Su 12208438

sustainability
Article
Impacts of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Life of Higher
Education Students: A Global Perspective
Aleksander Aristovnik * , Damijana Keržič , Dejan Ravšelj , Nina Tomaževič and
Lan Umek
Faculty of Public Administration, University of Ljubljana, 1000 Ljubljana, Slovenia;
[email protected] (D.K.); [email protected] (D.R.); [email protected] (N.T.);
[email protected] (L.U.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Received: 19 August 2020; Accepted: 6 October 2020; Published: 13 October 2020
Abstract: The paper presents the most comprehensive and large-scale study to date on how students
perceive the impacts of the first wave of COVID-19 crisis in early 2020 on various aspects of their
lives on a global level. With a sample of 30,383 students from 62 countries, the study reveals
that amid the worldwide lockdown and transition to online learning students were most satisfied
with the support provided by teaching staff and their universities’ public relations. Still, deficient
computer skills and the perception of a higher workload prevented them from perceiving their
own improved performance in the new teaching environment. Students were mainly concerned
about issues to do with their future professional career and studies, and experienced boredom,
anxiety, and frustration. The pandemic has led to the adoption of particular hygienic behaviours
(e.g., wearing masks, washing hands) and discouraged certain daily practices (e.g., leaving home,
shaking hands). Students were also more satisfied with the role played by hospitals and universities
during the epidemic compared to the governments and banks. The findings also show that students
with certain socio-demographic characteristics (male, part-time, first-level, applied sciences, a lower
living standard, from Africa or Asia) were significantly less satisfied with their academic work/life
during the crisis, whereas female, full-time, first-level students and students faced with financial
problems were generally affected more by the pandemic in terms of their emotional life and personal
circumstances. Key factors influencing students’ satisfaction with the role of their university are also
identified. Policymakers and higher education institutions around the world may benefit from these
findings while formulating policy recommendations and strategies to support students during this
and any future pandemics.
Keywords: COVID-19; university student; socio-demographic factors; satisfaction; perception;

online learning; mental health; habits; institutions; continents
1. Introduction
In early 2020, the COVID-19 (caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus) pandemic shocked the world,
almost bringing it to an unprecedented stop. The new coronavirus apparently started to spread (1) in
China during December 2019, before moving to Thailand, Japan, the Republic of Korea (first confirmed
cases on 20 January 2020), then to the United States, Vietnam, Singapore (2), and, at the end of January
2020, to Australia, Nepal, Europe (first cases in France on 25 January 2020 and later in Germany, Finland,
Italy etc.), Malaysia, Canada, the Middle East, and other countries of the Western Pacific Region and
South-East Asia Region, and (3) onwards to Russia, Africa, and Latin America [1]. On 11 March 2020,
the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the COVID-19 a pandemic [2]. By 31 July 2020,
COVID-19 had spread across 217+ countries and territories, with almost 17.1 million confirmed cases
Sustainability 2020, 12, 8438; doi:10.3390/su12208438 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

Sustainability 2020, 12, 8438 2 of 34
and 668,073 deaths. America then had confirmed 9.15 million cases, Europe 3.31 million, South-East
Asia 2 million, Eastern Mediterranean 1.53 million, Africa 0.75 million, and the Western Pacific
0.31 million cases [1]. The dire consequences of this pandemic are already being seen in a historic
recession in most developed parts of the world, e.g., in the USA where in the second quarter of 2020,
according to an early estimate, GDP plummeted annually by 32.9% [3] while in the euro area GDP
plunged by 12.1% and in the European Union (EU) by 11.9% over the previous quarter [4].
As far as health is concerned, the novel coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 (severe acute respiratory
syndrome-coronavirus-2) has affected all age groups, with the worst manifestations and highest death
rates being found among older individuals and patients with comorbidities [5,6]. Besides bringing to the
fore many (existing) problems and challenges in the area of health, the COVID-19 pandemic has created
all manner of unanticipated turbulence in society and the economy [7–10], like previous pandemics
in history. Over the last few hundred years, pandemics, e.g., the bubonic plague, the Spanish flu,
SARS, Ebola, influenza A (H1N1) etc., have been responsible for significant changes in geopolitical and
demographic situations by altering patterns of migration, travel, urbanisation, trade, and technology
use [11–13]. A few months into the novel coronavirus (COVID-19) pandemic, it has become clear
that the corona crisis and its many consequences on all levels will last for years, thereby thoroughly
impacting our lives forever. The challenges created by COVID-19 will in one way or another affect
each and every one of us—the wellbeing of all groups in society in every affected country and
globally [8,13,14].
Although they are young and thereby generally not in any of the specific risk groups at risk
of coronavirus infection due to the serious health consequences it might bring, students are still a
population group that has experienced dramatic effects of the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic
in the first four or five months of 2020 and therefore huge changes to their everyday lives and,
perhaps even more alarmingly, to their prospects for their immediate and distant future. Most countries
affected by the pandemic were able to slow down the spread of the coronavirus with varying degrees of
success, including by imposing drastic measures like banning public events and gatherings, workplace
closures, stay-at-home restrictions, restrictions on domestic and international transport, testing and
contact tracing, and shutting educational institutions down [15,16]. Physically closing educational
institutions (schools, universities) proved to be an efficient way of minimising the spread of the virus,
yet it has led to many challenges [15,17] for both students and teachers, but also their families, friends,
employers, and thus society and the global economy. Moreover, once they reopen after the lockdowns,
educational institutions will not encounter the same situation they experienced before the COVID-19
pandemic. The norms that guide many parts of our lives will need to be reformulated in detail in the
post-pandemic context [18] and are likely to result in drastic changes to the way in which the future
workforce is educated [19].
As of 1 April 2020, the number of learners required to stay at home due to the closure of
their educational institution on all levels reached a peak of 1.598 billion from 194 countries [20].
The pandemic has had a big impact on higher education students’ practices regarding academic
work and life (e.g., the switch to online lectures/tutorials, closed libraries, changed communication
channels for teachers’ and administrative support, new assessment methods, different workloads
and performance levels. etc.) [7,12,15,21–27] and social life (closed dorms and therefore moving back
home, no meetings with friends, university colleagues or relatives, no parties, no traveling, remaining
trapped abroad, etc.) [7,28–31], as well as their personal financial situation (loss of student job, worries
about their own financial situation, future education and career) [14,32,33] and emotional health
(fears, frustrations, anxiety, anger, boredom, etc.) [7,14,28,29,34]. On top of the many challenges,
the pandemic has led to some more positive changes in habits and mindsets, like paying greater
attention to personal hygiene, taking care of one’s own health (quitting smoking, eating organic food
sourced locally) and of one’s relatives, especially of those in risk groups, spending more time to do
sports, etc. [30,33,35].
Several papers have already been published by researchers around the world presenting studies
on various aspects of the COVID-19 pandemic crisis, particularly its consequences for physical
and mental health, the economy, society, and the environment. The biggest limitations of these
studies about student life while their higher education institution is physically closed are generally:
(1) The data derive from early stages of the pandemic; (2) a relatively small sample; and (3) focusing
chiefly on a restricted number of aspects of a student’s life. Indeed, most studies are limited to
academic work or life issues [36,37], a student’s mental health [38–43], or a combination of both [44].
In addition, most studies concentrate: (1) On a single higher education institution and/or country
(e.g., from Asia: China [7,29], India [45], Pakistan [46], Philippines [47] Saudi Arabia [26], Vietnam [48];
from Europe: Germany [36], Spain [49], Switzerland [33], Ukraine [50]; from Africa: Ghana [15];
from North America: the USA [51,52]); and/or (2) on a single academic field (e.g., medical students
from Iran [53], Mexico [54], the Philippines [55], Saudi Arabia [56], Turkey [57], the USA [19,58] and
nursing students from Croatia [59], England [60], Israel [61], and the USA [62]). Only a few surveys
include student samples from more than one university or country (e.g., Russia and Belarus [63],
Sub-Saharan Africa [64]). After studying existing literature, we concluded that no comprehensive
large-scale survey on how students from around the world have experienced the unexpected and
unprecedented crisis of the COVID-19 pandemic and its impacts on their present and future life has not
been conducted yet. Thus, our study presents a novel, original, and current contribution to the field of
knowledge on higher education in the global health crisis caused by COVID-19 [65] by focusing on
student life during the first wave of the pandemic.
The goal of this paper is to highlight the main results of a global survey on impacts of the COVID-19
pandemic on the life of higher education students that was carried out by an international consortium
of universities, other higher education institutions, and students’ associations. The questionnaire
is based on and extends the European Students’ Union Survey [66] and targeted higher education
students with respect to what student life looked like during the pandemic, including teaching and
learning, their social contacts, habits/routines, as well as how they were coping with the situation
emotionally and financially, and what they were expecting by way of support measures from various
institutions, e.g., universities, the government, banks, etc. (see Aristovnik et al. [67]). The purpose of
the study was to shed light on the ways the COVID-19 crisis has impacted student life and to design a
set of recommendations for policymakers and higher education institutions concerning how students
can be supported during the crisis created by the COVID-19 pandemic.
In order to understand the ways that the COVID-19 pandemic has impacted a range of aspects of
student lives, the following research questions were addressed:
R1: How have students around the world been satisfied with different aspects and elements of student
life during the COVID-19 pandemic and how have they perceived them?
R2: Are there any socio-demographic and geographic differences in:
• . . . students’ satisfaction with and perception of selected elements of academic work and
academic life due to the transition from onsite to online lectures? (R2.1)
• . . . students’ perception of the COVID-19 pandemic’s consequences for their social and
emotional life, personal circumstances and habits? (R2.2)
• . . . students’ satisfaction with the role of selected institutions and their measures during the
COVID-19 pandemic? (R2.3)
R3: How do selected socio-demographic, geographic, and other factors determine the students’
satisfaction with the role of their university during the COVID-19 pandemic?
The remaining sections of this paper are organised as follows. In the next section, the research
design and methods are presented, including the study participants and procedure, data. and variables,
along with the background to the statistical analyses. The third section describes the primary empirical
results of the global student questionnaire survey and the application of logistic regression analyses.
The paper ends with a discussion and conclusions in which the main findings, limitations, and future
research avenues are considered.
2. Materials and Methods
2.1. Study Participants and Procedure

The target population comprised higher education students who were at least 18 years old.
The respondents in the target populations were recruited by convenience sampling facilitated by
advertising on university communication systems around the world and social media. The online
questionnaire was initially designed in English. It was based on the European Students’ Union
Survey [66] and extended with selected elements that allowed us to understand in detail additional
personal and financial circumstances as well as the perception of support measures and changes in
behaviour during the COVID-19 pandemic. Further, some questions were only offered to selected
respondents. For instance, if a respondent’s onsite classes had been cancelled due to the pandemic,
a set of questions about the new learning environment was opened for those who had indicated this
occurrence. Similar applies to paying tuition fees, receiving a scholarship etc. [67]. In the next phase,
when our web-based survey had gained international visibility, it was translated into six other languages,
i.e., Italian, North Macedonian, Portuguese, Romanian, Spanish, and Turkish. The web-based survey
was launched via the open source web application 1KA (One Click Survey; www.1ka.si) on 5 May 2020
and remained open until 15 June 2020.
By 15 June 2020, 31,212 students had participated in the survey, coming from 133 countries and
6 continents, with 308 students not reporting their country information. The response rate was 33.1%
(31,212 out of 94,246 who opened the link). The participation was unequally distributed among
the countries as follows: (1) 1000 responses or more were collected in 10 countries (Poland, Italy,
Mexico, Chile, Turkey, India, Ecuador, Bangladesh, Portugal, Slovenia); (2) more than 500 but less than
1000 were collected in 7 countries (Romania, Croatia, Pakistan, Indonesia, Brazil, Hungary, Ghana);
(3) more than 200 and less than 500 were collected in 19 countries; (4) a total of 3041 responses were
collected from 97 countries with less than 200 responses. In the next step, we focused on those countries
with at least 30 or more respondents. Accordingly, the final sample consists of 30,383 students from
62 countries. The participants were also grouped into six continental subsamples according to the
geographical classification defined by the Worldometers [68]. The distribution of the final sample
across the continents is as follows: Europe (44.9%) (EU; i.e., 47.0% of the total participants: Poland,
Italy, and Turkey), Asia (23.7%) (AS; i.e., 47.8%: India, Bangladesh, and Pakistan), South America
(14.4%) (SA; i.e., 75.8%: Chile and Ecuador), Africa (8.6%) (AF; i.e., 54.4%: Ghana, Nigeria, and Egypt),
North America (7.8%) (NA; i.e., 81.4%: Mexico), and Oceania (0.6%) (OC; i.e., 100%: New Zealand).
The relatively small number of observations (171 responses) for Oceania (New Zealand) required
great caution in the analysis, although their inclusion helped identify global differences in students’
perceived impacts of the COVID-19 crisis on various aspects of their lives. Finally, the respondents
were not obliged to complete the questionnaire in full, meaning the number of respondents varied
across questions. Accordingly, a complete case analysis approach was applied to mitigate missing
data issues [69]. With the assumption of “missing completely at random”, meaning that the complete
cases are a random sample of the originally identified set of cases, a complete case approach is the
most common method for handling missing data in many fields of research, including educational and
epidemiologic research [70,71].
2.2. Measures
The data were obtained through a web-based comprehensive questionnaire composed of 39
mainly closed-ended questions, covering socio-demographic, geographic, and other characteristics
as well as different aspects/elements of higher education student life, such as academic online work
and life, social life, emotional life, personal circumstances, change in habits, the roles and measures of
institutions, as well as personal reflections on COVID-19 [67].
The questionnaire was originally divided into seven sections. The first section comprised eight
questions on the socio-demographic and academic characteristics of the students, e.g., country and
institution of study in the northern hemisphere spring semester of 2020, level and field of study,
citizenship, age, and gender (see Table 1). The second section asked students about their academic life
and included 12 questions on how the COVID-19 pandemic had affected their experiences with teaching
(lectures and tutorials/seminars), supervisions/mentorships, assessment and workload, teaching and
administrative support, as well as their own performance and expectations. This was followed by a
segment covering the infrastructure and skills for studying from home, including two questions on
the conditions for studying from home (workspace, equipment, an Internet connection etc.) and a
student’s computer skills.
Table 1. Socio-demographic and geographic characteristics of the survey respondents.
Socio-Demographic and Geographic Characteristics Number (%)

Age
Under 20 6211 (26.9)
20–24 12,670 (54.9)
25–30 2269 (9.8)
Over 30 1934 (8.4)
Gender
Male 10,210 (34.4)
Female 19,495 (65.6)
Citizenship
Yes 28,273 (94.1)
No 1758 (5.9)
Status
Full-time 26,418 (88.1)
Part-time 3575 (11.9)
Level of Study
First 23,986 (80.5)
Second 4408 (14.8)
Third 1386 (4.7)
Field of Study
Arts and humanities 2998 (10.2)
Social sciences 10,878 (37.0)
Applied sciences 9157 (31.1)
Natural and life sciences 6392 (21.7)
Scholarship
Yes 5769 (29.2)
No 13,976 (70.8)
Ability to Pay 1
Yes 10,374 (52.6)
No 9349 (47.4)
Cancelled Onsite Classes
Yes 22,758 (86.7)
No 3486 (13.3)
Lost Job 2
Yes 3391 (61.7)
No 2101 (38.3)
Continent
Africa 2621 (8.6)
Asia 7212 (23.7)
Europe 13,629 (44.9)
North America 2381 (7.8)
Oceania 171 (0.6)
South America 4369 (14.4)
Note: The final sample consists of 30,383 respondents. The number of respondents may differ due to missing values.
1Respondents who were able to pay the overall costs of study before the Covid-19 pandemic quite easily, easily,
or very easily. 2 Respondents who had a paid job or work before the COVID-19 pandemic.
The fourth section concerned social life and covered two questions on the students’ support
network during the COVID-19 pandemic and who they would first turn to in different situations.
The next segment concerned emotional life with one question inquiring into students’ emotions since
the outbreak of the pandemic. The sixth section asked students about their general circumstances
with 13 questions on worries, financial circumstances, support measures, and behaviours. Finally,
the last section invited general reflections through one open-ended question about thoughts on the
COVID-19 pandemic.
Individual aspects/elements of student life (i.e., satisfaction, agreement, importance, or frequency)
were measured on a 5-point Likert rating scale ranging from 1 (lowest value) to 5 (highest value) [72].
Where relevant, an additional option “not applicable” was offered to the respondents. Descriptive
statistics were calculated using continent- or country-level post-stratification and population weights
while other empirical considerations were grounded on unweighted student-level survey data.
Detailed methodological notes as well as the full version of the questionnaire are available in the
Methodological framework of the global survey (see Aristovnik et al. [67]).
2.3. Statistical Analysis

The data preparation, aggregation, and cleaning process were performed in the Python
programming language using the Pandas and Numpy libraries [73]. The same libraries were used to
present the sample’s socio-demographic characteristics. We report the students’ gender, citizenship,
status, level of study, field of study, scholarship, ability to pay, lost job, and continent they came from.
To test the relationships between the socio-demographic and geographic characteristics and selected
aspects/elements of a student’s life, statistical tests (independent samples t-test, ANOVA, chi-squared
with the Holm–Šidák pairwise comparison method) were used. The computed p-values were adjusted
using a Bonferroni correction [74]. To test statistical hypotheses, the Python libraries Scipy and
Statsmodels were used [75]. The results of testing the hypotheses are reported in comprehensive
tables (see Tables A1–A5 in Appendix A), where each relationship (between a socio-demographic and
geographic characteristic and a selected aspect of student life) is presented with a cell that contains:
(1) Information on which group of students (based on socio-demographic characteristics) reported the
highest mean value of the analysed aspect; (2) the range (difference between the highest and the lowest
mean across all groups); and (3) the significance of the differences. Moreover, a qualitative analysis
(word cloud) of the students’ personal reflections on the COVID-19 pandemic was facilitated with the
Orange software [76].
To analyse which factors influence student satisfaction with the role of their university, an ordinal
logistic regression analysis was conducted (see Table 2). This methodological approach is considered
to be the best-fitting and most appropriate for models with ordinal outcomes. Such a statistical
approach has also often been used in previous research mainly addressing students’ satisfaction [77].
Accordingly, ordinal logistic regression analysis was the ideal estimation technique since the dependent
variable (students’ satisfaction with the role of the university during the COVID-19 pandemic) is
ordinal in nature (1—Very dissatisfied; 2—Dissatisfied; 3—Neutral; 4—Satisfied; 5—Very satisfied).
The standard interpretation of the ordinal logit coefficient is that for a one-unit increase in the predictor,
the response variable is expected to change by its respective regression coefficient in the ordinal
log-odds scale while the other variables in the model are held constant. In other words, a positive
coefficient indicates the chances of a respondent with a larger score on the independent variable
being observed in a higher category. Conversely, a negative coefficient indicates the chances of a
respondent with a lower score on the independent variable being observed in a lower category [77].
Moreover, independent variables covering different aspects/elements of student life were included
in a 5-point, Likert-scale form to measure satisfaction, agreement or frequency. Finally, since some
of the independent variables are nominal, i.e., categorical with no order in the categories (especially
socio-demographic and geographic characteristics, i.e., gender, citizenship, status, level of study,
field of study, ability to pay, scholarship, and continents), dummy coding was used in order to recode
the categorical predictor data so that the regression coefficients of the newly created dummy variables
would be meaningful for identifying between-group differences [78]. The ordinal regression analysis
together with the testing of multicollinearity was performed in SPSS 26.0, while a Spearman correlation
heatmap was designed by using Python’s most powerful visualisation libraries, i.e., Matplotlib and
Seaborn [79,80].
2.4. Ethical Considerations

All participants were informed about the details of the study. Study participation was
anonymous and voluntary, and students could withdraw from the study without any consequences.
For data-protection reasons, the online survey was open to people aged 18 or over and enrolled in a
higher education institution. Only the researchers had access to the research data. The procedures
of this study complied with the provisions of the Declaration of Helsinki regarding research on
human participants. Ethical Committees of several of the involved higher education institutions
often approved this study, such as the University of Verona (Ethical code: 2020_12), ISPA—Instituto
Universitário (Ethical Clearance Number: I/035/05/2020), University of Arkansas (IRB protocol number:
2005267431), and Walter Sisulu University (Ethical Clearance Number: REC/ST01/2020).
3. Results
The socio-demographic and other characteristics of the study population are shown in Table 1.
Approximately two-thirds of the sample of 30,383 higher education students was female (65.6%) and
more than half (54.9%) of the population fall in the age range of 20–24 years. Most of the respondents
were domestic (94.1%), full-time (88.1%), and first-level (80.5%) students. A little over one-third of the
participants (37.0%) were studying social sciences, followed by applied sciences (31.1%) and natural
and life sciences (21.7%). A scholarship was not held by 70.8% of the respondents in 2019/2020 and just
over half of them (52.6%) had been able to pay the overall costs of their study before the COVID-19
pandemic. Due to the pandemic, onsite classes had been cancelled for 86.7% of the respondents and
61.7% of them had lost a paid job. As already presented in more detail (Section 2.1), the majority of
respondents came from Europe (44.9%), followed by Asia (23.7%), South America (14.4%), Africa (8.6%),
North America (7.8%), and Oceania (0.6%).
3.1. Overview of the Questionnaire Results

The results of the global student survey include findings concerning different aspects of student
life, e.g., academic work, infrastructure and the skills needed to study from home, social life, emotional
life, and other circumstances, which are described in Sections 3.1.1–3.1.10, including their elements
(also see Aristovnik et al. [81,82]). In addition, the impact of socio-demographic and geographic
characteristics was statistically tested. In general, the empirical results reveal that, concerning the
majority of the studied aspects/elements of student life, females, full-time students, students who
study on the second level of study (postgraduate level), and social sciences students were mainly less
affected by the COVID-19 pandemic (see Tables A1–A5 in Appendix A). Moreover, students with a
better standard of living (i.e., students with scholarships and students who did not lose their jobs and
were able to pay the overall cost of their study) and those coming from Oceania or Europe also show a
more positive attitude to the majority of aspects/elements of student life in the time of the pandemic.
3.1.1. From Onsite to Online Lectures

In order to reduce the spread of the novel coronavirus, universities around the world moved
rapidly to transfer various courses from onsite to online [44,83], with online learning (e-learning)
thereby becoming a mandatory teaching and learning process of educational institutions. Teaching
online is not simply putting learning materials online. Lecturers must organise the content and learning
methods according to the new mode of delivery so that students do not feel isolated and alone in the
learning process. Therefore, appropriate knowledge and skills of lecturers as well as ICT equipment
must be ensured, as pointed out by the authors of studies in countries where online learning was
still not widespread before the COVID-19 pandemic [26,55,64,83]. In our survey, students were asked
about their attitudes to different online forms of teaching and learning, including their satisfaction
with the organisation and support of their institutions after the cancellation of onsite classes due to the
physical closure of their higher education institution.
On the global level, 86.7% of students reported that the onsite classes had been cancelled due to
the COVID-19 pandemic (see Table 1). Consequently, several different forms of online lectures were
established. The most dominant forms of online lectures were real-time video conferences (59.4%),
followed by asynchronous forms: Sending presentations to students (15.2%), video recording (11.6%),
and written communication using forums and chats (9.1%). The rarest form was audio recording
(4.7%), which is not surprising since learning platforms and videoconference systems (e.g., Moodle,
Zoom, MS Teams, BigBlueButton, etc.) are widespread and have been freely available for quite some
time. On the global level, the students were the most satisfied with real-time video conferences (3.30),
followed by video recording (3.26), sending presentations (3.10), and written communication (3.14),
while they were the least satisfied with audio recording (2.98). The greatest satisfaction with all of the
presented forms was found in Oceania, North America, and Europe (e.g., Malta), followed by Asia
and South America, while students from Africa (e.g., Egypt and South Africa) appeared to be the least
satisfied with the forms of their online lectures (except written communication), which might be due
to the unequally developed ICT infrastructure across the continent where many higher education
institutions were unable to deliver lectures online and simultaneously many students had limited
access to the Internet (see Owusu-Fordjour et al. [15], Anifowoshe et al. [64], Kapasia et al. [45]).
The impact of socio-demographic factors was generally the same as for the majority of aspects/elements,
as explained in Section 3.1 (see Table A1 in Appendix A).
3.1.2. Academic Work

Universities around the world cancelled their onsite classes and shifted their pedagogical processes
to online media. For some universities, the online mode of delivery was not new, unlike others,
which were encountering such forms of teaching for the first time. The transition was quick and not
much time was available to properly consider the organisation of the new forms, noting that the quality
of teaching and learning in these new circumstances needs proper attention [44]. On the other hand,
students from undeveloped, remote, and rural areas had problems with poor Internet connectivity
or even a lack of electricity. We also cannot ignore poverty, with the final result they hold a negative
attitude to the online mode [15,45,64,83]. Nevertheless, on the global level, the students’ satisfaction
with the organisation of three segments of the teaching process was quite high and nearly the same:
For lectures 3.30, tutorials and seminars 3.12, and mentorships 3.20. Still, there was a big difference
once again between the lowest-ranked continent, Africa, where students were the most unsatisfied
(2.70, 2.46, 2.70), and the highest-ranked Oceania (3.76, 3.37, 3.47).
The effectiveness of online learning depends on the designed and prepared learning material,
the lecturer’s engagement in the online environment, and lecturer–student or student–student
interactions (e.g., Sun [84], Wu and Liu [85], and Bao [86]). Further, while studying online from
home, students must have an opportunity to ask questions and expect a timely answer. Therefore,
in the context of academic work, students were asked about lecturers’ responsiveness and whether
assignments had been provided online. The students agreed that the lecturers had been preparing
regular assignments, e.g., readings, quizzes, or course work (3.73), followed by lecturers’ timely
responses to posted questions and being open to students’ suggestions. The last two statements,
which do not differ much from the above in terms of agreement, addressed the information provided
about exams in the new circumstances (3.44) and giving feedback on students’ performance (3.21).
The highest levels of agreement were seen in Oceania and in North America. Once more, students
in Africa reported the lowest level of agreement for all five statements (<3.36), which may can relate
to the limited Internet access and also a lack of digital competencies [15,64,87]. When looking at the
country rankings, Pakistan stands out by ranking among the bottom countries on all scales concerning
the online delivery
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significantly smaller,
smaller, although
although the share of students with the same workload workload was was even
even lower
lower (26.6%).
(26.6%).
The biggest proportion of students reported that their workload had become larger or significantly
larger (42.6%).
(42.6%).An Anincrease
increase in inworkload
workload waswasreported by students
reported from Oceania
by students (59.8%),(59.8%),
from Oceania Europe (58.0%),
Europe
and North
(58.0%), and America (54.7%), while
North America (54.7%),in South
while America,
in South Asia, and Asia,
America, Africa, theAfrica,
and workload the had decreased
workload had
(see Figure 1). On all three continents, the key challenges
decreased (see Figure 1). On all three continents, the key challenges are problems with anare problems with an underdeveloped
Internet network,Internet
underdeveloped lack of and inexperience
network, lack of inandusing ICT equipment,
inexperience in usingand ICTthe fact that the
equipment, and only
theavailable
fact that
devices
the onlyfor participating
available devicesin online classes are mobile
for participating in online phones [15,44–46,64,87].
classes are mobile phones Almost[15,44–46,64,87].
80% of students
from
Almost Germany
80% of (76%),
students Portugal
from Germany(77%), Malaysia (78%), and
(76%), Portugal Mexico
(77%), (73%) reported
Malaysia (78%), and having
Mexicolarger
(73%) or
significantly
reported havinglarger workloads.
larger The same
or significantly was workloads.
larger revealed forThe female
same students, first-level
was revealed (undergraduate)
for female students,
students, and
first-level arts studentsstudents,
(undergraduate) (see Table and A1arts
in Appendix
students (see A). Table
Students
A1 in also found it A).
Appendix difficult to focus
Students also
duringitthe
found onlineto
difficult teaching
focus duringin comparison
the onlinetoteaching
onsite teaching and reported
in comparison perceiving
to onsite teachingaand worse study
reported
performance
perceiving a worse since the onsite
study classes had
performance beenthe
since cancelled, although
onsite classes had they
beenhad adapted
cancelled, quite well
although theytohad
the
new teaching and learning experience (for details, see Aristovnik et al. [82]).
adapted quite well to the new teaching and learning experience (for details, see Aristovnik et al. [82]). Undergraduate students
found it more difficult
Undergraduate students to focus,
foundwhile it moregraduate
difficultstudents
to focus,and social
while sciences
graduate studentsand
students were evensciences
social able to
improve their
students wereperceived
even ableperformance
to improve their (see Table A1 inperformance
perceived Appendix A)(see (for Table
more, 1Asee in
Gonzalez
Appendix et al.
A)[27]).
(for
While studying isolated at home, students may face a lack of self-discipline
more, see Gonzalez et al. [27]). While studying isolated at home, students may face a lack of self- or an inappropriate learning
environment
discipline or an [86], which evokes
inappropriate a feeling
learning of work overload
environment [86], whichandevokes
thus aahigher
feelinglevel of stress
of work [36].
overload
Lecturers
and thus a should therefore
higher level of stress carefully balance should
[36]. Lecturers online therefore
teaching carefully
and self-learning of students
balance online teaching while
and
planning
self-learning andof designing
students the while teaching
planningandand learning
designingprocess.
the teaching and learning process.
GLOBAL Africa Asia Europe North America Oceania South America

100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
larger workload satisfied with teaching staff support satisfied with PR support
Figure 1. Change
Change inin study
study workload
workload (%
(% of
of students
students with
with aa larger
larger or
or significantly
significantly larger workload) and
student satisfaction with the teaching
teaching staff
staff and PR support (% of satisfied or very satisfied students)
students)
during the COVID-19 pandemic.
In aacrisis
In crisissuch
suchasas
thethe
COVID-19 pandemic,
COVID-19 manymany
pandemic, questions emerge,
questions and students
emerge, need theneed
and students support
the
of various services. The survey results show that the students, regardless of the continent, were
support of various services. The survey results show that the students, regardless of the continent, the
were the most satisfied with the support of the teaching staff; overall, 57.6% of students were satisfied
or very satisfied (the highest-ranked Oceania—78.8%, the lowest Africa—33.2%) (see Figure 1). The
lowest satisfaction levels with the support were found for finance and accounting, 30.2% (the lowest-
ranked Africa—21.1%) and international offices, 26.0% (the lowest-ranked Africa—13.6%). The
Philippines ranked at the bottom of satisfaction with the teaching staff, which is consistent with a
most satisfied with the support of the teaching staff; overall, 57.6% of students were satisfied or very
satisfied (the highest-ranked Oceania—78.8%, the lowest Africa—33.2%) (see Figure 1). The lowest
satisfaction levels with the support were found for finance and accounting, 30.2% (the lowest-ranked
Africa—21.1%) and international offices, 26.0% (the lowest-ranked Africa—13.6%). The Philippines
ranked at the bottom of satisfaction with the teaching staff, which is consistent with a survey in which
almost 94% of students reported poor communication with the teaching staff [55]. The impact of
socio-demographic factors on satisfaction with the support of the teaching staff was similar to that
mentioned above; female students and students from the social science expressed greater satisfaction
(see Table A1 in Appendix A).
3.1.3. Academic Life

As far as the students’ academic life is concerned, we were interested in: (1) The availability
of different kinds of home infrastructure needed to ensure efficient study; and (2) the students’
self-reported computer skills. Both issues were also mentioned by Kamarianos et al. [25], Sahu [44],
and Baticulon et al. [55]. When examining the potential impact of the COVID-19 outbreak on the
education of the students in our study on the global level, the share of students with frequent access
to specific equipment was highest for office supplies, e.g., notebooks, pens (80.4%), and computers
(75.2%). The results show that 96.0% of students from Oceania selected computers as their most
frequently available electronic equipment, followed by students in North America (93.6%) and Europe
(86.2%). On the other hand, students did not have regular access to printers (33.0%) and study materials
(51.8%). African students reported having the lowest availability of printers (14.9%), followed by
their Asian (26.2%) and South American counterparts (37.6%). A good Internet connection is essential
for online learning yet was reported by 59.9% students (only 29.2% from Africa (e.g., Mozambique
(14.4%) and Kenya (17.8%)), followed by 58.2% from Asia and 58.5% from South America, 68.3% from
Europe, 70.0% from Oceania, and 70.5% from North America). The best European country-level results
(e.g., Hungary (82.5%)) are consistent with the findings of Tormey et al. [21] who reported about 18% of
students with connectivity problems. Wang and Zhao [40] also reported the risk of students in remote
and rural areas losing their educational opportunities. The impact of socio-demographic factors on
the availability of different kinds of home equipment was generally the same as for the majority of
aspects/elements, as explained in Section 3.1 (see Table A2 in Appendix A).
In the next step, the students were asked about their confidence in their computer skills. On average,
they were most confident in the skills of using online communication platforms, e.g., e-mail, messaging
etc. (4.06), followed by the skills of browsing online for information (3.97) and skills of sharing digital
content (3.86). The respondents assessed their least developed skills as those connected with adjusting
the advanced settings of some software and programmes (3.37) and using online teaching platforms,
e.g., BigBlueButton, Moodle, GoToMeeting (3.53). This calls for intense preparation for any future
waves in the second half of 2020 and later in the sense of making sure that students are equipped
with the skills needed to use those online platforms, as also proposed by Owusu-Fordjour [15] and
Nenko et al. [50]. When comparing the confidence in these skills (of using online teaching platforms)
among the continents, as expected, the lowest levels were found for Africa (3.05) and the highest for
North America (4.14) and Oceania (4.38). The impact of socio-demographic factors on self-reported
computer skills was largely the same as for the majority of aspects/elements, as explained in Section 3.1
(see Table A2 in Appendix A), except in the case of gender where, unsurprisingly, male students had a
higher assessment of their confidence in computer skills than female students.
3.1.4. Social Life

In many studies, the loss of one’s usual daily routine as well as reduced social and physical
contact with others (including the social-distancing measures) trigger numerous negative emotions
like frustration, boredom, anxiety, confusion, anger, etc. [7,14,28,33,88]. The COVID-19 pandemic
and subsequent physical closure of higher education institutions has put the majority of students
in an unfamiliar situation. During the period of closure, they were living in environments with
varying circumstances and had different options to keep their social life as close to ‘normal’ as possible.
Some were at a higher risk of social isolation and the consequent development of mental health
disorders, e.g., those who were living by themselves in this period [33]. In our survey, students were
asked about the frequency of their online communication with specific people during the COVID-19
pandemic. On the global level, students communicated online at least once a day with: (1) Close family
members (52.0%)—primarily Asian and European students; (2) someone they live with, e.g., a roommate
(47.8%), as mainly reported by students from Oceania and North America; or (3) they relied on social
networks (45.8%)—mostly students from South and North America. The least frequent were online
communications with administrative staff at the university (2.8%) and voluntary organisations (3.7%);
in both cases, the lowest shares were detected in both Americas.
Students would first turn to the following social groups to talk about the COVID-19 crisis: A close
family member (45%), someone they live with (e.g., a roommate) (29%), a more distant family member
(6%), a close friend (5%), etc. The impact of socio-demographic factors on the self-assessment of social
life during the period of the higher education institution’s closure was generally the same as for the
majority of other aspects/elements included in the survey, as explained in Section 3.1 (see Table A3
in Appendix A), except in the case of level of study where first-level (undergraduate) students more
frequently contacted their close friends and relied on social networks for online communication than
second-level (postgraduate) students. Since social support is vital for the mental health of higher
education students, it should be efficiently offered and carefully maintained during a time of isolation
and/or quarantine [7,33,88].
3.1.5. Change in Habits

The strong human-to-human transmissibility of COVID-19 has affected the daily routines of
students all over the world [89]. On one hand, it has further encouraged particular (especially
hygienic) behaviours, which is in line with previous studies [30]. The most encouraged habits
of our survey respondents (the share of students changing selected habits exceeded 70%) were
wearing a mask outside (86.7%) (with South America in the leading position (e.g., Brazil and Chile),
Asia (e.g., Afghanistan) and Europe (e.g., Italy)), washing hands (79.9%) (in Africa), and avoiding
crowds and large gatherings (78.2%) (primarily in Oceania and North America). All of these habits
have become an important part of the day-to-day routine of people, including students, across the
world [90]. The only exception is Oceania where the widespread use of face masks was not a feature of
New Zealand’s COVID-19 elimination strategy [91] (see Figure 2). Other habits in terms of avoiding
public transport, cancelling travelling, working from home, avoiding touching the face, and stocking
up on essentials were also highly encouraged (a 50–70% change) by restrictions on travel and activity
participation in many countries [31]. Finally, the smallest shares of students (below 30%) changing the
selected habits were observed for online grocery shopping (22.9%) and filling prescriptions (17.5%),
coinciding with the fact that most young people were already used to making purchases online prior
to the COVID-19 pandemic [92]. On the other hand, the extraordinary circumstances caused by the
pandemic also discouraged certain habits. The most discouraged habits, seen in the highest shares
of students altering selected habits, were leaving home unnecessarily (73.7%) (especially in South
America (e.g., Brazil), followed by Oceania and Africa), shaking hands (73.5%) (in North America) and
visiting family members or friends (73.3%), which was pointed out the most in Asia (see Figure 2 and
Aristovnik et al. [82]). These were followed by contacting close persons (40.1%), recreation or workouts
(39.8%), and offering help to people (17.0%). With regards to socio-demographic factors, gender and
status affected the students’ behaviour in a similar way to that explained in Section 3.1 (see Table A3 in
Appendix A). Interestingly, a significant increase in wearing a mask outside and washing hands is
observed for students who were unable to pay the overall costs of their study prior to the pandemic.
Moreover, for students who had a job, the increase in washing hands was significantly higher, while for
shaking hands it was significantly lower.
Sustainability 2020, 12, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 34
Shaking hands
South America
Oceania
Leaving the house
North America
for unnecessary
reasons
Wearing a mask
Europe
outside
Asia
Washing your
hands Africa
GLOBAL
-100% -50% 0% 50% 100%
Students’ most changed

Figure 2. Students’ changed daily habits during the COVID-19 pandemic (% of students who
increased their habits from never/rarely/sometimes
never/rarely/sometimes to
to often/always
often/alwaysand
andvice
viceversa).
versa).
3.1.6. Emotional
3.1.6. Emotional Life Life
The COVID-19 pandemic has heavily influenced the emotional wellbeing and thus mental health
The COVID-19 pandemic has heavily influenced the emotional wellbeing and thus mental health
of people all around the globe [14,30,40,93]—either directly in terms of health issues or indirectly in
of people all around the globe [14,30,40,93]—either directly in terms of health issues or indirectly in
relation to
relation toits
itseconomic
economicand andsocial
social consequences.
consequences. This
Thisis also true
is also for for
true students, although
students, although on average
on averagethey
are not the most endangered group of the population [7,29] as far as the
they are not the most endangered group of the population [7,29] as far as the physical health aspects physical health aspects of the
pandemic is concerned. However, many of them have experienced
of the pandemic is concerned. However, many of them have experienced unbearable psychological unbearable psychological pressure,
especially especially
pressure, due to the due pandemic’s impacts onimpacts
to the pandemic’s daily life,
onthe economic
daily life, theeffects,
economicand effects,
the delays andintheacademic
delays
in academic activities [7]. In our study, the frequency of the positive emotions felt by the outbreak
activities [7]. In our study, the frequency of the positive emotions felt by the students since the students
of COVID-19
since the outbreak was as of follows:
COVID-19 Hopeful
was as (39.4%),
follows: joyful
Hopeful (29.7%),
(39.4%), proud
joyful (26.5%),
(29.7%), and relieved
proud (17.9%).
(26.5%), and
The negative
relieved emotions
(17.9%). experienced
The negative by theexperienced
emotions students were by boredom
the students (45.2%),
wereanxiety
boredom (39.8%),
(45.2%), frustration
anxiety
(39.1%),
(39.8%), anger (25.9%),
frustration hopelessness
(39.1%), (18.8%),hopelessness
anger (25.9%), and shame (10.0%).
(18.8%),The andhighest
shamelevels
(10.0%). of anxiety
The highest were
found in
levels of South
anxiety America (65.7%)inand
were found Oceania
South America(64.4%), followed
(65.7%) and by North (64.4%),
Oceania America followed
(55.8%) and byEurope
North
(48.7%). Least anxious were students from Africa (38.1%) and
America (55.8%) and Europe (48.7%). Least anxious were students from Africa (38.1%) and Asia (32.7%). A similar order of
Asia
continents was found for frustration as the second-most devastating
(32.7%). A similar order of continents was found for frustration as the second-most devastating emotion. On the other hand,
while
emotion.analysing
On thepositive emotions,
other hand, while North
analysingAmerica appeared
positive emotions,to beNorththe continent
Americawith the most
appeared to bejoyful
the
continent with the most joyful students (34.5%) and Asia with the most hopeful ones (42.2%)show
students (34.5%) and Asia with the most hopeful ones (42.2%) (see Figure 3). Other findings (see
that different
Figure 3). Other socio-demographic
findings show that factors had influenced
different emotional factors
socio-demographic wellbeing had(the top four emotional
influenced emotions)
differently than described in Section 3.1 (see Table A4 in Appendix A).
wellbeing (the top four emotions) differently than described in Section 3.1 (see Table A4 in Appendix Male students were feeling
more hopeful, first-level students were feeling more bored, while students
A). Male students were feeling more hopeful, first-level students were feeling more bored, while of the arts and humanities
were feeling
students more
of the anxious
arts and frustrated.
and humanities wereSimilar
feelingnegative emotions
more anxious and were also noticed
frustrated. among
Similar those
negative
students unable to pay their overall costs of study before the COVID-19
emotions were also noticed among those students unable to pay their overall costs of study before pandemic. The relatively high
level of negative emotions and relatively low level of positive emotions
the COVID-19 pandemic. The relatively high level of negative emotions and relatively low level of indicates that the pandemic
itself and emotions
positive the measures taken by
indicates the the
that various governments
pandemic itself (e.g.,
and cessation
the measures of public
takenlife, by
travel
thebans, etc.)
various
will have specific short- and long-term impacts on the education and mental
governments (e.g., cessation of public life, travel bans, etc.) will have specific short- and long-term health of students [7,33,39].
The accompanying
impacts on the educationeffects of andCOVID-19 will continue
mental health to profoundly
of students [7,33,39]. influence students’ emotional
The accompanying effects of
wellbeing; meanwhile, emotional wellbeing has a crucial
COVID-19 will continue to profoundly influence students’ emotional wellbeing; role to play in combating the pandemic
meanwhile, [94].
This implies that government, health professionals, higher education
emotional wellbeing has a crucial role to play in combating the pandemic [94]. This implies thatinstitutions, student organisations,
and NGOs should
government, healthallprofessionals,
collaborate onhigher the process of designing
education institutions,timely and efficient
student psychological
organisations, and NGOs and
financial support services for students.
should all collaborate on the process of designing timely and efficient psychological and financial
support services for students.

100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Bored Anxious Hopeful Frustrated
Emotions most
Figure 3. Emotions most frequently
frequently expressed
expressed by
by students
students during
during the COVID-19 pandemic (% of
students who felt emotion often or always).
3.1.7. Personal Circumstances

3.1.7. Personal Circumstances
The COVID-19 pandemic is responsible for tectonic changes in the lives of many groups in the
The COVID-19 pandemic is responsible for tectonic changes in the lives of many groups in the
population, thus also of higher education students [44]. The world is faced with a great crisis due to the
population, thus also of higher education students [44]. The world is faced with a great crisis due to
pandemic
the pandemic spread of the
spread ofnovel coronavirus
the novel coronavirus[6,30,40] and, as
[6,30,40] and, expected basedbased
as expected on previous
on previousepidemics [9,95],
epidemics
students hold specific worries (concerns) about their short- and long-term
[9,95], students hold specific worries (concerns) about their short- and long-term future too [96]. The future too [96]. The results of
our study
results show
of our that,show
study during theduring
that, lockdown, students were
the lockdown, (on the
students global
were (onlevel) ‘mostlevel)
the global of the‘most
time’ ofor the
‘all
of the time’ worrying about their professional career in the future (42.6%)
time’ or ‘all of the time’ worrying about their professional career in the future (42.6%) and study and study issues, e.g., lectures,
seminars,
issues, e.g., practical
lectures, work (40.2%).practical
seminars, They were workleast concerned
(40.2%). Theyabout
weretraveling abroad (22.1%)
least concerned and their
about traveling
own
abroad physical
(22.1%) health (21.6%),
and their own with the latter
physical being
health expected
(21.6%), with forthe
this group
latter of the
being population.
expected for thisThegroup
most
worried appeared to be the South American students who gave
of the population. The most worried appeared to be the South American students who gave the the highest scores to 5 of 10 worries,
e.g., worrying
highest scores about
to 5 future educatione.g.,
of 10 worries, (49.1%), familyabout
worrying and relationships
future education (47.0%), issuesfamily
(49.1%), to do with
and
studying,
relationships e.g., (47.0%),
lectures, seminars,
issues to practical
do with work (46.6%),
studying, e.g.,personal
lectures, mental healthpractical
seminars, (43.2%), and work COVID-19
(46.6%),
or a similar
personal pandemic
mental crisis
health in the future
(43.2%), (42.6%). African
and COVID-19 students
or a similar were thecrisis
pandemic most in worried among
the future all the
(42.6%).
respondents
African students regarding
were 3the of most
10 worries,
worried i.e.,among
professional
all thecareer in the future
respondents (55.7%),
regarding 3 ofpersonal finances
10 worries, i.e.,
(50.8%), and traveling abroad (30.1%). European students were the
professional career in the future (55.7%), personal finances (50.8%), and traveling abroad (30.1%).most concerned of all regarding
leisure
European activities,
studentse.g.,
were sports and concerned
the most cultural activities, parties,leisure
of all regarding hanging out with
activities, friends,
e.g., sports etc. (32.1%).
and cultural
Students
activities,from Asia,hanging
parties, North America,
out withand Oceania
friends, etc.did not give
(32.1%). the maximum
Students scoreNorth
from Asia, to any America,
kind of worryand
(see Figure 4). The selected socio-demographic factors influenced
Oceania did not give the maximum score to any kind of worry (see Figure 4). The selected personal circumstances, i.e., worries,
socio-
in various ways
demographic (see Table
factors A4 in Appendix
influenced A). Female students
personal circumstances, were more
i.e., worries, concerned
in various waysthan (seetheir
Table male
A4
colleagues
in Appendix about A).a professional
Female students career, study
were issues,
more and future education,
concerned than theirpart-time students were
male colleagues more
about a
worried
professionalabout personal
career, study finances,
issues, andand full-time students part-time
future education, more about studying
students wereissues.
moreUndergraduate
worried about
students
personal worried
finances,moreand aboutfull-timea future education
students more while
aboutthose who issues.
studying were unable to pay theirstudents
Undergraduate overall
study costs before the COVID-19 pandemic worried more about all
worried more about a future education while those who were unable to pay their overall study costs kinds of personal circumstances
(worries).
before the ThoseCOVID-19 who pandemic
had lost a worried
job due more to theabout
pandemic wereofmore
all kinds worried
personal about a professional
circumstances (worries).
career in the future, personal finances, and future education.
Those who had lost a job due to the pandemic were more worried about a professional careerThe above-mentioned worries (also see
in the
Cao et al. [7], Elmer et al. [33], Sahu [44], and Odriozola-González et al.
future, personal finances, and future education. The above-mentioned worries (also see Cao et al. [7], [49]) underscore the urgent
need
Elmertoetproperly understand
al. [33], Sahu [44], and these challenges and worries
Odriozola-González in order
et al. [49]) to design
underscore the the
urgentappropriate support
need to properly
measures
understand forthese
students [94] as soon
challenges as is efficiently,
and worries in order holistically,
to design systematically,
the appropriate and sustainably
support possible.
measures for
students [94] as soon as is efficiently, holistically, systematically, and sustainably possible.

100%
80%
60%
40%
20%
0%
Studying issues Future education Personal finances Professional career
in the future
Figure 4. Personal
Personalworries
worriesduring
duringthetheCOVID-19
COVID-19 pandemic
pandemicmost
mostfrequently expressed
frequently by by
expressed students (%
students
of students
(% worried
of students most
worried of the
most time
of the or all
time of the
or all time).
of the time).
3.1.8. Role of
3.1.8. Role of Institutions
Institutions
As
As for
for exploring
exploring the the role
role played
played by by different
different institutions
institutions (i.e.,
(i.e., government, universities, banks,
government, universities, banks,
hospitals),
hospitals), we we asked
asked students
students how how satisfied
satisfied they
they werewere withwith their
their responses
responses during
during the the lockdown
lockdown
period
period of COVID-19. While the impact of different socio-demographic factors on satisfaction with
of COVID-19. While the impact of different socio-demographic factors on satisfaction with the
the
institutions’ role is largely the same as for most other aspects/elements
institutions’ role is largely the same as for most other aspects/elements (see Table A5 in Appendix A), (see Table A5 in Appendix A),
in general, the
in general, the students
studentswere wereby byfarfarthe
themost
mostsatisfied
satisfiedwith with the
the role
role of of hospitals
hospitals with
with two-thirds
two-thirds of
of all
all respondents being satisfied (or very satisfied) with their response,
respondents being satisfied (or very satisfied) with their response, especially in Sri Lanka with even especially in Sri Lanka with
even
94.6%94.6% (see Figure
(see Figure 5 and 5Aristovnik
and Aristovnik et al.In
et al. [82]). [82]).
fact, In fact, satisfaction
satisfaction with hospitals
with hospitals was found wastofound
be in
to
thebe in on
lead theall lead on all continents,
continents, except Oceania except(i.e.,
Oceania (i.e., Newwhere
New Zealand) Zealand) where with
satisfaction satisfaction with the
the government
government
prevails at 90.7%. prevails
It is at 90.7%.that
obvious It is obvious
since globallythathealthcare
since globally healthcare
providers providers
are working harder are than
working
ever
harder than ever to keep citizens safe this may act as a starting point
to keep citizens safe this may act as a starting point for providers to rebuild the nation’s (including for providers to rebuild the
nation’s (including students’) satisfaction and trust in healthcare [97].
students’) satisfaction and trust in healthcare [97]. Universities came in second with 47.2% of students Universities came in second
with 47.2% of
expressing students expressing
satisfaction satisfaction
with their response. with their
Oceania hadresponse.
the highest Oceania had the
satisfaction highest
with satisfaction
the university’s
with
responsethe university’s responseby
(with 60%), followed (with
a tie60%),
between followed
North by a tie between
America and Europe North America
(with aroundand 53%),Europe
with
(with around 53%), with Africa significantly lagging behind with only
Africa significantly lagging behind with only 29.2%. Interestingly, students in Africa were generally 29.2%. Interestingly, students in
Africa were generally
more satisfied with how more satisfied
banks had with how banks
responded to thehad responded
crisis than with to the crisis than
universities andwith universities
governments.
and governments. On the other hand, students in South America
On the other hand, students in South America expressed extremely low levels of satisfaction expressed extremely low levels
with the
of satisfaction with the government (12.1%; Ecuador and Chile
government (12.1%; Ecuador and Chile even with less than 8%) and banks (16.8%; Chile with only even with less than 8%) and banks
(16.8%; Chile with
9.0%). Indeed, globalonly 9.0%).satisfaction
student Indeed, global withstudent satisfaction
governments with governments
and banks and banks
is generally relatively lowis
generally relatively low with only 41.1% and 37.1% being satisfied
with only 41.1% and 37.1% being satisfied (or very satisfied), respectively. This is not surprising as(or very satisfied), respectively.
This
mostiscitizens
not surprising
(including as students)
most citizens (including
generally do notstudents)
trust theirgenerally
governments do not andtrust their
banks governments
(see Eurofound
and banks (see Eurofound [8]), despite both institutions having
[8]), despite both institutions having responded by offering extra support to both citizens responded by offering extra support to
and
both citizens and businesses during the
businesses during the worst of the COVID-19 pandemic [44]. worst of the COVID-19 pandemic [44].
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10%
0%
Banks Government University Hospitals
Studentsatisfaction
Figure 5. Student satisfactionwith
withthe
therole
roleofofselected
selected institutions
institutions during
during thethe COVID-19
COVID-19 pandemic
pandemic (%
(% of satisfied
of satisfied or very
or very satisfied
satisfied students).
students).
3.1.9. Measures Taken

3.1.9. Measures Taken by by Institutions
Institutions
In
In response
response to to the
the COVID-19
COVID-19 pandemic,
pandemic, many many countries
countries aroundaround the the world
world have
have introduced
introduced
different
different emergency policy measures (see Nicola et al. [98]). The first wave of measures to
emergency policy measures (see Nicola et al. [98]). The first wave of measures aimed protect
aimed to
public
protecthealth,
publicwhilehealth,the while
secondthe wave was intended
second wave was to mitigate
intended the to socio-economic consequences
mitigate the socio-economic
of the crisis. On
consequences thecrisis.
of the globalOn level,
the students
global level,emphasised the emergency
students emphasised the support
emergency for support
the vulnerable
for the
population (in South America and Europe) and childcare for workers
vulnerable population (in South America and Europe) and childcare for workers (students from (students from South America
and
SouthAfrica mainly
America andsaw these
Africa as the
mainly saw most
theseimportant),
as the most while studentswhile
important), fromstudents
Asia and Oceania
from did
Asia and
not perceive these measures as important (see Hashikawa et al. [99]).
Oceania did not perceive these measures as important (see Hashikawa et al. [99]). Moreover, the Moreover, the measure of
deferring
measure of student loan student
deferring payments alsopayments
loan featured relatively high relatively
also featured in terms ofhigh the students’
in terms perception
of the students’of its
importance. This was primarily related to students from South America
perception of its importance. This was primarily related to students from South America (Chile) and (Chile) and North America
(the
NorthUSA). Further,
America (theother
USA). measures
Further,ofother
institutions,
measures mostly related to deferred
of institutions, mostly relatedor reduced payments
to deferred or
and financial
reduced paymentsassistance, were also
and financial seen as crucial
assistance, were also during
seen asthecrucial
pandemic.
during Measures relatedMeasures
the pandemic. to taxes
(see CIAT/IOTA/OECD
related [100]) (delayed payment
to taxes (see CIAT/IOTA/OECD and filingpayment
[100]) (delayed deadline) andwere the deadline)
filing most important
were the in South
most
America and Europe, but the least important in North America and
important in South America and Europe, but the least important in North America and Oceania. In Oceania. In terms of housing,
the freezing
terms of rent the
of housing, wasfreezing
the mostof highlighted
rent was the in Europe (Spain), while
most highlighted in itEurope
was financial
(Spain),assistance
while it wasand
deferred mortgage or related payments in South America (Chile). This is
financial assistance and deferred mortgage or related payments in South America (Chile). This is in in line with the fact that some
countries, especially
line with the fact thatSpain
someand the South
countries, American
especially countries,
Spain and the hadSouth already
American significantly
countries, adjusted their
had already
housing policy in response to COVID-19 [101]. Finally, the measure
significantly adjusted their housing policy in response to COVID-19 [101]. Finally, the measureof providing free transport wasof
perceived to be the least important. Certain socio-demographic factors affect
providing free transport was perceived to be the least important. Certain socio-demographic factors the students’ perception
of the the
affect importance
students’ofperception
the selected measures
of the importancein response to COVID-19
of the selected measures differently than to
in response explained
COVID-19 in
Section 3.1 (see Table A5 in Appendix A). Namely, international students
differently than explained in Section 3.1 (see Table A5 in Appendix A). Namely, international pointed out the importance
of financial
students assistance
pointed forimportance
out the renters significantly
of financial more than their
assistance for counterparts,
renters significantlywhile status
more thanand level
their
of study were not significant determinants of the measures introduced
counterparts, while status and level of study were not significant determinants of the measures by institutions. Moreover,
students
introduced whobywere unable to
institutions. pay the overall
Moreover, students cost
whoof their
were study
unableregarded
to pay the alloverall
of the selected measures
cost of their study
as important. Interestingly, losing one’s job did not emerge as a significant
regarded all of the selected measures as important. Interestingly, losing one’s job did not emerge as determinant.
a significant determinant.
3.1.10. Personal Reflections
InPersonal
3.1.10. the final Reflections
part of the extensive questionnaire, we asked students to write down some general
reflections on the COVID-19 pandemic. As shown in the word cloud visualisation (Figure 6), the most
In the final part of the extensive questionnaire, we asked students to write down some general
commonly used terms were “people”, “covid”, “life”, “time” and “pandemic” (the size of each
reflections on the COVID-19 pandemic. As shown in the word cloud visualisation (Figure 6), the most
word indicates its frequency). We can also see that the feedback from the students was negative
commonly used terms were “people”, “covid”, “life”, “time” and “pandemic” (the size of each word
overall (e.g., “problem”, “hard”, “worried”, “dangerous”, “death”, “fear”), although they were also
indicates its frequency). We can also see that the feedback from the students was negative overall
(e.g., “problem”, “hard”, “worried”, “dangerous”, “death”, “fear”), although they were also quite
hopeful (e.g., “normal”, “hope”, “future”, “positive”). Students also expressed the importance of
quiteSustainability
hopeful (e.g.,2020, 12, x FOR PEER“hope”,
“normal”, REVIEW “future”, “positive”). Students also expressed the importance 16 of 34
of places (e.g., “home”, “work”, “country”), institutions (e.g., “government”, “university”), social
places (e.g., “home”, “work”, “country”), institutions (e.g., “government”, “university”), social
groups (e.g., “family”, “friend”, “parent”), and social activities (e.g., “social”, “distancing”, “studying”,
groups (e.g., “family”, “friend”, “parent”), and social activities (e.g., “social”, “distancing”,
“learning”).
“studying”,In relation to academic
“learning”). life,tothey
In relation also highlighted
academic thehighlighted
life, they also terms “student”, “online”,
the terms “class”,
“student”,
“school”,
“online”, “class”, “school”, and “education”. Not surprisingly, they used a few words closely related like
and “education”. Not surprisingly, they used a few words closely related to COVID-19
“virus”, “health”,like
to COVID-19 “mask”,
“virus”,“lockdown”, and “lockdown”,
“health”, “mask”, “vaccine”. These findingsThese
and “vaccine”. are generally
findings areconsistent
generally with
someconsistent
previouswith some previous
empirical surveysempirical
(see Wang surveys (see Wang
and Zhao and Zhaoet[40],
[40], Khattar Khattar et al. [102]).
al. [102]).
Figure 6. Word
Figure cloud
6. Word cloudofofthe
thestudents’ reflectionson
students’ reflections onthe
theCOVID-19
COVID-19 pandemic.
pandemic.
3.2. Regression Results

3.2. Regression Results
Ordinal logistic
Ordinal regression
logistic regressionwas
was used
used totoempirically
empirically verify
verify the the influence
influence of theof the selected
selected factors
factors on
on the students’ lives
the students’ lives as well as the socio-demographic and geographic
well as the socio-demographic and geographic factors on the students’ factors on the students’
satisfaction
satisfaction withwith
thethe
role role
of of theiruniversity
their university duringduring the
theCOVID-19
COVID-19 pandemic
pandemic (see(see
Tables A1–A5
Tables in in
A1–A5
Appendix
Appendix A). AA).regression
A regression model
model withordinal
with ordinaldependent
dependent variable = Satisfaction
variableYY= Satisfaction withwith
university and and
university
p = 19p =predictors
19 predictors
(X1 (𝑋 = Recorded
=1Recorded videos,X2𝑋= 2 =Information
Information on
on exams,
exams,…,. . . 𝑋, 𝑝X=p = 𝑋19 X= Oceania) was
videos, 19 = Oceania) was
analysed (see Equation (1)). The model estimates the conditional probability 𝑃( 𝑌 ≤𝑗 ∣∣ 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , … , 𝑋𝑝 )
analysed (see Equation (1)). The model estimates the conditional probability P Y ≤ jX1 , X2 , . . . , Xp
that 𝑌 = students’ satisfaction with university’s response to COVID-19 pandemic was less or equal
that Yto=𝑗 students’ satisfaction with university’s response to COVID-19 pandemic was less or equal
given the values of predictors 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , … , 𝑋𝑝 . The value 𝑗 ranges from 1 to 𝑘 − 1 where 𝑘 is the
to j given
number of orderedofcategories
the values predictorsof the X2 , . . . , Xpvariable
X1 ,dependent 𝑌. In j.
. The value ourranges
case 𝑘 from
= 5 (its 1 to k − 1range
values where fromk is the
number the dependent variable Y. In our case k =
1 = very dissatisfied to 5 = very satisfied). The formula of ordered logistic regression used in the from
of ordered categories of 5 (its values range
1 = very
paperdissatisfied
correspondsto to:5 = very satisfied). The formula of ordered logistic regression used in the
paper corresponds to: 1
𝑃( 𝑌 ≤ 𝑗 ∣∣ 𝑋1 , 𝑋2 , . . . , 𝑋𝑝 ) = (1)
1 + 𝑒𝑥𝑝( β0𝑗 − (β1 ⋅ 𝑋1 + β2 ⋅ 𝑋2 + ⋯ + β𝑝 ⋅ 𝑋𝑝 ))
1
P Y ≤ j X1 , X2 , . . . , Xp = (1)
The task is to estimate coefficients β1 , β2 , . . . , β𝑝 which are associated with predictors, and the

1 + exp(β0 j − β1 · X1 + β2 · X2 + . . . + βp · Xp )
intercepts β0𝑗 for 𝑗 = 1,2, … , 𝑘 − 1. Their interpretations of intercepts are meaningless therefore they
are omitted
The task is from the Table
to estimate 2.
coefficients β1 , β2 , . . . , βp which are associated with predictors, and the
Before estimating the parameters, two key assumptions of ordinal logistic regression were
intercepts β0 j for j = 1, 2, . . . , k − 1. Their interpretations of intercepts are meaningless therefore they
checked, namely the assumption of proportional odds and the issue of multicollinearity. The test of
are omitted from the Table 2.
the proportional odds assumption was significant (p < 0.001), meaning that the regression slopes
Before estimating across
differ significantly the parameters,
levels of thetwo key assumptions
dependent of ordinal
variable [103]. However, logistic regression
this test has been were
checked, namely the assumption of proportional odds and the issue of multicollinearity.
described as anti-conservative in the sense that it nearly always leads to rejection of the proportional The test
of theodds
proportional
assumptionodds assumption
[104], especially whenwas significant
the number (p of <explanatory
0.001), meaning
variablesthat
is the
largeregression slopes
[105] or the
differsample
significantly across
size is large levels ofMoreover,
[106,107]. the dependent variable [103].
multicollinearity However,
was tested this testthe
by examining hascorrelations
been described
between explanatory
as anti-conservative variables
in the sense(seethatTables A1–A5
it nearly in Appendix
always A rejection
leads to and FigureofS1the in Supplementary
proportional odds
assumption [104], especially when the number of explanatory variables is largeany
Materials). A simple correlation between the explanatory variables did not indicate strong
[105] linear
or the sample
relationship, suggesting there is no issue of multicollinearity in the data [103].
size is large [106,107]. Moreover, multicollinearity was tested by examining the correlations between The severity of
multicollinearity was further tested by multicollinearity diagnostics with the variance inflation factor
explanatory variables (see Tables A1–A5 in Appendix A and Figure S1 in Supplementary Materials).
(VIF) ranging between 1.0 and 1.7, namely considerably below the threshold of 10 and confirming
A simple correlation between the explanatory variables did not indicate any strong linear relationship,
the absence of multicollinearity [108]. Due to the listwise deletion of missing values in the ordinal
suggesting
logistic there is no7948
regression, issue of multicollinearity
valid full student responses in the data
were [103]. The
considered severity
in the analysis.ofAssuming
multicollinearity
that
was further tested by multicollinearity diagnostics with the variance inflation
data were missing at random, we proceeded by estimating the parameters. The goodness-of-fit factor (VIF) ranging
between 1.0 and 1.7, namely considerably below the threshold of 10 and confirming the absence
of multicollinearity [108]. Due to the listwise deletion of missing values in the ordinal logistic
regression, 7948 valid full student responses were considered in the analysis. Assuming that data were
missing at random, we proceeded by estimating the parameters. The goodness-of-fit statistics for the
proposed empirical model proved to be adequate, as suggested by a Nagelkerke R2 value of 0.386 [109].
The results of the ordinal logistic regression are presented in Table 2.
Table 2. Ordinal logistic regression for factors influencing the students’ satisfaction with the role of
their university during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Dependent Variable
B SE Wald Sig. OR
Satisfaction with University a
Recorded videos a −0.176 *** 0.021 170.826 0.000 1.193
Information on exams a −0.252 *** 0.020 160.362 0.000 1.287
Teaching staff a −0.662 *** 0.026 639.421 0.000 1.939
PR (websites, social media information) a −0.492 *** 0.025 402.468 0.000 1.636
Bored a −0.060 *** 0.019 110.132 0.001 0.941
Hopeful a −0.231 *** 0.021 125.165 0.000 1.260
Study issues a −0.045 *** 0.019 115.764 0.016 0.956
Gender b −0.074 *** 0.045 112.725 0.099 1.077
Citizenship c −0.019 *** 0.091 110.045 0.832 0.981
Status d −0.016 *** 0.070 110.052 0.819 1.016
Master’s degree e −0.034 *** 0.064 110.273 0.601 1.034
Social sciences e −0.196 *** 0.045 119.282 0.000 1.217
Scholarship e −0.168 *** 0.046 113.224 0.000 1.183
Ability to pay e −0.190 *** 0.043 119.653 0.000 1.209
Africa e −0.144 *** 0.117 111.517 0.218 1.155
Asia e −0.046 *** 0.073 110.393 0.531 1.047
Europe e −0.149 *** 0.065 115.360 0.021 1.161
North America e −0.094 *** 0.086 111.215 0.270 0.910
Oceania e −0.314 *** 0.251 111.557 0.212 0.731
Note: B—regression coefficient; SE—standard error; OR—odds ratio. Measurement: a 5-point Likert scale ranging
from 1 (lowest value) to 5 (highest value); b 1—Male, 0—Female, c 1—Domestic, 0—Foreign; d 1—Full-time,
0—Part-time; e 1—Yes, 0—No. Significance: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001.
The results confirm that satisfaction with recorded videos as one of the most exposed forms of online
lectures has a positive effect on the students’ satisfaction with the role of their university during the
COVID-19 pandemic (B = 0.176; OR = 1.193; p < 0.001). More specifically, a one-unit (scale) increase in
student satisfaction with recorded videos leads to a 0.176-increase in the log-odds of having a higher
level of overall satisfaction with the university, while the other predictor variables in the model are
held constant. Equivalently, a one-unit increase in satisfaction with recorded videos would increase
the probability of overall satisfaction with the university by 19.3%, while keeping other variables
in the model constant. A positive and significant influence is also observed for satisfaction with
teaching support in terms of providing sufficient and adequate information on exams or the examination
procedure during the crisis (B = 0.252; OR = 1.287; p < 0.001), since a one-unit increase in student
satisfaction with the information given about exams would lead to a 28.7%-increase in the probability
of being in a higher category of overall satisfaction with the university, while keeping the other model
predictor variables constant.
During the COVID-19 pandemic, teaching and support staff have played a key role in maintaining
students’ satisfaction with the university, as established by the highest positive and highly significant
coefficients for satisfaction with the teaching staff (B = 0.662; OR = 1.939; p < 0.001) and PR (websites,
social media information) (B = 0.492; OR = 1.636; p < 0.001). This implies that a rise in satisfaction with
the lecturers and public relations by one unit (while the other predictor variables in the model are held
constant) increases the probability of being at a higher level of satisfaction with the university by 93.9%
and 63.3%, respectively.
Moreover, emotional life and selected personal circumstances were also identified as important
drivers of student satisfaction with the role of their university during the pandemic. Namely, boredom has
a negative impact (B = −0.060; OR = 0.941; p = 0.001), while hopefulness (B = 0.231; OR = 1.260; p < 0.001)
is identified as a positive driver of the students’ overall satisfaction with the university. In addition,
concerns about study issues (lectures, seminars and practical work) were found to have a negative and
significant effect on the students’ satisfaction with the role of their university during the COVID-19
pandemic (B = −0.045; OR = 0.956; p = 0.016).
With regards to socio-demographic factors, the regression coefficients for gender, citizenship, status,
and level of study were not statistically significant, implying that these predictors are not important
determinants of the students’ satisfaction with the role of the university during the pandemic. However,
field of study proved to be an important determinant of the students’ satisfaction with the university
since the results suggest that students from the social sciences (p < 0.001) have a 21.7% greater chance of
attaining better overall satisfaction with the university compared to their counterparts, keeping the
other model variables constant. Further, the financial perspective also emerged as a crucial driver of the
students’ satisfaction with the university. As indicated by the results, students receiving a scholarship
(B = 0.168; OR = 1.183; p < 0.001) and with a higher ability to pay (B = 0.190; OR = 1.209; p < 0.001) have
a greater chance of reaching a higher level of overall satisfaction with their university compared to
students who have financial problems.
Finally, the geographical perspective was also found to be important for explaining the variation
in the overall satisfaction of students with the university, especially in Europe for which a positive and
significant coefficient was found (B = 0.149; OR = 1.161; p = 0.021). More specifically, students from
Europe may have 16.1% higher chances of attaining better overall satisfaction with their university
compared to students from other continents, keeping the other variables constant in the model.
4. Discussion
While the world was facing up to the outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic, higher education
institutions were crucially affected at their core: The students. For them, the period was undoubtedly
unprecedented and very stressful as onsite classes were moved online, semesters were postponed,
examinations adjusted, etc. Accordingly, there is an urgent need for in-depth studies about the ways
the pandemic crisis has impacted students’ lives around the world. After performing an extensive
overview of the state-of-the-art literature, we may conclude that our paper is the first large-scale global
survey among students from different study perspectives since the COVID-19 outbreak. In our study
conducted between 5 May and 15 June 2020, we attempted to illustrate what student life looked like
during the COVID-19 pandemic from academic, social, emotional, financial, and other perspectives.
In this respect, the study offers a number of valuable and unique detailed insights into student life
during the lockdown period.
First, the students’ academic work and academic life aspects were studied. Due to the physical
closure of higher education institutions, the majority of teaching and learning processes went online,
i.e., 86.7% of all respondents claimed that their onsite classes had been cancelled and substituted with
online lectures in the form of real-time video conferences, sending presentations to students, video
recordings, and written communication (forums and chats). The students were the most satisfied with
real-time video conferences, video recordings, and written communication, with Oceania and Europe
emerging as global frontrunners while developing countries (from Asia and Africa) significantly lagged
behind. The study of Kamarianos et al. [25] also confirmed that in a given situation, being a student
(Generation Z), thus digitally much more literate than previous generations, helped considerably in
overcoming the difficulties of the transition from onsite to online learning. There was not much time
to prepare in order to reorganise the teaching and learning processes; the transition had to be quick
and efficient [44]. The results of our survey further demonstrate that on the global level, students
were quite satisfied with the organisation of all three segments of the pedagogical process: Lectures,
tutorials/seminars, and mentorships. When comparing the workload before the transition from onsite
to online, somewhat less than half the respondents reported that in the new learning environment
their workload had become larger or significantly larger—the biggest increases in workload were
reported in Oceania and Europe and the smallest in Asia and Africa, both most probably due to
the underdeveloped Internet network and a lack of computer skills [15,44,45,47,64,87]. However,
we cannot attribute all negative consequences to the development level of digital infrastructure and
skills in specific parts of the world because studying isolated online at home can bring many challenges,
e.g., a lack of motivation and the need for greater self-discipline and self-initiative, which means that
one has to efficiently adapt one’s studying habits in order to minimise the stress and the feeling of
work overload [36,46,86]. Besides being satisfied with the support of the teaching staff, regardless
of the continent the students were also satisfied with, the university’s information obtained on
websites and social media, which indicates the importance of efficient communication from higher
education management.
Concerning the availability of the infrastructure needed to efficiently study from home,
three-quarters of the respondents had computers where, not surprisingly, students from advanced
countries prevailed (e.g., Oceania, North America, Europe). It is alarming that almost half the
respondents did not have a quiet place to study and one-third had no regular access to printers,
where the African, Asian, and South American students reported the lowest results. A good Internet
connection as a key element in efficient online learning (also see Owusu-Fordjour et al. [15], Adnan and
Anwar [46], Baloran [47], Anifowoshe et al. [64], Ali [83], and Kapasia et al. [45]) was available to just
60% of the respondents (29% in Africa, and even the best-ranked continent, i.e., Oceania, showed 71%).
Students were also asked about their confidence in the computer skills needed for efficient online study.
They expressed confidence in their skills of using online communication platforms, browsing online for
information, and sharing digital content. Yet they were not confident in the skills of adjusting advanced
settings of some software and programmes, as well as using online teaching platforms (BigBlueButton,
Moodle, Blackboard, GoToMeeting, etc.). This finding calls for the introduction of intensive training
prior to the start of the upcoming semesters in both hemispheres. The results also show there are
large differences in the availability of digital equipment and the development of computer skills
between students from the developing and developed parts of the world [15,64,87,110], and that
even on the most advanced continents (in our case, Europe and Oceania) students do not have equal
opportunities to study online efficiently due to different living conditions, domestic duties, and other
factors (also see UN [111]). In the segments of student academic work and life described above,
socio-demographic factors appeared as the important predictors of satisfaction with and perception of
specific segments. In general, like in the case of other life aspects of students, female, full-time students,
studying on the second level, studying the social sciences, having a scholarship, without financial
problems, and not having lost a student job due to the COVID-19 pandemic appeared to be more
satisfied and assessed the studied elements in a more positive way. Indeed, the empirical findings
confirm that undergraduate students and students with financial problems (particularly from Africa
and Asia) are finding it harder to cope with the pandemic’s consequences for their academic work
and lives.
The above-mentioned quick and radical changes in teaching and learning processes have produced
significant consequences for students’ mental health, i.e., feeling specific emotions and worries.
The analysis of the emotions felt by the students showed they were frequently feeling bored, anxious,
and frustrated, but also hopeful and joyful. The highest levels of anxiety were detected in South
America (Brazil) and Oceania. As reported by Pather et al. [112], the higher level of anxiety of students
from the southern hemisphere, e.g., from New Zealand and Australia (the same in South America,
e.g., Argentina, Brazil), may be attributed to the fact that the start of the pandemic coincided with
the beginning of the 2020 academic year, whereas in the northern hemisphere the academic year was
nearing its end, i.e., students from the southern hemisphere were probably more worried about the
curriculum delivery and assessment for the entire study year, not only its finish. A similar ranking of
continents as for anxiety was found for frustration as the second-most devastating emotion. On the
other hand, when analysing positive emotions, North America appeared to be the continent with the
most joyful students and Asia with the most hopeful students. In order to protect students’ mental
health as effectively as possible [7,33,39,94], governments, health professionals, higher education

institutions, student organisations, and NGOs should all collaborate intensively on the process of
designing timely and efficient psychological and financial support services for students.
While studying at home, many not only being under a lockdown but also in isolation or even
in quarantine, students were (on the global level) ‘most of the time’ or ‘all of the time’ worrying
about their professional career in the future and study issues, e.g., lectures, seminars, practical work.
They were least concerned about traveling abroad and their own physical health, which is expected
for this group of the population. The most concerned appeared to be South American and African
students, while their colleagues from Oceania and Europe seemed to lag behind (they are more
concerned about study issues and leisure activities). The findings suggest that many challenges lie
ahead of the current generations of students [7,42,44,49]. This means the support measures taken by
the responsible stakeholders must be implemented as soon as possible and be as systematic, holistic,
and sustainable as possible in order to ensure a physically, psychologically, and economically safe
future for young generations.
Students’ mental health during the physical cessation of public life depended heavily on the level
of change in their usual daily routine and the social support they were receiving during that challenging
period in time [28,88,89]. During the months of closure, students lived in very diverse environments
and had to run their social life differently to before. The survey results reveal that students across
the globe communicated online at least once a day with their close family members (mainly Asian
and European students), someone they live with, e.g., a roommate (mainly students from Oceania
and North America), or relied on social networks (mainly students from South and North America).
By maintaining their social contacts, students were helping others and themselves to maintain their
mental health in the unprecedented period of the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic [7,88].
Besides changes in their social life, students had to modify certain other habits and daily routines,
especially those connected to the risk of spreading the virus [30,31,47,89,90]. In our study, they reported
having started to wear a mask outside (87%) (mainly in South America, Asia, and Europe), washing
hands (80%) (mostly in Africa), and avoiding crowds and large gatherings (78%) (primarily in Oceania
and North America). They also had to avoid public transport, cancel their travel plans [28], work from
home, avoid touching the face, and started to stock up on essentials. As digital natives, they did
not alter their habits much regarding online shopping [92]. Students also reported not leaving the
home unnecessarily (mainly in South America, Oceania, and Africa), not shaking hands (mainly in
North America), and not visiting family members or friends (in Asia). They also contacted close
persons, did workouts, and offered help to people (also see Pan [30]). Last but not least, apart from the
many negative consequences, the pandemic created some opportunities for students with respect to
their future work and behaviours, e.g., acquiring digital skills faster [113], having time to eat healthier,
having time to do sports, the opportunity to do something good for people needing help in the family
or in neighbourhood, and finally shopping and travelling less [44] and therefore saving the planet
from pollution [114].
When coping with the challenging situation, students built their opinions on the role of different
institutions, linking it with the solving of unprecedented situations (e.g., government, universities,
banks, hospitals). They reported that they were most satisfied with the role of the hospitals, except in
Oceania, where (in New Zealand) the role of government prevailed probably also due to its COVID-19
elimination strategy [91]. The importance of health workers and satisfaction with their work during
the time of COVID-19 was also stressed by Nole [97]. Further, students were also satisfied with the
response of their universities (mainly in Oceania, North America, and Europe—with more than 53%,
whereas Africa received only 29%). African students were even more satisfied with the responses
of banks compared to the responses of universities and governments. On the global level, the low
student satisfaction with governments (not in line with the findings of Pan [30] and Baloran [47]) and
banks shows that young generations do not trust them, although they were and are still providing
some measures to alleviate the severe consequences of the COVID-19 pandemic [44]. In fact, according
to Aksoy et al. [115] the current epidemic could lead to the further erosion of satisfaction and trust
in political leaders and institutions and may leave behind a long-lasting political scar on the current
young generation. The selected socio-demographic factors influenced the level of satisfaction with
institutions in the same way as was described by way of a general observation.
Governments, banks, and universities introduced different support measures for their citizens
(see Cao et al. [7], Eurofound [8], and Yeo and Kim [116]), thus and also for students in order to minimise
their distress, specifically in the socio-economic aspects of their lives, i.e., offering free public transport,
freezing rents, deferring student loan payments, etc. Students from all over the world reported on
the importance of measures, such as emergency support for the vulnerable population (e.g., in South
America and Europe), childcare for workers (e.g., in South America and Africa), deferring student
loan payments (e.g., in South and North America), and deferring or reducing payments and financial
assistance. Interestingly, free public transport was perceived to be the least important, most probably
because people (including students) were asked to stay home during the first weeks of the pandemic
outbreak. Female students, arts students, students with a scholarship, and those with a lower living
standard assessed the mentioned measures as being more important than other socio-demographic
groups. Logically, the international students emphasised the importance of financial assistance for
renters. When summarising the above findings as a basis for decision-making on work in the upcoming
semester, it is important for the universities’ authorities that the majority of students have a good
opinion on the work being done by their universities, as also discovered by Huckins et al. [42],
Goel et al. [110], and Misirlis et al. [117].
There is no doubt that the COVID-19 pandemic has tested academic systems around the world
and that universities had to rapidly transform traditional forms of education to exclusive online
education [12]. The ordinal logistic regression results show the students’ satisfaction with the role
of their university during COVID-19 has been significantly influenced by various academic, mental,
and socio-demographic factors. Students who were more satisfied with the new form of education
(e.g., recorded videos as a form of online lectures), with the teaching support (e.g., by providing
sufficient and adequate information on exams or the examination procedure during the crisis),
and university public relations (e.g., by providing regular updates and information on websites
and social media) show greater satisfaction with the role of their university during the pandemic
(see Sahu [44]). In addition, the mental aspect also had an impact since less bored, more hopeful,
and students with less of a concern about study issues demonstrated greater satisfaction with their
university’s measures (see Händel et al. [36]). Not surprisingly, social science students, students
with better financial conditions (scholarship recipients and those with a higher ability to pay costs),
and students from Europe appeared to be more satisfied with the way their university had coped with
the pandemic.
According to the presented results of the global study, in the context of academic work/life
the COVID-19 crisis has apparently had a strong impact on male students, part-time students,
undergraduate students, applied sciences students, and students with a lower living standard
(those unable to pay their costs, without a scholarship, and who lost their job due to the pandemic).
The geographical differences in the results are alarming, especially for Africa and Asia [15,45,64,83]
and should be understood as an important signal for international, national, and higher education
authorities to ensure they appropriately respond with adequate policy recommendations concerning
different aspects of student life in order to minimise the gap in students’ opportunities among different
parts of the world. Further, when considering emotional life and personal circumstances, predominantly
female, full-time, undergraduate students and students with financial problems were affected more
negatively by the pandemic. Our findings corroborate the concerns of international institutions like the
United Nations [111], which stress the importance of the efficient delivery of educational programmes
in order to avoid digital, social, economic, and gender inequalities. Policymakers on all levels should
provide investments in digital literacy and infrastructure, while education institutions should provide
flexible delivery methods, digital platforms, and modernised user-friendly curricula to both students
and teachers. All authorities involved in higher education systems and the wellbeing of students as
an extremely important segment of the population should prepare a set of proactive measures in the
higher education arena so as to ensure the proper support for students and their healthy development
in these ever-changing circumstances caused by the pandemic.
Several limitations of the present study should be noted. First, the majority of aspects in the
questionnaire were in the form of students’ self-report. This kind of process is usually complex
and requires both recall and insight, where a recall bias and social desirability bias may be caused
by the self-reported property of the research [89,95]. It is reasonable to assume that some students
might under/overestimate their satisfaction with and perception of the selected aspects/elements of
their lives during the COVID-19 pandemic. Second, the responses from some countries/continents
were low (e.g., New Zealand/Oceania) or quite limited (e.g., the USA and Canada/North America)
as one or few countries from a single continent made up most of the sample, while there were no
participants from other countries. As a result, these findings may be biased to some extent and therefore
caution should be taken while generalising the results to those countries/continents not included in the
sample. Third, the study was carried out in various stages of the COVID-19 pandemic in different
countries/continents—it was advanced more in some regions than in others, with varying sizes of
magnitude. Further, as the data collection was mainly conducted in May 2020 while the declaration of
a pandemic was still in force in most countries included in the sample, access to the survey participants
was relatively limited. Finally, identified socio-demographic and geographic differences in students’
perceptions are not necessarily just a reflection of the COVID-19 pandemic but also of some other
factors (e.g., differences in digital transformation of higher education, economic development, cultural
and religious background, political circumstances etc.).
Notwithstanding the above limitations, the findings of our global survey are extremely important
since to date only a few comparative studies that analyse the impacts of the COVID-19 pandemic on
different aspects on student life have been performed. Therefore, the present study importantly fills
this gap and points to avenues for future research, such as: (1) Focusing further empirical analysis on
each studied aspect/element of student life separately and in more detail from different (comparative)
perspectives on regional, national, and/or institutional levels; and (2) extending a similar survey to
teaching staff and other employees at higher education institutions by performing a global study on
the impact of the COVID-19 pandemic on their professional and private lives.
5. Conclusions
In the period of just a few months, the COVID-19 pandemic caused by a novel coronavirus has
radically transformed the lives of masses of people around the globe, including higher education
students. In this respect, this comprehensive global study provides systematic meaningful insights into
students’ satisfaction and perception of different aspects of their lives during the pandemic, including
their opinions on the immediate and distant future. We found that teaching staff and universities’
public relations offered students the most important support at the university during the pandemic.
On the other hand, the lack of computer skills and the perception of a relatively higher workload
prevented students from perceiving a higher performance while adapting to the ‘new normal’; namely,
education from a distance. During the lockdown, students primarily raised concerns about their
future professional career and study issues and were mainly bored, anxious, and frustrated. They also
changed some of their hygienic behaviours such as regularly wearing masks and washing hands,
and daily routine habits like leaving home and shaking hands. While the role of both hospitals and
universities appears to be positive, governments and banks did not meet the students’ expectations
during the pandemic.
Socio-demographic (and geographic) factors also played an important role in the students’
perception of different aspects of academic work/life as the empirical results suggest that the transition
from onsite to online lectures due to the Covid-19 crisis had a stronger effect on males, part-time
students, undergraduate students, applied sciences students, students with a lower living standard,
and students from less developed regions (in Africa and Asia), while the pandemic generally had a
greater effect on students who were female, full-time, undergraduate and had financial problems with
respect to their emotional life and personal circumstances. Further, in order to illuminate the factors
that influence students’ satisfaction with the role of their university during the pandemic, an ordinal
logistic regression was applied. The results demonstrate that more hopeful and less bored students,
students who were more satisfied with their academic work/life, social science students, students
with a better living standard (with a scholarship and/or the ability to pay the overall costs of study),
and those who were studying in Europe showed greater satisfaction with the role and measures of their
university during the COVID-19 crisis. These findings importantly call for public and higher education
authorities to closely collaborate (together with other stakeholders) and urgently pay attention to
vulnerable student groups while seeking to resolve the diverse, mostly negative, consequences of the
prolonged COVID-19 measures around the world.
Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/12/20/8438/s1,

Figure S1: Spearman correlation heatmap. All correlation coefficients with an absolute value of 0.03 or above are
statistically significant at the 0.05 level (after a Bonferroni p-value correction).
Author Contributions: Conceptualisation, A.A.; methodology, A.A., D.R. and L.U.; software, L.U.; validation,
D.R. and L.U.; formal analysis, D.R. and L.U.; investigation, D.R. and L.U.; resources, A.A., D.K., D.R. and N.T.;
data curation, L.U.; writing—original draft preparation, A.A., D.K., D.R. and N.T.; writing—review and editing,
A.A., D.K., D.R. and N.T.; visualisation, D.K.; supervision, A.A.; project administration, A.A. and D.R.; funding
acquisition, A.A. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research and the APC were funded by the Slovenian Research Agency grant number P5-0093.
Acknowledgments: We could not have done this work without the exceptional assistance of numerous
international partners with translation (in italics) and/or data collection (a full list of institutional partners:
http://www.covidsoclab.org/international-partners). We would like to thank Silvia Mariela Mendez Prado,
Giada Vicentini, Daniela Raccanello, Roberto Burro, Jana Meloska-Petrova, João P. Maroco, Bertil P. Marques,
Ana-Maria Zamfir, Özkan Cikrikci, Mohammad Bashaar, Mariano Martin Schlez, Falk Ebinger, Mamun-ur-Rashid,
Maja Arslanagić-Kalajdžić, Denilson da Silva Bezerra, Simeon-Pierre Choukem, Roxana Pamela Balbontín
Alvarado, Guo-liang Yang, Choi Yeung Andy, Paul Lee, Chunlin Yao, Bo Pu, Yongtao Gan, Yunquan Zhang,
Sanja Tatalović Vorkapić, Alka Obadić, Pavlos Sarafis, Maha El Tantawi, Nino Paresashvili, Tengiz Verulava,
Harm Peters, Ricarda Steinmayr, George Kofi Amoako, Adam Gyedu, Abdul-Aziz Seidu, Isaac Boafo, Maria
Malliarou, Efstathia Papageorgiou, Sofia Asonitou, Waleska Aldana Segura, Kornélia Lazányi, Ganesh Kamath
Sevagur, Alpana Mishra, Sujita Kumar Kar, Rajanikanta Swain, Maya Roche, Vijayalakshmi Reddy, Sandeep
Grover, Parag Suresh Amin, Rinku Sanjeev, Diena Tjiptadi, Fany Inasius, Elfi Mu’awanah, Ramie Agustine,
Eveline Surbakti, Muji Gunarto, Eka Sunarwidhi Prasedya, Maria Cheraghi, Shiva Heidari, Sedighe Sadat Hasemi
Kamangar, Azita Hekmatdoost, Cristina Mollica, Michela Cortini, Stefania Fantinelli, Silvia Cantele, Hiroko
Kudo, Takashi Inoguchi, Abdel-Aziz Sharabati, David Ndetei, Joseph Muthiani Malechwanzi, Bibi Alajmi, Sultan
Ghaleb Aldaihani, Murodbek Laldjebaev, Daina Vasilevska, Iveta Reinholde, Arheiam Arheiam, Fahad Saleem,
Hassan, Amrita Kaur, Norhafezah Binti Yusof, Roberta Sammut, Oliva Mejía Rodríguez, Silvana Guadalupe
Navarro Jimenez, Machin Mastromatteo Juan Daniel, Luz María González Robledo, Gonzalez Fernandez Belinka,
Bidhan Shrestha, Barbara Fogarty, Michael Cameron, Morenike Ukpong, Aina Adetutu Deborah, Adeniyi Francis
Fagbamigbe, Ibeawuchi K. Enwereuzor, Muhammad Saqib, Said Aldhafri, Mahmoud Emam, Naima Benkari,
Shehla A. Yasin, Elham Kateeb, Paulo Ferrinho, Piotr Major, Marek Milosz, Beata Dobrowolska, Piotr Rzymski,
Justyna Podgórska-Bednarz, Izabela Ostoj, Manuel Gradim de Oliveira Gericota, Thais França, João Matias,
Ana Sofia Rodrigues, Iusein Ervin, Andronic Octavian, Poliana Leru, Sorin Gabriel Anton, Florin Lazăr, Oana
Săndulescu, Oksana Zhirosh, Fedorova Maria, Nikolay Yagodka, Olga Ushakova, Kabera Telesphore, Marwa Madi,
Fahad Ahmed Al-Harbi, Milena Milićević, Ivana Tadić, Ðurović-Todorović Jadranka, Král’ Pavol, Aleksandar
Kešeljević, Angelique Wildschut, Shirona Patel, Chinaza Uleanya, Ajani Oluwatoyin, Toyin Cotties Adetiba,
Bongani Thulani Gamede, Jogymol Alex, José Joaquín Mira, Marta Miret, Maria Virtudes Perez Jover, Aurora
Lopez-Fogues, Samantha Kumara, Meeri Hellsten, Yi-Lin Chiang, Murodbek Laldjebaev, Rataya Luechapudiporn,
Sornkanok Vimolmangkang, Jeffrey Dawala Wilang, Singhanat Nomnian, Akkaya Senkrua, Harold Jan Terano,
Adrian P Ybañez, Danilo V. Rogayan, Ryan Michael Flores Oducado, Özlem Yorulmaz, Yusuf Alpayadin, Immanuel
Azaad Moonesar, Mo’ez Al-Islam Ezzat, Arri Eisen, Nicolas J. Mouawad, Susan Kane Patton, Sarah Halvorson,
Mehmet Tosun and Dilbar Mukhamedova. We would also like to thank anonymous global survey participants for
their valuable insights into the lives of students, which they shared selflessly. Further, we would like to thank
the anonymous reviewers for their valuable suggestions and comments. Finally, we acknowledge the financial
support from the Slovenian Research Agency (research core funding No. P5-0093).
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest. The funders had no role in the design of the
study; in the collection, analyses or interpretation of the data; in writing the manuscript or the decision to publish
the results.
Appendix A
Table A1. Relationships between socio-demographic and geographic characteristics and aspects/elements of student life (from onsite to online lectures and academic work).
Socio-Demographic and Geographic Characteristics Gender Citizenship Status Level of Study Field of Study Scholarship Ability to Pay Lost Job Continent
Male/ Full-/ First/Second/ Arts/Social/
Aspects/Elements Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No AF/AS/EU/NA/OC/SA
Female Part-time Third Applied/Natural
FROM ONSITE TO ONLINE LECTURES
Satisfaction with forms of online lectures
Female *** No ** Second *** Social *** Yes *** No ***
Video conferences OC > EU > NA > SA > AS > AF ***
(0.13) (0.16) (0.3) (0.17) (0.26) (0.27)
Female *** Second *** Natural ** Yes *** No ***
Recorded videos OC > EU > NA > SA > AS > AF ***
(0.12) (0.25) (0.14) (0.22) (0.27)
Female ** No * Second *** Social ** No ***
Presentations to students OC > AS > EU > SA > AF > NA ***
(0.08) (0.15) (0.18) (0.10) (0.28)
Adaptation and performance in the new teaching environment
Full *** First *** Yes *** No *** Yes ***
Difficult to focus OC > SA > NA > AF > EU > AS ***
(0.20) (0.36) (0.18) (0.12) (0.24)
Second *** Social *** No * Yes *** No ***
Adaptation to new learning experience EU > OC > AS > NA > SA > AF ***
(0.35) (0.17) (0.08) (0.23) (0.27)
Second *** Social *** Yes *** No *
Improved performance EU > AS > OC > SA > NA > AF ***
(0.19) (0.18) (0.12) (0.16)
ACADEMIC WORK
Teaching support and study workload
Female *** Second *** Social *** Yes *** No ***
Timely response OC > EU > SA > NA > AS > AF ***
(0.08) (0.17) (0.14) (0.16) (0.22)
Second *** Social*** Yes *** No ***
Open to suggestions OC > SA > EU > NA > AS > AF ***
(0.14) (0.14) (0.17) (0.19)
Female ** Social *** Yes *** Yes *** No ***
Information on exams OC > NA > EU > SA > AS > AF ***
(0.09) (0.25) (0.13) (0.14) (0.30)
Female *** First *** Arts *** Yes ***
Extent of study workload NA > OC > EU > SA > AF > AS ***
(0.10) (0.18) (0.10) (0.05)
Satisfaction with support of teaching and support staff
Female *** Second *** Social *** Yes *** No ***
Teaching staff OC > NA > EU > SA > AS > AF ***
(0.10) (0.17) (0.21) (0.21) (0.22)
Female *** Social *** Yes ***
PR (websites, social media information) OC > EU > NA > SA > AS > AF ***
(0.15) (0.16) (0.15)
Female * Social * Yes *** No ***
Tutors OC > SA > EU > NA > AS > AF ***
(0.08) (0.11) (0.20) (0.27)
Note: Differences between the top and bottom groups are shown in parentheses. Continent codes: AF—Africa; AS—Asia; EU—Europe; NA—North America; OC—Oceania;
SA—South America. Significance: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001. Statistically non-significant differences are not reported.
Table A2. Relationships between socio-demographic and geographic characteristics and aspects/elements of student life (academic life).
Full-/ First/
Male/ Arts/Social/
Aspects/Elements Yes/No Part- Second/ Yes/No Yes/No Yes/No AF/AS/EU/NA/OC/SA
Female Applied/Natural
time Third
ACADEMIC LIFE
Access to infrastructure for studying at home
Female * No ** Full *** Second *** Social *** Yes *** Yes *** No ***
Computer a OC > EU > NA > SA > AS > AF ***
(3) (6) (5) (15) (7) (3) (14) (9)
Full *** Second *** Yes *** No ***
Required software and programmes a OC > EU > NA > SA > AS > AF ***
(7) (11) (18) (12)
No * Second *** Social * Yes *** No ***
Good Internet connection a EU > OC > NA > AS > SA > AF ***
(7) (11) (7) (18) (15)
Confidence in computer skills
Male *** Full *** Second *** Social ** Yes *** No ***
Browsing online information OC > EU > NA > SA > AF > AS ***
(0.12) (0.19) (0.34) (0.09) (0.22) (0.30)
Male *** Full *** Second *** Yes *** No ***
Sharing digital content OC > EU > NA > SA > AF > AS ***
(0.15) (0.13) (0.26) (0.23) (0.28)
Male *** No *** Full ** Second * Social *** Yes *** Yes *** No ***
Using online teaching platforms OC > EU > NA > SA > AS > AF ***
(0.11) (0.23) (0.13) (0.18) (0.17) (0.11) (0.32) (0.27)
No * Full *** Second *** Social *** Yes *** No ***
Using online collaboration platforms OC > EU > NA > SA > AS > AF ***
(0.14) (0.14) (0.29) (0.17) (0.29) (0.29)
(a
Note: Differences between the top and bottom groups are shown in parentheses difference is measured in percentage points). Continent codes: AF—Africa; AS—Asia; EU—Europe;
NA—North America; OC—Oceania; SA—South America. Significance: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001. Statistically non-significant differences are not reported.
Table A3. Relationships between socio-demographic and geographic characteristics and aspects/elements of student life (social life and change in habits).
Full-/ First/
Male/ Arts/Social/
time Third
SOCIAL LIFE
Online communication with social groups
Full *** Second *** Yes ***
Close family member a EU > OC > AS > AF > NA > SA ***
(6) (11) (5)
Female *** No * Social * Yes *** No **
Someone I live with (e.g., a roommate) a OC > EU > SA > NA > AF > AS ***
(10) (6) (7) (5) (6)
Female *** Full *** First *** Yes *
Close friend a EU > OC > NA > AF > AS > SA ***
(6) (10) (14) (3)
Female *** Yes *** First *** Yes *** Yes ***
Social networks a SA > NA > EU > AS > AF > OC ***
(5) (7) (11) (5) (4)
CHANGE IN HABITS
Change in habits in daily life
Female *** Full ** No ***
Wearing a mask outside a SA > AS > NA > EU > AF > OC***
(7) (4) (3)
Female * No ** No **
Washing hands a
(4) (4) (9)
Female *** Full *
Leaving home unnecessarily a OC > SA > NA > AF > EU > AS ***
(7) (4)
No *
Shaking hands a SA > OC > NA > AF > EU > AS ***
(6)
Note: Differences between the top and bottom groups are shown in parentheses (a difference is measured in percentage points). Continent codes: AF—Africa; AS—Asia; EU—Europe;
Table A4. Relationships between socio-demographic and geographic characteristics and aspects/elements of student life (emotional life and personal circumstances).
Full-/ First/
Male/ Arts/Social/
time Third
EMOTIONAL LIFE
Felt emotions
Full *** First *** No *** Yes ***
Bored a
(11) (11) (4) (9)
Female *** Arts *** Yes *** No *** Yes ***
Anxious a OC > NA > SA > EU > AF > AS ***
(16) (11) (7) (4) (8)
Male *** Yes * No ***
Hopeful a
(4) (3) (10)
Female *** Full *** Arts ** Yes *** No ** Yes ***
Frustrated a OC > NA > SA > EU > AF > AS ***
(11) (10) (9) (5) (3) (9)
PERSONAL CIRCUMSTANCES
Felt worries
Female *** Yes ** No *** Yes ***
Professional career in the future a NA > SA > AF > AS > EU > OC ***
(4) (3) (11) (9)
Female *** Full *** No ***
Study issues a EU > AF > OC > NA > SA > AS ***
(9) (6) (5)
Part *** No *** Yes ***
Personal finances a AF > SA > NA > AS > EU > OC ***
(6) (21) (14)
Female *** First *** No *** Yes ***
Future education a NA > SA > AF > AS > EU > OC ***
(6) (11) (9) (10)
Note: Differences between the top and bottom groups are shown in parentheses (a difference is measured in percentage points). Continent codes: AF—Africa; AS—Asia; EU—Europe;
Table A5. Relationships between socio-demographic and geographic characteristics and aspects/elements of student life (role of institutions and measures of
institutions).
Full-/ First/
Male/ Arts/Social/
time Third
ROLE OF INSTITUTIONS
Satisfaction with institutions
Female *** No *** Full *** Second *** Social *** Yes *** No ***
Government OC > EU > AS > AF > NA > SA ***
(0.17) (0.39) (0.18) (0.30) (0.31) (0.17) (0.37)
Second *** Social *** Yes *** Yes *** No ***
University OC > EU > SA > NA > AS > AF ***
(0.15) (0.24) (0.11) (0.23) (0.28)
Female *** No *** Full ** Second *** Social *** Yes *** No ***
Banks OC > AS > EU > AF > NA > SA ***
(0.11) (0.19) (0.12) (0.14) (0.17) (0.15) (0.25)
Female *** Full *** Second ** Social *** Yes *** No ***
Hospitals OC > EU > AS > AF > NA > SA ***
(0.10) (0.24) (0.17) (0.21) (0.18) (0.20)
MEASURES OF INSTITUTIONS
Importance of measures by institutions
Female *** Arts *** Yes *** No ***
Emergency support for vulnerable population SA > NA > AF > EU > AS > OC ***
(0.14) (0.22) (0.11) (0.20)
Female *** Arts * Yes * No ***
Childcare for essential workers SA > AF > NA > EU > OC > AS ***
(0.15) (0.15) (0.08) (0.18)
Female *** No *** Arts *** Yes *** No ***
Financial assistance for renters OC > SA > AF > EU > NA > AS ***
(0.13) (0.19) (0.26) (0.10) (0.31)
Female *** Arts *** Yes *** No ***
Deferred monthly payments SA > NA > AF > EU > AS > OC ***
(0.13) (0.15) (0.13) (0.21)
Note: Differences between the top and bottom groups are shown in parentheses. Continent codes: AF—Africa; AS—Asia; EU—Europe; NA—North America; OC—Oceania;
SA—South America. Significance: * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01; *** p < 0.001. Statistically non-significant differences are not reported.
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sustainability

Keywords: COVID-19; university student; socio-demographic factors; satisfaction; perception;

Sustainability 2020, 12, 8438; doi:10.3390/su12208438 www.mdpi.com/journal/sustainability

2. Materials and Methods

2.1. Study Participants and Procedure

Table 1. Socio-demographic and geographic characteristics of the survey respondents.

Socio-Demographic and Geographic Characteristics Number (%)

2.3. Statistical Analysis

2.4. Ethical Considerations

3.1. Overview of the Questionnaire Results

3.1.1. From Onsite to Online Lectures

3.1.2. Academic Work

GLOBAL Africa Asia Europe North America Oceania South America

3.1.3. Academic Life

3.1.4. Social Life

3.1.5. Change in Habits

-100% -50% 0% 50% 100%

Students’ most changed

GLOBAL Africa Asia Europe North America Oceania South America

3.1.7. Personal Circumstances

GLOBAL Africa Asia Europe North America Oceania South America

GLOBAL Africa Asia Europe North America Oceania South America

3.1.9. Measures Taken

3.2. Regression Results

health as effectively as possible [7,33,39,94], governments, health professionals, higher education

Supplementary Materials: The following are available online at http://www.mdpi.com/2071-1050/12/20/8438/s1,

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