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1 (2122) (Math)—1
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CHAPTER

Theory of Probability

The word probability or chance is very common in years, R.A. Fisher, Karl Pearsons, J. Neyman etc.
day to day life of human being. For instance, we developed a sampling distribution theory based on
come across statements like “India may win the the laws of probability.
World Cup”; “It is likely that Mr X may not come Today a comprehensive theory of probability
for teaching statistics class today”; “Probably Iraq exists and in the words of Emile Borel, “Probability
may win the Gulf War against USA”. All these theory is of interest, not only to card and dice
terms possible, probable, likely, etc, convey the players, who were its godfathers, but also to all
same sence i.e. the event is not certain to take place men of action, heads of industries or heads of
or there are some uncertainties about the happening armies, where success depends on two sorts of
of the events. In simple words, the word probability factors the one known or calculable, the other
thus refers that there is uncertainty about the uncertain and probabilitical.”
happening of event.
The theory of probability has its origin in the FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS USED IN
games of chance related to gambling such as PROBABILITY THEORY
throwing a die, tossing a coin, drawing cards from The following definitions and terms are used in
a pack of cards etc. Jerane Cardon (1501-76), an studying the theory of probability.
Italian mathematician, was the first scholar to write
a book on the subject entitled “Book on Games of Random experiment
Chance” which was published after his death in Random experiment is one whose results depend
1663. During the last quarter of the eighteenth on chance, that is the result cannot be predicted.
century, the study of the games of chance no longer Tossing of coins, throwing of dice are some
remained dependent on the initiative of the gamblers. examples of random experiments.
The subject became an an area of academic interest
and a number of scholars addressed themselves to Trial
the field of probability. In the early nineteenth Performing a random experiment is called a trial.
century the famous French mathematician Laplace,
and the German mathematician Gauss carried the Outcomes
knowledge of the subject many important steps The results of a random experiment are called its
forward. With the expansion of national economics, outcomes. When two coins are tossed the possible
some great persons like De Moivre (1718), James outcomes are HH, HT, TH, TT.
Bernoulli (1713), Bayes (1768) etc., were inspired to
develop the theory of probability further and apply Event
it in different fields of decision making. In later An outcome or a combination of outcomes of a

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random experiment is called an event. For example, Independent events


tossing of a coin is a random experiment and getting Events are said to be independent if the occurrence
a head or tail is an event. of one does not affect the others. In the experiment
Sample space of tossing a fair coin, the occurrence of the event
‘head’ in the first toss is independent of the
Each conceivable outcome of an experiment is called occurrence of the event ‘head’ in the second toss,
a sample point. The totality of all sample points is third toss and subsequent tosses.
called a sample space and is denoted by S. For
example, when a coin is tossed, the sample space DEFINITIONS OF PROBABILITY
is S = { H, T }. H and T are the sample points of
the sample space S. There are two types of probability. They are
Mathematical probability and Statistical probability.
Equally likely events
Mathematical Probability (or a priori
Two or more events are said to be equally likely if
probability)
each one of them has an equal chance of occurring.
For example in tossing of a coin, the event of If the probability of an event can be calculated
getting a head and the event of getting a tail are even before the actual happening of the event, that
equally likely events. is, even before conducting the experiment, it is
called Mathematical probability.
Mutually exclusive events If the random experiments results in ‘n’
Two or more events are said to be mutually exhaustive, mutually exclusive and equally likely
exclusive, when the occurrence of any one event cases, out of which ‘m’ are favourable to the
excludes the occurrence of the other event. Mutu- occurrence of an event A, then the ratio m/n is
ally exclusive events cannot occur simultaneously. called the probability of occurrence of event A,
For example when a coin is tossed, either the denoted by P(A), is given by
head or the tail will come up. Therefore, the Number of cases
occurrence of the head completely excludes the m favourable to the event A
occurrence of the tail. Thus getting head or tail in P(A) = =
n Total number of
tossing of a coin is a mutually exclusive event. exhaustive cases
Exhaustive events Mathematical probability is often called
Events are said to be exhaustive when their totality classical probability or a priori probability because
includes all the possible outcomes of a random if we keep using the examples of tossing of fair
experiment. For example, while throwing a die, the coin, dice etc., we can state the answer in advance
possible outcomes are {1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6} and hence (prior), without tossing of coins or without rolling
the number of cases is 6. the dice etc.
The above definition of probability is widely
Complementary events used, but it cannot be applied under the following
The event ‘ A occurs’ and the event ‘ A does not situations:
occur’ are called complementary events to each (1) If it is not possible to enumerate all the
other. The event ‘A does not occur’ is denoted by possible outcomes for an experiment.
A or A or Ac. The event and its complements are (2) If the sample points(outcomes) are not
mutually exclusive. For example in throwing a die, mutually independent.
the event of getting odd numbers is {1, 3, 5} and
getting even numbers is {2, 4, 6}. These two events (3) If the total number of outcomes is infinite.
are mutually exclusive and complement to each (4) If each and every outcome is not equally
other. likely.
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MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS


1. Probability is expressed as 1 1
A. ratio B. percentage C. D.
2 10
C. Proportion D. all the above
9. The conditional probability of B given A is
2. Probability can take values from
A.   to  B.   to 1 P(A  B) P(A  B)
A. B.
C. 0 to +1 D. –1 to +1 P(B) P(A)
3. Two events are said to be independent if P(A  B) P(A  B)
A. each out come has equal chance of B. D.
P(B) P(A)
occurrence
B. there is the common point in between 10. P(X) = 0.15, P(Y) = 0.25, P(X  Y) = 0.10 then
them P(X  Y) is
C. one does not affect the occurrence of the A. 0.10 B. 0.20
other. C. 0.30 D. 0.40
D. both events have only one point 11. If P(A) = 0.5, P(B) = 0.3 and the events A and
4. Classical probability is also known as B are independent then P(A  B) is
A. Statistical probability A. 0.8 B. 0.15
B. A priori probability C. 0.08 D. 0.015
C. Empirical probability 12. If P(A) = 0.4 P(B) = 0.5 and P(A  B) = 0.2
D. None of the above then P(B/A) is
5. When a coin and a die are thrown, the number
1 1
of all possible cases is A. B.
A. 7 B. 8 2 3
C. 12 D. 0 4 2
C. D.
6. Probability of drawing a spade queen from a 5 5
well shuffled pack of cards is
13. A coin is tossed 6 times. Find the number of
1 1 points in the sample space.
A. B.
13 52 A. 12 B. 16
4 C. 32 D. 64
C. D. 1
13 14. When a single die is thrown the event of
7. Three dice are thrown simultaneously the getting odd number or even number are
probability that sum being 3 is A. Mutually exclusive events
1 B. Not-mutually exclusive events
A. 0 B. C. Independent event
216
2 3 D. Dependent event
C. D.
216 216 15. The probability of not getting 2, when a die
8. An integer is chosen from 1 to 20. The is thrown is
probability that the number is divisible by 4 1 2
A. B.
is 3 3
1 1 1 5
A. B. C. D.
4 3 6 6
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16. If A and B are mutually exclusive events, 25. 5C2 is equal to


P(AB) = ? A. 20 B. 10
A. Zero B. P(A) + P(B) C. 30 D. 100
C. P(A) D. None of these 26. Two cards are drawn from a well-shuffled pack
17. The probability that the throw of two dice of 52 cards. Find the probability that they are
yields a total of 5 or 8 is... both aces if the first is replaced.
A. 1/4 B. 1/5
1 2
C. 2/5 D. None of these A. B.
169 52
18. In case of conditional probability (A and B)
=? 1
C. D. None of these
A. P(B) × P(A/B) B. P(B) × P(A) 221
C. P(A) + P(B) D. None of these 27. Two dice are thrown simultaneously. The
19. If a card is drawn from a pack of cards the probability of obtaining a total score of 5 is
probability of getting either a king or a queen A. 1/18 B. 1/12
is... C. 1/9 D. None of these
A. 2/13 B. 5/15 28. The probability that a leap year selected at
C. 1/4 D. None of these random contain 53 Sundays is
20. If an event cannot take place, probability A. 7/366 B. 26/183
will be C. 1/7 D. 2/7
A. +1 B. –1 29. A card is drawn at random from a pack of 100
C. 0 D. None of these cards numbered 1 to 100. The probability of
21. Addition theorem states that if two events A drawing a number, which is a square, is
and B are mutually exclusive the probability A. 1/5 B. 2/5
of occurrence of either A or B is given by: C. 1/10 D. None of these
A. P(A) + P(B) B. P(A) × P(B) 30. One of the two exclusive events must occur
C. P(A) – P(B) D. None of these the chance of one is 2/3 of the other, then
22. If two events A and B are independent, the odds in favour of the other are
probability that they will both occur is given A. 1 : 3 B. 3 : 1
by: C. 2 : 3 D. 3 : 2
A. P(A) + P(B) 31. The probabilities of three mutually exclusive
B. P(A) × P(B) events A, B and C are given by 2/3, 1/4 and
C. P(A) – P(B) 1/6 respectively. The statement
D. P(A) + P(B) – P(AB) A. is true
23. If two events A and B are dependent, the B. is false
conditional probability of B given A, i.e., C. Nothing can be said
P(A/B) is calculated as: D. Could be either
A. P(AB)/P(B) B. P(A) / P(B) 32. A father has 3 children with at least one boy.
C. P(AB) / P(A) D. P(A) / P(AB) The probability that he has 2 boys and one
24. If two events A and B are dependent, the girl is
conditional probability of A given B, i.e., A. 1/4
P(A/B) is calculated as: B. 3/7
A. P(B/A)/P(AB) B. P(B)/P(A) C. 1/3
C. P(AB)/P(A) D. P(AB)/P(B) D. None of these
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33. The probability that an event A happens in 5 1


one trial of an experiment is 0.7. Three A. B.
256 16
independent trails of the experiment are 35
performed. The probability that the event A C. D. None of these
128
happens atleast once is
35. Let A and B be two events such that P(A) =
A. 0.657 B. 0.973
0.4, P(B) = 0.3 and P(A È B) = 0.7. Then
C. 0.189 D. None of these
A. A and B are independent
34. Two players toss 4 coins each. The probability B. A and B are exhaustive
that they both obtain the same number of C. A and B are mutually exclusive
heads is D. None of these

ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D C C B C B B A B C
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B A D A D A A A A C
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A B C D B A C D C D
31 32 33 34 35
B B B C C

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8

CHAPTER

Tabulation and Compilation of Data & Methods


of Collecting Primary and Secondary Data

TABULATION OF DATA information given in a table, its rows and columns


are designated by appropriate stubs and captions
Good presentation of data is as important as their
(or headings or sub-headings) respectively.
satisfactory collection and arrangement. In fact, Presentation of data in a tabular form should be
satisfactory collection and arrangement of data must simple, planned, unambiguous and logical.
be followed by good presentation. However, good
presentation is not an end in itself. It may be Following table is based on hypothetical
necessary for satisfactory analysis and figures of exports and imports of country X with
interpretation. A satisfactory presentation helps us country B for three years 2005, 2006 and 2007.
in more than one ways. Firstly, it helps to highlight
significant facts contained in the data. Secondly, it Table
facilitates the comparison of data. Finally, We will Imports and Exports of X with Country B
discuss presentation of statistical data under three during 2005-2007
heads: Country 2 00 5 2 00 6 2 00 7
(i) Formal tables Imports Exports Imports Exports Imports Exports

(ii) Graphic methods which will include line A 60 70 65 75 70 65


graphs, histograms, frequency polygon and
curves, and cumulative frequency curves. B 50 60 60 65 65 60
(iii) Geometric forms, pictures and statistical C 40 30 40 40 42 50
maps, which will include pie diagrams, bar
diagrams, area and volume diagrams, etc. D 45 42 60 55 63 55

In this Section we concentrate on tabular forms Total 195 202 225 235 240 230
of presentation.
In this table it is clear that the purpose is to
Meaning and Types of Tables show the imports and exports of country X vis-a-
A table or a statistical table is a systematic vis the rest of the world. Note that a particular
arrangement of related statistical data in columns entry of the table refers to a column and a row. For
and rows, with a given predetermined and a well example, an entry at the intersection of second
decided objective. A row of a table represents a row and fourth column indicates that in 2006
horizontal while a column represents a vertical country X imported goods and services worth `
arrangement of data. To explain the nature of 60 crore from country B. This figure then can be

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(2122) (Math)—2
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compared with other import and export figures to secondary data are collected through some other
seek important interpretations. sources. For example, information collected by an
investigator from a student regarding his class, caste,
PRIMARY AND SECONDARY DATA family background, etc., is called primary data. On
Data can be collected in two different ways. One the other hand, if the same information collected
way is to collect data directly from the respondent. about the student from the school record and
The person who answers the questions of the register, then it is called secondary data.
investigator is called respondent. Statistical However, the difference between primary and
information thus collected is called primary data secondary data is largely of degree, and there is
and the source of such information is called primary hardly any watertight difference between them. The
source. They are original because they are collected data collected through primary sources by one
for the first time by the investigator himself. investigator may be secondary in the hands of
Another way is to adopt the data already others. For example, field data collected by an
collected by someone else. The investigator only investigator for writing his thesis is primary to him,
adopts the data. Statistical information thus and when the same data is used by another
obtained is called secondary data. The source of investigator, for reference purposes, then it became
such information is called secondary source. secondary data. Let us discuses the methods that
Difference between are used to collect primary and secondary data.
Primary & Secondary Data There are various types of quantitative primary
data gathering tools, but the important ones among
Primary Data Secondary Data
them are:
Basic nature Primary data are Data which are  The Questionnaire
original and are collected earlier by
 The Interview Schedule
collected for the someone else, and
first time. which are now in
published or QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
unpublished state. OF DATA COLLECTION
Collecting These data are Secondary data Questionnaires are a popular method of data
Agency collected by the were collected collection. Although they look easy, it is difficult
investigator earlier by some to design a good questionnaire. Careful design of
himself. other person. a questionnaire is vital for the collection of required
Post collection These data do These have to be facts and figures. Any frivolous attempt in framing
alterations not need alteration analyzed and a questionnaire will lead to either shortage, or,
as they are necessary changes collection of unnecessary information neither of
according to the have to be made to which will be useful to your research. Questionnaire
requirement of make them useful as design depends on whom, and, from where
the investigation. per the requirements
information has to be collected; what facts and
of investigation.
figures need to be collected; and the calibre of the
Time & Money More time, energy Comparatively less informants.
and money has to time and money is
be spent in collec- to be spent. The questionnaire can be broadly categorized
tion of these data. into two types:
(i) structured questionnaire
PRIMARY DATA (ii) unstructured questionnaire.
COLLECTION MEANING AND METHODS (i) Structured questionnaires are prepared in
Data w hich are originally collected by the advance. They contain definite and
investigators are called primary data, while the concrete questions. The structured
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questionnaire may contain close ended (iii) Telephone: In this method, the investigator
questions and open ended responses. In administers a questionnaire by seeking
the close ended questionnaire, the question responses from the respondent over the
setter gives alternative options for which telephone. It is largely administered to the
the respondent has to give definite urban respondents where telephone
response. The best example of the close facilities are widely available.
ended questionnaire format is the one that However, the success of this method
leads respondents to the "Yes" or "No"/ depends on the availability of telephone
"True" or "False" answers. with the respondents. It is also expensive
(ii) Unstructured questionnaires are those that as well.
are not structured in advance, and the (iv) E-Mail: With the IT revolution, nowadays,
investigators m ay adjust questions questionnaires are attached to the e-mails
according to their needs during an and sent to respondents who send an
interview. answer through return e-mail. The success
Methods of Data Collection of this method depends on the availability
of internet facilities.
Using Questionnaires
Questionnaire methods are conducted in different SECONDARY METHODS
ways. A few important methods are outlined here: OF DATA COLLECTION
(i) Personal Interview: In personal interviews,
Secondary data are collected by investigators from
the interviewer or investigator personally
sources other than primary respondents. Secondary
approaches the interviewee and administer
data are collected from both, published and
questions. This method is largely followed
unpublished sources. The main resources of
in research and studies methods and the
secondary data are given below.
accuracy of data is very high. However, it
is an expensive method. (i) O fficial publication of the Central
Government such as Census, NSSO Report,
(ii) Mail Questionnaire: In this method, the
Human Development Report, SRS report,
investigator mails the questionnaire to
etc.
respondents and respondents are requested
to fill it up and return it to the investigator. (ii) Research and study reports of bilateral and
In many cases, a self-addressed stamped multilateral organizations such as WHO,
envelope is sent along with the World Bank, IMF, UNESCO, UNICEF, etc.
questionnaire to facilitate the return of the A few of them include, the World
questionnaire mail immediately. This Development Report, World Development
method is usually adopted where the Indicators, Human Development Report, etc.
respondents are widespread and the (iii) Reports brought out by committees and
investigator has limited resources to com m issions such as the Mandal
approach them. The success of this method Commission Report, the National Planning
depends of the literacy level of the Commission Report, the Human Rights
respondents and the accuracy of the address Com m ission Report, the Population
database. One of the drawbacks of this Commission Report, etc.
method is that, sometimes, the respondents (iv) Policy documents of the Central and State
do not take the questionnaire seriously, Government such as National Population
and, as a result the answer may not be Policies, National Education Policies,
accurate. National Health Policies, etc.
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(v) Publications brought out by the research (ix) Information available in year books and
institutes, universities and organizations. encyclopaedias.
(vi) Publications of data sources on different (x) Statistical abstracts published both by the
national and international journals such as Central and State Governments.
Economic and Political Weekly, Indian (xi) Information published in the directories and
Economic Journal, etc. bulletins of various institutions such as the
Indian Council of Social Sciences Research,
(vii) Books and articles published on various
the Indian Council of Agricultural
subjects. Research, etc.
(viii) Official publications of the Reserve Bank (xii) Abstracts and index of reports and articles
of India. State Bank of India, Association published by various research, teaching,
of Indian Banking, etc. and related organizations.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS


1. The origin of statistics can be traced to 7. The headings of the rows given in the first
A. State B. Commerce column of a table are called
C. Economics D. Industry A. Stubs B. Captions
2. ‘Statistics may be called the science of C. Titles D. Reference notes
counting’ is the definition given by 8. Inan exclusive class interval
A. Croxton B. A.L.Bowley A. the upper class limit is exclusive
C. Boddington D. Webster B. the lower class limit is exclusive
3. When the collected data is grouped with C. the lower and upper class limits are
reference to time, we have exclusive
A. Quantitative classification D. none of the above
B. Qualitative classification 9. If the lower and upper limits of a class are 10
C. Geographical Classification and 40 respectively, the mid points of the
D. Chorological Classification class is
4. Most quantitative classifications are A. 15.0 B. 12.5
A. Chronological C. 25.0 D. 30.0
B. Geographical 10. Class intervals of the type 30-39,40-49,50-59
C. Frequency Distribution represents
D. None of these A. inclusive type B. exclusive type
5. Caption stands for C. open-end type D. none
A. A numerical information 11. The class interval of the continuous grouped
B. The column headings data is
C. The row headings
D. The table headings 10-19 20-29 30-39 40-49 50-59
A. 9 B. 10
6. A simple table contains data on
C. 14.5 D. 4.5
A. Two characteristics
B. Several characteristics 12. Raw data means
C. One characteristic A. primary data
D. Three characteristics B. secondary data
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C. data collected for investigation 18. The entire upper part of a table is known as
D. Well classified data A. Caption B. Stub
13. Which of the following is one dimensional C. Box head D. Body
diagram. 19. Ogive is a
A. Bar diagram B. Pie diagram A. Line diagram B. Bar diagram
C. Cylinder D. Histogram C. Both D. None
14. Percentage bar diagram has 20. Tally marks determines .......... .
A. data expressed in percentages A. Class width B. Class boundary
B. equal width C. Class limit D. Class frequency
C. equal interval 21. Statistics is concerned with
D. equal width and equal interval A. Qualitative information
15. Frequency curve B. Quantitative information
A. begins at the origin C. A or B
B. passes through the origin D. Both A and B
C. begins at the horizontal line 22. Bivariate Data are the data collected for
D. begins and ends at the base line. A. Two variables.
16. With the help of histogram we can draw B. More than two variables.
A. frequency polygon C. Two variables at the same point of time.
B. frequency curve D. Two variables at different points of time.
C. frequency distribution 23. Mutually inclusive classification is usually
D. all the above meant for ............ .
17. Ogives for more than type and less than type A. A discrete variable
distribution intersect at B. a continuous variable
A. mean B. median C. An attribute
C. mode D. origin D. All of these

ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A B D C B C A A C A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
B A A A D D B C A D
21 22 23
D C A

  
13

CHAPTER

Theory of Attributes—Basic Concept and


Their Applications

THEORY OF ATTRIBUTES number of observations assigned to them are called


their class frequencies.
Generally statistics deal with quantitative data only.
But in behavioural sciences, one often deals with If two attributes are studied the number of
the variable which are not quantitatively classes will be 9. (i.e.,) (A), (), (B), (), (A ) ( ),
measurable. Literally an attribute means a quality ( B) and N.
on characteristic w hich are not related to The chart given below illustrate it clearly.
quantitative measurements. Examples of attributes
are health, honesty, blindness etc. They cannot be
measured directly. The observer may find the
presence or absence of these attributes. Statistics of
attributes based on descriptive character.
Notations The number of observations or units belonging
Association of attribute is studied by the presence to class is known as its frequency are denoted within
or absence of a particular attribute. If only one bracket. Thus (A) stands for the frequency of A and
attribute is studied, the population is divided into (AB) stands for the number objects possessing the
two classes according to its presence or absence attribute both A and B. The contingency table of
and such classification is termed as division by order (2 × 2) for two attributes A and B can be
dichotomy. If a class is divided into more than two displayed as given below:
scale-classes, such classification is called manifold A  Total
classification.
B (AB) (B) (B)
Positive class which denotes the presence of
attribute is generally denoted by Roman letters  (A) (b) ()
generally A, B,….etc and the negative class
Total (A) A N
denoting the absence of the attribute and it is
denoted by the Greek letters , ….etc. For example,
A represents the attribute ‘Literacy’ and B represents Relationship between the class frequencies
‘Criminal’ .  and  represents the ‘Illiteracy’ and The frequency of a lower order class can always be
‘Not Criminal’ respectively. expressed in terms of the higher order class
Classes and Class frequencies frequencies.
i.e., N = (A) + () = (B) + ()
D ifferent attributes, their sub-groups and
(A) = (AB) + (A)
combinations are called different classes and the
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() = (B) + () the attributes skin colour and intelligence of persons
(B) = (AB) + (B) are independent.
() = (A) + () If two attributes A and B are independent then
If the number of attributes is n, then there will be the actual frequency is equal to the expected
3rd classes and we have 2 nd cell frequencies. frequency

Consistency of the data  A  .  B


 AB =
N
In order to find out whether the given data are
consistent or not we have to apply a very simple ( ).()
test. The test is to find out whether any or more of Similarly () 
N
the ultimate class-frequencies is negative or not.
If none of the class frequencies is negative we Association of Attributes
can safely calculate that the given data are Two attributes A and B are said to be associated
consistent (i.e., the frequencies do not conflict in if they are not independent but they are related
any way each other). with each other in some way or other.
On the other hand, if any of the ultimate class The attributes A and B are said to be positively
frequencies comes to be negative the given data
are inconsistent. (A).(B)
associated if (AB) 
N
Independence of Attributes
If the attributes are said to be independent the (A).(B)
If (AB)  , then they are said to be
presence or absence of one attribute does not affect N
the presence or absence of the other. For example, negatively associated.

EXAMPLES
Example 1:  () = 2500  420
Given N = 2500, (A) = 420, (AB) = 85 and () = 2080
(B) = 670. Find the missing values. From (1) () = 2500  670
() = 1830
Solution:
From (3) = 2080 =585 + ()
We know N= (A) + () = (B) + ()
() = 1495
(A) = (AB) + (AB)
() = (B) + () Example 2:
(B) = (AB) + (B) Test the consistency of the following data with the
() = (A) + () symbols having their usual meaning.
From (2) 420 = 85 + (A) N = 1000 (A) = 600 (B) = 500 (AB) = 50.
(A) = 420 – 85
Solution:
(A) = 335 A  Total
From (4) 670 = 85 + (B)
B 50 450 500
 (B) = 670  85
(B) = 585  550 –50 500
From (1) 2500 = 420 + () Total 600 400 1000
15

Since () = –50, (A) = 128


the given data is inconsistent. (A)  (B)
 (AB) = (AB) 
Example 3: N
Examine the consistency of the given data. Hence, A and B are independent.
N = 60 (A) = 51 (B) = 32 (AB) = 25.
Example 5:
Solution: From the following data, find out the types of
A  Total association of A and B.
1. N = 200 (A) = 30 (B) = 100 (AB) = 15
B 25 7 32
2. N = 400 (A) = 50 (B) = 160 (AB) = 20
 26 2 28 3. N = 800 (A) = 160 (B) = 300 (AB) = 50
Total 51 9 60
Solution :
Since all the frequencies are positive, it can (A).(B)
be concluded that the given data are consistent. 1. Expected frequency of (AB) 
N
Example 4: (30)(100)
Show that whether A and B are independent, =  15
200
positively associated or negatively associated. Since, the actual frequency is equal to the
(AB) = 128, (B) = 384, (A) = 24 and () = 72. expected frequency, i.e. 15 = 15, therefore
A and B are independent.
Solution :
(A) = (AB) + (A) (A).(B)
2. Expected frequency of (AB) 
= 128 + 24 N
(A) = 152 (50)(160)
(B) = (AB) + (B) =  20
200
= 128 + 384 Since the actual frequency is greater than
(B) = 512 expected frequency. i.e., 25 > 20, therefore
() = (B) + () A and B are positively associated.
= 384 + 72 (A).(B)
() = 456 3. Expected frequency of (AB) 
N
(N) = (A) + ()
(160)(300)
= 152 + 456 =  60
800
= 608
Since, Actual frequency is less than
(A)  (B) 152  512 expected frequency i.e., 50 < 60 therefore
= = 128
N 608 A and B are negatively associated.

  
16

CHAPTER
Sampling and Non-Sampling Errors and
Demography—Census, Its feature and
Functions

NON-SAMPLING AND SAMPLING We explain the sources of these errors below.


ERRORS Non-Sampling Error
As mentioned above the basic purpose of sampling Various sources of non-sampling error are given
is to draw inferences about the population on the below:
basis of the sample. For example, we have to find 1. Error due to measurement: It is a well-
out the per capita income of a village. Due to known fact that precise measurement of any
shortage of time, money and personnel we do not m agnitude is not possible. If som e
undertake a complete census and opt for a sample individuals, for example, are asked to
survey. measure the length of a particular piece of
In this case, it is very likely that the per capita cloth independently up to, say, two decimal
income obtained from the sample is not equal to points; we can be quite sure that their
the actual per capita income of the village. This answers will not be the same. In fact, the
discrepancy could arise because of two reasons: measuring instrument itself may not have
(i) Since we are collecting data from only a the same degree of accuracy.
part of the population (i.e., the sample In the context of sampling the respondents
selected by us), sample mean (per capita of an inquiry, for example, may not be able
income in this case) is not equal to to provide the accurate data about their
population mean. If at all both are equal; incomes. This may not be a problem with
it is a rare coincidence! If we take sample individuals earning fixed incomes in the
m ean as population m ean we are form of wages and salaries. However, self-
committing an error called sampling error. employed persons may not be able to do so.
(ii) A second source of error could arise because 2. Error due to non-response: Sometimes the
of w rong reporting or recording or required data are collected by mailing
tabulation or processing of data. This type questionnaires to the respondents. Many of
of error is termed non-sampling error. such respondents m ay return the
Remember that non-sampling error, as its questionnaires with incomplete answers or
name suggests, has nothing to do with our may not return them at all. This kind of an
attitude may be due to:
sampling process. Wrong reporting or
recording or processing of data can take A. the respondents are too casual to fill up
place in a sample survey also. the answers to the questions asked.

16
(2122) (Math)—3
17

B. they are not in a position to understand It is almost impossible to make the data absolutely
the questions, or free of such errors. However, since the number of
C. they may not like to disclose the infor- respondents in a sample survey is much smaller
mation that has been sought. than in census, the non-sampling error is generally
less pronounced in the sampling method. Besides
We should note that the error due to non-
the non-sampling errors, there is sampling error in
response may also arise because of the
a sample survey. Sampling error is the absolute
possibility of the questionnaire being lost
difference betw een the param eter and the
in transit.
corresponding statistic, that is, |T – |.
If the data are collected through personal
Sampling error is not due to any lapse on the
interviews, some of the reasons for the error
part of the respondent or the investigator or some
due to non-response pointed out above may
such reason. It arises because of the very nature of
not arise. However, in that case this error
the procedure. It can never be com pletely
may arise because some of the individuals:
eliminated. However, we have well developed
A. may not like to give the information, or sampling theories with the help of which the effect
B. may not simply be available even after of sampling error can be minimised.
repeated visits.
3. Error in recording: This type of error may POPULATION AND CENSUS
arise at the stage when the investigator We have a collection of units relevant for a
records the answers or even at the tabulation particular enquiry. A unit, in this connection, is an
stage. A major reason for such error is the entity on w hich we can m ake observations
carelessness on the part of the investigator. according to a well-defined procedure. The entire
4. Error due to inherent bias of the collection of such units is called a population or
investigator: Every individual suffers from universe. Thus, we may have a population of human
personal prejudices and biases. Despite the beings, cattle, trees, prices, production, etc.
provision of the best possible training to You can make out that a population can be
the investigators, their personal biases may finite or infinite. If the number of units is finite, it
come into play when they interpret the is a finite population and if the number of units is
questions to be put to the respondents or infinite, it is an example of an infinite population.
record the answers to these questions. Usually in practice, we are concerned with a finite
In complete enumeration, the extent of non- population.
sampling error tends to be significantly large When an inquiry is based upon obtaining
because, generally, a large number of individuals information from all the units of a population, the
are involved in the data collection process. We try procedure is known as the complete enumeration
to minimise this error through: method or the census method.
(i) a careful planning of the survey,
SOME CONCEPTS
(ii) providing proper training to the investigators,
We explain below some of the concepts frequently
(iii) making the questionnaire simple. used in sampling theory.
However, we would Like to emphasize that
complete enumeration is always prone to large non- Parameter
sampling errors. In a statistical inquiry, our interest lies in one or
more characteristics of the population. A measure
Sampling Error of such a characteristic is called a parameter. For
By now it should be clear that in the sampling example, we may be interested in the mean income
method also, non-sampling error may be committed. of the people of some region for a particular year.
(2122) (Math)—3-II
18

We may also like to know the standard deviation the parameter from the information obtained from
of these incomes of the people. Here, both mean a sample drawn from the population. This sample
and standard deviation are parameters. information is summarised in the form of a statistic.
Parameters are conventionally denoted by For example, sample mean or sample median or
Greek alphabets. For example, the population mean sample mode is called a statistic. Thus, a statistic
can be denoted by  and population standard is calculated from the values of the units that are
deviation can be denoted by . included in the sample. So, a statistic can be
It is important to note that the value of a defined as function of the sample values.
parameter is computed from all the population Conventionally, a statistic is denoted by an English
observations. Thus, the parameter ‘mean income’ is alphabet. For example, the sample mean may be
calculated from all the income figures of different denoted by x and the sample standard deviation
individuals that constitute the population. may be denoted by s. If T is a statistic that we want
Similarly, for the calculation of the parameter to obtain from the sample values x1, x2, ... xn, then
‘correlation coefficient of heights and weights’, we T = f(x1, x2, ... xn)
require the values of all the pairs of heights and
weights in a population. Thus, we can define a Estimator and Estimate
parameter as a function of the population values. The basic purpose of a statistic is to estimate some
If  is a parameter that we want to obtain from the population parameter. The procedure followed or
population values X1, X2, ... XN, then  = f(X 1, X2, the formula used to compute a statistic is called an
... XN). estimator and the value of a statistic so computed
is known as an estimate.
Statistic
If we use the formula
While discussing the census and the sample survey,
x  x 2  ..... x n 1 n
we have seen that due to various constraints, x 1 =  xi for calculating a
sometimes it is difficult to obtain information about n n i 1
the whole population, In other words, it may not be statistic, then this formula is an estimator. Next, if
always possible to compute a population parameter. we use this formula and get x = 10, then this ‘10’
In such situations, we try to get some idea about is an estimate.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS


1. Sampling is inevitable in the situations A. Restricted sampling
A. Blood test of a person B. Purposive sampling
B. When the population is infinite C. Simple random sampling
C. Testing of life of dry battery cells D. None of the above
D. All the above 4. Simple random sample can be drawn with the
2. The difference between sample estimate and help of
population parameter is termed as A. Slip method
A. Human error B. Random number table
B. Sampling error C. Calculator
C. Non-sampling error D. All the above
D. None of the above 5. A selection procedure of a sample having no
3. If each and every unit of population has equal involvement of probability is known as
chance of being included in the sample, it is A. Purposive sampling
known as B. Judgement sampling
19

C. Subjective sampling t – E(t ) PQ


D. All the above C. D.
S.E.(t ) n
6. Five establishments are to be selected from a 15. The alternative hypothesis H 1: 0 (0
list of 50 establishments by systematic random or   0) takes the critical region as
sampling. If the first number is 7, the next A. Right tail only
one is B. Both right and left tail
A. 8 B. 16 C. Left tail only
C. 17 D. 21 D. Acceptance region
7. A measure characterizing a sample such as x 16. A hypothesis may be classified as
or s is called A. Simple B. Composite
A. Population B. Statistic C. Null D. All the above
C. Universe D. Mean 17. Whether a test is one sided or two sided
8. The standard error of the mean is depends on
 A. Alternative hypothesis
A. 2 B. B. Composite hypothesis
n
 n C. Null hypothesis
C. D. D. Simple hypothesis
n 
18. A wrong decision about H0 leads to:
9. Alternative hypothesis is
A. One kind of error
A. Always Left Tailed
B. Two kinds of error
B. Always Right tailed
C. Three kinds of error
C. Always One Tailed
D. Four kinds of error
D. One Tailed or Two Tailed
19. Area of the critical region depends on
10. Critical region is
A. Size of type I error
A. Rejection Area B. Acceptance Area
B. Size of type II error
C. Probability D. Test Statistic Value
C. Value of the statistics
11. The critical value of the test statistic at level D. Number of observations
of significance a for a two tailed test is denoted 20. Test of hypothesis H0 :  = 70 vs H1 =  > 70
by leads to
A. Z/2 B. Z A. One sided left tailed test
C. Z2 D. Z /4 B. One sided right tailed test
12. In the right tailed test, the critical region is C. Two tailed test
A. 0 D. None of the above
B. 1 21. Testing H0 :  = 1500 against  < 1500 leads
C. Lies entirely in right tail to
D. Lies in the left tail A. One sided left tailed test
13. Critical value of |Za| at 5% level of signi- B. One sided right tailed test
ficance for two tailed test is C. Two tailed test
A. 1.645 B. 2.33 D. All the above
C. 2.58 D. 1.96 22. Testing H0 :  = 100 vs H1 :   100 lead to
14. Under null hypothesis the value of the test A. One sided right tailed test
statistic Z is B. One sided left tailed test
t – S.E.(t ) t  E(t ) C. Two tailed test
A. B. D. None of the above
E(t ) S.E.(t )
20

23. Student’s ‘t’ distribution was pioneered by A. 27 B. 9


A. Karl Pearson B. Laplace C. 3 D. zero
C. R.A. Fisher D. William S.Gosset 29. When observed and expected frequencies
24. t-distribution ranges from completely coincide 2 will be
A.   to 0 B. 0 to  A. –1 B. +1
C.   to  D. 0 to 1 C. greater than 1 D. 0
25. The difference of two means in case of a small 30. For n = 2, 20.05 equals
samples is tested by the formula A. 5.9 B. 5.99
x1 – x2 C. 5.55 D. 5.95
A. t 
s 31. The calculated value of 2 is
A. always positive
x1 – x2 n1  n2
B. B. always negative
s n1  n2 C. can be either positive or negative
x1 – x2 n1 n2 D. none of these
C. t 32. The Yate’ s corrections are generally made
s n1  n2
when the cell frequency is
n1 n2 A. 5 B. <5
D. t
n1  n2 C. 1 D. 4
26. While testing the significance of the difference 33. The 2 test was derived by
between two sample means in case of small A. Fisher B. Gauss
samples, the degree of freedom is C. Karl Pearson D. Laplace
A. n1 + n2 B. n1 + n2 – 1 34. Degrees of freedom for Chi-square in case of
C. n1 + n2 – 2 D. n1 + n2 + 2 contingency table of order (4 × 3) are
27. Paired t-test is applicable w hen the A. 12 B. 9
observations in the two samples are C. 8 D. 6
A. Paired B. Correlated 35. Customarily the larger variance in the variance
C. equal in number D. all the above ratio for Fstatistic is taken
28. The m ean difference between a paired A. in the denominator
observations is 15.0 and the standard deviation B. in the numerator
of differences is 5.0 if n = 9, the value of C. either way
statistic t is D. none of the above

ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
D B C D D C B C D A
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
A C D C B D A B A B
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A C D C C C D B D B
31 32 33 34 35
A C C D B
  
21

CHAPTER

Analysis of Time Series Components

Everyone knows that future is uncertain. However, be taken at an interval of an hour, a day, a week,
one cannot afford to be completely relaxed thinking a month, a year depending upon the type of event
that it is uncertain. We have to try our best to make the data refer to. Time series analysis is used to
ourselves prepared to face it, be it a very optimistic detect patterns of change in statistical information
one or a worst case scenario. Thus forecasting or over regular intervals of time. Then the predictions
prediction about the future, becomes an important or forecasting about the future are made by
function for a manager is an essential tool in any projecting these patterns. However, the forecasted
decision-making process. The activities of a firm or figure may or may not tally with the real values.
a company works according to the forecasted data. Sometimes forecasted figure can be closer to the
We can take the simple example of the manufacturers actual and sometimes it can also lead to wrong
of exercise books used by students where we find conclusions.
that the sales are more during the beginning of an We can understand it better through an example
academic session so production would be planned given below:
accordingly to supply more during those months. Table 1
Similarly the sale of umbrellas during rainy season.
This forecasting ranges right from the amount of Year 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011
grocery a vegetable vendor should stock to the Sales of Maruti 285 300 320 345 375 ?
sales of a huge automobile manufacturing company. cars (in thous-
The quality or the accurateness of the forecasting and units)
depends entirely on the forecasting method used From the table we can see that the sales of
and also on the judgement and expertise of the Maruti cars are increasing year by year, so we can
analyst. predict that the sales will be increasing in the year
Time Series Analysis is one quantitative 2011. However predicting/forecasting is not so
method of forecasting where predictions are made simple as it looks, there are certain systematic ways
based on past historical data. for prediction which we will be studying one by
one. Before that we will study some types of
MEANING OF TIME SERIES variations found in time series.
An arrangement of statistical data in accordance
UTILITY OF THE TIME SERIES
with the time of occurrence or in chronological
order is called a time series. In other words, the The following are the possible uses of the time
observations in numerical form obtained at regular series.
interval of time is known as time series. The time (i) The comparative study of behaviour of the
frame of the observations or the recorded data may variable over different periods of time can
21
22

be done. The variable may be export called a downward trend. If the variable moves
figures, quantity of industrial production upward or downwards along a straight line then the
and so on. trend is called a linear trend, otherwise it is called
(ii) Forecasting can be done using the time a non-linear trend.
series. By studying the variations and other
Seasonal variations
behaviour of the variables over a
sufficiently long period of time, it may be Variations in a time series that are periodic in nature
possible to forecast the future behaviour of and occur regularly over short periods of time during
the variables. However, such a forecast has a year are called seasonal variations. By definition,
meaning only if the period of forecast is a these variations are precise and can be forecasted.
normal period. For example, various five- The following are examples of seasonal
year plans by the Government of India are variations in a time series:
formulated by studying the time series and (i) The prices of vegetables drop down after
forecasting. rainy season or in winter months and they
(iii) Study of the time series helps in analysing go up during summer, every year.
the past behaviour of the variables. This (ii) The prices of cooking oils reduce after the
helps in identifying the various forces that harvesting of oil seeds and go up after
affect its behaviour. some time.
COMPONENTS OF TIME SERIES Cyclic variations
The behaviour of a time series over periods of time The long-term oscillations that represent consistent
is called the movement of the time series. The time rises and declines in the values of the variable are
series is classified into the following four called cyclic variations. Since these are long-term
components: oscillations in the time series, the period of
(i) Long term trend or secular trend oscillation is usually greater than one year. The
oscillations are about a trend curve or a trend line.
(ii) Seasonal variations
The period of one cycle is the time-distance between
(iii) Cyclic variations two successive peaks or two successive troughs.
(iv) Random variations
Random variations
Long-term trend or secular trend Random variations are called irregular movements.
This refers to the smooth or regular long term growth Movements that occur usually in brief periods of
or decline of the series. This movement can be time, without any pattern and which are unpredic-
characterised by a trend curve. If this curve is a table in nature are called irregular movements.
straight line, then it is called a trend line. If the These movements do not have any regular period or
variable is increasing over a long period of time, time of occurrences. For example, the effect of national
then it is called an upward trend. If the variable is strikes, floods, earthquakes and so on. It is very
decreasing over a long period of time, then it is difficult to study the behaviour of such a time series.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS


1. A time series consists of A. Weather B. Social customers
A. Two components B. Three Components C. Festivals D. All of the above
C. Four Components D. Five Components 3. Simple average method is used to calculate
2. Salient features responsible for the seasonal A. Trend Values
variation are B. Cyclic Variations
23

C. Seasonal indices 10. The economic rhythm theory comes under


D. None of these the category of
4. Irregular variations are A. Analytical methods
A. Regular B. Cyclic B. Naive method
C. Episodic D. None of the above C. Barometric methods
D. None of the above
5. If the slope of the trend line is positive it
shows 11. Measures of association in usually deal with
A. Rising Trend B. Declining trend A. Attributes
C. Stagnation D. None of the above B. Quantitative factors
C. Variables
6. The sales of a departmental store on Diwali D. Numbers
are associated with the component of time-
series 12. The frequency of class can always be
A. Secular trend expressed as a sum of frequencies of
B. Seasonal variation A. Lower order classes
C. Irregular variation B. Higher order classes
D. All the above C. Zero order classes
D. None of the above
7. The component of time-series attached to long
term variation is termed as 13. With the two attributes the total number of
A. Secular Trend class frequencies are
B. Seasonal Variation A. Two B. Four
C. Irregular variation C. Eight D. Nine
D. Cyclic variation 14. If for two the attributes are A and B,
8. Business forecasts are made on the basis of (A).(B)
(AB)  the attributes are
A. Present Data N
B. Past data A. Independent
C. Polices and circumstances B. Positively associated
D. All the above C. Negatively associated
9. Econometric methods involve D. No conclusion
A. Economics and Mathematics 15. In case of two attributes A and B the class
B. Economics and Statistics frequency (AB) = 0 the value of Q is
C. Economics, Statistics and Mathematics A. 1 B. –1
D. None of the above C. 0 D. –1  Q  1

ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C D C C A B A D C B
11 12 13 14 15
A B D B B
  
24

CHAPTER
Vital Statistics—Measures of Fertility,
Measures of Mortality, Specific Fertility
Rates, Gross and Net Reproduction Rates

DEFINITIONS AND MEASURES OF Calculation of Mid – Year Population


FERTILITY AND MORTALITY The mid – year population is the average population
during the first and fifth round of the survey and
Calculation of Age was obtained as follows:
Since the SPC was a multi–round survey, all changes
Mid-Year Population
in household composition and events concerning
births, deaths, in–migration and out–migration were Round 1 population  Round 5 population
recorded as of the interview date for the household. =
2
Age as of the time of interview and the time of
occurrence of an event was calculated as follows: FERTILITY MEASURES
 Age at Date of First Interview: Refers to
the age of a person as of the time of the first Crude Birth Rate (CBR)
interview, which may not necessarily be the The number of births occurring in a year per 1,000
first round of survey. Age at date of first population. The rate is crude in that it related to the
interview, therefore, was the difference total population without regard to age and sex.
between the date of first interview and date
of birth for each individual. B
CBR =  1000
 Age as of Survey Round: Refers to the age P
of a person as of a specific round of interview, where,
e.g. age as of Round 1 was the difference B = total births for a given area and year
between date of the first interview and date P = total mid-year population of the area
of birth. Age of mid–year population in
Table 1 was obtained from age as of survey The CBR for each region, whole kingdom and
round. each area is estimated as follows:
 Age of Mother at Birth of Child: Obtained The estimate of crude birth rate for each region
by taking the difference between the birth is calculated by
date of child within the survey round and 2

the birth date of mother. CBR h = W


i 1
hi CBR hi ...(1)
 Age of Decedent: Age of decedent was the
difference between the date of death within where,
the survey round and birth date of the CBR hi = the estimate of crude birth rate in the
decedent. ith area for the hth region
24
(2122) (Math)—4
25

n hi
Wi = the weight for the ith area
B
j 1
hij
Bhij 2
CBR h =  1000   100
n hi
Phij W 1 i

 Phij
j 1
i 1

Bhij = total births during the year in the jth Age-Specific Fertility Rate (ASFR)
sample blocks or villages in the ith The number of births occurring annually (or in a
area for the hth region specified period) per 1,000 women of specific age
Phij = total mid-year population in the jth (usually in terms of 5–year age groups within the
sample blocks or villages in the ith childbearing ages, i.e. 15–49 years).
area for the hth region nB x
n hi = total number of sample blocks or n fx =  1000
nF x
villages in the ith area for the hth where
region
n fx = age–specific fertility rate for age
Whi = the weight in the ith area for the hth group x to x + n
region
n B x = number of births occurring to women
2
in the age group x to x + n
W
i 1
hi 1
nFx = number of females in the age group
i = 1 for municipal area, 2 for non- x to x + n
municipal area
General Fertility Rate (GFR)
h = 1 for the Bangkok Metropolis, 2 for
the Central Region (Excluding the The number of births occurring annually per 1,000
Bangkok metropolis), 3 for the women of childbearing ages (usually 15-44 years or
Northeastern Region, 4 for the 15-49 years).
Southern Region, 5 for the Northern B
Region GFR =  1000
F(15– 49)
The estimate of crude birth rate for each area is where,
calculated by
B = total births for a given area and year
5
F(15 – 49) = number of women age 15 – 49 years
CBRi = W
h1
hi CBR hi ...(2)

where,
Standardized GFR
Whi = the weight in the ith area for the hth For comparison of general fertility rates of the
region population in different areas, the standardized
method is used in order to avoid the effects of
5
differences in the age composition of each subgroup
W
h1
hi 1
of population.
f F
The estimate of crude birth rate for the whole  n x  n x(Std. Pop.)
kingdom is calculated by Standarized GFR = F

2
 n x(Std. Pop.)
CBR =  W CBR ...(3) where, n fx = age–specific fertility rate for
i i
i 1 age group x to x + n of a
where, subgroup of population
26

nFx (Std. Pop.) = number of females in the if they experienced a given set of age–specific
sam e age group in the mortality and fertility rates.
standard population. The
standard used w as the   
nL x 
number of females in the NRR = x

 nF f x 10 

whole kingdom population  
nFfx = Each five–year age–specific fertility
Total Fertility Rate (TFR) rate including only female live births
The sum of annual age–specific fertility rates n Lx = The number of person–years lived
computed for each age group in the childbearing between exact ages x and x + n
period. This measure indicated the number of 10 = Radix of the life table (100,000
children that would be born to a hypothetical cohort people)
of 1,000 women who follow a set of a current
schedule of age–specific fertility rates, assuming MORTALITY MEASURES
that none of the women die before reaching the end
of the childbearing period. Crude Death Rate (CDR)
The number of deaths occurring in a year per 1,000
f
 
TFR =  n  n x   1000
average or mid–year population within a given or
Where, population group. As with the crude Birth Rate, it
n fx = age–specific birth rate for age group related to the total population without regard to age
x to x + n and sex.
n = number of years in the age interval (5 D
CDR =  1000
years) P
where,
Gross Reproduction Rate (GRR) D = total deaths for a given area and year
The average number of daughters born to a cohort P = total mid–year population of the area
of 1,000 women who follow a set of a current
The CDR for each region, whole kingdom and
schedule of age–specific fertility rates, assuming
each area are obtained by the same procedures as
that none of the women die before reaching the end
for the CBR.
of childbearing period.

B( f ) Age – Specific Death Rate (ASDR)


f
 
GRR =  n n x  
B The number of deaths occurring annually (or in a
specified period) per 1,000 population of specific
n fx = age–specific birth rate for one mother
age (usually in terms of 5 years age group).
in the age group x to x + n
n = number of years in the interval (5 nD x
nM x =  1000
years) nP x
where,
B( f )
= proportion of female births n M x = age – specific death rate for age group
B x to x + n
D
n x = number of deaths in the age group x
Net Reproduction Rate (NRR) to x + n
The average number of daughters that a hypothetical nPx = number of population in the age
cohort of females starting life together would bear group x to x + n
27

Infant Mortality Rate (IMR) 1x  n


nqx = 1 –
The number of infant deaths (death occurring within 1x
1 year after birth) per 1,000 live births for the given 1 x = number of survivors at age x,
year. 1x = number of survivors at age x + n,
+ n
D0 = 1 x – n dx
IMR =  1000
B n d x = number of deaths between age x and
Where, x + n,
D0 = number of infant deaths occurring n L x = the stationary population during the
within a year age interval x to x + n
B = number of live births for a given year T x = the stationary population during a
certain age interval and all subsequent
LIFE TABLE COMPUTATION age intervals was obtained by the
The Life Table was computed by using ELT formula: = Tx + n + nLx
program. The data in the life table were computed and e x = the average remaining life time or
as follows: expectation of life, was calculated as
Therefore, nqx the proportion of person alive at follows:
age x and dying between age x and x + n was Tx
obtained by the following formula: ex = .
1x

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS


1. General fertility rate is the number of births 4. GRR is obtained by dividing the number of
per thousand women aged: female births to the total number of births
A. 15 to 43 and multiplied by:
B. 15 to 45 A. CBR B. SDR
C. 15 to 44 C. TFR D. ASFR
D. 14 to 44 5. (i) All the present mothers would survive to
2. Rate may be obtained by dividing the number end of reproductive period.
of birth to the mothers of each age by the (ii) The entire new born girl would attain the
number of females of that age. motherhood without dying.
A. Total fertility rate (iii) The fertility rate would remain unchanged
B. Age specific fertility throughout the child bearing age.
C. Standardized birth rate The above stated statem ents are the
D. None of these assumptions of:
3. The infant mortality is defined as the number A. GRR B. SDR
of deaths of infants less than 1 year of age C. TFR D. ASFR
registered in given year per 1000 live births 6. In the calculation of NRR the factor of
registered: mortality is considered:
A. In the preceding year A. No
B. In the mid of the year B. Yes
C. In the same year C. Sometimes
D. In the following year D. Depending upon situations
28

7. Rate is obtained by multiplying the ASFR A. Quasi-stable population


(female only) at a given age by the chance of B. Unstable population
a female child surviving from birth to the age C. Stable population
group of mother and summing for all ages of D. Target population
the mother. 10. An index is obtained by dividing the number
A. GRR B. NRR of children in given age group in the actual
C. TFR D. ASFR population by the number of women in the
8. The population w ill increase, rem ains actual population who would have been in
stationery or decreasing according to whether the reproductive age group when these
the NRR exceeds, equal or is less than: children were born and then by dividing this
A. Zero B. –1 quotient by the corresponding quotient in
C. 2 D. Unity the life table stationary population.
A. Vital index
9. The term is used in which fertility has been B. Social index
nearly constant for a long time and mortality C. Replacement index
has been falling: D. Birth index

ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C B C C A B B D A C

  
29

CHAPTER

Set Theory—Basic Concepts and Applications

SETS, RELATIONS AND FUNCTIONS Note:


A set is a well defined collection of objects. Object (i) Every set is a subset of itself.
must be distinct and clearly specified, following are (ii)  is a subset of each set.
the example of sets (iii) The number of subset of a set = 2n, where
(i) a, e, i, o, u n is the number of elements of a set.
(ii) 1, 3, 5, 7, 9
(iii) Sunday, Monday, Tuesday Universal Set
A set consisting of all possible elements which
All the things included in a set are called
occurs in the discussion is called the Universal set
elements of the given set. We use the sign {} to
and it is denoted by U.
represent a set. In general, a set is named by capital
letter of English alphabet.
Union of two Sets
For example : A = {1, 2, 3, 4}
The union of two sets A and B is the set of all
This method of representing a set is called “Tabular elements in set A or in set B and is written as A  B.
form”.
Thus, x  A  B  x  A or x  B.
A = {natural no. smaller than 5}
Also A  B = {x : x  A or x  B}.
= {x : x is a natural no. and x < 5}
e.g., Let A = {a, b, c}, B = {c, d, e}.
This method of representing a set is called “Set
builder form”. then A B = {a, b, c, d, e}.

Empty Set Intersection of two Sets


A set have no element is called null set or Empty The intersection of two sets A and B is the set of
Set and denoted by  or {}. But {0}, {}, are not a elements which are common to both A and B.
null set because they have one element and the set Intersection of sets A and B is denoted by A  B.
having one element is called Singleton Set. e.g., Let A = {1, 2, 3}and B = {2, 3, 5}, then A 
B = {2, 3}
Subset
Let A and B be two sets in the same Universal set. Disjoint Sets
If every element A is also an element of B, i.e., x A If A and B have no elements in common, then A
 x  B, then we say that A is a subset of B it is and B are called disjoint  A  B = , e.g., the sets
denoted by A  B. {1, 2}, {3, 4} are disjoint sets.

29
30

Complements of Set Inverse Relation (R –1)


The complement of a set A is the set of elements Let R be a relation from A to B (i.e., from set A to
which do not belong to A, i.e., the difference U – set B), then the inverse relation R–1 (which will be
A, where U is the universal sets. It is denoted by from set B to set A) is defined by
“A”. e.g., consider U = {1,2,3,.......10} R–1 = {(b, a) : (a, b)  R}
A = {1,3,5,7,9} then A' = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10}
Note: The complement of the union of two sets
Kinds of Relation
is the intersection of their complements and the (i) Identity relation : Let A be a set. Then the
complements of the intersection of two sets is the relation
union of their complements. Symboli-cally, (A B)' IA = {(a, a)  a  A}
= A'  B' and (A  B)' = A'  B'. For example, the relation {(1, 1), (2, 2), (3, 3)}
is the identity relation on set A = {1, 2, 3,}.
Some Important Theorem on Operation
(ii) Universal relation : A relation R is in a set
1. Demorgan’s Law A is universal relation, if R = A × A.
(a) (A  B)' = A'  B' This means, if the relation R is the cartesian
(b) (A  B)' = A'  B' product itself of set A, then it is universal
2. (a) A  (B  C) = (A  B)  C relation.
(b) (A  B)  C = A  (B  C) Example: Let A = {1, 2, 3}, then
3. (a) A – (B  C) = (A – B)  (A – C) Universal relation R = {(1, 1), (1, 2), (1, 3),
(2, 1), (2, 2), (2, 3), (3, 1), (3, 2), (3, 3)}.
(b) A  (B C) = (A B) (A  C)
Therefore, all the relations on A will be
4. (a) A – (B  C) = (A – B)  (A – C) subsets of the universal relation on A.
(b) A  (B – C) = (A  B) – (A  C) (iii) Void relation : If a relation R in a set A is
5. (A – B)  (B – A) = (A  B) – (A  C) a void set, then R is called a “void relation”.
Ordered pairs. If A and B be the two given (iv) Reflexive relation : If “a R a” holds good
non empty sets and a  A, b B, then an element for all a  A.
of the form (a, b) is called an ordered pair. Thus, in (v) Symmetric relation : Here “a R b” implies
ordered pair (a, b) ‘a’ is regarded as the first element “b R a”. This means R is symmetric, if
and ‘b’ as the second element.
(a, b)  R  (b, a)  R for all a, b  A.
It is evident form of definition that is
(vi) Anti-symmetric relation : A relation R in
(i) (a, b)  (b, a) a set A is anti-symmetric when—
(ii) (a, b) = (c, d) if a = c, b = d. (a, b)  R and (b, a)  R  a = b
i.e., a R b and b R a results into a = b.
RELATION
(vii) Transitive relation : If “a R b” and “b R
Let there be two sets A and B, then a “relation R c” together imply “a R c”
from set A to set B” is a subset of A × B. A relation R is transitive on set A if
A is called ‘Domain of R’ (a, b)  R and (b, c)  R  (a, c)  R
B is called ‘Co-domain of R’ for all a, b, c  A.
And the set of the corresponding second entries (viii) Equivalence relation: If a relation is
in the ordered pairs comprising the relation R is reflexive and symmetric as well as transi-
called the ‘Range of R’. tive, it is called an “equivalence relation”.
31

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS


1. Let a = {x : x is a multiple of 3} and B = 7. Let n(U) = 700, n(A) = 200, n(B) = 300,
{x : x is a multiple of 5}. Then A  B is given n(A  B) = 100. Then (A  B) =
by: A. 400
A. {3, 6, 9, ...} B. 600
B. {5, 10, 15, 20, ...} C. 300
C. {15, 30, 45, ....} D. None of these
D. None of these 8. Suppose A 1, A2,....., A30 are thirty sets each
2. If X and Y are two sets, then X  (Y  X) having 5 elements and B130, B2,..,n Bn are n sets
equals: each with 3 elements, let U
i 1
A i  U B j  S and each
j 1

A. X B. Y elements of S belongs to exactly 10 of the A i’s


C.  D. 0 and exactly 9 of the Bi’s. The n is equal to
A. 15 B. 3
3. Let A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}, B = {2, 3, 6, 7}. Then C. 45 D. None of these
the number of elements in (A × B) (B × A)
is: 9. Two finite sets have m and n elements. The
A. 18 B. 6 total number of subsets of the first set is 56
C. 4 D. 0 more than the total number of subsets of the
second set. The values of m and n are.
4. In a group of 52 persons, 16 drink tea but not A. 7, 6 B. 6, 3
coffee and 33 drink tea. It is assumed that C. 5, 1 D. 8, 7
every person takes tea or coffee. Then the
10. Out of 880 boys in a school, 224 played
number of persons who take coffee but not tea
cricket, 240 played hockey and 336 played
is given by:
basketball. Of the total, 64 played both
A. 19
basketball and hockey, 80 played cricket and
B. 36
basketball and 40 played cricket and hockey;
C. Cannot be found by the given data
24 played all the three games. The number of
D. None of these
boys who did not play any game, is
5. A survey of 100 Indians shown that 60 like A. 128 B. 216
cheese whereas 70 likes apples. Let n be the C. 240 D. 16
number of persons who like both cheese and 11. Let A = {1, 2, 3,}, B = {1, 3, 5}. A relation R :
apple. Then: A  B is defined by R = {(1,3), (1,5), (2,1)}.
A. n = 30 B. n = 60 Then R-1 is defined by
C. n = 10 D. None of these A. {(1, 2), (3, 1), (1, 3), (1, 5)}
6. Consider the set of all determinants of order B. {(1, 2), (3, 1), (2, 1)}
3 with entries 0 or 1 only. Let B be the subset C. {(1, 2), (5, 1), (3, 1)}
of A consisting of all determinants with values D. None of these
1. Let C be the subset of the set of all 12. The relation R is defined on the set of natural
determinants with value –1. Then: numbers as {(a, b): a = 2b}. Then R–1 is given by
A. B has as many elements as C A. {(2, 1), (4, 2), (6, 3)....}
B. C =  B. {(1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 6)....}
C. B has twice as many elements as C C. R–1 is not defined
D. A = B  C D. None of these
32

13. The relation R defined on the set of natural A. 4 B. 8


numbers as {(a, b): a differs from b by 3}, is C. 64 D. None of these
given by 16. Let R be a relation < from A = {1, 2, 3, 4} to
A. {(1, 4), (2, 5), (3, 6),....} B = {1, 3, 3}, i.e, (a, b)  R iff a < b. Then
B. {(4, 1), (5, 2), (6, 3),....} ROR–1 is
C. {(1, 3), (2, 6), (3, 9),.....} A. {(1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 5), (4, 5)}
D. None of these B. {(3, 1), (5, 1), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4)}
14. A relation R defined on the set of integers by C. {(3, 3), (3, 5), (5, 3), (5, 5)}
R = {(a, b): a divides b}. Then R is D. None of these
A. reflexive B. symmetric 17. The solution set of 8x  6 (mod 14), x  Z, are
C. transitive D. equivalence A. [8]  [6]
15. Give two finite sets A and B such that n(A) = 2, B. [8]  [14]
n(B) = 3. Then total number of relations from C. [6] [13]
A to B is D. [8]  [6]  [13]

ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
C C C A A A C C B C
11 12 13 14 15 16 17
D B D C C C C

EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
1. A = {3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, .....}, (T C) n(A) = 52
B = {5, 10, 15, .......}, We have n (C  T) = 52  16  17 = 19.
Since x is a multiple of 3 and 5 both if it is Alter . Since (T  C) = 52,
a multiple of LCM of 3 and 5, i.e., of 15.
we have n (T ) + n (C  T) = 52,
Note : aN  bN = hN, ( h = LCM of a, b)
 n ( C  T ) = 52 33 = 19.
2. X Y  X) = X  (Y X)
5. Let A = Apples, C  Cheese.
= (X  Y)  Y
n(A C) = n(A) + n(C) n(A C)
= X=
= 70 + 60 – 100
3. (x, y)  A  B    
= 30
 (x, y)    (x, y)    
6. Since interchange of any two rows change the
 (x   y  ); and (x   y  )
sign of the value of the determinants, number of
 x, y  A  B, Now A  B = {2, 3} determinats having value 1 is equal to the
 Number of elements in (A  B)(B  A) number of determinants having value  1
is 2  2 = 4
1 0 0
4. n(T  C) = n(T)  n(T C) Also, 0 1 1 = 1 shows that C  
= 33  16 = 17 0 1 0
(2122) (Math)—5
33

7. n(A  B) = n(A  B) 12. R = { (2, 1), (4, 2), (6, 3), ...... }
= 700  n(A  B) so R1 = { (1, 2), (2, 4), (3, 6), ....... }
= 700  [ 200 + 300  100 ] = 300.
13. R = {(a, b) : a, b  N, A ~ B = 3 }
30 1 = {(n, n + 3), (n + 3, n) : n  N}
8. S =  A i  (5  30)  15
i =l 10 = {(1, 4), (4, 1), (2, 5), (5, 2), ........}
[Since element in the union S belongs to 10 14. R is not reflexive since (0, 0)  R, since 0
of A i’s]. does not divide 0. R is not symmetric, since
30 2 / 4, but 4 / 2. R is transitive since
Also S =  Bi = (3n) / 9 = n /3  n / 3 = 15
i=l
15. Here n (A  B) = 2  3 = 6. Since every subset
 n = 45 of A  B defines a relation from A to B,
9. 2m = 2n + 56, Which is satisfied when m = 6, number of subsets of A  B = 26 = 64
n = 3. 16. R = {( 1, 3), (1, 5), (2, 3), (2, 5), (3, 5), (4, 5)}
10. Let C, B and H denote the sets of boys playing  R = {(3, 1), (5, 1), (3, 2), (5, 2), (5, 3), (5, 4)}
cricket, basketball and hockey respectively. R O R = {(3, 3), (3, 5), (5, 3), (5, 5)}
Then n(C  B  H) ( Note that to form R O R, we have to start
= n(C) + n(B) + n(H)  n(C  B) with R)
 n(B  H)  n(H  C) + n(H  C  H) 17. 8x  6 = 14p(p  Z)
= 224 + 336 + 240  64  80  40 + 24  x = (1/ 8)[14p + 6], x  Z = (1/ 4)(7p + 3)
= 640  x = 6, 13, 20, 27, 34, 41, 48, ........
 Number of boys not playing any of the  Solution set
game = 880  640 = 240
= {6, 20, 34, 48, .......}{13, 27, 41, ........}
11. (x, y)  R  (y, x)  R, = [6] [13], where [6], [13] are equivalence
 R = { ( 3, 1), ( 5, 1 ), ( 1, 2 ) } class of 6 and 13 respectively.

  
34

CHAPTER

Matrices & Determinants,


Simultaneous Linear Equations

MATRICES  Null (or Zero) Matrix. If all the elements of a


matrix are equal to zero, then it is called a null
A system of mn numbers (real or complex) arranged
matrix and is denoted by 0m x n or 0.
in a rectangular array of m rows and n columns is
called a matrix of order m × n or an m × n matrix  Diagonal Matrix. A square matrix in which all
(to be read as “m by n matrix”). A m × n matrix is its elements are zero except those in the lead-
written as ing diagonal, is called a diagonal matrix. Thus
LM a 11 a 12 ... a 1n OP in a diagonal matrix, ay= 0, if i  j. The diago-
nal matrices of order 2 and 3 are
MM a. . . a 22 ... a 2n
P
... P
MMLk0 OP
21

MM . . . ... ...
P LMk 0 OP 1 0 0
... ... ... P
N0
1

Q
k2 ,
MN 0
k2 0 P
MN a
m1 a m2 ... a PQ
mn 0 k PQ
3
In compact form, the above matrix is represented  Scalar Matrix. A diagonal matrix in which all
by A = [aij]m x nor A = [aij]where aij represent the the diagonal elements are equal is called the
number in the ith row and jth column. The number a11 scalar matrix.

MML OP
, a12 , etc., are called the elements or entries of the
matrix. 2 0 LM
k 0 0
OP
e.g., the matrix A =
0 2 N
, B = 0 k 0 are
Q MN PP
Types of Matrices 0 0 k Q
 Row Matrix. A matrix having only one row is scalar matrices of order 2 and 3 respectively.
called row-matrix or a row-vector.  Unit Matrix or Identity Matrix. A square
e.g. the matrix [a11, a12,...........a1n] is a 1 × n row matrix each of whose diagonal elements is unity
matrix. and each of whose non-diagonal elements is
 Column Matrix. A single column matrix is equal to zero is called an identity or unit ma-
called a column matrix or a column-vector. trix, e.g., a unit matrix of order 2 and 3 are
1 LM 1 0 OP LM 1 0 0 OP
e.g., A =  2 is a column matrix of order 3 × 1. N0 1 Q ,
MM 0 1 0 PP
1 N0 0 1 Q
 Square Matrix. If m = n i.e., if the number of  Upper Triangular Matrix. A square matrix A
rows and columns of a matrix are equal, then it whose elements aij= 0 for i > j is called an
is called square matrix. upper triangular matrix.

34 (2122) (Math)—5-II
35

 Lower Triangular Matrix. A square matrix A  Multiplication of Matrices. Two matrices A


whose elements aij= 0 for i < j is called a lower and B are conformable for the product AB if
triangular matrix. the number of columns in A is same as the
 Equal Matrix. Two matrices A and B are said number of rows in B. Thus if A=[aij]m x n and
to be equal, written as A = B, if (i) they are both [bij]n x p are two matrices of order m × n and n ×
of the same order, i.e. have the same number of p respectively, then their product AB is of or-
rows and columns and (ii) the elements in the der m × p and is defined as
corresponding places of the two matrices are n

the same. (AB)ij = a


r 1
b  a i1b1 j  a i 2b2 j ...... a imbnj
ir rj

 Addition of Matrices. Let A, B be two matri- = (ith row of A) (jth column of B)


ces, each of order m × n. Then there sum de- [i = 1, 2,......., m and j = 1, 2,......., p]
noted by A + B is defined by adding the cor-
 Transpose of a Matrix. Let A be a m × n
responding elements of A and B. Thus, if A =
matrix, then the matrix of order n × m obtained
[aij]m x n and B = [bij]m x n , then A + B = [aij +
by changing its rows into columns and col-
bij]m x n . Note that we can find the sum A + B
umns into rows is called the transpose of A and
only if the number of rows and columns of
is denoted by A' or AT or At.
matrix A are equal to those of matrix B.
 Properties of Transpose. Let A and B be two
 Scalar Multiplication of a Matrix. Let A =
matrices. Then
[aij]m x n be a matrix and k be any number called
(i) (A T )T = A
a scalar. Then the matrix obtained by multiply-
(ii) (A+B)T = AT + BT , A and B being of the
ing every element of A by k is called the scalar
same order.
multiple of A by k and is denoted by kA. Thus,
(iii) (KA)T = KAT, K be any scalar (real or com-
kA = [kaij]m x n
plex).
LM 1 2 3 OP (iv) (AB)T= BTAT, A and B being conformable
Example: If A =  2 3 MM 4 , PP for the product AB.
N1 2 1 Q  Symmetric Matrices. A square matrix A is said
to be symmetric if A'= A. Thus a square matrix
LM 3 6 9 OP A= [aij] is symmetric if aij= aji for all values of
MM
than 3A =  6 9 12 P i and j.
N3 6  3PQ  Skew-Symmetric Matrix. A square matrix A is
 Subtraction of Matrices. For two matrices A said to be skew-symmetric if A ' = –A. i.e. A =
and B of the same order, we define A – B = A [aij] is skew-symmetric if aij = –aji for all values
+ (–B) of i and j.
LM  3 2 1 OP  Determinant of a Square Matrix of Order 1.
e.g., if A =
N1 4 7 Q If A = [a11] is a square matrix of order 1, then
LM 3 5 2 OP the determinant of A is defined as A  a11 or
and B =
N1 4 2 Q |a11| = a11
then, A – B = A + (–B)  Determinant of a Square Matrix of Order 2.

MNL 1 OP LM PQO LMa OP


3 2 1 3 5 2
a 12
= 4 7
+
Q N
1 4 2 If A =
Na
11
21 a 22 Q
is a square matrix of order 2,

= M2
L6 3 3O
9 PQ
then the expression a11 a22 – a12 a21 is defined
N 8 as the determinant of A i.e.
36

A 
LMa 11 OP
a 12 Here we have interchanged first and second

Na 21 Q
a 22 = a11 a22 – a12 a21
column, which we denote as
C1  C2 . If we interchange second and
LM3 2 4 OP third rows, we will write as R2  R3
For Example: If A = 1 MM PP
2 1 is a square (iii) If two rows or two columns of a determi-
N0 1 1 Q nant are identical, the value of the deter-
minant is zero.
3 2 4 (iv) If every element in a row or in a column of
matrix of order 3, then A  1 2 1 a determinant is multiplied by the same
0 1 1 constant, then the value of the determinant
gets multiplied by that constant.
2 1
= (–1)1+1. 3. +(–1)1+2 ka1 b1 c1 a 1 b1 c1
1 1
Thus ka 2 b2 c 2  k a 2 b2 c2
1 1 1 2 ka3 b3 c3 a 3 b3 c3
(–2) + (–1)1+3 .4 As an application of this property, we have
0 1 0 1
= 3(–2 –1) + 2 (–1 –0) + 4 (1 – 0) 5 11 21 1 1 3
= –9 –2 +4 =– 7 10 22 14 = 5 × 11 × 7 2 2 2 =0
Note:
15 33 7 3 3 1
1. Only square matrices have determinants. The
matrices which are not square do not have Since two columns are identical.
determinants. (v) If each element in any row or in a column
2. The determinants of a square matrix of order consists of two terms, then the determinant
3 can be expanded along any row or col- can be expressed as the sum of two other
umn. determinants of the same order.
3. If a row or a column of a determinant con- Thus
sists of all zeros, then the value of the de- a 1 + k1 b1 c1 a 1 b1 c1 k1 b1 c1
terminant is zero. a 2 + k2 b2 c2 = a 2 b2 c2 + k2 b2 c2
a 3 + k3 b3 c3 a 3 b3 c3 k3 b3 c3
PROPERTIES OF DETERMINANTS
In general, if the elements in the three rows
(i) The value of a determinant is not altered (or columns) contain m, n, p terms respec-
by changing its columns into rows and its tively, the determinant can be expressed as
rows into columns. the sum of m × n × p determinants.
a 1 b1 c1 a 1 a 2 a3 (vi) The value of determinant is unaltered if
Thus a 2 b2 c2  b1 b2 b3 each element of any row (or column) be
a 3 b3 c3 c1 c2 c3 added some multiple k of the correspond-
ing elements of any other row (or column).
(ii) If two adjacent row or columns of a deter-
Thus
minant are interchanged the sign of deter-
minant is changed but its numerical value a1 b1 c1 a 1  kb1 b1 c1
is unaltered.  = a2 b2 c2 = a 2  kb2 b2 c2
a1 b1 c1 b1 a1 c1 a3 b3 c3 a 3  kb3 b3 c3
Thus a 2 b2 c2   b2 a2 c2 (vii) If the elements of determinant  are ratio-
a3 b3 c3 b3 a3 c3 nal integral functions of x and two rows (or
37

two columns) become identical for x = a,


then (x – a) is a factor of  . This is called
LMC 11 C12 C13 OP T

Factor Theorem. If m rows (or columns) MMC C 22 C 23 P


QP
then adj A = 21
become identical for x = a, then (x – a)m – NC 31 C 32 C 33

MMLC OP
1
is a factor of  . C C 21 C 31
11
 Singular Matrix. A square matrix is a singular
=
MNC
12 C 22 C 32 PP
matrix if its determinant is zero. Otherwise, it is
a non- singular matrix. 13 C 23 C 33 Q
Example: Determine the values of x for which where Cij denotes the cofactor of aji in A.
the matrix
Inverse of a Matrix. A square matrix of order
LM x +1 OP

3 4 n is invertible if there exists a square matrix B
A = M 5 x+2 2 PP is singular. of the same order such that AB = In = BA. In such
MN 4 1 x6 Q a case, we say that the inverse of A is B and we
write, A–1 = B.
Solution:
A is a singular matrix if 1
The inverse of A is given by A 1 = .adj A
LM x +1 3 4 OP A
A  0  M 5 x + 2
MN 4 1 x  6QPP
2 0 Cramer ’s Rule for System of Non-
Homogeneous Linear Equations
L x + 2 2 OP  b3gLM5
 b x +1gM
2 OP  4LM5Consider,
x + 2O
P
N 1 x  6Q N 4 x  6Q N 4 1 Qa x + b y + c z =
1 1 1
d1

gLMN x 1+ 2 2 O L5 2 OP  4ML5 x + 2OP = 0 a 2x + b 2y + c2z = d 2


x +1 P  b 3gM
x  6Q N 4 x  6Q N 4 1 Q a 3x + b 3y + c3z = d 3

 (x + 1){(x + 2)(x – 6) – 2} By Cramer’s rule, we have


+ 3 {–5x + 30 – 8} + 4 {–5 – 4x – 8} = 0 x y z 1
 = = , where
 (x + 1)(x2 – 4x – 14) + 3 (–5x + 22) 1 2 3 
+ 4 (–4x – 13) = 0
 x (x 2
– 3x – 49) = 0 a1 b1 c1
 = a2 b2 c2
 x = 0, x =
1
2
e
3  205 j a3 b3 c3
 Adjoint of a Square Matrix. Let A = aij be d1 b1 c1
a square matrix of order n and let C ij be cofactor 1 = d2 b2 c2
of aij in A. Then the transpose of the matrix of d3 b3 c3
cofactors of elements of A is called the adjoint
of A and is denoted by adj A. a1 d1 c1
Thus, adj A = [Cij]T 2 = a2 d2 c2
 (adj A)ij = Cji = cofactor of aji in A. a3 d3 c3

MML PPO
a 11 a 12 a 13 a1 b1 d1
a 21 a 22 a 23  3 = a2 b2 d2
If A=
a 31MN a 32 a 33 PQ , a3 b3 d3
38

(I) If   0 , then the given equations have no solution. Then the system is said to be
unique solution and said to be consistent. inconsistent.
(III) If   0 and each of 1, 2, 3 is zero, then
(II) If   0 and at least one of  1 ,  2 ,  3 is
clearly x = 0, y = 0, z = 0 and the solution is
not zero, then the above equations will have said to be trivial solution.

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS


LM3
0 0 OP LM1
2 1 OP LM 10 4 1 OP
1. If A = M02
MN0
0 then A isP 7. If A = M3
4 2 and B = PP MM11 5 0 , then PP
0 1 QP MN1
3 2 Q N9 5 1 Q
A. diagonal matrix B. scalar matrix A. AB = BA B. AB  BA
C. unit matrix D. None of these C. AB = 2BA D. None of these
2. If A is symmetric as well as skew-symmetric  i 0 2
matrix then A is 8. If A =   , then A =
A. diagonal B. null 0 i 
C. triangular
LM 1
D. None of these
O LM1 0 OP LM1 0 OP
3. Let A = M 5
1
2
3
6 PP . Then A is
A.
N0 1Q B.
N0 1 Q
NM2 3QP LM1 0O LM1 0OP
1PQ
1
A. nilpotent
C. scalar
B. idempotent
D. None of these
C.
N0 D.
N0 1 Q
4.
L1 0OP , B = LM0 0 OP , then
If A = M
9. If the matrix AB is zero, then
A. A = 0 or B = 0
N2 0Q N1 12Q B. A = 0 and B = 0
A. AB = 0, BA =0 C. It is not necessary that either A = 0 or B =
B. AB = 0, BA 0
0
D. All these statements are wrong
C. AB  0, BA =0
D. AB  0, BA 0 LM2 0 1OP
L1 OP2 3 LM OP 10. If A = M2 1 3P , then A –5A + 6I =2

If A = M
2 3
M P MN1 1 0QP
5.
N 4 2 5 Q
and B = 4 5 , then
2 1 NM QP
A. AB, BA exist and are equal LM 1 1 5OP L 1 1 3 O
B. AB, BA exist and are not equal A. M 1 1 4 P B. M 1 1 10P
C. AB exists and BA does not exists
NM3 10 4 PQ NM5 4 4 PQ
D. AB does not exist and BA exists
LM1 0 1 OP C. 0 D. I

6. If A = M0 PP
0 0 , then A2 = 4 2
MN1 0 1 Q
11. If A =
1 1
, then (A – 2I) (A – 3I) =

A. A B. –A A. A B. I
C. 2A D. –2A C. 0 D. 5I
39

12. Let A=
1 2
and B =
1 0
and X be a
LM1 1 1 OP
3 5 0 2 19. The value of the determinant MM 1 1 1 PP is
matrix such that A = BX. Then X = N1 1 1 Q
A. M
L2 4 OP 1 L2 4 O
M P
equal to
A. – 4 B. 0
N3 5Q B.
2 N 3 5Q C. 1 D. 4

1 L 2 4 O
2
4 1 3 2 x 3
C. M P 20. If   , then x =
2 N 3 5Q
D. None of these 2 1 1 x 2 1

If A = M
L5 xOP and A = A , then A. 6
C. 8
B. 7
D. None of these
N y 0Q
t
13.
1  2
A. x = 0, y = 5 B. x + y = 5 21. The value of determinant  2 1 is
C. x = y D. None of these 2 1 

LM1 2 2 OP A.
B.
0
1
14. If A = M 2 PP
1 2 , then Adj A =
MN 2 2 1 Q
C.
D.

 : Where  is a cube root unity
A. A B. At xa b c
C. 3A D. 3At c xb a
22. If = 0, then one of the value

If A = M
L1 2OP , then A = a b xc
N 2 3Q
–1
15. of x is

A. M
L3 2 OP L3 2OP
B. M
A. a + b + c
C. a2 + b2 + c2
B. –(a + b + c)
D. a3 + b3 + c3
N Q2  1 N2 1 Q
C. M
L1 2OP L 3 2PO
D. M
23. Cofactor of 4 in the determinant
1 2 3
N 2 3Q N 2 1 Q 4 5 0 is equal to
LM3 3 4OP 2 0 1
16. If A = M2 3 4P , then A = –1 A. 2 B. –2
MN0 1 1PQ C. –5 D. None of these
A. A B. A2 24. If A + B + C =  , then the value of
C. A3 D. A4 sin( A  B  C ) sin B cos C
17. The equations : 2x – 3y + 6z = 4, 5x + 7y – 14z   sin B 0 tan A is equal to:
= 1, 3x + 2y – 4z = 0, have cos  A  B   tan A 0
A. unique solution
A. 0 B. 2 sin B tan A cos C
B. no solution
C. 1 D. None of thses
C. infinitely many solutions
D. None of these 25. The value of determinant
x1 x 2 x 4
18. If every element of a third order determinant
of value  is multiplied by 5, then the value x3 x5 x8
is
of the new determinant is x  7 x  10 x  14
A.  B. 5 A. –2 B. x2 + 2
C. 25 D. 125 C. 2 D. None of these
40

7 6 x A. m (m + 1) B. 0
26. If one root of the equation 2 x 2 = 0 is C. 1 D. m (m – 1)
x 3 7 32. If a, b, c are different and
x = –9, then the other roots are a a2 a3 1
A. 2, 6 B. 3, 6 b b2 b3  1
= 0, then
C. 2, 7 D. 3, 7 c c2 c3  1
27. If  is cube root of unity, then a root of the A. a + b + c = 0 B. abc = 1
x 1  2 C. a + b + c = 1 D. ab + bc + ca = 0
2
equation  x  2 1 = 0 is
2 x b b
 1 x x b
33. 
If 1  a x b and  2  are the given
A. x = 1 B. x =  a x
a a x
C. x = 2 D. x = 0
derteminants, then
28. If f (x) is a polynominal satisfying
A.  1= 3 (2 )2 B. (d/dx) 1 = 32
bg
f x 
1 f ( x) f (1 / x)  f ( x)
2 1 f (1 / x)
C. (d/dx) 1 = 322 D. 1 = 3 (2)3/2
cos       sin      cos 2 
and f (2) =17, then the value of f (5) is
A. 624 B. –124 34. The determinant sin  cos  sin  is
 cos  sin  cos 
C. 626 D. 126
29. If the value of a third order determinant is 11, A. 0
then the value of the square of the determi- B. independent of 
nant formed by the cofactors will be C. independent of 
A. 11 B. 121 D. independent of  
C. 1331 D. 14641
35. For the system of equations a1x + b1y + c1z =
1 sin 1
0 , a2x + b2y + c2z = 0 , a3x + b3y + c3z = 0, if
30. Let    sin 1 sin .
1  sin 1 a1 b1 c1
The  lies in the interval a2 b2 c2 = 0, then the system has
A. [3, 4] B. [2, 4] a3 b3 c3
C. [1, 4] D. None of these
A. more than two solutions
1 1 1 B. one trival and one non-trival solution
31. m
C1 m +1
C1 m2
C1 is equal to C. no solution
m
C2 m 1
C2 m2
C2 D. only trival solution (0, 0, 0).

ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10
A B A B B C B B C B
11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
C B C D A C B D D A
21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30
A B B A A C D C B B
31 32 33 34 35
C B B B A
(2122) (Math)—6
41

EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
b g L3 OP MML PPO
1 2 3 1 0
AB= MM 4
1. Since a ij i  j  0 , and a ij  0 , for at least
7.
MN5 P
2 5 and BA = 4 2 1
MN PQ
 AB
QP
one i,  A is diagonal matrix.
1 3 7 5 3
2. Let A = a ij
n m
.
A2 
LM i 0OP LM i 0OP
Since A is skew-symmetric
b g
a ij  0 i  1, 2,..... n and a ij  a ij i  j . A b g
8.
N0 i Q N0 i Q
Li 0 OP L1 0 O
2

= M
NM 0 i PQ = MN 0 1PQ
is symmetric as well,
2
so a ij  a ji for all i and j.

 a ij  0 for all i  j .
Consider A = M
L0 0OP ; B = LM0 0OP .
Hence a ij  0 for all i and j, i.e., A is a null
9.
N 1 0Q N 0 1Q
(zero matrix) Then A  0, B  0.

LM 1 1 3 OP LM 1 1 3 OP 0 0 0 LM0 0OP
3. A2  MM 5
N2
2 6
1 3
PP MM 5
Q N2
2 6
1 3
PP
Q
= 3 3 9
1 1 3
But AB =
N 0 0Q =0

MML OP
5 1 2
 A is not idempotent. 10. A 2  9 2 5
MN PP
L0
M
0 0
PPO LMM 5
1 1 3 OP 0 1 2 Q
Also, A
3
M3 3 9 2 6 PP LM5 1 2 OP 2 0 1
MN1 1 3 PQ MN2 1 3 Q 2
A – 5A + 6I = MM9 2 5 PP – 5 2 1 3 

LM0 0 0OP N0 1 2 Q 1 1 0 

= MM0 PP
0 0 ; LM1 0 0 OP LM 1 1 3 OP
N0 0 0 Q MM
+ 6 0 1 0 =  1  1  10 P M P
N0 0 1PQ NM5 4 4 PQ
Hence A is nilpotent matrix of index 3.
LM 4 PQO MNL PQO LM 2 OP
MNL PQO LMN OPQ LM0 0OP
1 0 0 0 2 1 0 2
4. AB = 2 0 1 12 = 0 0 = 0
N Q N
11. A – 2I =  1 1 – 2 0 1 =  1  1
N Q
L0 0 O L 1 0O L 0 0O LM 4 P1Q – 3 LMN0 1PQO =
2O 1 0 LM 1 2O
and BA = M1 12P M2 0QP = MN 25 0PQ N1 N1  2 PQ
A – 3I =
N QN  0

5. Here A is 2  3 matrix and B is 3  2 matrix.  (A – 2I) (A – 3I)

MNL PQO LMN 1 2OPQ = MNL0 0PQO


 Both AB and BA exist. And AB is a 2  2 2 2 1 2 0 0
matrix, while BA is a 3  3 matrix. = 1 1 = 0.
 AB  BA
L1 0 1 OP LM1 0 1 OP LM OP 12. A = BX  B1A  B1BX  X .

 MM 0
2 0 2
6. A2 0 0 PP MM0 PP
0 0 = 0 0 0 = 2A
MM PP 2 0 
t
LM2 0OP
MN1 0 1 Q N1 0 1 2 0 2 Q N Q
Now B = 2, adj. B =   =
0 1  N 0 1Q
42

 B1 
LM OP and
1 2 0 LM 1 1 0 OP
N Q 2 0 1 or A = M  2 3  4P
–1

MN2 3 3PQ
1 L 2 0O L1 2 O 1 L2 4 O
B A M
1
P M P = M P LM 3 4 4 OP
2 N 0 1Q N 3  5Q 2 N 3  5Q
Now A = M 0  1 0 P
2

L 5 xOP = LM 5 yOP  x = y. MN2 2 3PQ


A=A  M
N y 0Q N x 0 Q MML 0 1 0 OPP
t
13. 3 4 4
3 2
14. C11 = –3, C12 = –6, C13 = –6
C21 = 6, C22 = 3, C23 = –6
A =A A=
MN2 2 3PQ
C31 = 6, C32 = –6, C33 = 3.
MML2 3 4OPP LMM2 3 4PPO
3 3 4 1 1 0
LM C C 21 C 31 OP
 Adj A = M C
11
C 22 C 32 P

MN0 1 1PQ = MN2 3 3PQ = A 1 .

NMC QP
12

13 C 23 C 33 17. The equations are equivalent to matrix equa-


LM 3 6 6 PO LM 1 2 2 OP tion AX = B. ...(1)
LM2 3 6 OP
= M  6 3  6P
MN6 6 3 PQ MM
= 3 2 1  2 = 3A t PP MM 7 14PP ,
N2 2 1 Q where A = 5
N 3 2 4 Q
15. C11 = 3, C12 = –2, C21 = –2, LM xOP LM4OP
1 2 x= MM PP
y , B = MM1PP
C22 = 1 and A =
2 3
= –1. NQ
z N 0Q
1 1 C11 LM C 21 OP 2 3 6
 14
2 3 0
Now A = 5 7
 A –1 = A (Adj. A) =
 1 C12 N C 22 Q 3 2 4
= 5
3
7 0,
2 0

= 
LM 3 OP = ML3 2 PO
2 By C3  C3 + 2C2 = 0.
N2 1Q N 2 1Q  The equations either have no solution or
an infinite number of solutions. To decide
16. C11 = 1, C12 = –2, C13 = –2, about this, we proceed to find (Adj A) B
C21 = –1, C22 = 3, C23 = 3 C11 = 0, C12 = –22, C13 = –11,
C31 = 0, C32 = –4, C33 = –3. C21 = 0, C22 = –26, C23 = –13
3 3 4 3 3 1 C31 = 0, C32 = –58, C33 = 29.
A  2 3 4 = 2 3 1 LM C 11 C 21 C 31OP
0 1 1 0 1 0
Adj A = M C C 22 C 32 PP
MNC
12
= –(–1) (3 – 2) = 1.
by C3  C2 + C3
13 C 23 C 33 Q
LM OP LM 0 0 0 O
 58PP
C11 C 21 C 31
= M  22
1
(Adj A) = C12 M C 22 C 32 PP MN 11
 26
NM Q 29 PQ
1
C13 C 23 C 33  13
43

L0
M
0 0
PPO LM41OP .
By R2  R2 – R1, R3  R3 – R1
(Adj A) B = M  22
PQ MMN0QPP
 26  58 x1 1 3
MN 11  13 29
=
2 1 2
Hence the system has no solutions. 6 2 4

18. Since the multiplication of each element of a x1 1 3


row will multiply the value of det. by 5. So if 2 1 2
all elements of all 3 rows are multiplied by 5, =
then the value of det. is multiplied by 5.5.5 = 2 0 0
125. = 2 (2 – 3) = –2.
19. Operating, C2  C2 + C1 and C3  C3 + C1, By R3  R3 – 2R2
we get 26. By R1  R1 + R2 + R3
1 0 0
x 9 x 9 x 9
 = 1 0 2 = –1 (0 – 4) = 4 2 x 2
0 2 0  =
x 3 7
20. From the given equation, we have
4 = 3x – 2 – (x + 6) = 2x – 8 x 9 0 0
x=6 = 2 x 2 0
1  2 1    2  2 x 3 x 7  x
21.  2 1 = 1    2 2 1 =0 = (x + 9) (x – 2) (7 – x)
2 1  1    2 1  C2  C2 – C 1, C3  C3 – C1
  = 0  x = –9, 2, 7
 1    2  0 
 Other roots (2, 7).
22. Hint. Apply C1  C1 + C2 + C3.
27. By C1  C1 + C2 + C3 ,
23. 4 is in the place a21 in A = [aij].
Therefore, cofactor of a21 is x  2
 = x x  2 1
b1g 2 1 a 12
a 32
a 13
a 33
= 
2 3
0 1
= –2. x 1 x

24. Since, A + B + C =  1  2
2
0 sin B sin C = x 1 x 1 = x1
   sin B 0 tan A 1 1 x
 cos C  tan A 0 (1    2  0 )

      , i.e.     so  = 0.    0  x  0  1  0
28. From the given relation, we get f (x) f (1/x)
25. By C2  C2 – C1 and C3  C3 – C1,
= f (x) + f (1/x) (1)
we have
x1 1 3 Putting x = 1, we have [f (1)]2 = 2 f (1)

 = x 3 2 5 Given f (2) = 17. Putting x = 1/2, we have 17.


x 7 3 7 f (1/2)=17 + f (1/2)
44

 f (1/2) = 17/16 = 1 + 1/16 a a2 a3 a a2 1


f (2) = 17 = 24 + 1, 32. We have, b b 2 b3  b b2 1  0 ,
f (1/2) = (1.2)4 + 1 suggest f (x) = x4 + 1 c c2 c3 c c2 1
This is also satisfies, f (1) = 2.
So we take f (1) = 2 1 a a2 1 a a2
 abc 1 b b 2  1 b b 2  0
Now we verify the given relation.
4
e 4
L.H.S. = x  1 1 / x  1 je j 1 c c2 1 c c2

e je
 1 / x 4 x8  2 x 4  1 j 1 a a2
 (abc  1) 1 b b 2  0 ,
 x4  1 / x4  2
1 c c2
R.H.S.  x4  1 / x4  2
 abc  1
 L.H.S. = R.H.S.
Hence f (5) = 54 + 1 = 626. 1 0 0 x b b x b b
d
33. (1 )  a x b  0 1 0a x b
29. c  3 1  2  11 b g 2
 121 dx
a a x a a x 0 0 1
1 sin 1 x b x b x b
    3 2
30.    sin 1 sin a x a x a x
0 0 2 34. By R1  R1 + R2 sin – R3 cos
2 cos  cos  2 sin  cos  
= 2(1  sin 2 ) . (R3  R1 + R3 )
 sin  cos  sin 
0  sin2   1  2  1  sin2   4e j  cos  sin  cos 
  lies in [2, 4] Taking 2 cos common from R1 and then
applying R1  R1 + R3
1 1 1
  cos 
31. 
1
m

m  m  1
1
m 1

 m  1 m
1
m2

 m  2  m  1
b g
  2 cos  sin cos sin 
2 2 2  cos sin cos 

1 0 0 e 2
je 2 2
j 2
= 2 cos  sin   cos   2 cos  , which is
1 independent of  .
 m 1 1
=1
2
b
m m 1 g 2m 2 m  1b g 35.    0
 Equations will have infinite number of
 C2  C2  C1 , C3  C3  C 2  solutions.

  
45

CHAPTER

Analytical Geometry

ANALYTICAL GEOMETRY OF THREE  Distance Formula: The distance between two


DIMENSIONS points

 Coordinates of a Point in Space: Let O be a A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) is given by
fixed point, known as origin as let OX, OY and A B = [(x2 – x1)2 + (y2 – y1)2 + (z2 – z1)2]
OZ be three mutually perpendicular lines, taken  Distance from Origin: Let O be the origin and
as x-axis, y-axis and z-axis respectively, in such P (x, y, z) be any point, then OP = (x2 + y2 +
a way that they form a right-handed system. y2).
The planes XOY, YOZ and ZOX are in known  Distance of a Point from Coordinate Axes:
as xy-plane, yz-plane and zx-plane respectively. Let P(x, y, z) be any point in the space. Let PA,
In the adjoining figure, OX, OY and OZ shows PB and PC be the perpendiculars drawn from P
the positive x, y and z axes. to the axes OX, OY and OZ respectively. Then
PA = (y2 + z2),
PB = (z2 + x2),
PA = (x2 + y2),
 Section Formula: Let P(x1, y1, z1) and Q(x2, y2,
z2) be two points and P(x, y, z) divide PQ in the
ratio m1 : m2.
Then R is (x, y, z)

Let P be a point in space and distances of P from FG m x  m x , m y  m y , m z  m z IJ


H m m m m m m K .
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
=
y-z, z-x and x-y planes by x, y, z respectively 1 2 1 2 1 2
(with proper signs) then we say that coordinates
of P are (x, y, z). If (m1/m2) is positive, R divides PQ internally
and if (m1/m2) is negative, then externally. In
Also OA = x, OB = y, OC = z. particular, coordinate of the point dividing PQ
 Position Vector of a Point: Let i, j, k be unit externally in the ratio m1 : m2 is given by
vectors along OX, OY and OZ respectively.
FG m x  m x , m y  m y , m z  m z IJ
H m m m m m m K.
1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 1
Then position vector of a point P(x, y, z) is
1 2 1 2 1 2
= xi + yj + zk.
45
46

 Mid-point: Mid-point of PQ is given by  Position of a Point in Terms of Radius Vector


FG x  x y1  y2 z1  z 2 IJ and d.c.'s: Let P(x, y, z) be any point and OP
H 2 K
1 2
, , = r. Then cos  = x/r, cos  = y/r, cos  = z/r.
2 2
Then x, y, z are direction ratios of OP and
 Centroid of a Triangle: Let A(x1, y1, z1), B(x2, coordinates of P are (r cos , r cos , r cos ),
y2, z2), C(x3, y3, z3), be the vertices of a triangle. i.e., (lr, mr, nr).
Then its centroid G is given by  Relation Between Direction Cosines:
Fx x x
G = GH
IJ
y  y  y3 z1  z 2  z 3 OP2 = [x2 + y2 + z2]
K
1 2 3
, 1 2 , .
3 3 3
 r2 = r2 (cos2  + cos2  + cos2 )
 Centroid of a Tetrahedron: Let A(x 1,y 1, z1), = r2 (l2 + m2 + n2)  l2 + m2 + n2 = 1
A(x 2,y 2, z2), C(x 3,y 3, z3) and D(x 4,y 4, z4) be the
vertices of a tetrahedron. Then its centroid G  D.R.'s and D.C.'s:
is given by
Let a, b, c be d.r.'s and l, m, n the d.c.'s of a line,
[¼(x1 + x2 + x3 + x4), ¼(y1 + y2 + y3 + y4),
a b c
¼(z1 + z2 + z3 + z4)]. then   = r (say)
l m n
 To Find the Ratio in which a given Point  a2 + b2 + c2 = r2 (l2 + m2 + n2) = r2
Divide a Given Line-Segment: Let P(  ) where r = [a2 + b2 + c2]
and A(a1, b1, c1) and B(a2, b2, c2) be three points
and we have to find the ratio in which P divides  Direction cosines l, m, n are given by
AB. Let k : 1 be the ratio. a b c
l= ,m= ,n= ,
ka2  a1 kb2  b1 r r r
Then      
k 1 k 1 where r = [(a2 + b2 + c2)]
kc2  c1  D.C.'s of Axes:

k 1 Since the positive x-axes makes angle 0°, 90°
Solving these, find k. If k = 2/3, ratio is 2 : 3 with axes of x, y and z respectively,
and if k is found to be +ve, P divides internally  d.c.'s of x-axes are 1, 0, 0.
otherwise externally. Also if the system is
inconsistent, P does not divide AB in any ratio Similarly, for y and z-axes.
and so P does not lie on AB i.e., P, A, B are  D.C.'s of x-axis are 1, 0, 0
non-collinear. D.C.'s of y-axis are 0, 1, 0
 Direction Cosines: Let    be the angles D.C.'s of z-axis are 0, 0, 1
which a directed line makes with the positive
 Direction Ratios of the Line Joining two
directions of the axes of x, y and z respectively
Points:
then cos , cos , cos  are called the direction
cosines of the line. Let A(x1, y1, z1) and B(x2, y2, z2) be two points,
The direction cosines are usually denoted by < l, then d.r.'s of AB are x2 – x1, y2 – y1, z2 – z1,
m, n >. Then l = cos , m = cos , n = cos . and d.c.'s of AB are
 Direction Ratios: Let a, b, c be proportional to 1 1 1
the d.c.'s l, m, n, then a, b, c are called the (x2 – x1), (y2 – y1), (z2 – z1)
r r r
direction ratios. where r = [(x2 – x1)2].
47

 Projection of a Line on Another Line:  Perpendicularity and Parallelism:


Let PQ be a line segment with P(x 1, y 1, z1) and Let the two lines have their d.c.'s given by
Q(x 2, y 2, z2) and let L be a straight line whose
l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2
d.c.'s are l, m, n. Note that l, m, n are d.c.'s of
line L, not d.r.'s. respectively then they are perpendicular
Then the length of projection of PQ on the if  = 90°
line L is = l(x2 – x 1) + m(y 2 – y 1) + n(z2 – z1). i.e., cos  = 0
Angle Between Two Lines: if l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2 = 0
 Let  be the angle between the lines with d.c.'s Also the two lines are parallel if
l1, m1, n1 and l2, m2, n2, then  = 90°, i.e., sin  = 0.
cos  = l1l2 + m1m2 + n1n2. l1 m1 n1
i.e.,  
Also sin2  = (l1m1 )2 l2 m2 n2

MULTIPLE CHOICE QUESTIONS


x2 y3 z4 A. (1, 1, –4) B. (4, –3, 1)
1. The line   is parallel to the
3 4 5 C. (1, –3, 4) D. (–1, 4, 3)
plane
4. The angle between the lines x = 1, y = 2 and
A. 2x + y – 2z = 0 B. 3x + 4y – 5z = 7
y = – 1 and z = 0 is
C. x + y + z = 2 D. 2x + 3y + 4z = 0
A. 90° B. 30°
2. If the line x = ay + b, z = cy + d and the line C. 60° D. 0°
x = a'y + b', z = c/y + d' are perpendicular,
5. P is a fixed point (a, a, a) on a line through
then
the origin equally inclined to the axes, then
A. aa' + bb' = 1 B. aa' + c' = – 1
any plane through P –| to OP, makes intercepts
C. aa' + bb' = 0 D. None of these
on the axes, the sum of whose reciprocals is
3. The coordinates of the foot of the equal to
perpendicular from the point (1, 3, 4) upon A. a B. 3/2a
the plane 2x – y + z = 0 are C. 3a/2 D. None of these

ANSWERS
1 2 3 4 5
A B D A D

EXPLANATORY ANSWERS
x  y z  If the line is –| to the normal to the plane, i.e.,
1. The line  
l m n al + bm + cn = 0
is parallel to the plane In this question, this condition is satisfied by
ax + by + cz + d = 0 the plane 2x + y – 2z = 0.
48

2. The equation of the two lines can be written x y 1 z


and y = – 1, z = 0 i.e.  
xb y0 zd 1 0 0
as    If  is the angle between them, then
a 1 c
cos  = 0.1 + 0.0 + 1.0 = 0
x  b' y  0 z  d '
and   i.e., = 90°.
a' 1 c'
 The lines are perpendicular if 5. Since the line is equally inclined to the axes,
and passes through the origin, its direction
a.a' + 1.1 + c.c' = 0, i.e., aa' + cc' = – 1.
cosines are 1, 1, 1. So its equation is
3. Perpendicular to the plane is parallel to the x y z
normal to the plane so d.r.'s of the line –| to  
1 1 1
the plane 2x – y + z + 3 = 0 are 2, – 1, 1
 Equation of –| drawn through the point (1, A point P on it is given by (a, a, a). So
equation of the plane through P(a, a, a) and
x 1 y  3 z  4 – to OP is
3, 4) is   = r (say)
2 1 1 1.(x – a) + 1.(y – a) + 1.(z – a) = 0
Any point on it is (2r + 1, – r + 3, r + 4). If [  OP is normal to the plane]
this is the foot of the – , then it should lie on i.e., x + y + z = 3a
the plane. x y z
or   =1
 2(2r + 1) – (– r + 3) + (r + 4) + 3 = 0 3a 3a 3a
i.e., 6r + 6 = 0, i.e., r = – 1 Intercepts on axes are 3a, 3a, 3a, whose
So foot of the perpendicular is (– 1, 4, 3). reciprocals are 1/3a, 1/3a, 1/3a
4. The lines are  Sum of reciprocals of these intercepts
x 1 y  2 z 1 1 1 3 1
x = 1, y = 2, i.e.,   =     .
0 0 1 3a 3a 3a 3a a

  

2006

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