MECH 3640

Aerodynamics

Lecture 3: 13 Sep 2023

Diamond DA40 Instructor: Prof Larry Li 1
 Supplemental notes on polar coordinates

L3 2
 Today’s agenda
• Review of fluid mechanics
• Stream function & velocity potential
• Laplace’s equation for INC IRROT flow
• Linear superposition
• Simple potential flows
• Uniform flow
• Source & sink
• Irrotational vortex
• Rankine half-body
• Rankine oval
• Doublet
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 Flow kinematics:
Streamlines → Stream function [AS2.14]

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 What is the stream function?
• Given a 2D steady velocity field 𝑢, 𝑣 , we can express its streamlines as:

𝑚2 𝑚3
𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 = constant (of integration) Units: 𝑠
= 𝑠𝑚
per unit depth

• The idea is to imagine the streamlines as contours on the surface of a thing called
the stream function, 𝜓. (Remember this works only in 2D)
• Every streamline has a different constant,
just like lines on a topographic map.
• If 𝜌 = constant, Δ𝜓 is the volume flow
rate between streamlines (per unit depth).
• We can add irrotational stream functions
together to get new ones, representing
more complex flows. More on this later…
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 How do we use the stream function?
𝜓 is related to the 2 velocity components 𝑢, 𝑣 as follows:
Let’s apply mass conservation to for a steady flow ඵ 𝜌 𝑉 ∙ 𝑛 d𝑠 = 0
𝐶𝑆
𝑦
𝑑𝜓 = 𝑢𝑑𝑦 − 𝑣𝑑𝑥
(per unit depth)
𝑥

Equal
𝜓 + 𝑑𝜓 Because 𝜓 = 𝜓 𝑥, 𝑦 ,
𝜓 + 𝑑𝜓
the chain rule says:
𝑑𝜓
𝑢 𝑑𝑦 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
𝜓 𝑑𝜓 = 𝑑𝑦 + 𝑑𝑥
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥

𝜓
Polar coordinates Cartesian coordinates

𝟏 𝝏𝝍 𝝏𝝍 −𝑣 𝑑𝑥 𝝏𝝍 𝝏𝝍
𝒖𝒓 = 𝒖𝜽 = − 𝒖= 𝒗=−
𝒓 𝝏𝜽 𝝏𝒓 𝝏𝒚 𝝏𝒙

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 Flow kinematics:
Velocity potential [AS2.15]

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 What is the velocity potential?
• For irrotational flows (and ONLY for irrotational flows), we can express
the velocity vector 𝑉 as the gradient (direction of steepest climb) of a
scalar function called the velocity potential 𝜙.

How can we do this?

• Irrotational → No vorticity: 𝜔 = 𝛻 × 𝑉 = 0
• Vector identity from calculus: 𝛻 × 𝛻𝜙 ≡ 0 i.e. curl of gradient ≡ 0
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙
• Letting 𝑉 = 𝛻𝜙, we get: 𝑢 = , 𝑣=
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦
𝜕𝜙 1 𝜕𝜙
• In polar coordinates: 𝑢𝑟 = , 𝑢𝜃 =
𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

So for irrotational flows: 𝑉 = 𝛻𝜙

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 Relationship between 𝜓 and 𝜙
• In 2D INC IRROT flow, 𝜓 and 𝜙 are mutually orthogonal:

• We can determine the velocity field from either 𝜓 or 𝜙

• e.g. know 𝜙, differentiate it to get 𝑢 and 𝑣, and then use
Bernoulli’s equation to find the pressure distribution
• However, it’s often easier to work with 𝜓 because its boundary
conditions are easier to specify
• The stream function (𝜓) arises from continuity (slide 6)
• The velocity potential (𝜙) arises from irrotationality (slide 8)
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 Summary of formulae for 2D INC flow

Cartesian Coordinates Polar Coordinates

𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢𝑟 1 𝜕𝑢𝜃
Continuity + =0 + 𝑢𝑟 + =0
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝑣 𝜕𝑢 𝜕𝑢𝜃 1 𝜕𝑢𝑟
Vorticity 𝜔𝑧 = − 𝜔𝑧 = + 𝑢 −
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜃 𝜕𝜃
𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓 1 𝜕𝜓 𝜕𝜓
Stream function 𝑢= ,𝑣 = − 𝑢𝑟 = ,𝑢 = −
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝑟 𝜕𝜃 𝜃 𝜕𝑟
𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 𝜕𝜙 1 𝜕𝜙
Velocity potential 𝑢= , 𝑣= 𝑢𝑟 = , 𝑢𝜃 =
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑟 𝑟 𝜕𝜃

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 Laplace’s equation for
incompressible irrotational flow
[AS3.7]

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 Stream function, velocity potential, and
Laplace’s equation for INC IRROT flow
• Incompressible continuity: 𝛻 ∙ 𝑉 = 0 Irrotationality: 𝑉 = 𝛻𝜙
• Hence 𝛻 ∙ 𝛻𝜙 = 𝛻 2 𝜙 = 0 → 𝜙 satisfies Laplace’s equation!

• The same property holds for the stream function 𝜓 :

𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕2 𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕𝜓 𝜕 𝜕
𝛻2𝜓 = + = + = −𝑣 + 𝑢 = −𝜔𝑧 = 0 if IRROT
𝜕𝑥 2 𝜕𝑦 2 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦

• The fact that, for INC IRROT flows,

both 𝜓 and 𝜙 satisfy Laplace’s
equation is of great importance!

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…but why? 12
 Stream function, velocity potential, and
Laplace’s equation for INC IRROT flow
• …because Laplace’s equation is linear (albeit a 2nd order PDE)! This
implies that the sum of 2 (or more) solutions is another solution!
• What do I mean by this?
Say if 𝜙1 and 𝜙2 represent 2 different IRROT flows, then…

𝛻 2 𝜙1 + 𝜙2 = 𝛻 2 𝜙1 + 𝛻 2 𝜙2 = 0 + 0 = 0

i.e. 𝜙1 + 𝜙2 is the velocity potential of another IRROT flow

In other words, if we have some simple INC IRROT flows, we can

simply add them up to form another INC IRROT flow. The new INC
IRROT flow could be more complex and interesting….e.g. an airfoil!

L3 Conceptually, this is what I mean: 13

 Linear superposition of simple potential flows

+
+ =
+
Sum of simple INC IRROT flows Complex INC IRROT flow

How do we decide what the elementary ‘building blocks’ are?

• We pick the simplest potential flows!
But how do we define ‘simplest’ here?
•L3 We pick flows with only 1 velocity component in a chosen coordinate system.14
 Linear superposition of simple potential flows

Preview only → Full details in Lecture 5

𝜌𝑉∞ Γ2
+
𝑉∞ Γ1

𝜌𝑉∞ Γ1
+
Γ2 Γ
Γ33

𝜌𝑉∞ Γ3
=
𝑉∞

=
Γ1 Γ2 Γ3

Lift of cylinder Total lift = 𝜌𝑉∞ σ Γ𝑖

+
(per unit span) (per unit span)

Sum of simple INC IRROT flows Complex INC IRROT flow

How do we decide what the elementary ‘building blocks’ are?

• We pick the simplest potential flows!
But how do we define ‘simplest’ here?
•L3 We pick flows with only 1 velocity component in a chosen coordinate system.15
Simple 2D potential flows: 3 basic ‘building blocks’
𝜓𝑈𝐹 = 𝑉∞ 𝑦
• Uniform flow [AS3.9]
-Parallel streamlines 𝑢 = 𝑉∞ 𝑉∞ is the free-
𝑣=0 stream velocity

Λ𝜃 Λ is the source
• Source or sink [AS3.10] 𝜓𝑆 = strength (i.e. vol.
2𝜋
-Arrows point outward flow rate per unit
𝑢𝜃 = 0 depth [m2/s]) and
for a source but Λ
𝑢𝑟 = its value is negative
inward for a sink 2𝜋𝑟 for a sink

• Irrotational vortex [AS3.14] Γ Γ is the vortex

𝜓𝐼𝑉 = ln 𝑟 strength
-Circular streamlines 2𝜋
(i.e. circulation)
−Γ
𝑢𝜃 = −’ve sign because
2𝜋𝑟 𝜞 is CW +’ve but
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𝑢𝑟 = 0 𝜽 is CW −’ve
 What do we want to find out?
• As we’ll see on the next slide, it’s a fairly straightforward
mathematical exercise to (i) add up two or more stream
functions to get the resultant stream function 𝜓1 + 𝜓2 = 𝜓 ,
(ii) differentiate it to get the velocities, and (iii) use a computer
program (e.g. Matlab) to plot the streamlines.

• Focus on geometrical reasoning and physical interpretation:

• What does the resultant streamline pattern look like?
• Where is the flow fastest? Where is it slowest?
• Where are the stagnation points? Recall this is where 𝑉 = 0
1
• What’s the pressure distribution? Bernoulli 𝑃 + 2 𝜌𝑉 2 = constant
everywhere as flow is INC IRROT: min 𝑉 ↔ max 𝑃 max 𝑉 ↔ min 𝑃

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How do we combine stream functions?
• DISCLAIMER: Don’t ever do this except for INC IRROT flow!
• If you combine flows that are viscous or compressible or rotational or any
combination of these, you will NOT get the correct answer.

• Method 1: Combine stream functions

• Add multiple 𝜓 equations to find the stream function of the combined
flow, and then differentiate it to get the resultant velocity field.
• Works but is purely mathematical → No ‘feel’ for what the flow is doing
• Method 2: Combine velocity vectors (vectorially)
• For each elementary flow, draw the velocity vectors (e.g. from the
streamlines)
• Add up the velocity vectors at each location to get the velocity vectors of
the resultant flow
• Sketch the new streamlines based on the new velocity vectors

• DISCLAIMER AGAIN: Don’t ever do this except for INC IRROT flow!
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 Tower Bridge, London

William J.M. Rankine

Scottish engineer
1820−1872

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 Example: Uniform flow + source [AS3.11]
Method 1: Combine stream functions

Λ𝜃
𝜓𝑈𝐹 = 𝑉∞ 𝑦 𝜓𝑆 =
2𝜋

𝜓 = 𝜓𝑈𝐹 + 𝜓𝑆
Λ 𝑦
Cartesian → 𝜓 = 𝑉∞ 𝑦 + tan−1
2𝜋 𝑥
Λ𝜃
Polar → 𝜓 = 𝑉∞ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 +
2𝜋

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 Example: Uniform flow + source [AS3.11]
Method 2: Combine velocity vectors

+ =

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 The streamline through the stagnation
point separates the UF from the source.
Example: Uniform flow + source [AS3.11]
We could replace this ‘dividing streamline’
with a solid object and still get the same
flow on the UF side. This is why this flow
Method 2: Combine velocity
is called vectors
‘flow over a hill’. [AS3.11]

+ =

Symmetric

Stagnation point → where 𝑢

L3 Homework 1: Problem 4 from the UF exactly cancels
22
𝑢 from the source
 Rankine oval [AS3.11]
If we add a sink to the right of the source in the Rankine half-body (see
previous slide), we get the Rankine oval:
This is just an
𝜓 = 𝜓𝑈𝐹 + 𝜓𝑠𝑜𝑢𝑟𝑐𝑒 + 𝜓𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑘 arbitrary point
Λ𝜃1 −Λ𝜃2
𝜓 = 𝑉∞ 𝑟 sin 𝜃 + +
2𝜋 2𝜋

2 stagnation points now

(recall we had only 1 for
the Rankine half-body)
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 The doublet [AS3.12]
Homework 1: Problem 3
Suppose we have a source and sink
pair at a certain distance (2𝑏) apart.
At an arbitrary point 𝑃, the stream
function for this flow system is:

Λ𝜃1 −Λ𝜃2
𝜓= +
2𝜋 2𝜋

Now, if we let the source and sink

approach each other (𝜃1 → 𝜃2 ), the
flows will eventually cancel each
other out. However, if as 𝑏 → 0 (i.e.
𝜃1 → 𝜃2 ) we let Λ → ∞ such that
2𝑏Λ → constant, then a special flow
is produced: the doublet.
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 Supplemental notes on flow kinematics [AS2.11−17]

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 Spotlight on fluids

In 1977, one passenger with the flu infected 38 people (out of 54) on a 737 with malfunctioning ventilation. In this video,
we explore the physics of respiratory disease transmission and examine why ventilation is so important to preventing it. In
short, there are three primary modes of transmission for respiratory diseases such as SARS-CoV-2: (1) touching an infected
surface and then yourself, i.e. self-inoculation; (2) inhaling virus-filled droplets larger than 5 nm; and (3) inhaling virus-filled
droplets smaller than 5 nm. This 5 nm size cut-off may seem a bit arbitrary, but it’s how scientists distinguish between
droplets that fall quickly to the ground and those that can persist in buoyant air currents. This airborne persistence is why
ventilation − in other words, replacing the air − is so important. So many people on that 1977 flight got sick because there
was no system removing the infected air and bringing in fresh air.
L3 Source: https://fyfluiddynamics.com/2020/09/ventilation-and-respiratory-disease/ 26
 Spotlight on fluids

L3 Source: https://engineering.purdue.edu/~yanchen/infection.html 27