LESSON 2 – RESEARCH APPROACHES

INDUCTIVE VS DEDUCTIVE RESEARCH APPROACH

The main difference between inductive and deductive reasoning is that inductive reasoning aims
at developing a theory while deductive reasoning aims at testing an existing theory. In other
words, inductive reasoning moves from specific observations to broad generalizations. Deductive
reasoning works the other way around.

Both approaches are used in various types of research, and it’s not uncommon to combine them in
your work.

Inductive Research Approach

When there is little to no existing literature on a topic, it is common to perform inductive research,
because there is no theory to test. The inductive approach consists of three stages: 1. Observation
 • A low-cost airline flight is delayed
• Dogs A and B have fleas
• Elephants depend on water to exist
2. Seeking patterns
• Another 20 flights from low-cost airlines are delayed
• All observed dogs have fleas
• All observed animals depend on water to exist
3. Developing a theory or general (preliminary) conclusion
• Low cost airlines always have delays
• All dogs have fleas
• All biological life depends on water to exist
Limitations of an Inductive Approach
A conclusion drawn on the basis of an inductive method can never be fully proven. However, it
can be invalidated.

Example: You observe 1000 flights from low-cost airlines. All of them experience a delay, which is
in line with your theory. However, you can never prove that flight 1001 will also be delayed. Still,
the larger your dataset, the more reliable your conclusions.

Deductive Research Approach

When conducting deductive research,
you always start with a theory. This is
usually the result of inductive research.
Reasoning deductively means
testing these theories. Remember that if
there is no theory yet, you cannot
conduct deductive research.

The deductive research approach

consists of four stages:
1. Start with an existing theory and
create a problem statement
• Low-cost airlines always have delays
• All dogs have fleas
• All biological life depends on water to exist
 2. Formulate a falsifiable hypothesis, based on existing theory
• If passengers fly with a low-cost airline, then they will always experience delays •
All pet dogs in my apartment building have fleas

• All land mammals depend on water to exist

• Collect data to test the hypothesis
• Collect flight data of low-cost airlines
• Test all dogs in the building for fleas
• Study all land mammal species to see if they depend on water
3. Analyze and test the data
• 5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed
• 10 out of 20 dogs didn’t have fleas
• All land mammal species depend on water
4. Decide whether you can reject the null hypothesis
• 5 out of 100 flights of low-cost airlines are not delayed = reject hypothesis •
10 out of 20 dogs didn’t have fleas = reject hypothesis

• All land mammal species depend on water = support hypothesis

Limitations of a Deductive Approach

The conclusions of deductive reasoning can only be true if all the premises set in the inductive
study are true and the terms are clear.

Example:
• All dogs have fleas (premise)
• Benno is a dog (premise)
• Benno has fleas (conclusion)
Based on the premises we have, the
conclusion must be true. However, if the
first premise turns out to be false, the
conclusion that Benno has fleas cannot
be relied upon.

Combining Inductive and

Deductive Research
Many scientists conducting a larger
research project begin with an inductive study. This helps them develop a relevant research topic
and construct a strong working theory. The inductive study is followed up with deductive
research to confirm or invalidate the conclusion. This can help you formulate a more structured
project, and better mitigate the risk of research bias creeping into your work.

Remember that both inductive and deductive approaches are at risk for research biases,
particularly confirmation bias and cognitive bias, so it’s important to be aware while you conduct
your research.

QUALITATIVE VS QUANTITATIVE RESEARCH

When collecting and analyzing data, quantitative research deals with numbers and statistics, while
qualitative research deals with words and meanings. Both are important for gaining different kinds
of knowledge.
Qualitative Research
Quantitative research is expressed in numbers and graphs. It is used to test or confirm theories
and assumptions. This type of research can be used to establish generalizable facts about a topic.
Common quantitative methods include experiments, observations recorded as numbers, and
surveys with closed-ended questions.

Quantitative research is at risk for research biases including information bias, omitted variable
bias, sampling bias, or selection bias.

Quantitative Research
Qualitative research is expressed in words.
It is used to understand concepts,
thoughts or experiences. This type
of research enables you to gather in-depth
insights on topics that are not well
understood.

Common qualitative methods include

interviews with open-ended questions,
observations described in words,
and literature reviews that explore
concepts and theories. Qualitative
research is also at risk for certain
research biases including the Hawthorne effect, observer bias, recall bias, and social desirability
bias.

The Differences Between Quantitative and Qualitative Research

Quantitative and qualitative research use different research methods to collect and analyze data,
and they allow you to answer different kinds of research questions.

Qualitative Research Quantitative Research

Focus Exploring ideas or formulating Testing hypothesis or theories

hypothesis/theories

Analysis Summarizing, categorizing, Math and statistical analysis

interpreting

Expressed in Words Numbers, graphs, tables, fewer

words

Sample Few respondents Many respondents

Questions Open-ended Close-ended or multiple choice

Characterized by Understanding, context, Testing, measurement,

complexity, subjectivity objectivity, replicability

Data Collection Methods

Quantitative and qualitative data can be collected using various methods. It is important to use a
data collection method that will help answer your research question(s).

Many data collection methods can be either qualitative or quantitative. For example, in surveys,
observational studies or case studies, your data can be represented as numbers (e.g., using rating
scales or counting frequencies) or as words (e.g., with open-ended questions or descriptions of
what you observe).

However, some methods are more commonly used in one type or the other.
Quantitative Data
Collection Methods:
• Surveys: List of closed or multiple
choice questions that is
 distributed to a sample (online, in person, or over the phone).

• Experiments: Situation in which different types of variables are controlled and

manipulated to establish cause-and-effect relationships.

• Observations: Observing subjects in a natural environment where variables can’t be

controlled.

Qualitative Data Collection

• Interviews: Asking open-ended questions verbally to respondents.
• Focus groups: Discussion among a group of people about a topic to gather opinions that
can be used for further research.

• Ethnography: Participating in a community or organization for an extended period of

time to closely observe culture and behavior.

• Literature review: Survey of published works by other authors.

When to use Qualitative vs Quantitative Research

A rule of thumb for deciding whether to use qualitative or quantitative data is:

• Use quantitative research if you want to confirm or test something (a theory or

hypothesis)

• Use qualitative research if you want to understand something (concepts, thoughts,

experiences)

For most research topics you can choose a qualitative, quantitative or mixed methods approach.
Which type you choose depends on, among other things, whether you’re taking an inductive vs.
deductive research approach; your research question(s); whether you’re
doing experimental, correlational, or descriptive research; and practical considerations such as
time, money, availability of data, and access to respondents.

Quantitative Research Approach

You survey 300 students at your university and ask them questions such as: “on a scale from 1-5,
how satisfied are your with your professors?”

You can perform statistical analysis on the data and draw conclusions such as: “on average
students rated their professors 4.4”.

Qualitative Research Approach

You conduct in-depth interviews with 15 students and ask them open-ended questions such as:
“How satisfied are you with your studies?”, “What is the most positive aspect of your study
program?” and
“What can be done to
improve the study
program?”

Based on the answers you get you can ask follow-up questions to clarify things. You transcribe all
interviews using transcription software and try to find commonalities and patterns.

Mixed Methods Approach

You conduct interviews to find out how satisfied students are with their studies. Through open
ended questions you learn things you never thought about before and gain new insights. Later,
you use a survey to test these insights on a larger scale.

It’s also possible to start with a survey to find out the overall trends, followed by interviews to
better understand the reasons behind the trends.

How to analyze qualitative and quantitative data

Qualitative or quantitative data by itself can’t prove or demonstrate anything, but has to be
analyzed to show its meaning in relation to the research questions. The method of analysis differs
for each type of data.

Analyzing Quantitative Data

Quantitative data is based on numbers. Simple math or more advanced statistical analysis is used
to discover commonalities or patterns in the data. The results are often reported in graphs and
tables.

Applications such as Excel, SPSS, or R can be used to calculate things like:

• Average scores (means)

• The number of times a particular answer was given
• The correlation or causation between two or more variables
• The reliability and validity of the results
Analyzing Qualitative Data
Qualitative data is more difficult to analyze than quantitative data. It consists of text, images or
videos instead of numbers.

Some common approaches to analyzing qualitative data include:

• Qualitative content analysis: Tracking the occurrence, position and meaning of words or
phrases

• Thematic analysis: Closely examining the data to identify the main themes and patterns •
Discourse analysis: Studying how communication works in social contexts

PRIMARY RESEARCH

Primary research is a research method that

relies on direct data collection, rather than relying on data that’s already been collected by
someone else. In other words, primary research is any type of research that you undertake
yourself, firsthand, while using data that has already been collected is called secondary research.

Example: You are interested in the quality of vegan options offered at your campus dining hall.
You decide to conduct a survey of vegan students, asking them their thoughts.

Primary research is often used in qualitative research, particularly in survey methodology,

questionnaires, focus groups, and various types of interviews. While quantitative primary research
does exist, it’s not as common.

Tip: Primary vs Secondary Sources: It can be easy to get confused about the difference between
primary and secondary sources in your research. The key is to remember that primary sources
provide firsthand information and evidence, while secondary sources provide secondhand
information and commentary from previous works.

When to use Primary Research

Primary research is any research that you conduct yourself. It can be as simple as a 2-question
survey, or as in-depth as a years-long longitudinal study. The only key is that data must be
collected firsthand by you.

Primary research is often used to supplement or strengthen existing secondary research. It is

usually exploratory in nature, concerned with examining a research question where no preexisting
knowledge exists. It is also sometimes called original research for this reason.

Types of Primary Research

Primary research can take many forms, but the most common types are:
• Surveys and questionnaires
• Observational studies
• Interviews and focus groups

Tip: In order to be successful, it’s important to carefully define your population and sample prior
to getting started. Chances are you won’t be able to access every single member of your
population, but your research should always aim to be generalizable to that population. This
prevents sampling bias and selection bias from creeping in, affecting or invalidating your results.

Survey and Questionnaires

Surveys and questionnaires collect

information about a group of people by
asking them questions and
analyzing the results. They are a solid choice
if your research topic seeks to investigate
something about the characteristics,
preferences, opinions, or beliefs of
a group of people.
Surveys and questionnaires can take place online, in person, or through the mail. It is best to have
a combination of open-ended and closed-ended questions, and how the questions are phrased
matters. Be sure to avoid leading questions, and ask any related questions in groups, starting with
the most basic ones first.

Observational Studies

Observational studies are an easy and popular way to answer a research question based purely on
what you, the researcher, observes. If there are practical or ethical concerns that prevent you from
conducting a traditional experiment, observational studies are often a good stopgap.

There are three types of observational studies: cross-sectional studies, cohort studies, and case
control studies. If you decide to conduct observational research, you can choose the one that’s best
for you. All three are quite straightforward and easy to design—just beware of confounding
variables and observer bias creeping into your analysis.

Observational Studies

Observational studies are an easy and popular way to answer a research question based purely on
what you, the researcher, observes. If there are practical or ethical concerns that prevent you from
conducting a traditional experiment, observational studies are often a good stopgap.

There are three types of observational studies: cross-sectional studies, cohort studies, and case
control studies. If you decide to conduct observational research, you can choose the one that’s best
for you. All three are quite straightforward and easy to design—just beware of confounding
variables and observer bias creeping into your analysis.

Interviews and Focus Groups

Similarly to surveys and questionnaires, interviews and focus groups also rely on asking questions
to collect information about a group of people. However, how this is done is slightly different.
Instead of sending your questions out into the world, interviews and focus groups
involve two or more people—one of whom is you, the interviewer, who asks the
questions.

There are 3 main types of interviews:

• Structured interviews ask predetermined questions in a predetermined order. •

Unstructured interviews are more flexible and free-flowing, proceeding based on the
interviewee’s previous answers.

• Semi-structured interviews fall in between, asking a mix of predetermined

questions and off-the-cuff questions.

While interviews are a rich

source of information, they
can also be
deceptively
challenging to do well. Be
 careful of interviewer bias creeping into your process. This is best mitigated by
avoiding double-barreled questions and paying close attention to your tone and
delivery while asking questions.

Alternatively, a focus group is a group interview, led by a moderator. Focus groups

can provide more nuanced interactions than individual interviews, but their small
sample size means that external validity is low.

Primary/Secondary Research

Examples of Primary Research

Primary research can often be quite simple to pursue yourself. Here are a few examples of
different research methods you can use to explore different topics.

Example of Survey Questionnaire: You are interested in the perceptions of your fellow students on
universal healthcare. You decide to conduct a survey of students, asking them their thoughts.

Example of Observational Study: You are interested in the reactions of campus police to student
protest movements on campus. You decide to observe firsthand, blending into crowds and
conducting a naturalistic observation.

Example of Interview: You are

interested in the acclimatization
process of first-year international students in your dorm. You decide to conduct a semi-structured
interview of these students, asking them their thoughts on homesickness, cultural competencies,
and perceptions of assimilation.

Advantages of Primary Research

Advantage include:
• The ability to conduct really tailored, thorough research, down to the “nitty-gritty” of
your topic. You decide what you want to study or observe and how to go about doing
that.

• You maintain control over the quality of the data collected, and can ensure firsthand that it
is objective, reliable, and valid.

• The ensuing results are yours, for you to disseminate as you see fit. You maintain
proprietary control over what you find out, allowing you to share your findings with
like minded individuals or those conducting related research that interests you for
replication or discussion purposes.

Disadvantages of Primary Research

Disadvantages include:
• In order to be done well, primary research can be very expensive and time consuming. If
you are constrained in terms of time or funding, it can be very difficult to conduct your
own high-quality primary research.

• Primary research is often insufficient as a standalone research method, requiring

secondary research to bolster it.
• Primary research can be prone to various types of research bias. Bias can manifest on the
part of the researcher as observer bias, Pygmalion effect, or demand characteristics. It
can occur on the part of participants as a Hawthorne effect or social desirability bias.

SECONDARY RESEARCH
Secondary research is a research method that uses data that was collected by someone else. In
other words, whenever you conduct research using data that already exists, you are conducting
secondary research. On the other hand, any type of research that you undertake yourself is called
primary research.

Example of Secondary Research:

You are interested in how the number and
quality of vegan options offered at your campus dining hall have changed over time. You have a
friend who graduated a few years ago who was also interested in this topic. You borrow her
survey results and use them to conduct statistical analysis.

Tip for Primary vs Secondary Sources: It can be easy to get confused about the difference between
primary and secondary sources in your research. The key is to remember that primary sources
provide firsthand information and evidence, while secondary sources provide secondhand
information and commentary from previous works.

When to use Secondary Research

Secondary research is a very common research method, used in lieu of collecting your own
primary data. It is often used in research designs or as a way to start your research process if you
plan to conduct primary research later on.

Since it is often inexpensive or free to access, secondary research is a low-stakes way to determine
if further primary research is needed, as gaps in secondary research are a strong indication that
primary research is necessary. For this reason, while secondary research can theoretically be
exploratory or explanatory in nature, it is usually explanatory: aiming to explain the causes and
consequences of a well-defined problem.

Types of Secondary Research

• Statistical analysis
• Literature reviews
• Case studies
• Content analysis
Statistical Analysis
There is ample data available online from a variety of sources, often in the form of datasets. These
datasets are often open-source or downloadable at a low cost, and are ideal for conducting
statistical analyses such as hypothesis testing or regression analysis.

Credible sources for existing data include:

• The government
• Government agencies
• Non-governmental organizations
• Educational institutions
• Businesses or consultancies
• Libraries or archives
 • Newspapers, academic journals, or magazines

Literature Reviews
A literature review is a survey of preexisting scholarly sources on your topic. It provides an
overview of current knowledge, allowing you to identify relevant themes, debates, and gaps in the
research you analyze. You can later apply these to your own work, or use them as a jumping-off
point to conduct primary research of your own.

Structured much like a regular academic paper (with a clear introduction, body, and conclusion), a
literature review is a great way to evaluate the current state of research and demonstrate your
knowledge of the scholarly debates around your topic.

Tip: A literature review is not a summary. Instead, it critically analyzes, synthesizes, and evaluates
sources to give you and/or your audience a clear picture of the state of existing work on your
research topic.

Case Studies
A case study is a detailed study of a specific subject. It is usually qualitative in nature and can
focus on a person, group, place, event, organization, or phenomenon. A case study is a great way
to utilize existing research to gain concrete, contextual, and in-depth knowledge about your
real-world subject.
You can choose to focus on just one complex case, exploring a single subject in great detail, or
examine multiple cases if you’d prefer to compare different aspects of your topic. Preexisting
interviews, observational studies, or other sources of primary data make for great case studies.

Content Analysis
Content analysis is a research method that studies patterns in recorded communication by
utilizing existing texts. It can be either quantitative or qualitative in nature, depending on whether
you choose to analyze countable or measurable patterns, or more interpretive ones. Content
analysis is popular in communication studies, but it is also widely used in historical analysis,
anthropology, and psychology to make
more semantic qualitative inferences.

Primary/Secondary Research
Examples of Secondary Research
Secondary research is a broad research approach that can be pursued any way you’d like. Here are
a few examples of different ways you can use secondary research to explore your research topic.

Example of Statistical Analysis: You are interested in the characteristics of Americans enrolled in
Affordable Care Act coverage. You utilize enrollment data from the US government’s Department
of Health and Human Resources to observe how these characteristics change over time.

Example of Literature Review:

You are interested in the reactions of
campus police to student protest
movements on campus. You decide to
conduct a literature review of scholarly
works about student protest movements in
the last 100 years.

Example of Case Study: You are interested in the acclimatization process of formerly incarcerated
individuals. You decide to compile data from structured interviews with those recently released
from a prison facility in your hometown into a case study.

Example of Content Analysis: You are interested in how often employment issues came up in
political campaigns during the Great Depression. You choose to analyze campaign speeches for the
frequency of terms such as “unemployment,” “jobs,” and “work.”

Advantages and Disadvantages of Secondary Research

Secondary research is a very common research approach, but has distinct advantages and
disadvantages.

Advantages of Secondary Research

• Advantages include:
• Secondary data is very easy to source and readily available.
• It is also often free or accessible through your educational institution’s library or network,
making it much cheaper to conduct than primary research.
• As you are relying on research that already exists, conducting secondary research is much
less time consuming than primary research. Since your timeline is so much shorter, your
research can be ready to publish sooner.

• Using data from others allows you to show reproducibility and replicability, bolstering
prior research and situating your own work within your field.

Disadvantages of Secondary Research

Disadvantages include:
• Ease of access does not signify credibility. It’s important to be aware that secondary
research is not always reliable, and can often be out of date. It’s critical to analyze any
data you’re thinking of using prior to getting started, using a method like the CRAAP
test.

• Secondary research often relies

on primary research already
 conducted. If this original research is biased in any way, those research biases could
creep into the secondary results.

Many researchers using the same secondary research to form similar conclusions can also take
away from the uniqueness and reliability of your research. Many datasets become “kitchen-sink”
models, where too many variables are added in an attempt to draw increasingly niche conclusions
from overused data. Data cleansing may be necessary to test the quality of the research.