Statistics
Statistics
Statistics
1 (2122) (Math)—1
2
3
CHAPTER
Theory of Probability
The word probability or chance is very common in years, R.A. Fisher, Karl Pearsons, J. Neyman etc.
day to day life of human being. For instance, we developed a sampling distribution theory based on
come across statements like “India may win the the laws of probability.
World Cup”; “It is likely that Mr X may not come Today a comprehensive theory of probability
for teaching statistics class today”; “Probably Iraq exists and in the words of Emile Borel, “Probability
may win the Gulf War against USA”. All these theory is of interest, not only to card and dice
terms possible, probable, likely, etc, convey the players, who were its godfathers, but also to all
same sence i.e. the event is not certain to take place men of action, heads of industries or heads of
or there are some uncertainties about the happening armies, where success depends on two sorts of
of the events. In simple words, the word probability factors the one known or calculable, the other
thus refers that there is uncertainty about the uncertain and probabilitical.”
happening of event.
The theory of probability has its origin in the FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS USED IN
games of chance related to gambling such as PROBABILITY THEORY
throwing a die, tossing a coin, drawing cards from The following definitions and terms are used in
a pack of cards etc. Jerane Cardon (1501-76), an studying the theory of probability.
Italian mathematician, was the first scholar to write
a book on the subject entitled “Book on Games of Random experiment
Chance” which was published after his death in Random experiment is one whose results depend
1663. During the last quarter of the eighteenth on chance, that is the result cannot be predicted.
century, the study of the games of chance no longer Tossing of coins, throwing of dice are some
remained dependent on the initiative of the gamblers. examples of random experiments.
The subject became an an area of academic interest
and a number of scholars addressed themselves to Trial
the field of probability. In the early nineteenth Performing a random experiment is called a trial.
century the famous French mathematician Laplace,
and the German mathematician Gauss carried the Outcomes
knowledge of the subject many important steps The results of a random experiment are called its
forward. With the expansion of national economics, outcomes. When two coins are tossed the possible
some great persons like De Moivre (1718), James outcomes are HH, HT, TH, TT.
Bernoulli (1713), Bayes (1768) etc., were inspired to
develop the theory of probability further and apply Event
it in different fields of decision making. In later An outcome or a combination of outcomes of a
3
4
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D C C B C B B A B C
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B A D A D A A A A C
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A B C D B A C D C D
31 32 33 34 35
B B B C C
8
CHAPTER
In this Section we concentrate on tabular forms Total 195 202 225 235 240 230
of presentation.
In this table it is clear that the purpose is to
Meaning and Types of Tables show the imports and exports of country X vis-a-
A table or a statistical table is a systematic vis the rest of the world. Note that a particular
arrangement of related statistical data in columns entry of the table refers to a column and a row. For
and rows, with a given predetermined and a well example, an entry at the intersection of second
decided objective. A row of a table represents a row and fourth column indicates that in 2006
horizontal while a column represents a vertical country X imported goods and services worth `
arrangement of data. To explain the nature of 60 crore from country B. This figure then can be
8
(2122) (Math)—2
9
compared with other import and export figures to secondary data are collected through some other
seek important interpretations. sources. For example, information collected by an
investigator from a student regarding his class, caste,
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA family background, etc., is called primary data. On
Data can be collected in two different ways. One the other hand, if the same information collected
way is to collect data directly from the respondent. about the student from the school record and
The person who answers the questions of the register, then it is called secondary data.
investigator is called respondent. Statistical However, the difference between primary and
information thus collected is called primary data secondary data is largely of degree, and there is
and the source of such information is called primary hardly any watertight difference between them. The
source. They are original because they are collected data collected through primary sources by one
for the first time by the investigator himself. investigator may be secondary in the hands of
Another way is to adopt the data already others. For example, field data collected by an
collected by someone else. The investigator only investigator for writing his thesis is primary to him,
adopts the data. Statistical information thus and when the same data is used by another
obtained is called secondary data. The source of investigator, for reference purposes, then it became
such information is called secondary source. secondary data. Let us discuses the methods that
Difference between are used to collect primary and secondary data.
Primary & Secondary Data There are various types of quantitative primary
data gathering tools, but the important ones among
Primary Data Secondary Data
them are:
Basic nature Primary data are Data which are The Questionnaire
original and are collected earlier by
The Interview Schedule
collected for the someone else, and
first time. which are now in
published or QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
unpublished state. OF DATA COLLECTION
Collecting These data are Secondary data Questionnaires are a popular method of data
Agency collected by the were collected collection. Although they look easy, it is difficult
investigator earlier by some to design a good questionnaire. Careful design of
himself. other person. a questionnaire is vital for the collection of required
Post collection These data do These have to be facts and figures. Any frivolous attempt in framing
alterations not need alteration analyzed and a questionnaire will lead to either shortage, or,
as they are necessary changes collection of unnecessary information neither of
according to the have to be made to which will be useful to your research. Questionnaire
requirement of make them useful as design depends on whom, and, from where
the investigation. per the requirements
information has to be collected; what facts and
of investigation.
figures need to be collected; and the calibre of the
Time & Money More time, energy Comparatively less informants.
and money has to time and money is
be spent in collec- to be spent. The questionnaire can be broadly categorized
tion of these data. into two types:
(i) structured questionnaire
PRIMARY DATA (ii) unstructured questionnaire.
COLLECTION MEANING AND METHODS (i) Structured questionnaires are prepared in
Data w hich are originally collected by the advance. They contain definite and
investigators are called primary data, while the concrete questions. The structured
10
questionnaire may contain close ended (iii) Telephone: In this method, the investigator
questions and open ended responses. In administers a questionnaire by seeking
the close ended questionnaire, the question responses from the respondent over the
setter gives alternative options for which telephone. It is largely administered to the
the respondent has to give definite urban respondents where telephone
response. The best example of the close facilities are widely available.
ended questionnaire format is the one that However, the success of this method
leads respondents to the "Yes" or "No"/ depends on the availability of telephone
"True" or "False" answers. with the respondents. It is also expensive
(ii) Unstructured questionnaires are those that as well.
are not structured in advance, and the (iv) E-Mail: With the IT revolution, nowadays,
investigators m ay adjust questions questionnaires are attached to the e-mails
according to their needs during an and sent to respondents who send an
interview. answer through return e-mail. The success
Methods of Data Collection of this method depends on the availability
of internet facilities.
Using Questionnaires
Questionnaire methods are conducted in different SECONDARY METHODS
ways. A few important methods are outlined here: OF DATA COLLECTION
(i) Personal Interview: In personal interviews,
Secondary data are collected by investigators from
the interviewer or investigator personally
sources other than primary respondents. Secondary
approaches the interviewee and administer
data are collected from both, published and
questions. This method is largely followed
unpublished sources. The main resources of
in research and studies methods and the
secondary data are given below.
accuracy of data is very high. However, it
is an expensive method. (i) O fficial publication of the Central
Government such as Census, NSSO Report,
(ii) Mail Questionnaire: In this method, the
Human Development Report, SRS report,
investigator mails the questionnaire to
etc.
respondents and respondents are requested
to fill it up and return it to the investigator. (ii) Research and study reports of bilateral and
In many cases, a self-addressed stamped multilateral organizations such as WHO,
envelope is sent along with the World Bank, IMF, UNESCO, UNICEF, etc.
questionnaire to facilitate the return of the A few of them include, the World
questionnaire mail immediately. This Development Report, World Development
method is usually adopted where the Indicators, Human Development Report, etc.
respondents are widespread and the (iii) Reports brought out by committees and
investigator has limited resources to com m issions such as the Mandal
approach them. The success of this method Commission Report, the National Planning
depends of the literacy level of the Commission Report, the Human Rights
respondents and the accuracy of the address Com m ission Report, the Population
database. One of the drawbacks of this Commission Report, etc.
method is that, sometimes, the respondents (iv) Policy documents of the Central and State
do not take the questionnaire seriously, Government such as National Population
and, as a result the answer may not be Policies, National Education Policies,
accurate. National Health Policies, etc.
11
(v) Publications brought out by the research (ix) Information available in year books and
institutes, universities and organizations. encyclopaedias.
(vi) Publications of data sources on different (x) Statistical abstracts published both by the
national and international journals such as Central and State Governments.
Economic and Political Weekly, Indian (xi) Information published in the directories and
Economic Journal, etc. bulletins of various institutions such as the
Indian Council of Social Sciences Research,
(vii) Books and articles published on various
the Indian Council of Agricultural
subjects. Research, etc.
(viii) Official publications of the Reserve Bank (xii) Abstracts and index of reports and articles
of India. State Bank of India, Association published by various research, teaching,
of Indian Banking, etc. and related organizations.
C. data collected for investigation 18. The entire upper part of a table is known as
D. Well classified data A. Caption B. Stub
13. Which of the following is one dimensional C. Box head D. Body
diagram. 19. Ogive is a
A. Bar diagram B. Pie diagram A. Line diagram B. Bar diagram
C. Cylinder D. Histogram C. Both D. None
14. Percentage bar diagram has 20. Tally marks determines .......... .
A. data expressed in percentages A. Class width B. Class boundary
B. equal width C. Class limit D. Class frequency
C. equal interval 21. Statistics is concerned with
D. equal width and equal interval A. Qualitative information
15. Frequency curve B. Quantitative information
A. begins at the origin C. A or B
B. passes through the origin D. Both A and B
C. begins at the horizontal line 22. Bivariate Data are the data collected for
D. begins and ends at the base line. A. Two variables.
16. With the help of histogram we can draw B. More than two variables.
A. frequency polygon C. Two variables at the same point of time.
B. frequency curve D. Two variables at different points of time.
C. frequency distribution 23. Mutually inclusive classification is usually
D. all the above meant for ............ .
17. Ogives for more than type and less than type A. A discrete variable
distribution intersect at B. a continuous variable
A. mean B. median C. An attribute
C. mode D. origin D. All of these
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A B D C B C A A C A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B A A A D D B C A D
21 22 23
D C A
13
CHAPTER
() = (B) + () the attributes skin colour and intelligence of persons
(B) = (AB) + (B) are independent.
() = (A) + () If two attributes A and B are independent then
If the number of attributes is n, then there will be the actual frequency is equal to the expected
3rd classes and we have 2 nd cell frequencies. frequency
EXAMPLES
Example 1: () = 2500 420
Given N = 2500, (A) = 420, (AB) = 85 and () = 2080
(B) = 670. Find the missing values. From (1) () = 2500 670
() = 1830
Solution:
From (3) = 2080 =585 + ()
We know N= (A) + () = (B) + ()
() = 1495
(A) = (AB) + (AB)
() = (B) + () Example 2:
(B) = (AB) + (B) Test the consistency of the following data with the
() = (A) + () symbols having their usual meaning.
From (2) 420 = 85 + (A) N = 1000 (A) = 600 (B) = 500 (AB) = 50.
(A) = 420 – 85
Solution:
(A) = 335 A Total
From (4) 670 = 85 + (B)
B 50 450 500
(B) = 670 85
(B) = 585 550 –50 500
From (1) 2500 = 420 + () Total 600 400 1000
15
16
CHAPTER
Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors and
Demography—Census, Its feature and
Functions
16
(2122) (Math)—3
17
B. they are not in a position to understand It is almost impossible to make the data absolutely
the questions, or free of such errors. However, since the number of
C. they may not like to disclose the infor- respondents in a sample survey is much smaller
mation that has been sought. than in census, the non-sampling error is generally
less pronounced in the sampling method. Besides
We should note that the error due to non-
the non-sampling errors, there is sampling error in
response may also arise because of the
a sample survey. Sampling error is the absolute
possibility of the questionnaire being lost
difference betw een the param eter and the
in transit.
corresponding statistic, that is, |T – |.
If the data are collected through personal
Sampling error is not due to any lapse on the
interviews, some of the reasons for the error
part of the respondent or the investigator or some
due to non-response pointed out above may
such reason. It arises because of the very nature of
not arise. However, in that case this error
the procedure. It can never be com pletely
may arise because some of the individuals:
eliminated. However, we have well developed
A. may not like to give the information, or sampling theories with the help of which the effect
B. may not simply be available even after of sampling error can be minimised.
repeated visits.
3. Error in recording: This type of error may POPULATION AND CENSUS
arise at the stage when the investigator We have a collection of units relevant for a
records the answers or even at the tabulation particular enquiry. A unit, in this connection, is an
stage. A major reason for such error is the entity on w hich we can m ake observations
carelessness on the part of the investigator. according to a well-defined procedure. The entire
4. Error due to inherent bias of the collection of such units is called a population or
investigator: Every individual suffers from universe. Thus, we may have a population of human
personal prejudices and biases. Despite the beings, cattle, trees, prices, production, etc.
provision of the best possible training to You can make out that a population can be
the investigators, their personal biases may finite or infinite. If the number of units is finite, it
come into play when they interpret the is a finite population and if the number of units is
questions to be put to the respondents or infinite, it is an example of an infinite population.
record the answers to these questions. Usually in practice, we are concerned with a finite
In complete enumeration, the extent of non- population.
sampling error tends to be significantly large When an inquiry is based upon obtaining
because, generally, a large number of individuals information from all the units of a population, the
are involved in the data collection process. We try procedure is known as the complete enumeration
to minimise this error through: method or the census method.
(i) a careful planning of the survey,
SOME CONCEPTS
(ii) providing proper training to the investigators,
We explain below some of the concepts frequently
(iii) making the questionnaire simple. used in sampling theory.
However, we would Like to emphasize that
complete enumeration is always prone to large non- Parameter
sampling errors. In a statistical inquiry, our interest lies in one or
more characteristics of the population. A measure
Sampling Error of such a characteristic is called a parameter. For
By now it should be clear that in the sampling example, we may be interested in the mean income
method also, non-sampling error may be committed. of the people of some region for a particular year.
(2122) (Math)—3-II
18
We may also like to know the standard deviation the parameter from the information obtained from
of these incomes of the people. Here, both mean a sample drawn from the population. This sample
and standard deviation are parameters. information is summarised in the form of a statistic.
Parameters are conventionally denoted by For example, sample mean or sample median or
Greek alphabets. For example, the population mean sample mode is called a statistic. Thus, a statistic
can be denoted by and population standard is calculated from the values of the units that are
deviation can be denoted by . included in the sample. So, a statistic can be
It is important to note that the value of a defined as function of the sample values.
parameter is computed from all the population Conventionally, a statistic is denoted by an English
observations. Thus, the parameter ‘mean income’ is alphabet. For example, the sample mean may be
calculated from all the income figures of different denoted by x and the sample standard deviation
individuals that constitute the population. may be denoted by s. If T is a statistic that we want
Similarly, for the calculation of the parameter to obtain from the sample values x1, x2, ... xn, then
‘correlation coefficient of heights and weights’, we T = f(x1, x2, ... xn)
require the values of all the pairs of heights and
weights in a population. Thus, we can define a Estimator and Estimate
parameter as a function of the population values. The basic purpose of a statistic is to estimate some
If is a parameter that we want to obtain from the population parameter. The procedure followed or
population values X1, X2, ... XN, then = f(X 1, X2, the formula used to compute a statistic is called an
... XN). estimator and the value of a statistic so computed
is known as an estimate.
Statistic
If we use the formula
While discussing the census and the sample survey,
x x 2 ..... x n 1 n
we have seen that due to various constraints, x 1 = xi for calculating a
sometimes it is difficult to obtain information about n n i 1
the whole population, In other words, it may not be statistic, then this formula is an estimator. Next, if
always possible to compute a population parameter. we use this formula and get x = 10, then this ‘10’
In such situations, we try to get some idea about is an estimate.
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D B C D D C B C D A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A C D C B D A B A B
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A C D C C C D B D B
31 32 33 34 35
A C C D B
21
CHAPTER
Everyone knows that future is uncertain. However, be taken at an interval of an hour, a day, a week,
one cannot afford to be completely relaxed thinking a month, a year depending upon the type of event
that it is uncertain. We have to try our best to make the data refer to. Time series analysis is used to
ourselves prepared to face it, be it a very optimistic detect patterns of change in statistical information
one or a worst case scenario. Thus forecasting or over regular intervals of time. Then the predictions
prediction about the future, becomes an important or forecasting about the future are made by
function for a manager is an essential tool in any projecting these patterns. However, the forecasted
decision-making process. The activities of a firm or figure may or may not tally with the real values.
a company works according to the forecasted data. Sometimes forecasted figure can be closer to the
We can take the simple example of the manufacturers actual and sometimes it can also lead to wrong
of exercise books used by students where we find conclusions.
that the sales are more during the beginning of an We can understand it better through an example
academic session so production would be planned given below:
accordingly to supply more during those months. Table 1
Similarly the sale of umbrellas during rainy season.
This forecasting ranges right from the amount of Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
grocery a vegetable vendor should stock to the Sales of Maruti 285 300 320 345 375 ?
sales of a huge automobile manufacturing company. cars (in thous-
The quality or the accurateness of the forecasting and units)
depends entirely on the forecasting method used From the table we can see that the sales of
and also on the judgement and expertise of the Maruti cars are increasing year by year, so we can
analyst. predict that the sales will be increasing in the year
Time Series Analysis is one quantitative 2011. However predicting/forecasting is not so
method of forecasting where predictions are made simple as it looks, there are certain systematic ways
based on past historical data. for prediction which we will be studying one by
one. Before that we will study some types of
MEANING OF TIME SERIES variations found in time series.
An arrangement of statistical data in accordance
UTILITY OF THE TIME SERIES
with the time of occurrence or in chronological
order is called a time series. In other words, the The following are the possible uses of the time
observations in numerical form obtained at regular series.
interval of time is known as time series. The time (i) The comparative study of behaviour of the
frame of the observations or the recorded data may variable over different periods of time can
21
22
be done. The variable may be export called a downward trend. If the variable moves
figures, quantity of industrial production upward or downwards along a straight line then the
and so on. trend is called a linear trend, otherwise it is called
(ii) Forecasting can be done using the time a non-linear trend.
series. By studying the variations and other
Seasonal variations
behaviour of the variables over a
sufficiently long period of time, it may be Variations in a time series that are periodic in nature
possible to forecast the future behaviour of and occur regularly over short periods of time during
the variables. However, such a forecast has a year are called seasonal variations. By definition,
meaning only if the period of forecast is a these variations are precise and can be forecasted.
normal period. For example, various five- The following are examples of seasonal
year plans by the Government of India are variations in a time series:
formulated by studying the time series and (i) The prices of vegetables drop down after
forecasting. rainy season or in winter months and they
(iii) Study of the time series helps in analysing go up during summer, every year.
the past behaviour of the variables. This (ii) The prices of cooking oils reduce after the
helps in identifying the various forces that harvesting of oil seeds and go up after
affect its behaviour. some time.
COMPONENTS OF TIME SERIES Cyclic variations
The behaviour of a time series over periods of time The long-term oscillations that represent consistent
is called the movement of the time series. The time rises and declines in the values of the variable are
series is classified into the following four called cyclic variations. Since these are long-term
components: oscillations in the time series, the period of
(i) Long term trend or secular trend oscillation is usually greater than one year. The
oscillations are about a trend curve or a trend line.
(ii) Seasonal variations
The period of one cycle is the time-distance between
(iii) Cyclic variations two successive peaks or two successive troughs.
(iv) Random variations
Random variations
Long-term trend or secular trend Random variations are called irregular movements.
This refers to the smooth or regular long term growth Movements that occur usually in brief periods of
or decline of the series. This movement can be time, without any pattern and which are unpredic-
characterised by a trend curve. If this curve is a table in nature are called irregular movements.
straight line, then it is called a trend line. If the These movements do not have any regular period or
variable is increasing over a long period of time, time of occurrences. For example, the effect of national
then it is called an upward trend. If the variable is strikes, floods, earthquakes and so on. It is very
decreasing over a long period of time, then it is difficult to study the behaviour of such a time series.
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C D C C A B A D C B
11 12 13 14 15
A B D B B
24
CHAPTER
Vital Statistics—Measures of Fertility,
Measures of Mortality, Specific Fertility
Rates, Gross and Net Reproduction Rates
n hi
Wi = the weight for the ith area
B
j 1
hij
Bhij 2
CBR h = 1000 100
n hi
Phij W 1 i
Phij
j 1
i 1
Bhij = total births during the year in the jth Age-Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR)
sample blocks or villages in the ith The number of births occurring annually (or in a
area for the hth region specified period) per 1,000 women of specific age
Phij = total mid-year population in the jth (usually in terms of 5–year age groups within the
sample blocks or villages in the ith childbearing ages, i.e. 15–49 years).
area for the hth region nB x
n hi = total number of sample blocks or n fx = 1000
nF x
villages in the ith area for the hth where
region
n fx = age–specific fertility rate for age
Whi = the weight in the ith area for the hth group x to x + n
region
n B x = number of births occurring to women
2
in the age group x to x + n
W
i 1
hi 1
nFx = number of females in the age group
i = 1 for municipal area, 2 for non- x to x + n
municipal area
General Fertility Rate (GFR)
h = 1 for the Bangkok Metropolis, 2 for
the Central Region (Excluding the The number of births occurring annually per 1,000
Bangkok metropolis), 3 for the women of childbearing ages (usually 15-44 years or
Northeastern Region, 4 for the 15-49 years).
Southern Region, 5 for the Northern B
Region GFR = 1000
F(15– 49)
The estimate of crude birth rate for each area is where,
calculated by
B = total births for a given area and year
5
F(15 – 49) = number of women age 15 – 49 years
CBRi = W
h1
hi CBR hi ...(2)
where,
Standardized GFR
Whi = the weight in the ith area for the hth For comparison of general fertility rates of the
region population in different areas, the standardized
method is used in order to avoid the effects of
5
differences in the age composition of each subgroup
W
h1
hi 1
of population.
f F
The estimate of crude birth rate for the whole n x n x(Std. Pop.)
kingdom is calculated by Standarized GFR = F
2
n x(Std. Pop.)
CBR = W CBR ...(3) where, n fx = age–specific fertility rate for
i i
i 1 age group x to x + n of a
where, subgroup of population
26
nFx (Std. Pop.) = number of females in the if they experienced a given set of age–specific
sam e age group in the mortality and fertility rates.
standard population. The
standard used w as the
nL x
number of females in the NRR = x
nF f x 10
whole kingdom population
nFfx = Each five–year age–specific fertility
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) rate including only female live births
The sum of annual age–specific fertility rates n Lx = The number of person–years lived
computed for each age group in the childbearing between exact ages x and x + n
period. This measure indicated the number of 10 = Radix of the life table (100,000
children that would be born to a hypothetical cohort people)
of 1,000 women who follow a set of a current
schedule of age–specific fertility rates, assuming MORTALITY MEASURES
that none of the women die before reaching the end
of the childbearing period. Crude Death Rate (CDR)
The number of deaths occurring in a year per 1,000
f
TFR = n n x 1000
average or mid–year population within a given or
Where, population group. As with the crude Birth Rate, it
n fx = age–specific birth rate for age group related to the total population without regard to age
x to x + n and sex.
n = number of years in the age interval (5 D
CDR = 1000
years) P
where,
Gross Reproduction Rate (GRR) D = total deaths for a given area and year
The average number of daughters born to a cohort P = total mid–year population of the area
of 1,000 women who follow a set of a current
The CDR for each region, whole kingdom and
schedule of age–specific fertility rates, assuming
each area are obtained by the same procedures as
that none of the women die before reaching the end
for the CBR.
of childbearing period.
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C B C C A B B D A C
29
CHAPTER
29
30
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C C C A A A C C B C
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
D B D C C C C
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
1. A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, .....}, (T C) n(A) = 52
B = {5, 10, 15, .......}, We have n (C T) = 52 16 17 = 19.
Since x is a multiple of 3 and 5 both if it is Alter . Since (T C) = 52,
a multiple of LCM of 3 and 5, i.e., of 15.
we have n (T ) + n (C T) = 52,
Note : aN bN = hN, ( h = LCM of a, b)
n ( C T ) = 52 33 = 19.
2. X Y X) = X (Y X)
5. Let A = Apples, C Cheese.
= (X Y) Y
n(A C) = n(A) + n(C) n(A C)
= X=
= 70 + 60 – 100
3. (x, y) A B
= 30
(x, y) (x, y)
6. Since interchange of any two rows change the
(x y ); and (x y )
sign of the value of the determinants, number of
x, y A B, Now A B = {2, 3} determinats having value 1 is equal to the
Number of elements in (A B)(B A) number of determinants having value 1
is 2 2 = 4
1 0 0
4. n(T C) = n(T) n(T C) Also, 0 1 1 = 1 shows that C
= 33 16 = 17 0 1 0
(2122) (Math)—5
33
7. n(A B) = n(A B) 12. R = { (2, 1), (4, 2), (6, 3), ...... }
= 700 n(A B) so R1 = { (1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 6), ....... }
= 700 [ 200 + 300 100 ] = 300.
13. R = {(a, b) : a, b N, A ~ B = 3 }
30 1 = {(n, n + 3), (n + 3, n) : n N}
8. S = A i (5 30) 15
i =l 10 = {(1, 4), (4, 1), (2, 5), (5, 2), ........}
[Since element in the union S belongs to 10 14. R is not reflexive since (0, 0) R, since 0
of A i’s]. does not divide 0. R is not symmetric, since
30 2 / 4, but 4 / 2. R is transitive since
Also S = Bi = (3n) / 9 = n /3 n / 3 = 15
i=l
15. Here n (A B) = 2 3 = 6. Since every subset
n = 45 of A B defines a relation from A to B,
9. 2m = 2n + 56, Which is satisfied when m = 6, number of subsets of A B = 26 = 64
n = 3. 16. R = {( 1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 5), (4, 5)}
10. Let C, B and H denote the sets of boys playing R = {(3, 1), (5, 1), (3, 2), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4)}
cricket, basketball and hockey respectively. R O R = {(3, 3), (3, 5), (5, 3), (5, 5)}
Then n(C B H) ( Note that to form R O R, we have to start
= n(C) + n(B) + n(H) n(C B) with R)
n(B H) n(H C) + n(H C H) 17. 8x 6 = 14p(p Z)
= 224 + 336 + 240 64 80 40 + 24 x = (1/ 8)[14p + 6], x Z = (1/ 4)(7p + 3)
= 640 x = 6, 13, 20, 27, 34, 41, 48, ........
Number of boys not playing any of the Solution set
game = 880 640 = 240
= {6, 20, 34, 48, .......}{13, 27, 41, ........}
11. (x, y) R (y, x) R, = [6] [13], where [6], [13] are equivalence
R = { ( 3, 1), ( 5, 1 ), ( 1, 2 ) } class of 6 and 13 respectively.
34
CHAPTER
MM . . . ... ...
P LMk 0 OP 1 0 0
... ... ... P
N0
1
Q
k2 ,
MN 0
k2 0 P
MN a
m1 a m2 ... a PQ
mn 0 k PQ
3
In compact form, the above matrix is represented Scalar Matrix. A diagonal matrix in which all
by A = [aij]m x nor A = [aij]where aij represent the the diagonal elements are equal is called the
number in the ith row and jth column. The number a11 scalar matrix.
MML OP
, a12 , etc., are called the elements or entries of the
matrix. 2 0 LM
k 0 0
OP
e.g., the matrix A =
0 2 N
, B = 0 k 0 are
Q MN PP
Types of Matrices 0 0 k Q
Row Matrix. A matrix having only one row is scalar matrices of order 2 and 3 respectively.
called row-matrix or a row-vector. Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix. A square
e.g. the matrix [a11, a12,...........a1n] is a 1 × n row matrix each of whose diagonal elements is unity
matrix. and each of whose non-diagonal elements is
Column Matrix. A single column matrix is equal to zero is called an identity or unit ma-
called a column matrix or a column-vector. trix, e.g., a unit matrix of order 2 and 3 are
1 LM 1 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP
e.g., A = 2 is a column matrix of order 3 × 1. N0 1 Q ,
MM 0 1 0 PP
1 N0 0 1 Q
Square Matrix. If m = n i.e., if the number of Upper Triangular Matrix. A square matrix A
rows and columns of a matrix are equal, then it whose elements aij= 0 for i > j is called an
is called square matrix. upper triangular matrix.
34 (2122) (Math)—5-II
35
= M2
L6 3 3O
9 PQ
then the expression a11 a22 – a12 a21 is defined
N 8 as the determinant of A i.e.
36
A
LMa 11 OP
a 12 Here we have interchanged first and second
Na 21 Q
a 22 = a11 a22 – a12 a21
column, which we denote as
C1 C2 . If we interchange second and
LM3 2 4 OP third rows, we will write as R2 R3
For Example: If A = 1 MM PP
2 1 is a square (iii) If two rows or two columns of a determi-
N0 1 1 Q nant are identical, the value of the deter-
minant is zero.
3 2 4 (iv) If every element in a row or in a column of
matrix of order 3, then A 1 2 1 a determinant is multiplied by the same
0 1 1 constant, then the value of the determinant
gets multiplied by that constant.
2 1
= (–1)1+1. 3. +(–1)1+2 ka1 b1 c1 a 1 b1 c1
1 1
Thus ka 2 b2 c 2 k a 2 b2 c2
1 1 1 2 ka3 b3 c3 a 3 b3 c3
(–2) + (–1)1+3 .4 As an application of this property, we have
0 1 0 1
= 3(–2 –1) + 2 (–1 –0) + 4 (1 – 0) 5 11 21 1 1 3
= –9 –2 +4 =– 7 10 22 14 = 5 × 11 × 7 2 2 2 =0
Note:
15 33 7 3 3 1
1. Only square matrices have determinants. The
matrices which are not square do not have Since two columns are identical.
determinants. (v) If each element in any row or in a column
2. The determinants of a square matrix of order consists of two terms, then the determinant
3 can be expanded along any row or col- can be expressed as the sum of two other
umn. determinants of the same order.
3. If a row or a column of a determinant con- Thus
sists of all zeros, then the value of the de- a 1 + k1 b1 c1 a 1 b1 c1 k1 b1 c1
terminant is zero. a 2 + k2 b2 c2 = a 2 b2 c2 + k2 b2 c2
a 3 + k3 b3 c3 a 3 b3 c3 k3 b3 c3
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
In general, if the elements in the three rows
(i) The value of a determinant is not altered (or columns) contain m, n, p terms respec-
by changing its columns into rows and its tively, the determinant can be expressed as
rows into columns. the sum of m × n × p determinants.
a 1 b1 c1 a 1 a 2 a3 (vi) The value of determinant is unaltered if
Thus a 2 b2 c2 b1 b2 b3 each element of any row (or column) be
a 3 b3 c3 c1 c2 c3 added some multiple k of the correspond-
ing elements of any other row (or column).
(ii) If two adjacent row or columns of a deter-
Thus
minant are interchanged the sign of deter-
minant is changed but its numerical value a1 b1 c1 a 1 kb1 b1 c1
is unaltered. = a2 b2 c2 = a 2 kb2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1 b1 a1 c1 a3 b3 c3 a 3 kb3 b3 c3
Thus a 2 b2 c2 b2 a2 c2 (vii) If the elements of determinant are ratio-
a3 b3 c3 b3 a3 c3 nal integral functions of x and two rows (or
37
MMLC OP
1
is a factor of . C C 21 C 31
11
Singular Matrix. A square matrix is a singular
=
MNC
12 C 22 C 32 PP
matrix if its determinant is zero. Otherwise, it is
a non- singular matrix. 13 C 23 C 33 Q
Example: Determine the values of x for which where Cij denotes the cofactor of aji in A.
the matrix
Inverse of a Matrix. A square matrix of order
LM x +1 OP
3 4 n is invertible if there exists a square matrix B
A = M 5 x+2 2 PP is singular. of the same order such that AB = In = BA. In such
MN 4 1 x6 Q a case, we say that the inverse of A is B and we
write, A–1 = B.
Solution:
A is a singular matrix if 1
The inverse of A is given by A 1 = .adj A
LM x +1 3 4 OP A
A 0 M 5 x + 2
MN 4 1 x 6QPP
2 0 Cramer ’s Rule for System of Non-
Homogeneous Linear Equations
L x + 2 2 OP b3gLM5
b x +1gM
2 OP 4LM5Consider,
x + 2O
P
N 1 x 6Q N 4 x 6Q N 4 1 Qa x + b y + c z =
1 1 1
d1
MML PPO
a 11 a 12 a 13 a1 b1 d1
a 21 a 22 a 23 3 = a2 b2 d2
If A=
a 31MN a 32 a 33 PQ , a3 b3 d3
38
(I) If 0 , then the given equations have no solution. Then the system is said to be
unique solution and said to be consistent. inconsistent.
(III) If 0 and each of 1, 2, 3 is zero, then
(II) If 0 and at least one of 1 , 2 , 3 is
clearly x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 and the solution is
not zero, then the above equations will have said to be trivial solution.
If A = M
2 3
M P MN1 1 0QP
5.
N 4 2 5 Q
and B = 4 5 , then
2 1 NM QP
A. AB, BA exist and are equal LM 1 1 5OP L 1 1 3 O
B. AB, BA exist and are not equal A. M 1 1 4 P B. M 1 1 10P
C. AB exists and BA does not exists
NM3 10 4 PQ NM5 4 4 PQ
D. AB does not exist and BA exists
LM1 0 1 OP C. 0 D. I
6. If A = M0 PP
0 0 , then A2 = 4 2
MN1 0 1 Q
11. If A =
1 1
, then (A – 2I) (A – 3I) =
A. A B. –A A. A B. I
C. 2A D. –2A C. 0 D. 5I
39
12. Let A=
1 2
and B =
1 0
and X be a
LM1 1 1 OP
3 5 0 2 19. The value of the determinant MM 1 1 1 PP is
matrix such that A = BX. Then X = N1 1 1 Q
A. M
L2 4 OP 1 L2 4 O
M P
equal to
A. – 4 B. 0
N3 5Q B.
2 N 3 5Q C. 1 D. 4
1 L 2 4 O
2
4 1 3 2 x 3
C. M P 20. If , then x =
2 N 3 5Q
D. None of these 2 1 1 x 2 1
If A = M
L5 xOP and A = A , then A. 6
C. 8
B. 7
D. None of these
N y 0Q
t
13.
1 2
A. x = 0, y = 5 B. x + y = 5 21. The value of determinant 2 1 is
C. x = y D. None of these 2 1
LM1 2 2 OP A.
B.
0
1
14. If A = M 2 PP
1 2 , then Adj A =
MN 2 2 1 Q
C.
D.
: Where is a cube root unity
A. A B. At xa b c
C. 3A D. 3At c xb a
22. If = 0, then one of the value
If A = M
L1 2OP , then A = a b xc
N 2 3Q
–1
15. of x is
A. M
L3 2 OP L3 2OP
B. M
A. a + b + c
C. a2 + b2 + c2
B. –(a + b + c)
D. a3 + b3 + c3
N Q2 1 N2 1 Q
C. M
L1 2OP L 3 2PO
D. M
23. Cofactor of 4 in the determinant
1 2 3
N 2 3Q N 2 1 Q 4 5 0 is equal to
LM3 3 4OP 2 0 1
16. If A = M2 3 4P , then A = –1 A. 2 B. –2
MN0 1 1PQ C. –5 D. None of these
A. A B. A2 24. If A + B + C = , then the value of
C. A3 D. A4 sin( A B C ) sin B cos C
17. The equations : 2x – 3y + 6z = 4, 5x + 7y – 14z sin B 0 tan A is equal to:
= 1, 3x + 2y – 4z = 0, have cos A B tan A 0
A. unique solution
A. 0 B. 2 sin B tan A cos C
B. no solution
C. 1 D. None of thses
C. infinitely many solutions
D. None of these 25. The value of determinant
x1 x 2 x 4
18. If every element of a third order determinant
of value is multiplied by 5, then the value x3 x5 x8
is
of the new determinant is x 7 x 10 x 14
A. B. 5 A. –2 B. x2 + 2
C. 25 D. 125 C. 2 D. None of these
40
7 6 x A. m (m + 1) B. 0
26. If one root of the equation 2 x 2 = 0 is C. 1 D. m (m – 1)
x 3 7 32. If a, b, c are different and
x = –9, then the other roots are a a2 a3 1
A. 2, 6 B. 3, 6 b b2 b3 1
= 0, then
C. 2, 7 D. 3, 7 c c2 c3 1
27. If is cube root of unity, then a root of the A. a + b + c = 0 B. abc = 1
x 1 2 C. a + b + c = 1 D. ab + bc + ca = 0
2
equation x 2 1 = 0 is
2 x b b
1 x x b
33.
If 1 a x b and 2 are the given
A. x = 1 B. x = a x
a a x
C. x = 2 D. x = 0
derteminants, then
28. If f (x) is a polynominal satisfying
A. 1= 3 (2 )2 B. (d/dx) 1 = 32
bg
f x
1 f ( x) f (1 / x) f ( x)
2 1 f (1 / x)
C. (d/dx) 1 = 322 D. 1 = 3 (2)3/2
cos sin cos 2
and f (2) =17, then the value of f (5) is
A. 624 B. –124 34. The determinant sin cos sin is
cos sin cos
C. 626 D. 126
29. If the value of a third order determinant is 11, A. 0
then the value of the square of the determi- B. independent of
nant formed by the cofactors will be C. independent of
A. 11 B. 121 D. independent of
C. 1331 D. 14641
35. For the system of equations a1x + b1y + c1z =
1 sin 1
0 , a2x + b2y + c2z = 0 , a3x + b3y + c3z = 0, if
30. Let sin 1 sin .
1 sin 1 a1 b1 c1
The lies in the interval a2 b2 c2 = 0, then the system has
A. [3, 4] B. [2, 4] a3 b3 c3
C. [1, 4] D. None of these
A. more than two solutions
1 1 1 B. one trival and one non-trival solution
31. m
C1 m +1
C1 m2
C1 is equal to C. no solution
m
C2 m 1
C2 m2
C2 D. only trival solution (0, 0, 0).
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A B A B B C B B C B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
C B C D A C B D D A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A B B A A C D C B B
31 32 33 34 35
C B B B A
(2122) (Math)—6
41
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
b g L3 OP MML PPO
1 2 3 1 0
AB= MM 4
1. Since a ij i j 0 , and a ij 0 , for at least
7.
MN5 P
2 5 and BA = 4 2 1
MN PQ
AB
QP
one i, A is diagonal matrix.
1 3 7 5 3
2. Let A = a ij
n m
.
A2
LM i 0OP LM i 0OP
Since A is skew-symmetric
b g
a ij 0 i 1, 2,..... n and a ij a ij i j . A b g
8.
N0 i Q N0 i Q
Li 0 OP L1 0 O
2
= M
NM 0 i PQ = MN 0 1PQ
is symmetric as well,
2
so a ij a ji for all i and j.
a ij 0 for all i j .
Consider A = M
L0 0OP ; B = LM0 0OP .
Hence a ij 0 for all i and j, i.e., A is a null
9.
N 1 0Q N 0 1Q
(zero matrix) Then A 0, B 0.
LM 1 1 3 OP LM 1 1 3 OP 0 0 0 LM0 0OP
3. A2 MM 5
N2
2 6
1 3
PP MM 5
Q N2
2 6
1 3
PP
Q
= 3 3 9
1 1 3
But AB =
N 0 0Q =0
MML OP
5 1 2
A is not idempotent. 10. A 2 9 2 5
MN PP
L0
M
0 0
PPO LMM 5
1 1 3 OP 0 1 2 Q
Also, A
3
M3 3 9 2 6 PP LM5 1 2 OP 2 0 1
MN1 1 3 PQ MN2 1 3 Q 2
A – 5A + 6I = MM9 2 5 PP – 5 2 1 3
LM0 0 0OP N0 1 2 Q 1 1 0
= MM0 PP
0 0 ; LM1 0 0 OP LM 1 1 3 OP
N0 0 0 Q MM
+ 6 0 1 0 = 1 1 10 P M P
N0 0 1PQ NM5 4 4 PQ
Hence A is nilpotent matrix of index 3.
LM 4 PQO MNL PQO LM 2 OP
MNL PQO LMN OPQ LM0 0OP
1 0 0 0 2 1 0 2
4. AB = 2 0 1 12 = 0 0 = 0
N Q N
11. A – 2I = 1 1 – 2 0 1 = 1 1
N Q
L0 0 O L 1 0O L 0 0O LM 4 P1Q – 3 LMN0 1PQO =
2O 1 0 LM 1 2O
and BA = M1 12P M2 0QP = MN 25 0PQ N1 N1 2 PQ
A – 3I =
N QN 0
MM 0
2 0 2
6. A2 0 0 PP MM0 PP
0 0 = 0 0 0 = 2A
MM PP 2 0
t
LM2 0OP
MN1 0 1 Q N1 0 1 2 0 2 Q N Q
Now B = 2, adj. B = =
0 1 N 0 1Q
42
B1
LM OP and
1 2 0 LM 1 1 0 OP
N Q 2 0 1 or A = M 2 3 4P
–1
MN2 3 3PQ
1 L 2 0O L1 2 O 1 L2 4 O
B A M
1
P M P = M P LM 3 4 4 OP
2 N 0 1Q N 3 5Q 2 N 3 5Q
Now A = M 0 1 0 P
2
NMC QP
12
=
LM 3 OP = ML3 2 PO
2 By C3 C3 + 2C2 = 0.
N2 1Q N 2 1Q The equations either have no solution or
an infinite number of solutions. To decide
16. C11 = 1, C12 = –2, C13 = –2, about this, we proceed to find (Adj A) B
C21 = –1, C22 = 3, C23 = 3 C11 = 0, C12 = –22, C13 = –11,
C31 = 0, C32 = –4, C33 = –3. C21 = 0, C22 = –26, C23 = –13
3 3 4 3 3 1 C31 = 0, C32 = –58, C33 = 29.
A 2 3 4 = 2 3 1 LM C 11 C 21 C 31OP
0 1 1 0 1 0
Adj A = M C C 22 C 32 PP
MNC
12
= –(–1) (3 – 2) = 1.
by C3 C2 + C3
13 C 23 C 33 Q
LM OP LM 0 0 0 O
58PP
C11 C 21 C 31
= M 22
1
(Adj A) = C12 M C 22 C 32 PP MN 11
26
NM Q 29 PQ
1
C13 C 23 C 33 13
43
L0
M
0 0
PPO LM41OP .
By R2 R2 – R1, R3 R3 – R1
(Adj A) B = M 22
PQ MMN0QPP
26 58 x1 1 3
MN 11 13 29
=
2 1 2
Hence the system has no solutions. 6 2 4
24. Since, A + B + C = 1 2
2
0 sin B sin C = x 1 x 1 = x1
sin B 0 tan A 1 1 x
cos C tan A 0 (1 2 0 )
, i.e. so = 0. 0 x 0 1 0
28. From the given relation, we get f (x) f (1/x)
25. By C2 C2 – C1 and C3 C3 – C1,
= f (x) + f (1/x) (1)
we have
x1 1 3 Putting x = 1, we have [f (1)]2 = 2 f (1)
e je
1 / x 4 x8 2 x 4 1 j 1 a a2
(abc 1) 1 b b 2 0 ,
x4 1 / x4 2
1 c c2
R.H.S. x4 1 / x4 2
abc 1
L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Hence f (5) = 54 + 1 = 626. 1 0 0 x b b x b b
d
33. (1 ) a x b 0 1 0a x b
29. c 3 1 2 11 b g 2
121 dx
a a x a a x 0 0 1
1 sin 1 x b x b x b
3 2
30. sin 1 sin a x a x a x
0 0 2 34. By R1 R1 + R2 sin – R3 cos
2 cos cos 2 sin cos
= 2(1 sin 2 ) . (R3 R1 + R3 )
sin cos sin
0 sin2 1 2 1 sin2 4e j cos sin cos
lies in [2, 4] Taking 2 cos common from R1 and then
applying R1 R1 + R3
1 1 1
cos
31.
1
m
m m 1
1
m 1
m 1 m
1
m2
m 2 m 1
b g
2 cos sin cos sin
2 2 2 cos sin cos
1 0 0 e 2
je 2 2
j 2
= 2 cos sin cos 2 cos , which is
1 independent of .
m 1 1
=1
2
b
m m 1 g 2m 2 m 1b g 35. 0
Equations will have infinite number of
C2 C2 C1 , C3 C3 C 2 solutions.
45
CHAPTER
Analytical Geometry
Coordinates of a Point in Space: Let O be a A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) is given by
fixed point, known as origin as let OX, OY and A B = [(x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 + (z2 – z1)2]
OZ be three mutually perpendicular lines, taken Distance from Origin: Let O be the origin and
as x-axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively, in such P (x, y, z) be any point, then OP = (x2 + y2 +
a way that they form a right-handed system. y2).
The planes XOY, YOZ and ZOX are in known Distance of a Point from Coordinate Axes:
as xy-plane, yz-plane and zx-plane respectively. Let P(x, y, z) be any point in the space. Let PA,
In the adjoining figure, OX, OY and OZ shows PB and PC be the perpendiculars drawn from P
the positive x, y and z axes. to the axes OX, OY and OZ respectively. Then
PA = (y2 + z2),
PB = (z2 + x2),
PA = (x2 + y2),
Section Formula: Let P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2,
z2) be two points and P(x, y, z) divide PQ in the
ratio m1 : m2.
Then R is (x, y, z)
ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5
A B D A D
EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
x y z If the line is –| to the normal to the plane, i.e.,
1. The line
l m n al + bm + cn = 0
is parallel to the plane In this question, this condition is satisfied by
ax + by + cz + d = 0 the plane 2x + y – 2z = 0.
48
2006