Orientation to Computing-I

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 Unit-1 (Computer Systems)
• Basic structure of computer, working
• Computer associated peripherals
• Memories (Primary and Secondary)
• System Configuration
• BIOS configuration
• PC connection interface
• RAID, GPU basics , CPU and GPU

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• An Instruction Set Architecture (ISA) is part of the abstract
model of a computer that defines how the CPU is controlled
by the software. The ISA acts as an interface between the
hardware and the software, specifying both what the
processor is capable of doing as well as how it gets done.

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 Structure of Computer

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• The cache memory stores all the frequently
used data and instructions of a device in it.
Thus, it speeds up the overall performance
and process of the computer.
• The register, on the other hand, only holds a
piece of info, such as a computer instruction
or the storage address of any particular
information, etc.

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 Computer Associated Peripherals

• Computers are used to accomplish many tasks. A basic desktop computer

desktop includes the computing unit plus a monitor, keyboard, and mouse.
• Add even more peripherals to the computer, and the computer will be able
to do that many more tasks. But, what are computer peripherals?
• A computer peripheral, technically speaking, is any device that connects
to the computing unit but is not part of the core architecture of the
computing unit.
• The core computing unit consists of the central processing unit (CPU),
motherboard, and power supply.
• The case that surrounds these elements are also considered part of the core
computing unit.
• So anything that is connected to these elements is considered a peripheral.

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 List of Computer Peripherals
• Mouse
• Keyboard
• Monitor
• RAM
• DVD-ROM
• Microphone
• Webcam
• Printer
All of these are peripherals because they all are extra accessories that connect
with the main computing unit to provide extra power and abilities. RAM, for
example, gives the computer more room to process more operations more
quickly.

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 Main Categories of Computer
Peripherals: Uses & Examples
• The type of computer peripherals and their uses determines the category of
the peripheral. The three categories are the following.

• Input devices
• Output devices
• Input/output and storage devices

• These categories are based on the direction of data flow. Some peripherals
send data to the computer, while other peripherals receive data from the
computer. Other peripherals can do both; they can both send and receive
data from the computer

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 Input Devices

• Input devices are devices that send information to the computer.

• They do not receive information from the computer.
• Input devices are one-way devices.
• A mouse is an input device because it sends information to the computer.
• A mouse is used to tell the computer which way to move the cursor.
• A microphone is another peripheral that is an input device. The
microphone sends audio data to the computer.

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 Output Devices

• An output device is a device that receives information from the core

computing unit but does not send information to the computer.
• A speaker is an output device because the computer sends sound
information to the speaker, but the speaker does not send sound information
to the computer.
• Standard monitors are output devices as well since their job is to display
graphical information from the computer.
• Standard monitors do not send information to the computer.
• Touchscreen monitors are not strict output devices

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 Memories

• Memory is the most essential element of a computing system because

without it computer can’t perform simple tasks.

• Computer memory is of two basic types – Primary memory(RAM and

ROM) and Secondary memory (hard drive, CD, etc).

• Random Access Memory (RAM) is primary-volatile memory and Read-

Only Memory (ROM) is primary-non-volatile memory.

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 Classification of Memory

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 Random Access Memory (RAM)
• It is also called read-write memory or the main memory or the primary
memory.

• The programs and data that the CPU requires during the execution of a
program are stored in this memory.

• It is a volatile memory as the data is lost when the power is turned off.

• RAM is further classified into two types- SRAM (Static Random Access
Memory) and DRAM (Dynamic Random Access Memory).

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• The SRAM memories consist of circuits capable of retaining the stored
information as long as the power is applied. That means this type of
memory requires constant power.
• SRAM memories are used to build Cache Memory.
• DRAM stores the binary information in the form of electric charges applied
to capacitors. The stored information on the capacitors tends to lose over
a period of time and thus the capacitors must be periodically recharged to
retain their usage.
• DRAM requires refresh time.
• The main memory is generally made up of DRAM chips.

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 DRAM Vs SRAM

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 Read Only Memory (ROM)
• Read-Only Memory (ROM)
• Stores crucial information essential to operate the system, like the program
essential to boot the computer.
• It is not volatile.
• Always retains its data.
• Used in embedded systems or where the programming needs no change.
• Used in calculators and peripheral devices.
• ROM is further classified into four types- MROM, PROM, EPROM, and
EEPROM.

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 RAM vs ROM

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 Secondary Storage Devices
• A secondary storage device refers to any non-volatile storage device that is
internal or external to the computer. It can be any storage device beyond
the primary storage that enables permanent data storage.

• A secondary storage device is also known as an auxiliary storage device,

backup storage device, tier 2 storage, or external storage.

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 Secondary Storage Devices
• Secondary storage devices primarily refer to storage devices that serve as
an addition to the computer's primary storage, RAM and cache memory.
Since they always consist of non-volatile memory, they allow the user to
permanently store data on them.
• Typically, secondary storage allows for the storage of data ranging from a
few megabytes to petabytes.
• These devices store virtually all programs and applications stored on a
computer, including the operating system, device drivers, applications and
general user data.
• They are used for a variety of purposes ranging from backup data used for
future restores or disaster recovery, long-term archiving of data that is not
frequently accessed, and storage of non-critical data in lower-performing,
less expensive drives.

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 Use Cases of Secondary Storage
Devices
• Today, many secondary storage drives are frequently external, especially
since the introduction of USB flash drives and plug-and-play devices.

• Also, many secondary storage devices are now virtual devices residing on
third-party cloud servers hosted by many services such as Dropbox,
Google Drive, Amazon Web Services (AWS), or Microsoft Azure. Cloud
repositories are particularly used by companies that embrace the software-
as-a-service (SaaS) model.

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 Forms of Backup Storage
• Although many forms of backup storage such as tape drives and floppy
diskettes have been long abandoned, secondary storage devices include:

• Solid-state drives (SSDs), Hard disk drives (HDDs), Cloud storage, CD-
ROM drives, DVD drives, Blu-ray drives, USB flash drives, SD cards,
Floppy diskette, Tape drives, Zip and Jaz drives.

• Secondary drives are assigned a letter from D: onwards by the modern

operating systems.
• That’s because historically, in old DOS and Windows operating systems,
volume letters A:, B:, and C: were reserved for two floppy drives (A: and
B:) and the primary drive (usually a hard disk).

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 System Configuration
• System configuration is a term in systems engineering that defines the
computer hardware, the processes as well as the various devices that
comprise the entire system and its boundaries.

• This term also refers to the settings or the hardware-software arrangement

and how each device and software or process interact with each other based
on a system settings file created automatically by the system or defined by
the user.

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 System Configuration
• System configuration mainly refers to the specification of a given computer
system, from its hardware components to the software and various
processes that are run within that system.
• It refers to what types and models of devices are installed and what specific
software is being used to run the various parts of the computer system.
• By extension, system configuration also refers to the specific operating
system settings that have been set by default automatically or manually by
a given program or the user.

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 Activity-1 for System Configuration
How do I find system configuration?

• To check your PC hardware specs, click on the Windows Start button, then
click on Settings (the gear icon).

• In the Settings menu, click on System. Scroll down and click on About. On
this screen, you should see specs for your processor, Memory (RAM), and
other system info, including Windows version.

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 Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
• Hard-disk drives (HDDs), commonly referred to as hard
drives, were the default storage component in desktop and
laptop PCs for decades, an honor that has since been
bestowed on solid-state drives (SSDs).
• But hard drives are far from being obsolete.
• Modern HDDs are far more advanced and higher-
performing than their counterparts from yesteryear.

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 Hard Disk Drives (HDD)
• In enterprise gear and massive 12TB external drives for home, for example,
you can find stacks of hard drive platters in airtight disk enclosures filled
with helium to keep the temperatures down and allow for higher
performance.
• There are also advancements that aim to make hard drives even more
efficient, such as energy-assisted magnetic recording, which is another
enterprise-only feature for now.
• Despite these changes, the basic underlying hard drive technology remains
the same: quickly rotating magnetic platters paired with read/write heads
that travel over the platters’ surfaces to retrieve or record data.

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 The WD Black 4TB drive without its
cover

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 Solid-state drives (SSD)

• SSDs use nonvolatile NAND flash memory to hold your files, with no
mechanical parts or magnetic bits flying around, as we see in hard drives.

• By ditching the relative slothfulness of moving parts, solid-state drives

deliver better performance.

• They’re the fastest storage option available by far. Not only can SSDs read
and write data much faster than hard drives with most workloads, but they
can also access the data much more quickly.

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 PCIe 4.0 NVMe SSDs, the Samsung 980 Pro

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 HDD Vs SDD

1. SSDs are much faster compared to Hard Disk Drives

2. SSDs are much costly compared to Hard Disk Drives
3. SSDs, if die, they die without any warning so you may lose your data if not
already backed up
4. SSDs are good for people who need higher speeds as in gaming and real-
time computing etc.
5. Hard Disk Drives are okay for people who require more of storage space
compared to speed.

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 Processor
• A processor is an integrated electronic circuit that performs the calculations
that run a computer. A processor performs arithmetical, logical,
input/output (I/O) and other basic instructions that are passed from an
operating system (OS).
• Most other processes are dependent on the operations of a processor.
• The terms processor, central processing unit (CPU) and microprocessor are
commonly linked as synonyms. Most people use the word “processor”
interchangeably with the term “CPU” nowadays, it is technically not
correct since the CPU is just one of the processors inside a personal
computer (PC).
• The Graphics Processing Unit (GPU) is another processor, and even some
hard drives are technically capable of performing some processing.

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 Threads in Computer Processor
• Threads are the virtual components or codes, which divides the physical
core of a CPU into virtual multiple cores.

• A single CPU core can have up-to 2 threads per core.

• For example, if a CPU is dual core (i.e., 2 cores) it will have 4 threads. And
if a CPU is Octal core (i.e., 8 core) it will have 16 threads and vice-versa.

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 Activity -2 Example of Smartphone
application

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 • The smartphone application is an example of this, when you open a app it
shows a circle which spins continuously, this process is done by a thread
created for this purpose only, and the second thread loads the information
and presents it in the Graphical User Interface.
• The only fact that will limit the creation of the threads will be the number
of the threads provided by the physical CPU, and it varies from CPU to
CPU.
• The 1st image is the loading spinner by the first thread and the second one
is the GUI loading by the second thread.

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 Use of Threads
• Threads have become a vital part of the computing as they allow the
processor to perform multiple tasks at the same time making the tasks
faster.

• And also making the computer capable of multitasking.

• Due to threads only you are able to browse the web as well as listen to
music simultaneously.

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 BIOS Configuration
• A computer's basic input/output system (BIOS) is a program that's stored in
nonvolatile memory such as read-only memory (ROM) or flash memory,
making it firmware.

• The BIOS (sometimes called ROM BIOS) is always the first program that
executes when a computer is powered up.

• BIOS identifies, configures, tests and connects computer hardware to the

OS immediately after a computer is turned on.

• The combination of these steps is called the boot process.

• These tasks are each carried out by BIOS' four main functions: Power-on
self-test (POST).
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• When the computer is first turned on, all the
components must be tested and initialized by
the BIOS, and the operating system must be
loaded into memory. This is commonly
referred to as POST (Power-On Self-Test).

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 Activity-3 How to Enter BIOS
Setup on Windows PCs?
• Each and every time you press your PC’s power button, the BIOS is the first
operation to load your operating system and all of the personal settings that make
your computer your own.
• Whether you need to update your BIOS or sweep it clean of systematic bugs,
knowing how to enter BIOS is essential for PC users. In order to access BIOS on a
Windows PC, you must press your BIOS key set by your manufacturer which could
be F10, F2, F12, F1, or DEL.
• If your PC goes through its power on self-test startup too quickly, you can also
enter BIOS through Windows 10’s advanced start menu recovery settings.
• One thing PC users love most about Windows is how many options you can
configure directly within your selected system.
• Even before your computer has completed a full startup, you can venture into
your BIOS software to modify the boot order, enable hardware components, or
change the system time and date.

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 Methods to enter in BIOS in
Windows
• Method #1: Use hotkey during boot-up
• Method #2: Use Windows 10’s start menu

How to access Windows 7, Vista, and XP BIOS

• The same method of pressing your designated hotkey during boot-up should be able to gain you access
into your BIOS. Be sure to press that button as soon as you see your manufacturer’s brand logo.
• Older operating systems tend to load more slowly, so your window of time to press your designated
hotkey should be wide enough for prompt BIOS access. Follow this three-step method to enter BIOS on
Windows 7 or later.
• Step 1. Turn off your computer
• On older operating systems, you can only access BIOS just before the Microsoft Windows logo appears
on your computer screen.
• Step 2. Power your PC on
• Step 3. Press the BIOS hotkey
• The single keystroke or combination of pressed keys will open BIOS on your PC. Oftentimes your
computer will indicate on the startup screen which key or keys need to be pressed in order to enter BIOS.

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 PC Connection Interface
• There are various PC connection interfaces . In this category USB has the
largest share of the market due to its ease of use and device compatibility
• PCIe stands for PCI Express card bus and it is an internal bus.
• IEEE 1394,USB,eSATA are used for external hard disk connections
• Most commonly used Video connectors include VGA, HDMI, and DVI.
• For connecting an LCD monitor, you need a digital signal connector such
as DVI or HDMI. PGA, and VGA are analog standards.
• The different versions of USB cables, like USB 2.0 and USB 3.0, are
concerned with the functionality and speed of the USB cable; whereas, the
type of USB cable (like USB Type A, USB Type B) essentially refers to the
physical design of the plugs and ports.
• USB is used for connecting USB-compliant peripheral devices, and eSATA
is used for connecting external eSATA devices such as eSATA disk drives.
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• Universal Serial Bus: a part of a computer to which extra
devices such as printers, scanners, and digital cameras can be
connected easily: a USB port.
• A hardware interface that can attach up to 127 peripheral
devices to a computer, including keyboards, mice, printers,
flash drives and external storage. USB is also used for charging
phones, tablets and myriad portable devices (see USB power
and USB charger).

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There are a variety of USB connectors as illustrated
in the figure below:

Most prominent among these are Type A, Type B, Mini

Type A, Mini Type B, Type Micro A, and Type micro B.

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 Types of Connection Interface
• VGA : A Video Graphics Array (VGA) connector is a three-row 15-pin
DE-15 connector. The 15-pin VGA connector was provided on many video
cards, computer monitors, laptop computers, projectors, and high definition
television sets. On laptop computers or other small devices, a mini-VGA
port was sometimes used in place of the full-sized VGA connector.

• HDMI (High-Definition Multimedia Interface) is a proprietary

audio/video interface for transmitting uncompressed video data and
compressed or uncompressed digital audio data from an Compliant source
device, such as a display controller, to a compatible computer monitor,
video projector, digital television, or digital audio device. HDMI is a digital
replacement for analog video standards.

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 What is a VGA CABLE?

• VGA stands for Video Graphics Array.

• A VGA cable is a device used to transfer video
signals. It does this by acting as a link between
the computer and the monitor or between the
computer and the television screen.
• The video graphic cable comes in two types,
male and female connector.

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• NFC: NFC, short for Near Field Communication, is a short-range high
frequency wireless communication technology that enables the exchange of
data between devices over about a 10 cm distance.
• Due to its shorter range (less than 20cm), NFC provides a higher degree of
security than Bluetooth (range of about 50m) and makes NFC suitable for
crowded areas where correlating a signal with its transmitting physical
device.
• There are two different types of NFC: Active and passive. Active NFC,
which is currently used on many Android devices, as well as the new Apple
devices, can send and receive data. Passive NFC, on the other hand, can
only send data.
• However, passive NFC provides an extra benefit: The passive devices can
run without power. For example, a student ID card may use NFC
technology. If you tap the card on the bus, your card is passively
transferring information through NFC to the bus system's active card
reader.

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• NFC is rooted in radio-frequency identification
technology (known as RFID) which allows
compatible hardware to both supply power to
and communicate with an otherwise
unpowered and passive electronic tag
using radio waves. This is used for
identification, authentication and tracking.

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 • SATA, in full serial advanced technology attachment, also
called serial ATA, an interface for transferring data between
a computer’s central circuit board and storage devices.

• SATA replaced the long-standing PATA (parallel ATA) interface.

• Serial communication transfers data one bit at a time, rather than in

several parallel streams.

• Despite the apparent advantage of the parallel model, in practice serial

transmission is less susceptible to interference, allowing SATA to
operate at significantly higher speeds than PATA.

• The serial model also allows for simpler and slimmer cabling.

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• SATA (also referred to as Serial ATA) stands for Serial Advanced
Technology Attachment, an industry-standard bus interface
for connecting a computer's host bus adapter to storage
devices such as hard disk drives (HDD), optical drives and
solid-state drives (SSD).

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 Activity-4 How to pair your
Bluetooth device to a laptop
To pair a Bluetooth device
1. Turn on your Bluetooth device and make it discoverable. The way you
make it discoverable depends on the device. Check the device or visit the
manufacturer's website to learn how.
2. On your PC, select Start > Settings > Bluetooth & devices > Add
device > Bluetooth .
3. Choose the Bluetooth device, follow additional instructions if they appear,
then select Done.
• Your Bluetooth device and PC will usually automatically connect anytime
the two devices are in range of each other with Bluetooth turned on.

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 RAID
• (Redundant Array of Independent Disks) A disk or solid state drive (SSD)
subsystem that increases performance or provides fault tolerance or both.
• RAID uses two or more physical drives and a RAID controller, which is
plugged into motherboards that do not have RAID circuits.
• Today, most motherboards have built-in RAID but not necessarily every
RAID configuration. In the past, RAID was also accomplished by software
only but was much slower.
• In the late 1980s, the "I" in RAID stood for "inexpensive" but was later
changed to "independent."
• In large storage area networks (SANs), floor-standing RAID units are
common with terabytes of storage and huge amounts of cache memory.
• RAID is also used in desktop computers by gamers for speed and by
business users for reliability. Following are the various RAID
configurations.

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 RAID 0

RAID 0 - Striping for Performance (Popular)

Widely used for gaming, striping interleaves data across multiple drives
for performance. However, there are no safeguards against failure.

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 RAID 1

RAID 1 - Mirroring for Fault Tolerance (Popular) Widely used, RAID 1

writes two drives at the same time. It provides the highest reliability but doubles
the number of drives needed. RAID 10 combines RAID 1 mirroring with RAID
0 striping for both safety and performance.

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 RAID 3

RAID 3 - Speed and Fault Tolerance

Data are striped across three or more drives for performance, and parity
is computed for safety. Similar to RAID 3, RAID 4 uses block level
striping but is not as popular.
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 RAID 5

RAID 5 - Speed and Fault Tolerance (Popular) Data are striped across three
or more drives for performance, and parity is computed for safety. RAID 5 is
similar to RAID 3, except that the parity is distributed to all drives. RAID 6
offers more reliability than RAID 5 by performing more parity computations.

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 GPU Basics
• Graphics processing technology has evolved to deliver unique benefits in the
world of computing.
• The latest graphics processing units (GPUs) unlock new possibilities in
gaming, content creation, machine learning, and more.
• GPU stands for graphics processing unit. You’ll also see GPUs commonly
referred to as graphics cards or video cards. Every PC uses a GPU to render
images, video and 2D or 3D animations for display. A GPU performs quick
math calculations and frees up the CPU to do other things.

There are two different types of GPUs:

• Integrated GPUs are located on a PC’s CPU and share memory with the
CPU’s processor.
• Discrete GPUs live on their own card and have their own video memory
(VRAM), so that the PC doesn’t have to use its RAM for graphics.

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 What Does a GPU Do?
• The graphics processing unit, or GPU, has become one of the most
important types of computing technology, both for personal and business
computing. Designed for parallel processing, the GPU is used in a wide
range of applications, including graphics and video rendering.
• Although they’re best known for their capabilities in gaming, GPUs are
becoming more popular for use in creative production and artificial
intelligence (AI).
• GPUs were originally designed to accelerate the rendering of 3D graphics.
Over time, they became more flexible and programmable, enhancing their
capabilities. This allowed graphics programmers to create more interesting
visual effects and realistic scenes with advanced lighting and shadowing
techniques.
• Other developers also began to tap the power of GPUs to dramatically
accelerate additional workloads in high performance computing (HPC),
deep learning, and more.

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