Section 1.7 Mod

Section 1.
7
Section Summary
 Mathematical Proofs
 Forms of Theorems
 Direct Proofs
 Indirect Proofs
 Proof of the Contrapositive
 Proof by Contradiction
Proofs of Mathematical Statements
 A proof is a valid argument that establishes the truth of a
statement.
 In math, CS, and other disciplines, informal proofs which are
generally shorter, are generally used.
 More than one rule of inference are often used in a step.
 Steps may be skipped.
 The rules of inference used are not explicitly stated.
 Easier for to understand and to explain to people.
 But it is also easier to introduce errors.
 Proofs have many practical applications:
 verification that computer programs are correct
 establishing that operating systems are secure
 enabling programs to make inferences in artificial intelligence
 showing that system specifications are consistent
Definitions
 A theorem is a statement that can be shown to be true using:
 definitions
 other theorems
 axioms (statements which are given as true)
 rules of inference
 A lemma is a ‘helping theorem’ or a result which is needed to
prove a theorem.
 A corollary is a result which follows directly from a theorem.
 Less important theorems are sometimes called propositions.
 A conjecture is a statement that is being proposed to be true.
Once a proof of a conjecture is found, it becomes a theorem. It
may turn out to be false.
Forms of Theorems
 Many theorems assert that a property holds for all elements
in a domain, such as the integers, the real numbers, or
some of the discrete structures that we will study in this
class.
 Often the universal quantifier (needed for a precise
statement of a theorem) is omitted by standard
mathematical convention.
For example, the statement:
“If x > y, where x and y are positive real numbers, then x2 > y2 ”
really means
“For all positive real numbers x and y, if x > y, then x2 > y2 .”
Proving Theorems
 Many theorems have the form:
 To prove them, we show that where c is an arbitrary

element of the domain,
 By universal generalization the truth of the original
formula follows.
 So, we must prove something of the form:
Proving Conditional Statements: p → q
 Trivial Proof: If we know q is true, then
p → q is true as well.
“If it is raining then 1=1.”
 Vacuous Proof: If we know p is false then

p → q is true as well.
“If I am both rich and poor then 2 + 2 = 5.”
[ Even though these examples seem silly, both trivial and vacuous
proofs are often used in mathematical induction, as we will see
in Chapter 5) ]
Even and Odd Integers
Definition: The integer n is even if there exists an
integer k such that n = 2k, and n is odd if there exists
an integer k, such that n = 2k + 1. Note that every
integer is either even or odd and no integer is both
even and odd.
We will need this basic fact about the integers in some

of the example proofs to follow. We will learn more
about the integers in Chapter 4.
 Direct Proof: Assume that p is true. Use rules of inference,
axioms, and logical equivalences to show that q must also
be true.
Example: Give a direct proof of the theorem “If n is an odd
integer, then n2 is odd.”
Solution: Assume that n is odd. Then n = 2k + 1 for an
integer k. Squaring both sides of the equation, we get:
n2 = (2k + 1)2 = 4k2 + 4k +1 = 2(2k2 + 2k) + 1= 2r + 1,
where r = 2k2 + 2k , an integer.
We have proved that if n is an odd integer, then n2 is an
odd integer.
( marks the end of the proof. Sometimes QED is
used instead. )
Definition: The real number r is rational if there exist
integers p and q where q≠0 such that r = p/q
Example: Prove that the sum of two rational numbers
is rational.
Solution: Assume r and s are two rational numbers.
Then there must be integers p, q and also t, u such
that
where v = pu + qt
w = qu ≠ 0
Thus the sum is rational.
 Proof by Contraposition: Assume ¬q and show ¬p is true also. This is
sometimes called an indirect proof method. If we give a direct proof of
¬q → ¬p then we have a proof of p → q.
Why does this work?
Example: Prove that if n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd, then n is
odd.
Solution: Assume n is even. So, n = 2k for some integer k. Thus
3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 =6k +2 = 2(3k + 1) = 2j for j = 3k +1
Therefore 3n + 2 is even. Since we have shown ¬q → ¬p , p → q
must hold as well. If n is an integer and 3n + 2 is odd (not even) ,
then n is odd (not even).
Example: Prove that for an integer n, if n2 is odd, then n is
odd.
Solution: Use proof by contraposition. Assume n is even
(i.e., not odd). Therefore, there exists an integer k such
that n = 2k. Hence,
n2 = 4k2 = 2 (2k2)
and n2 is even(i.e., not odd).
We have shown that if n is an even integer, then n2 is even.
Therefore by contraposition, for an integer n, if n2 is odd,
then n is odd.
 Proof by Contradiction: (AKA reductio ad absurdum).
 Suppose we want to prove that a statement p is true. Furthermore,
suppose that we can find a contradiction q such that ￢p → q is true.
Because q is false, but ￢p → q is true, we can conclude that ￢p is false,
which means that p is true.
Example: Prove that if you pick 22 days from the calendar,
at least 4 must fall on the same day of the week.
Solution: Assume that no more than 3 of the 22 days fall
on the same day of the week. Because there are 7 days of
the week, we could only have picked 21 days. This
contradicts the assumption that we have picked 22 days.
Proof by Contradiction
 A preview of Chapter 4.
Example: Use a proof by contradiction to give a proof that √2 is
irrational.
Solution: Suppose √2 is rational. Then there exists integers a and b
with √2 = a/b, where b≠ 0 and a and b have no common factors (see
Chapter 4). Then
Therefore a2 must be even. If a2 is even then a must be even (an

exercise). Since a is even, a = 2c for some integer c. Thus,
Therefore b2 is even. Again then b must be even as well.

But then 2 must divide both a and b. This contradicts our assumption
that a and b have no common factors. We have proved by contradiction
that our initial assumption must be false and therefore √2 is
irrational .
Proof by Contradiction
 In a proof of p → q by contraposition, we assume
that ￢q is true. We then show that ￢p must also
be true. To rewrite a proof by contraposition of p →
q as a proof by contradiction, we suppose that both
p and ￢q are true. Then, we use the steps from the
proof of ￢q →￢p to show that ￢p is true. This
leads to the contradiction p ∧￢p, completing the
proof.
 EXAMPLE: Give a proof by contradiction of the theorem “If
3n + 2 is odd, then n is odd.”
 Solution: Let p be “3n + 2 is odd” and q be “n is odd.” To
construct a proof by contradiction, assume that both p and
￢q are true. That is, assume that 3n + 2 is odd and that n is
not odd. Because n is not odd, we know that it is even.
Because n is even, there is an integer k such that n = 2k. This
implies that 3n + 2 = 3(2k) + 2 = 6k + 2 = 2(3k + 1). Because 3n
+ 2 is 2t , where t = 3k + 1, 3n + 2 is even. Note that the
statement “3n + 2 is even” is equivalent to the statement ￢p,
because an integer is even if and only if it is not odd. Because
both p and ￢p are true, we have a contradiction. This
completes the proof by contradiction, proving that if 3n + 2 is
odd, then n is odd. ▲
Theorems that are Biconditional
Statements
 To prove a theorem that is a biconditional statement,
that is, a statement of the form p q, we show that
p → q and q →p are both true.
Example: Prove the theorem: “If n is an integer, then n is
odd if and only if n2 is odd.”
Solution: We have already shown (previous slides) that
both p →q and q →p. Therefore we can conclude p q.
Sometimes iff is used as an abbreviation for “if an only if,” as in

“If n is an integer, then n is odd iif n2 is odd.”
What is wrong with this?
“Proof” that 1 = 2
Solution: Step 5. a - b = 0 by the premise and

division by 0 is undefined.
Looking Ahead
 If direct methods of proof do not work:
 We may need a clever use of a proof by contraposition.
 Or a proof by contradiction.
 In the next section, we will see strategies that can be
used when straightforward approaches do not work.
 In Chapter 5, we will see mathematical induction and
related techniques.
 In Chapter 6, we will see combinatorial proofs

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Section 1.

 To prove them, we show that where c is an arbitrary

“If it is raining then 1=1.”

 Vacuous Proof: If we know p is false then

We will need this basic fact about the integers in some

Therefore a2 must be even. If a2 is even then a must be even (an

Therefore b2 is even. Again then b must be even as well.

Sometimes iff is used as an abbreviation for “if an only if,” as in

Solution: Step 5. a - b = 0 by the premise and

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