters.

 Although both the geometry and electronic properties can be modified in introducing lattice
imperfections, this is not a convenient method for affecting the activity pattern of a catalyst.

 With the intercalation compounds, however, the distance between the catalytic sites in the c-axis
direction can be altered by using different stages of the same intercalate.

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 Figure 5.5a corresponds to a first-stage compound, the distance between the catalytic sites in the
c-axis has a fixed value.

 This distance may influence the higher catalytic activity of intercalate; and it can be altered by
forming the second- or higher-stage compounds (Figure 5.5 b).

 Moreover, it is possible in some cases to intercalate two different molecules at the same time in
the lattice, which means that the geometrical environment in the a-axis direction can also be
changed (Fig. 5.5c). This geometric effect explains some remarkable catalytic features of alloy
systems, may greatly enhance the selectivity of a catalytic reaction.

Fig. 5.5: Geometric effects in catalytic reactions with intercalation compounds,

(a) Stereochemical features of reactants play a role in determining the final structure of the
product. Since large molecules sterically hinder each other, activity is lower compared with Part
b.
(b) Since no steric hindrance of reactant molecules occurs, compound displays higher activity
per gram of intercalated material compared with Part a.
(c) Simultaneous intercalation of two substances may increase selectivity of a reaction, which
takes place on □. The atom (●) is assumed to be inactive.

Examples of Catalytic Reactions Catalyzed by Metal-Graphite Intercalation Compounds

1. Exchange Reactions
 The exchange reaction of propylene with deuterium can be done using C24K catalyst.

 From the product distribution in the initial stage of the reaction, it is concluded that from the four
possible geometrical propylene-d1 isomers, only the 3-d1 species where exchange is taking place
with hydrogen in the methyl group.

 By simultaneously studying the formation of the propylene-d2 species, in the initial stage of the
reaction, which yielded a mixture of 50% CHD2—CH=CH2 and 50% CH2D—CH=CHD (25%
cis-l, 3 and 25% trans-1,3) concluded that the reaction proceeds via an π-allyl intermediate.
2. Hydrogenation
 The alkali metal intercalates possess high catalytic activity for the hydrogenation of aromatic
compounds.

 With C8K and C24K, high yields (80%) and selectivities (99.9%) are obtained for the
hydrogenation of benzene at hydrogen pressures of 100-150 bars and temperatures of 250-300°C.

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3. Alkylation of Alkylaromatics

 When the alkylation alkyl aromatics are carried out in the presence of a potassium metal catalyst
like C8K and C8Cs with propylene at 50-70 bars, an additional cyclization reaction occurs which
lead to the formation of indanes.
4. Dimerization
 The dimerization of propylene to methylpentenes and isobutylene to 2,4,4-trimethylpentenes
reactions may be carried out continuously or in batches (reaction time 20 hr) at 120-160°C and
100-125 bars un presence of catalysts like CnK (n = 8, 24, 36, 48, 60) and C64Na.
5. Polymerization
 Polymerization of butadiene with C8K and C24K mainly yields polymers with a 1,2- and trans-
1,4- addition structure. The selectivity to trans 1,4 polybutadiene can be raised (up to 78%) by
using ternary compounds consisting of potassium, an alkyl amine and graphite, while graphite
compounds with lithium and THF give more 1,2- addition products.

6. ENZYME CATALYSIS
Characteristics of Enzyme Catalysts

 Biological catalysts or enzyme catalysts are protein catalysts produced in living cells.

 Enzymes are extremely specific in their catalytic function. For example, the enzyme urease will
catalyze the hydrolysis of urea and no other reactions.

 The activity of enzyme depends on the temperature. All enzymes are effective at room
temperature. Since many of them are so sensitive, they become inactive at about 50ºC.

 The enzyme activity also depends on the pH.

Some important examples are:

1. Maltase, an enzyme converts maltose into glucose

C12 H 22O11 + H 2O ⎯Maltase

⎯⎯→ 2 C6 H12O6

2. Urease, an enzyme converts urea into ammonia.

NH 2CONH 2 + H 2O ⎯Urease
⎯⎯→ 2 NH 3 + CO2

3. Zymase, an enzyme converts glucose into ethanol.

C6 H12O6 + H 2O ⎯Zymase
⎯⎯→ 2 C2 H 5OH + 2 CO2

4. Diastase, an enzyme converts starch into maltose sugar

2(C6 H10O5 )n + nH 2O ⎯Diastase

⎯⎯ ⎯→ n C12 H 22O11

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Kinetics of Enzyme Catalysis (Michaelis – Menten Equation)

 The general mechanism for the kinetics of enzyme-catalysed reaction was first proposed by
L.Michaelis and Mary Menten in 1913.
 The mode of action of an enzyme in Michaelis-Menten mechanism is as follows:

(i) Formation of the Enzyme-substrate complex.

k1

E+S  ES
k2

(ii) Decomposition of the complex.

ES ⎯⎯→
k3
P+E
where E is the enzyme, S is the substrate, ES is the enzyme-substrate complex, (intermediate
activated complex) and P is the end product.
 The rate of formation of the product is given by:
d P 
dt = r = k3 ES  …(1)

 In order to solve the equation (1), it is necessary to know the concentration of ES. This can be
calculated through steady-state principle.

 According to this “when a short-lived reaction intermediate exists at low concentration in a

system, the rate of formation of intermediate can be considered to be equal to its rate of
disappearance”.

 Applying steady-state principle,

k1 E S  = k 2 ES + k3 ES 

k1 E S  = ES (k 2 + k3 )

k1 E S 
ES  =
(k 2 + k 3 ) …(2)

 Since the enzyme exists either in free form E, or the combined form ES, the total concentration
of the enzyme, Eo originally added can be obtained from the material balance equation.
E 0  = E + ES 

E = E0 − ES  …(3)

 Inserting the value [E] in equation (2), we get

k1{E0 − ES } S 
ES  =
(k 2 + k 3 )
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 (k 2 + k3 )ES  = k1 E0 S − k1 ES S 

(k 2 + k3 )ES + k1 ES S  = k1 E 0 S 

ES {(k 2 + k3 )+ k1 S } = k1 E 0 S 

k1 E0 S 
ES  =
k1 S + (k 2 + k 3 ) …(4)

 Substituting [ES] in equation (1), we get:

d P  k 3 k1 E0 S  …(5)

=r=
dt k1 S + (k 2 + k 3 )

 Dividing the numerator and denominator of equation (5) by k1 gives:

k 3 E0 S 
d P  =r=
 
dt S +  k 2 + k 3 
 k1 

k 3 E0 S 
=
r S + k m …(6)
 k + k3 
where k m =  2 
 k1 

 km is called Michaelis constant and equation (6) is known as Michaelis-Menten equation.

Significance of km (Michaelis Constant)

 When all the enzyme has reacted with substrate at high concentration, the reaction will be going
at maximum rate. No free enzyme will remain, so that [Eo] = [ES]. Hence from equation (1), we
have

d P 
dt = rmax = k3 E0  …(7)
where rmax is the maximum rate.

 The Michaelis-Menten equation can now be written as:

rmax S 
=
r k m + S   rmax = k3 [ Eo ]

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 rmax=k3[E0] Zero order
rmax

Rate, r
rmax[S]
1 r= First order
2
rmax km

km=[S]

Substarte concentration, [S]

 Case 1: If Michaelis constant, km is equal to substrate concentration, [S] i.e.: km = [S], then

rmax S 
=
r S  + S 
1
= rmax …(8)
r 2
 The Michaelis constant is a measure of enzyme activity and can be shown to be equal to (k2 + k3)
/ k1. It is also equal to the substrate concentration at one half the maximum rate.

 Case 2: At low concentration of substrate, when [S] <<km, then

k 3 E0 S 
r =
km
rmax S 
r = k …(9)
m

 So, the rate of the reaction will be of first order with respect to the substrate and enzyme.

 Case 3: At high concentration of substrate, when [S] >>km, then

k 3 E0 S 
=
r S 
r = k 3 E0 
r = rmax …(10)
 So, the rate of the reaction will be zero order with respect to substrate for a given amount of
enzyme.

 It is clearly understand that the reaction of an enzyme catalyzed reaction changes from first order
to zero order as the substance concentration is increased. This is because each enzyme molecule
has one or more active sites at which the substrate must be bound in order that the catalytic action
may occur.

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 At low substrate concentration, most of these active sites remain unoccupied at any time. As the
substrate concentration is increased, the number of active sites which are occupied increases and
hence the reaction rate also increases.

❖ Lineweaver-Burke Plots (Determination of km)

 Lineweaver-Burk Equation (Reciprocal form of Michaelis-Menten equation) is used to calculate

Michaelis constant.
1 k m + S 
=
r rmax S 
1 1 km
= +
r rmax rmax S  …(11)

1 1
 A plot of vs gives a straight line whose intercept is 1/r max and whose slope is km/rmax. Hence
r [S ]
Michaelis constant which is characteristic for an enzyme with a substrate can be determined (Fig.
5.6).

Fig. 5.6: The Lineweaver-Burke plot for enzyme kinetics:

The reciprocal of reaction rate, v, is plotted against the reciprocal of substrate concentrations[S]
for experiments using the same total enzyme concentration

Turnover Number: The constant k3 is called the turnover number of the enzyme. It is defined as “the
ability of one molecule of enzyme to form the complex with number of molecules of substrate and to
convert it into products”.

References
1. Julian R.H. Ross, Heterogeneous Catalysis: Fundamentals and Applications, Elsevier, 1st
Edition, 2011.
2. G.C. Bond, Heterogeneous Catalysis: Principles and Application. Oxford University Press,
USA, 1987.
3. B. Vishwanathan, S. Sivasankar and A.V. Ramaswamy, Catalysis: Principles and
Applications, Narosa Publishing House, New Delhi, 2004.
4. R. Aveyard and D.A Haydon, An Introduction to the Principles of Surface Chemistry,
Cambridge University Press, 1973.

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REVIEW QUESTIONS

1. Explain the characteristics of catalysis.

2. Explain homogeneous catalysis.
3. Explain the application of photocatalysis in water remediation.
4. Explain the application of photocatalysis in air purification.
5. Explain heterogeneous catalysis.
6. Justify the graphite intercalation compounds as model compounds in catalysis research.
7. Explain the interstitial compounds of graphite.
8. Discuss Lineweaver-Burke plot for the determination of km.
9. Explain the characteristics of enzyme catalysts?
10. Discuss the concept of Langmuir-Hinshelwood mechanism for heterogenous catalysis.
11. Explain the basic principle and mechanism of photocatalysis.
12. Explain staging sequence according to Rüdorff and Schulze & Daumas and Herold models
for graphite intercalation compounds.
13. Discuss the structural aspects of molecular-graphite intercalation.
14. Explain catalytic reactions catalyzed by metal-graphite intercalation compounds.
15. Discuss the kinetics of Michaelis-Menten equation.
16. Explain homogeneous catalysis and heterogeneous catalysis with suitable examples.

97