Precalculus

Version bπc = 3, Corrected Edition

by

Carl Stitz, Ph.D. Jeff Zeager, Ph.D.

Lakeland Community College Lorain County Community College

July 4, 2013
Table of Contents

Preface ix

1 Relations and Functions 1

1.1 Sets of Real Numbers and the Cartesian Coordinate Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.1 Sets of Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.1.2 The Cartesian Coordinate Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.1.3 Distance in the Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.1.4 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
1.1.5 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
1.2 Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
1.2.1 Graphs of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.2.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.2.3 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.3 Introduction to Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.3.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
1.3.2 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
1.4 Function Notation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
1.4.1 Modeling with Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
1.4.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
1.4.3 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
1.5 Function Arithmetic . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
1.5.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
1.5.2 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
1.6 Graphs of Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
1.6.1 General Function Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
1.6.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
1.6.3 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
1.7 Transformations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
1.7.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
1.7.2 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
iv Table of Contents

2 Linear and Quadratic Functions 151

2.1 Linear Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
2.1.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
2.1.2 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
2.2 Absolute Value Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
2.2.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 183
2.2.2 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 184
2.3 Quadratic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
2.3.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
2.3.2 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
2.4 Inequalities with Absolute Value and Quadratic Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
2.4.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 220
2.4.2 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
2.5 Regression . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
2.5.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
2.5.2 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233

3 Polynomial Functions 235

3.1 Graphs of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
3.1.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
3.1.2 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
3.2 The Factor Theorem and the Remainder Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
3.2.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
3.2.2 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
3.3 Real Zeros of Polynomials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
3.3.1 For Those Wishing to use a Graphing Calculator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
3.3.2 For Those Wishing NOT to use a Graphing Calculator . . . . . . . . . . . 273
3.3.3 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
3.3.4 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
3.4 Complex Zeros and the Fundamental Theorem of Algebra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
3.4.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 295
3.4.2 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297

4 Rational Functions 301

4.1 Introduction to Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
4.1.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
4.1.2 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
4.2 Graphs of Rational Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
4.2.1 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333
4.2.2 Answers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
4.3 Rational Inequalities and Applications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
4.3.1 Variation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
4.3.2 Exercises . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
Chapter 1

Relations and Functions

1.1 Sets of Real Numbers and the Cartesian Coordinate Plane

1.1.1 Sets of Numbers
While the authors would like nothing more than to delve quickly and deeply into the sheer excite-
ment that is Precalculus, experience1 has taught us that a brief refresher on some basic notions is
welcome, if not completely necessary, at this stage. To that end, we present a brief summary of
‘set theory’ and some of the associated vocabulary and notations we use in the text. Like all good
Math books, we begin with a definition.
Definition 1.1. A set is a well-defined collection of objects which are called the ‘elements’ of
the set. Here, ‘well-defined’ means that it is possible to determine if something belongs to the
collection or not, without prejudice.
For example, the collection of letters that make up the word “smolko” is well-defined and is a set,
but the collection of the worst math teachers in the world is not well-defined, and so is not a set.2
In general, there are three ways to describe sets. They are
Ways to Describe Sets
1. The Verbal Method: Use a sentence to define a set.

2. The Roster Method: Begin with a left brace ‘{’, list each element of the set only once
and then end with a right brace ‘}’.

3. The Set-Builder Method: A combination of the verbal and roster methods using a
“dummy variable” such as x.
For example, let S be the set described verbally as the set of letters that make up the word “smolko”.
A roster description of S would be {s, m, o, l, k}. Note that we listed ‘o’ only once, even though it
1
. . . to be read as ‘good, solid feedback from colleagues’ . . .
2
For a more thought-provoking example, consider the collection of all things that do not contain themselves - this
leads to the famous Russell’s Paradox.
2 Relations and Functions

appears twice in “smolko.” Also, the order of the elements doesn’t matter, so {k, l, m, o, s} is also
a roster description of S. A set-builder description of S is:

{x | x is a letter in the word “smolko”.}

The way to read this is: ‘The set of elements x such that x is a letter in the word “smolko.”’ In
each of the above cases, we may use the familiar equals sign ‘=’ and write S = {s, m, o, l, k} or
S = {x | x is a letter in the word “smolko”.}. Clearly m is in S and q is not in S. We express
these sentiments mathematically by writing m ∈ S and q ∈ / S. Throughout your mathematical
upbringing, you have encountered several famous sets of numbers. They are listed below.
Sets of Numbers
1. The Empty Set: ∅ = {} = {x | x 6= x}. This is the set with no elements. Like the number
‘0,’ it plays a vital role in mathematics.a

2. The Natural Numbers: N = {1, 2, 3, . . .} The periods of ellipsis here indicate that the
natural numbers contain 1, 2, 3, ‘and so forth’.

3. The Whole Numbers: W = {0, 1, 2, . . .}

4. The Integers: Z = {. . . , −3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2, 3, . . .}

5. The Rational Numbers: Q = ab | a ∈ Z and b ∈ Z . Rational numbers are the ratios of



integers (provided the denominator is not zero!) It turns out that another way to describe
the rational numbersb is:

Q = {x | x possesses a repeating or terminating decimal representation.}

6. The Real Numbers: R = {x | x possesses a decimal representation.}

7. The Irrational Numbers: P = {x | x is a non-rational real number.} Said another way,

an irrational number is a decimal which neither repeats nor terminates.c
√
8. The Complex Numbers: C = {a + bi | a,b ∈ R and i = −1} Despite their importance,
the complex numbers play only a minor role in the text.d
a
. . . which, sadly, we will not explore in this text.
b
See Section 9.2. √
c
The classic example is the number π (See Section 10.1), but numbers like 2 and 0.101001000100001 . . . are
other fine representatives.
d
They first appear in Section 3.4 and return in Section 11.7.

It is important to note that every natural number is a whole number, which, in turn, is an integer.
Each integer is a rational number (take b = 1 in the above definition for Q) and the rational
numbers are all real numbers, since they possess decimal representations.3 If we take b = 0 in the
3
Long division, anyone?
1.1 Sets of Real Numbers and the Cartesian Coordinate Plane 3

above definition of C, we see that every real number is a complex number. In this sense, the sets
N, W, Z, Q, R, and C are ‘nested’ like Matryoshka dolls.

For the most part, this textbook focuses on sets whose elements come from the real numbers R.
Recall that we may visualize R as a line. Segments of this line are called intervals of numbers.
Below is a summary of the so-called interval notation associated with given sets of numbers. For
intervals with finite endpoints, we list the left endpoint, then the right endpoint. We use square
brackets, ‘[’ or ‘]’, if the endpoint is included in the interval and use a filled-in or ‘closed’ dot to
indicate membership in the interval. Otherwise, we use parentheses, ‘(’ or ‘)’ and an ‘open’ circle to
indicate that the endpoint is not part of the set. If the interval does not have finite endpoints, we
use the symbols −∞ to indicate that the interval extends indefinitely to the left and ∞ to indicate
that the interval extends indefinitely to the right. Since infinity is a concept, and not a number,
we always use parentheses when using these symbols in interval notation, and use an appropriate
arrow to indicate that the interval extends indefinitely in one (or both) directions.

Interval Notation
Let a and b be real numbers with a < b.

Set of Real Numbers Interval Notation Region on the Real Number Line

{x | a < x < b} (a, b)

a b

{x | a ≤ x < b} [a, b)
a b

{x | a < x ≤ b} (a, b]
a b

{x | a ≤ x ≤ b} [a, b]
a b

{x | x < b} (−∞, b)
b

{x | x ≤ b} (−∞, b]
b

{x | x > a} (a, ∞)
a

{x | x ≥ a} [a, ∞)
a

R (−∞, ∞)
4 Relations and Functions

For an example, consider the sets of real numbers described below.

Set of Real Numbers Interval Notation Region on the Real Number Line

{x | 1 ≤ x < 3} [1, 3)
1 3

{x | − 1 ≤ x ≤ 4} [−1, 4] −1 4

{x | x ≤ 5} (−∞, 5]
5

{x | x > −2} (−2, ∞) −2

We will often have occasion to combine sets. There are two basic ways to combine sets: intersec-
tion and union. We define both of these concepts below.

Definition 1.2. Suppose A and B are two sets.

ˆ The intersection of A and B: A ∩ B = {x | x ∈ A and x ∈ B}

ˆ The union of A and B: A ∪ B = {x | x ∈ A or x ∈ B (or both)}

Said differently, the intersection of two sets is the overlap of the two sets – the elements which the
sets have in common. The union of two sets consists of the totality of the elements in each of the
sets, collected together.4 For example, if A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {2, 4, 6}, then A ∩ B = {2} and
A ∪ B = {1, 2, 3, 4, 6}. If A = [−5, 3) and B = (1, ∞), then we can find A ∩ B and A ∪ B graphically.
To find A ∩ B, we shade the overlap of the two and obtain A ∩ B = (1, 3). To find A ∪ B, we shade
each of A and B and describe the resulting shaded region to find A ∪ B = [−5, ∞).

−5 1 3 −5 1 3 −5 1 3
A = [−5, 3), B = (1, ∞) A ∩ B = (1, 3) A ∪ B = [−5, ∞)

While both intersection and union are important, we have more occasion to use union in this text
than intersection, simply because most of the sets of real numbers we will be working with are
either intervals or are unions of intervals, as the following example illustrates.

4
The reader is encouraged to research Venn Diagrams for a nice geometric interpretation of these concepts.
1.1 Sets of Real Numbers and the Cartesian Coordinate Plane 5

Example 1.1.1. Express the following sets of numbers using interval notation.

1. {x | x ≤ −2 or x ≥ 2} 2. {x | x 6= 3}

3. {x | x 6= ±3} 4. {x | − 1 < x ≤ 3 or x = 5}

Solution.

1. The best way to proceed here is to graph the set of numbers on the number line and glean
the answer from it. The inequality x ≤ −2 corresponds to the interval (−∞, −2] and the
inequality x ≥ 2 corresponds to the interval [2, ∞). Since we are looking to describe the real
numbers x in one of these or the other, we have {x | x ≤ −2 or x ≥ 2} = (−∞, −2] ∪ [2, ∞).

−2 2
(−∞, −2] ∪ [2, ∞)

2. For the set {x | x 6= 3}, we shade the entire real number line except x = 3, where we leave
an open circle. This divides the real number line into two intervals, (−∞, 3) and (3, ∞).
Since the values of x could be in either one of these intervals or the other, we have that
{x | x 6= 3} = (−∞, 3) ∪ (3, ∞)

3
(−∞, 3) ∪ (3, ∞)

3. For the set {x | x 6= ±3}, we proceed as before and exclude both x = 3 and x = −3 from our
set. This breaks the number line into three intervals, (−∞, −3), (−3, 3) and (3, ∞). Since
the set describes real numbers which come from the first, second or third interval, we have
{x | x 6= ±3} = (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 3) ∪ (3, ∞).

−3 3
(−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 3) ∪ (3, ∞)

4. Graphing the set {x | − 1 < x ≤ 3 or x = 5}, we get one interval, (−1, 3] along with a single
number, or point, {5}. While we could express the latter as [5, 5] (Can you see why?), we
choose to write our answer as {x | − 1 < x ≤ 3 or x = 5} = (−1, 3] ∪ {5}.

−1 3 5
(−1, 3] ∪ {5}
6 Relations and Functions

1.1.2 The Cartesian Coordinate Plane

In order to visualize the pure excitement that is Precalculus, we need to unite Algebra and Ge-
ometry. Simply put, we must find a way to draw algebraic things. Let’s start with possibly the
greatest mathematical achievement of all time: the Cartesian Coordinate Plane.5 Imagine two
real number lines crossing at a right angle at 0 as drawn below.
y

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1

−2

−3

−4

The horizontal number line is usually called the x-axis while the vertical number line is usually
called the y-axis.6 As with the usual number line, we imagine these axes extending off indefinitely
in both directions.7 Having two number lines allows us to locate the positions of points off of the
number lines as well as points on the lines themselves.
For example, consider the point P on the next page. To use the numbers on the axes to label this
point, we imagine dropping a vertical line from the x-axis to P and extending a horizontal line from
the y-axis to P . This process is sometimes called ‘projecting’ the point P to the x- (respectively
y-) axis. We then describe the point P using the ordered pair (2, −4). The first number in the
ordered pair is called the abscissa or x-coordinate and the second is called the ordinate or
y-coordinate.8 Taken together, the ordered pair (2, −4) comprise the Cartesian coordinates9
of the point P . In practice, the distinction between a point and its coordinates is blurred; for
example, we often speak of ‘the point (2, −4).’ We can think of (2, −4) as instructions on how to
5
So named in honor of René Descartes.
6
The labels can vary depending on the context of application.
7
Usually extending off towards infinity is indicated by arrows, but here, the arrows are used to indicate the
direction of increasing values of x and y.
8
Again, the names of the coordinates can vary depending on the context of the application. If, for example, the
horizontal axis represented time we might choose to call it the t-axis. The first number in the ordered pair would
then be the t-coordinate.
9
Also called the ‘rectangular coordinates’ of P – see Section 11.4 for more details.
1.1 Sets of Real Numbers and the Cartesian Coordinate Plane 7

reach P from the origin (0, 0) by moving 2 units to the right and 4 units downwards. Notice that
the order in the ordered pair is important − if we wish to plot the point (−4, 2), we would move
to the left 4 units from the origin and then move upwards 2 units, as below on the right.

y y

4 4

3 3
(−4, 2)
2 2

1 1

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1 −1

−2 −2

−3 −3

−4 P −4 P (2, −4)

When we speak of the Cartesian Coordinate Plane, we mean the set of all possible ordered pairs
(x, y) as x and y take values from the real numbers. Below is a summary of important facts about
Cartesian coordinates.

Important Facts about the Cartesian Coordinate Plane

ˆ (a, b) and (c, d) represent the same point in the plane if and only if a = c and b = d.

ˆ (x, y) lies on the x-axis if and only if y = 0.

ˆ (x, y) lies on the y-axis if and only if x = 0.

ˆ The origin is the point (0, 0). It is the only point common to both axes.

Example 1.1.2. Plot the following points: A(5, 8), B − 52 , 3 , C(−5.8, −3), D(4.5, −1), E(5, 0),

F (0, 5), G(−7, 0), H(0, −9), O(0, 0).10

Solution. To plot these points, we start at the origin and move to the right if the x-coordinate is
positive; to the left if it is negative. Next, we move up if the y-coordinate is positive or down if it
is negative. If the x-coordinate is 0, we start at the origin and move along the y-axis only. If the
y-coordinate is 0 we move along the x-axis only.

10
The letter O is almost always reserved for the origin.
8 Relations and Functions

8
7 A(5, 8)
6
5 F (0, 5)
4

3
B − 52 , 3


2
1
G(−7, 0) O(0, 0) E(5, 0)
−9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
−1

−2 D(4.5, −1)
−3
C(−5.8, −3) −4
−5
−6

−7
−8
−9 H(0, −9)

The axes divide the plane into four regions called quadrants. They are labeled with Roman
numerals and proceed counterclockwise around the plane:
y

4
Quadrant II Quadrant I
3
x < 0, y > 0 x > 0, y > 0
2

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1

−2
Quadrant III Quadrant IV
−3
x < 0, y < 0 x > 0, y < 0
−4
1.1 Sets of Real Numbers and the Cartesian Coordinate Plane 9

For example, (1, 2) lies in Quadrant I, (−1, 2) in Quadrant II, (−1, −2) in Quadrant III and (1, −2)
in Quadrant IV. If a point other than the origin happens to lie on the axes, we typically refer to
that point as lying on the positive or negative x-axis (if y = 0) or on the positive or negative y-axis
(if x = 0). For example, (0, 4) lies on the positive y-axis whereas (−117, 0) lies on the negative
x-axis. Such points do not belong to any of the four quadrants.
One of the most important concepts in all of Mathematics is symmetry.11 There are many types of
symmetry in Mathematics, but three of them can be discussed easily using Cartesian Coordinates.

Definition 1.3. Two points (a, b) and (c, d) in the plane are said to be

ˆ symmetric about the x-axis if a = c and b = −d

ˆ symmetric about the y-axis if a = −c and b = d

ˆ symmetric about the origin if a = −c and b = −d

Schematically,
y

Q(−x, y) P (x, y)

0 x

R(−x, −y) S(x, −y)

In the above figure, P and S are symmetric about the x-axis, as are Q and R; P and Q are
symmetric about the y-axis, as are R and S; and P and R are symmetric about the origin, as are
Q and S.

Example 1.1.3. Let P be the point (−2, 3). Find the points which are symmetric to P about the:

1. x-axis 2. y-axis 3. origin

Check your answer by plotting the points.

Solution. The figure after Definition 1.3 gives us a good way to think about finding symmetric
points in terms of taking the opposites of the x- and/or y-coordinates of P (−2, 3).
11
According to Carl. Jeff thinks symmetry is overrated.
10 Relations and Functions

1. To find the point symmetric about the x-axis, we replace the y-coordinate with its opposite
to get (−2, −3).

2. To find the point symmetric about the y-axis, we replace the x-coordinate with its opposite
to get (2, 3).

3. To find the point symmetric about the origin, we replace the x- and y-coordinates with their
opposites to get (2, −3).
y

P (−2, 3) 2 (2, 3)

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1

−2

−3
(−2, −3) (2, −3)

One way to visualize the processes in the previous example is with the concept of a reflection. If
we start with our point (−2, 3) and pretend that the x-axis is a mirror, then the reflection of (−2, 3)
across the x-axis would lie at (−2, −3). If we pretend that the y-axis is a mirror, the reflection
of (−2, 3) across that axis would be (2, 3). If we reflect across the x-axis and then the y-axis, we
would go from (−2, 3) to (−2, −3) then to (2, −3), and so we would end up at the point symmetric
to (−2, 3) about the origin. We summarize and generalize this process below.

Reflections
To reflect a point (x, y) about the:

ˆ x-axis, replace y with −y.

ˆ y-axis, replace x with −x.

ˆ origin, replace x with −x and y with −y.

1.1.3 Distance in the Plane

Another important concept in Geometry is the notion of length. If we are going to unite Algebra
and Geometry using the Cartesian Plane, then we need to develop an algebraic understanding of
what distance in the plane means. Suppose we have two points, P (x0 , y0 ) and Q (x1 , y1 ) , in the
plane. By the distance d between P and Q, we mean the length of the line segment joining P with
Q. (Remember, given any two distinct points in the plane, there is a unique line containing both
1.1 Sets of Real Numbers and the Cartesian Coordinate Plane 11

points.) Our goal now is to create an algebraic formula to compute the distance between these two
points. Consider the generic situation below on the left.
Q (x1 , y1 ) Q (x1 , y1 )
d d

P (x0 , y0 ) P (x0 , y0 ) (x1 , y0 )

With a little more imagination, we can envision a right triangle whose hypotenuse has length d as
drawn above on the right. From the latter figure, we see that the lengths of the legs of the triangle
are |x1 − x0 | and |y1 − y0 | so the Pythagorean Theorem gives us

|x1 − x0 |2 + |y1 − y0 |2 = d2

(x1 − x0 )2 + (y1 − y0 )2 = d2
(Do you remember why we can replace the absolute value notation with parentheses?) By extracting
the square root of both sides of the second equation and using the fact that distance is never
negative, we get

Equation 1.1. The Distance Formula: The distance d between the points P (x0 , y0 ) and
Q (x1 , y1 ) is:
q
d = (x1 − x0 )2 + (y1 − y0 )2

It is not always the case that the points P and Q lend themselves to constructing such a triangle.
If the points P and Q are arranged vertically or horizontally, or describe the exact same point, we
cannot use the above geometric argument to derive the distance formula. It is left to the reader in
Exercise 35 to verify Equation 1.1 for these cases.

Example 1.1.4. Find and simplify the distance between P (−2, 3) and Q(1, −3).

Solution.
q
d = (x1 − x0 )2 + (y1 − y0 )2
p
= (1 − (−2))2 + (−3 − 3)2
√
= 9 + 36
√
= 3 5
√
So the distance is 3 5.
12 Relations and Functions

Example 1.1.5. Find all of the points with x-coordinate 1 which are 4 units from the point (3, 2).

Solution. We shall soon see that the points we wish to find are on the line x = 1, but for now
we’ll just view them as points of the form (1, y). Visually,

2 (3, 2)

1
distance is 4 units
x
2 3
−1
(1, y)
−2

−3

We require that the distance from (3, 2) to (1, y) be 4. The Distance Formula, Equation 1.1, yields
q
d = (x1 − x0 )2 + (y1 − y0 )2
p
4 = (1 − 3)2 + (y − 2)2
p
4 = 4 + (y − 2)2
p 2
42 = 4 + (y − 2)2 squaring both sides
16 = 4 + (y − 2)2
12 = (y − 2)2
(y − 2)2 = 12
√
y−2 = ± 12 extracting the square root
√
y−2 = ±2 3
√
y = 2±2 3
√ √
We obtain two answers: (1, 2 + 2 3) and (1, 2 − 2 3). The reader is encouraged to think about
why there are two answers.

Related to finding the distance between two points is the problem of finding the midpoint of the
line segment connecting two points. Given two points, P (x0 , y0 ) and Q (x1 , y1 ), the midpoint M
of P and Q is defined to be the point on the line segment connecting P and Q whose distance from
P is equal to its distance from Q.
1.1 Sets of Real Numbers and the Cartesian Coordinate Plane 13

Q (x1 , y1 )

P (x0 , y0 )

If we think of reaching M by going ‘halfway over’ and ‘halfway up’ we get the following formula.

Equation 1.2. The Midpoint Formula: The midpoint M of the line segment connecting
P (x0 , y0 ) and Q (x1 , y1 ) is:
 
x0 + x1 y0 + y1
M= ,
2 2

If we let d denote the distance between P and Q, we leave it as Exercise 36 to show that the distance
between P and M is d/2 which is the same as the distance between M and Q. This suffices to
show that Equation 1.2 gives the coordinates of the midpoint.
Example 1.1.6. Find the midpoint of the line segment connecting P (−2, 3) and Q(1, −3).
Solution.
 
x0 + x1 y0 + y1
M = ,
2 2
   
(−2) + 1 3 + (−3) 1 0
= , = − ,
2 2 2 2
 
1
= − ,0
2
The midpoint is − 12 , 0 .

We close with a more abstract application of the Midpoint Formula. We will revisit the following
example in Exercise 72 in Section 2.1.
Example 1.1.7. If a 6= b, prove that the line y = x equally divides the line segment with endpoints
(a, b) and (b, a).
Solution. To prove the claim, we use Equation 1.2 to find the midpoint
 
a+b b+a
M = ,
2 2
 
a+b a+b
= ,
2 2
Since the x and y coordinates of this point are the same, we find that the midpoint lies on the line
y = x, as required.
14 Relations and Functions

1.1.4 Exercises
1. Fill in the chart below:

Set of Real Numbers Interval Notation Region on the Real Number Line

{x | − 1 ≤ x < 5}

[0, 3)

2 7

{x | − 5 < x ≤ 0}

(−3, 3)

5 7

{x | x ≤ 3}

(−∞, 9)

{x | x ≥ −3}

In Exercises 2 - 7, find the indicated intersection or union and simplify if possible. Express your
answers in interval notation.

2. (−1, 5] ∩ [0, 8) 3. (−1, 1) ∪ [0, 6] 4. (−∞, 4] ∩ (0, ∞)

5. (−∞, 0) ∩ [1, 5] 6. (−∞, 0) ∪ [1, 5] 7. (−∞, 5] ∩ [5, 8)

In Exercises 8 - 19, write the set using interval notation.

8. {x | x 6= 5} 9. {x | x 6= −1} 10. {x | x 6= −3, 4}

1.1 Sets of Real Numbers and the Cartesian Coordinate Plane 15

11. {x | x 6= 0, 2} 12. {x | x 6= 2, −2} 13. {x | x 6= 0, ±4}

14. {x | x ≤ −1 or x ≥ 1} 15. {x | x < 3 or x ≥ 2} 16. {x | x ≤ −3 or x > 0}

17. {x | x ≤ 5 or x = 6} 18. {x | x > 2 or x = ±1} 19. {x | − 3 < x < 3 or x = 4}

√
20. Plot and label the points A(−3, −7), B(1.3, −2), C(π, 10), D(0, 8), E(−5.5, 0), F (−8, 4),
G(9.2, −7.8) and H(7, 5) in the Cartesian Coordinate Plane given below.

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1

−9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
−1
−2
−3
−4
−5
−6
−7
−8
−9

21. For each point given in Exercise 20 above

ˆ Identify the quadrant or axis in/on which the point lies.

ˆ Find the point symmetric to the given point about the x-axis.
ˆ Find the point symmetric to the given point about the y-axis.
ˆ Find the point symmetric to the given point about the origin.
16 Relations and Functions

In Exercises 22 - 29, find the distance d between the points and the midpoint M of the line segment
which connects them.

22. (1, 2), (−3, 5) 23. (3, −10), (−1, 2)

       
1 3 2 3 7
24. ,4 , , −1 25. − , , ,2
2 2 3 2 3
√ √
√ √

   
24 6 11 19
26. , , − ,− . 27. 2, 3 , − 8, − 12
5 5 5 5
√ √
√ √

28. 2 45, 12 , 20, 27 . 29. (0, 0), (x, y)

30. Find all of the points of the form (x, −1) which are 4 units from the point (3, 2).
31. Find all of the points on the y-axis which are 5 units from the point (−5, 3).
32. Find all of the points on the x-axis which are 2 units from the point (−1, 1).
33. Find all of the points of the form (x, −x) which are 1 unit from the origin.
34. Let’s assume for a moment that we are standing at the origin and the positive y-axis points
due North while the positive x-axis points due East. Our Sasquatch-o-meter tells us that
Sasquatch is 3 miles West and 4 miles South of our current position. What are the coordinates
of his position? How far away is he from us? If he runs 7 miles due East what would his new
position be?
35. Verify the Distance Formula 1.1 for the cases when:

(a) The points are arranged vertically. (Hint: Use P (a, y0 ) and Q(a, y1 ).)
(b) The points are arranged horizontally. (Hint: Use P (x0 , b) and Q(x1 , b).)
(c) The points are actually the same point. (You shouldn’t need a hint for this one.)

36. Verify the Midpoint Formula by showing the distance between P (x1 , y1 ) and M and the
distance between M and Q(x2 , y2 ) are both half of the distance between P and Q.
37. Show that the points A, B and C below are the vertices of a right triangle.

(a) A(−3, 2), B(−6, 4), and C(1, 8) (b) A(−3, 1), B(4, 0) and C(0, −3)

38. Find a point D(x, y) such that the points A(−3, 1), B(4, 0), C(0, −3) and D are the corners
of a square. Justify your answer.
39. Discuss with your classmates how many numbers are in the interval (0, 1).
40. The world is not flat.12 Thus the Cartesian Plane cannot possibly be the end of the story.
Discuss with your classmates how you would extend Cartesian Coordinates to represent the
three dimensional world. What would the Distance and Midpoint formulas look like, assuming
those concepts make sense at all?

12
There are those who disagree with this statement. Look them up on the Internet some time when you’re bored.
1.1 Sets of Real Numbers and the Cartesian Coordinate Plane 17

1.1.5 Answers
1.

Set of Real Numbers Interval Notation Region on the Real Number Line

{x | − 1 ≤ x < 5} [−1, 5) −1 5

{x | 0 ≤ x < 3} [0, 3)
0 3

{x | 2 < x ≤ 7} (2, 7]
2 7

{x | − 5 < x ≤ 0} (−5, 0] −5 0

{x | − 3 < x < 3} (−3, 3) −3 3

{x | 5 ≤ x ≤ 7} [5, 7]
5 7

{x | x ≤ 3} (−∞, 3]
3

{x | x < 9} (−∞, 9)
9

{x | x > 4} (4, ∞)
4

{x | x ≥ −3} [−3, ∞) −3

2. (−1, 5] ∩ [0, 8) = [0, 5] 3. (−1, 1) ∪ [0, 6] = (−1, 6]

4. (−∞, 4] ∩ (0, ∞) = (0, 4] 5. (−∞, 0) ∩ [1, 5] = ∅

6. (−∞, 0) ∪ [1, 5] = (−∞, 0) ∪ [1, 5] 7. (−∞, 5] ∩ [5, 8) = {5}

8. (−∞, 5) ∪ (5, ∞) 9. (−∞, −1) ∪ (−1, ∞)

10. (−∞, −3) ∪ (−3, 4) ∪ (4, ∞) 11. (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, 2) ∪ (2, ∞)

12. (−∞, −2) ∪ (−2, 2) ∪ (2, ∞) 13. (−∞, −4) ∪ (−4, 0) ∪ (0, 4) ∪ (4, ∞)
18 Relations and Functions

14. (−∞, −1] ∪ [1, ∞) 15. (−∞, ∞)

16. (−∞, −3] ∪ (0, ∞) 17. (−∞, 5] ∪ {6}

18. {−1} ∪ {1} ∪ (2, ∞) 19. (−3, 3) ∪ {4}

√
20. The required points A(−3, −7), B(1.3, −2), C(π, 10), D(0, 8), E(−5.5, 0), F (−8, 4),
G(9.2, −7.8), and H(7, 5) are plotted in the Cartesian Coordinate Plane below.

8 D(0, 8)
7

6
H(7, 5)
5

4
F (−8, 4)
3 √
C(π, 10)
2

1
E(−5.5, 0)
−9 −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
−1

−2
B(1.3, −2)
−3

−4

−5

−6

−7
A(−3, −7) −8
G(9.2, −7.8)
−9
1.1 Sets of Real Numbers and the Cartesian Coordinate Plane 19

21. (a) The point A(−3, −7) is (b) The point B(1.3, −2) is
ˆ in Quadrant III ˆ in Quadrant IV
ˆ symmetric about x-axis with (−3, 7) ˆ symmetric about x-axis with (1.3, 2)
ˆ symmetric about y-axis with (3, −7) ˆ symmetric about y-axis with (−1.3, −2)
ˆ symmetric about origin with (3, 7) ˆ symmetric about origin with (−1.3, 2)
√
(c) The point C(π, 10) is (d) The point D(0, 8) is
ˆ in Quadrant I ˆ on the positive y-axis
√
ˆ symmetric about x-axis with (π, − 10) ˆ symmetric about x-axis with (0, −8)
√
ˆ symmetric about y-axis with (−π, 10) ˆ symmetric about y-axis with (0, 8)
√
ˆ symmetric about origin with (−π, − 10) ˆ symmetric about origin with (0, −8)

(e) The point E(−5.5, 0) is (f) The point F (−8, 4) is

ˆ on the negative x-axis ˆ in Quadrant II
ˆ symmetric about x-axis with (−5.5, 0) ˆ symmetric about x-axis with (−8, −4)
ˆ symmetric about y-axis with (5.5, 0) ˆ symmetric about y-axis with (8, 4)
ˆ symmetric about origin with (5.5, 0) ˆ symmetric about origin with (8, −4)

(g) The point G(9.2, −7.8) is (h) The point H(7, 5) is

ˆ in Quadrant IV ˆ in Quadrant I
ˆ symmetric about x-axis with (9.2, 7.8) ˆ symmetric about x-axis with (7, −5)
ˆ symmetric about y-axis with (−9.2, −7.8) ˆ symmetric about y-axis with (−7, 5)
ˆ symmetric about origin with (−9.2, 7.8) ˆ symmetric about origin with (−7, −5)
√
22. d = 5, M = −1, 27


23. d = 4 10, M = (1, −4)
√ √
24. d = 26, M = 1, 23


25. d = 237 , M = 56 , 74

√ √  √ √ 
13
, − 13 27. d = 3 5, M = − 22 , − 23


26. d = 74, M = 10 10
√  √ √ 
29. d = x2 + y 2 , M = x2 , y2
p
28. d = 83, M = 4 5, 5 2 3

√ √
30. (3 + 7, −1), (3 − 7, −1) 31. (0, 3)
√ √ √
2
√   √ √ 
2 2 2
32. (−1 + 3, 0), (−1 − 3, 0) 33. 2 , − 2 , − 2 , 2

34. (−3, −4), 5 miles, (4, −4)

√ √
37. (a) The distance from A to B is |AB| = 13, the distance from A to C is |AC| = 52,
√ √
2 √
2 √
2
and the distance from B to C is |BC| = 65. Since 13 + 52 = 65 , we
are guaranteed by the converse of the Pythagorean Theorem that the triangle is a right
triangle.
(b) Show that |AC|2 + |BC|2 = |AB|2
20 Relations and Functions

1.2 Relations
From one point of view,1 all of Precalculus can be thought of as studying sets of points in the plane.
With the Cartesian Plane now fresh in our memory we can discuss those sets in more detail and
as usual, we begin with a definition.

Definition 1.4. A relation is a set of points in the plane.

Since relations are sets, we can describe them using the techniques presented in Section 1.1.1. That
is, we can describe a relation verbally, using the roster method, or using set-builder notation. Since
the elements in a relation are points in the plane, we often try to describe the relation graphically or
algebraically as well. Depending on the situation, one method may be easier or more convenient to
use than another. As an example, consider the relation R = {(−2, 1), (4, 3), (0, −3)}. As written, R
is described using the roster method. Since R consists of points in the plane, we follow our instinct
and plot the points. Doing so produces the graph of R.
y

3
(4, 3)
2
(−2, 1)
1

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1

−2

−3 (0, −3)
−4

The graph of R.

In the following example, we graph a variety of relations.

Example 1.2.1. Graph the following relations.

1. A = {(0, 0), (−3, 1), (4, 2), (−3, 2)} 2. HLS1 = {(x, 3) | − 2 ≤ x ≤ 4}

3. HLS2 = {(x, 3) | − 2 ≤ x < 4} 4. V = {(3, y) | y is a real number}

5. H = {(x, y) | y = −2} 6. R = {(x, y) | 1 < y ≤ 3}

1
Carl’s, of course.
1.2 Relations 21

Solution.

1. To graph A, we simply plot all of the points which belong to A, as shown below on the left.

2. Don’t let the notation in this part fool you. The name of this relation is HLS1 , just like the
name of the relation in number 1 was A. The letters and numbers are just part of its name,
just like the numbers and letters of the phrase ‘King George III’ were part of George’s name.
In words, {(x, 3) | − 2 ≤ x ≤ 4} reads ‘the set of points (x, 3) such that −2 ≤ x ≤ 4.’ All of
these points have the same y-coordinate, 3, but the x-coordinate is allowed to vary between
−2 and 4, inclusive. Some of the points which belong to HLS1 include some friendly points
like: (−2, 3), (−1, 3), (0,
3), (1, 3), (2, 3), (3, 3), and (4, 3). However, HLS1 also contains the
√
points (0.829, 3), − 65 , 3 , ( π, 3), and so on. It is impossible2 to list all of these points,
which is why the variable x is used. Plotting several friendly representative points should
convince you that HLS1 describes the horizontal line segment from the point (−2, 3) up to
and including the point (4, 3).

y y

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x

The graph of A The graph of HLS1

3. HLS2 is hauntingly similar to HLS1 . In fact, the only difference between the two is that
instead of ‘−2 ≤ x ≤ 4’ we have ‘−2 ≤ x < 4’. This means that we still get a horizontal line
segment which includes (−2, 3) and extends to (4, 3), but we do not include (4, 3) because of
the strict inequality x < 4. How do we denote this on our graph? It is a common mistake to
make the graph start at (−2, 3) end at (3, 3) as pictured below on the left. The problem with
this graph is that we are forgetting about the points like (3.1, 3), (3.5, 3), (3.9, 3), (3.99, 3),
and so forth. There is no real number that comes ‘immediately before’ 4, so to describe the
set of points we want, we draw the horizontal line segment starting at (−2, 3) and draw an
open circle at (4, 3) as depicted below on the right.

2
Really impossible. The interested reader is encouraged to research countable versus uncountable sets.
22 Relations and Functions

y y

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x

This is NOT the correct graph of HLS2 The graph of HLS2

4. Next, we come to the relation V , described as the set of points (3, y) such that y is a real
number. All of these points have an x-coordinate of 3, but the y-coordinate is free to be
whatever it wants to be, without restriction.3 Plotting a few ‘friendly’ points of V should
convince you that all the points of V lie on the vertical line4 x = 3. Since there is no restriction
on the y-coordinate, we put arrows on the end of the portion of the line we draw to indicate
it extends indefinitely in both directions. The graph of V is below on the left.

5. Though written slightly differently, the relation H = {(x, y) | y = −2} is similar to the relation
V above in that only one of the coordinates, in this case the y-coordinate, is specified, leaving
x to be ‘free’. Plotting some representative points gives us the horizontal line y = −2.
y

3 y

2
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
1 −1

−2
1 2 3 4 x
−1 −3

−2 −4

−3
The graph of H
−4

The graph of V

6. For our last example, we turn to R = {(x, y) | 1 < y ≤ 3}. As in the previous example, x is
free to be whatever it likes. The value of y, on the other hand, while not completely free, is
permitted to roam between 1 and 3 excluding 1, but including 3. After plotting some5 friendly
elements of R, it should become clear that R consists of the region between the horizontal
3
We’ll revisit the concept of a ‘free variable’ in Section 8.1.
4
Don’t worry, we’ll be refreshing your memory about vertical and horizontal lines in just a moment!
5
The word ‘some’ is a relative term. It may take 5, 10, or 50 points until you see the pattern.
1.2 Relations 23

lines y = 1 and y = 3. Since R requires that the y-coordinates be greater than 1, but not
equal to 1, we dash the line y = 1 to indicate that those points do not belong to R.
y

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x

The graph of R

The relations V and H in the previous example lead us to our final way to describe relations:
algebraically. We can more succinctly describe the points in V as those points which satisfy the
equation ‘x = 3’. Most likely, you have seen equations like this before. Depending on the context,
‘x = 3’ could mean we have solved an equation for x and arrived at the solution x = 3. In this
case, however, ‘x = 3’ describes a set of points in the plane whose x-coordinate is 3. Similarly, the
relation H above can be described by the equation ‘y = −2’. At some point in your mathematical
upbringing, you probably learned the following.

Equations of Vertical and Horizontal Lines

ˆ The graph of the equation x = a is a vertical line through (a, 0).

ˆ The graph of the equation y = b is a horizontal line through (0, b).

Given that the very simple equations x = a and y = b produced lines, it’s natural to wonder what
shapes other equations might yield. Thus our next objective is to study the graphs of equations in
a more general setting as we continue to unite Algebra and Geometry.

1.2.1 Graphs of Equations

In this section, we delve more deeply into the connection between Algebra and Geometry by focusing
on graphing relations described by equations. The main idea of this section is the following.

The Fundamental Graphing Principle

The graph of an equation is the set of points which satisfy the equation. That is, a point (x, y)
is on the graph of an equation if and only if x and y satisfy the equation.

Here, ‘x and y satisfy the equation’ means ‘x and y make the equation true’. It is at this point
that we gain some insight into the word ‘relation’. If the equation to be graphed contains both x
and y, then the equation itself is what is relating the two variables. More specifically, in the next
two examples, we consider the graph of the equation x2 + y 3 = 1. Even though it is not specifically
24 Relations and Functions

spelled out, what we are doing is graphing the relation R = {(x, y) | x2 + y 3 = 1}. The points (x, y)
we graph belong to the relation R and are necessarily related by the equation x2 + y 3 = 1, since it
is those pairs of x and y which make the equation true.
Example 1.2.2. Determine whether or not (2, −1) is on the graph of x2 + y 3 = 1.
Solution. We substitute x = 2 and y = −1 into the equation to see if the equation is satisfied.
?
(2)2 + (−1)3 = 1
3 6= 1
Hence, (2, −1) is not on the graph of x2 + y 3 = 1.
We could spend hours randomly guessing and checking to see if points are on the graph of the
equation. A more systematic approach is outlined in the following example.
Example 1.2.3. Graph x2 + y 3 = 1.
Solution. To efficiently generate points on the graph of this equation, we first solve for y

x2 + y 3 = 1
y3 = 1 − x2
p
3
√3
y3 = 1 − x2
√3
y = 1 − x2
We now substitute a value in for x, determine the corresponding value y, and plot the resulting
point (x, y). For example, substituting x = −3 into the equation yields
p3
p √
y = 1 − x2 = 3 1 − (−3)2 = 3 −8 = −2,
so the point (−3, −2) is on the graph. Continuing in this manner, we generate a table of points
which are on the graph of the equation. These points are then plotted in the plane as shown below.
y

3
x y (x, y)
−3 −2 (−3, −2) 2
√ √
−2 − 3 3 (−2, − 3 3) 1
−1 0 (−1, 0)
0 1 (0, 1) −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1
1 0 (1, 0)
√ √
2 − 3 (2, − 3 3)
3 −2

3 −2 (3, −2) −3

Remember, these points constitute only a small sampling of the points on the graph of this equation.
To get a better idea of the shape of the graph, we could plot more points until we feel comfortable
1.2 Relations 25

‘connecting the dots’. Doing so would result in a curve similar to the one pictured below on the
far left.
y

3
2
1

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1
−2
−3

Don’t worry if you don’t get all of the little bends and curves just right − Calculus is where the
art of precise graphing takes center stage. For now, we will settle with our naive ‘plug and plot’
approach to graphing. If you feel like all of this tedious computation and plotting is beneath you,
then you can reach for a graphing calculator, input the formula as shown above, and graph.

Of all of the points on the graph of an equation, the places where the graph crosses or touches the
axes hold special significance. These are called the intercepts of the graph. Intercepts come in
two distinct varieties: x-intercepts and y-intercepts. They are defined below.

Definition 1.5. Suppose the graph of an equation is given.

ˆ A point on a graph which is also on the x-axis is called an x-intercept of the graph.

ˆ A point on a graph which is also on the y-axis is called an y-intercept of the graph.

In our previous example the graph had two x-intercepts, (−1, 0) and (1, 0), and one y-intercept,
(0, 1). The graph of an equation can have any number of intercepts, including none at all! Since
x-intercepts lie on the x-axis, we can find them by setting y = 0 in the equation. Similarly, since
y-intercepts lie on the y-axis, we can find them by setting x = 0 in the equation. Keep in mind,
intercepts are points and therefore must be written as ordered pairs. To summarize,

Finding the Intercepts of the Graph of an Equation

Given an equation involving x and y, we find the intercepts of the graph as follows:

ˆ x-intercepts have the form (x, 0); set y = 0 in the equation and solve for x.

ˆ y-intercepts have the form (0, y); set x = 0 in the equation and solve for y.

Another fact which you may have noticed about the graph in the previous example is that it seems
to be symmetric about the y-axis. To actually prove this analytically, we assume (x, y) is a generic
point on the graph of the equation. That is, we assume x2 + y 3 = 1 is true. As we learned in
Section 1.1, the point symmetric to (x, y) about the y-axis is (−x, y). To show that the graph is
26 Relations and Functions

symmetric about the y-axis, we need to show that (−x, y) satisfies the equation x2 + y 3 = 1, too.
Substituting (−x, y) into the equation gives

?
(−x)2 + (y)3 = 1
X
x2 + y 3 = 1

Since we are assuming the original equation x2 + y 3 = 1 is true, we have shown that (−x, y) satisfies
the equation (since it leads to a true result) and hence is on the graph. In this way, we can check
whether the graph of a given equation possesses any of the symmetries discussed in Section 1.1.
We summarize the procedure in the following result.

Testing the Graph of an Equation for Symmetry

To test the graph of an equation for symmetry

ˆ about the y-axis − substitute (−x, y) into the equation and simplify. If the result is
equivalent to the original equation, the graph is symmetric about the y-axis.

ˆ about the x-axis – substitute (x, −y) into the equation and simplify. If the result is
equivalent to the original equation, the graph is symmetric about the x-axis.

ˆ about the origin - substitute (−x, −y) into the equation and simplify. If the result is
equivalent to the original equation, the graph is symmetric about the origin.

Intercepts and symmetry are two tools which can help us sketch the graph of an equation analyti-
cally, as demonstrated in the next example.

Example 1.2.4. Find the x- and y-intercepts (if any) of the graph of (x − 2)2 + y 2 = 1. Test for
symmetry. Plot additional points as needed to complete the graph.

Solution. To look for x-intercepts, we set y = 0 and solve

(x − 2)2 + y 2 = 1
(x − 2)2 + 02 = 1
(x − 2)2 = 1
p √
(x − 2)2 = 1 extract square roots
x−2 = ±1
x = 2±1
x = 3, 1

We get two answers for x which correspond to two x-intercepts: (1, 0) and (3, 0). Turning our
attention to y-intercepts, we set x = 0 and solve
1.2 Relations 27

(x − 2)2 + y 2 = 1
(0 − 2)2 + y 2 = 1
4 + y2 = 1
y2 = −3

Since there is no real number which squares to a negative number (Do you remember why?), we
are forced to conclude that the graph has no y-intercepts.

Plotting the data we have so far, we get

1
(1, 0) (3, 0)
1 2 3 4 x
−1

Moving along to symmetry, we can immediately dismiss the possibility that the graph is symmetric
about the y-axis or the origin. If the graph possessed either of these symmetries, then the fact
that (1, 0) is on the graph would mean (−1, 0) would have to be on the graph. (Why?) Since
(−1, 0) would be another x-intercept (and we’ve found all of these), the graph can’t have y-axis or
origin symmetry. The only symmetry left to test is symmetry about the x-axis. To that end, we
substitute (x, −y) into the equation and simplify

(x − 2)2 + y 2 = 1
?
(x − 2)2 + (−y)2 = 1
X
(x − 2)2 + y 2 = 1

Since we have obtained our original equation, we know the graph is symmetric about the x-axis.
This means we can cut our ‘plug and plot’ time in half: whatever happens below the x-axis is
reflected above the x-axis, and vice-versa. Proceeding as we did in the previous example, we obtain

1 2 3 4 x
−1
28 Relations and Functions

A couple of remarks are in order. First, it is entirely possible to choose a value for x which does
not correspond to a point on the graph. For example, in the previous example, if we solve for y as
is our custom, we get p
y = ± 1 − (x − 2)2 .
Upon substituting x = 0 into the equation, we would obtain
p √ √
y = ± 1 − (0 − 2)2 = ± 1 − 4 = ± −3,

which is not a real number. This means there are no points on the graph with an x-coordinate
of 0. When this happens, we move on and try another point. This is another drawback of the
‘plug-and-plot’ approach to graphing equations. Luckily, we will devote much of the remainder of
this book to developing techniques which allow us to graph entire families of equations quickly.6
Second, it is instructive to show what would have happened had we tested the equation in the last
example for symmetry about the y-axis. Substituting (−x, y) into the equation yields

(x − 2)2 + y 2 = 1
?
(−x − 2)2 + y 2 = 1
?
((−1)(x + 2))2 + y 2 = 1
?
(x + 2)2 + y 2 = 1.
This last equation does not appear to be equivalent to our original equation. However, to actually
prove that the graph is not symmetric about the y-axis, we need to find a point (x, y) on the graph
whose reflection (−x, y) is not. Our x-intercept (1, 0) fits this bill nicely, since if we substitute
(−1, 0) into the equation we get
?
(x − 2)2 + y 2 = 1
(−1 − 2)2 + 02 6= 1
9 6= 1.
This proves that (−1, 0) is not on the graph.

6
Without the use of a calculator, if you can believe it!
1.2 Relations 29

1.2.2 Exercises
In Exercises 1 - 20, graph the given relation.

1. {(−3, 9), (−2, 4), (−1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9)}

2. {(−2, 0), (−1, 1), (−1, −1), (0, 2), (0, −2), (1, 3), (1, −3)}

6


3. {(m, 2m) | m = 0, ±1, ±2} 4. k,k | k = ±1, ±2, ±3, ±4, ±5, ±6

 √
n, 4 − n2 | n = 0, ±1, ±2



5. 6. j, j | j = 0, 1, 4, 9

7. {(x, −2) | x > −4} 8. {(x, 3) | x ≤ 4}

9. {(−1, y) | y > 1} 10. {(2, y) | y ≤ 5}

11. {(−2, y) | − 3 < y ≤ 4} 12. {(3, y) | − 4 ≤ y < 3}

13. {(x, 2) | − 2 ≤ x < 3} 14. {(x, −3) | − 4 < x ≤ 4}

15. {(x, y) | x > −2} 16. {(x, y) | x ≤ 3}

17. {(x, y) | y < 4} 18. {(x, y) | x ≤ 3, y < 2}

√
19. {(x, y) | x > 0, y < 4} 20. {(x, y) | − 2 ≤ x ≤ 23 , π < y ≤ 92 }

In Exercises 21 - 30, describe the given relation using either the roster or set-builder method.

21. 22.
y y

4 3
3 2
2 1
1
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 x
−1 Relation B

Relation A
30 Relations and Functions

23. 24.
y

5 y

4 3
3 2
2 1
1
−3 −2 −1 x
−1
1 2 3 x
−1 −2
−2 −3
−3 −4

Relation C Relation D

25. 26.
y y

3 4
2 3
1 2
1
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
Relation E
Relation F

27. 28.
y y

3 3
2 2
1 1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3

Relation G Relation H
1.2 Relations 31

29. 30.
y
y
5
2
4
1
3
2 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5x
−1
1
−2
−1 1 2 3 4 5 x −3
−1

Relation I Relation J

In Exercises 31 - 36, graph the given line.

31. x = −2 32. x = 3

33. y = 3 34. y = −2

35. x = 0 36. y = 0

Some relations are fairly easy to describe in words or with the roster method but are rather difficult,
if not impossible, to graph. Discuss with your classmates how you might graph the relations given
in Exercises 37 - 40. Please note that in the notation below we are using the ellipsis, . . . , to denote
that the list does not end, but rather, continues to follow the established pattern indefinitely. For
the relations in Exercises 37 and 38, give two examples of points which belong to the relation and
two points which do not belong to the relation.

37. {(x, y) | x is an odd integer, and y is an even integer.}

38. {(x, 1) | x is an irrational number }
39. {(1, 0), (2, 1), (4, 2), (8, 3), (16, 4), (32, 5), . . .}
40. {. . . , (−3, 9), (−2, 4), (−1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), . . .}

For each equation given in Exercises 41 - 52:

ˆ Find the x- and y-intercept(s) of the graph, if any exist.

ˆ Follow the procedure in Example 1.2.3 to create a table of sample points on the graph of the
equation.
ˆ Plot the sample points and create a rough sketch of the graph of the equation.
ˆ Test for symmetry. If the equation appears to fail any of the symmetry tests, find a point on
the graph of the equation whose reflection fails to be on the graph as was done at the end of
Example 1.2.4
32 Relations and Functions

41. y = x2 + 1 42. y = x2 − 2x − 8
x3
43. y = x3 − x 44. y = 4 − 3x
√ √
45. y = x−2 46. y = 2 x + 4 − 2

47. 3x − y = 7 48. 3x − 2y = 10

49. (x + 2)2 + y 2 = 16 50. x2 − y 2 = 1

51. 4y 2 − 9x2 = 36 52. x3 y = −4

The procedures which we have outlined in the Examples of this section and used in Exercises 41 - 52
all rely on the fact that the equations were “well-behaved”. Not everything in Mathematics is quite
so tame, as the following equations will show you. Discuss with your classmates how you might
approach graphing the equations given in Exercises 53 - 56. What difficulties arise when trying
to apply the various tests and procedures given in this section? For more information, including
pictures of the curves, each curve name is a link to its page at www.wikipedia.org. For a much
longer list of fascinating curves, click here.

53. x3 + y 3 − 3xy = 0 Folium of Descartes 54. x4 = x2 + y 2 Kampyle of Eudoxus

55. y 2 = x3 + 3x2 Tschirnhausen cubic 56. (x2 + y 2 )2 = x3 + y 3 Crooked egg

57. With the help of your classmates, find examples of equations whose graphs possess

ˆ symmetry about the x-axis only

ˆ symmetry about the y-axis only
ˆ symmetry about the origin only
ˆ symmetry about the x-axis, y-axis, and origin

Can you find an example of an equation whose graph possesses exactly two of the symmetries
listed above? Why or why not?
1.2 Relations 33

1.2.3 Answers

1. 2.
y y
9 3
8
2
7
1
6
5 −2 −1 1 2 x
4 −1

3 −2
2 −3
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x

3. 4.
y y

4 6
5
3
4
2 3
1 2
1
−2 −1 1 2 x
−1 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−1
−2 −2
−3 −3
−4 −4
−5
−6

5. 6.
y y
9
4
8
3 7
6
2
5
1 4
3
−2 −1 1 2 x 2
1

1 2 3 x
34 Relations and Functions

7. 8.
y y

3
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−1 2
1
−3
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x

9. 10.
y y

8 5
7 4
6 3
5 2
4 1
3
1 2 3 x
2 −1
1 −2
−3
−1 1 2 x

11. 12.
y y

4 3
3 2
2 1
1
1 2 3 x
−1
−3 −2 −1 x
−1 −2
−2 −3
−3 −4
1.2 Relations 35

13. 14.
y y

3
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
2 −1
1 −2
−3
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x

15. 16.
y y

3 3
2 2
1 1

−2 −1 1 2 3 x 1 2 3 x
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3

17. 18.
y y

4 3
3 2
2 1
1
1 2 3 x
−1
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−2
−3

19. 20.
y y

4 5
3 4
2 3
1 2
1
−1 1 2 3 x
−2 −1 1 x
36 Relations and Functions

21. A = {(−4, −1), (−2, 1), (0, 3), (1, 4)} 22. B = {(x, 3) | x ≥ −3}

23. C = {(2, y) | y > −3} 24. D = {(−2, y) | − 4 ≤ y < 3}

25. E = {(x, 2) | − 4 ≤ x < 3} 26. F = {(x, y) | y ≥ 0}

27. G = {(x, y) | x > −2} 28. H = {(x, y) | − 3 < x ≤ 2}

29. I = {(x, y) | x ≥ 0,y ≥ 0} 30. J = {(x, y) | − 4 < x < 5, −3 < y < 2}

31. 32.
y y
3 3
2 2
1 1

−3 −2 −1 x 1 2 3 x
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3

The line x = −2 The line x = 3

33. 34.
y y

3
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
2 −1
1 −2
−3
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x

The line y = 3 The line y = −2

35. 36.
y y

3 3
2 2
1 1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3

The line x = 0 is the y-axis The line y = 0 is the x-axis

1.2 Relations 37

41. y = x2 + 1 42. y = x2 − 2x − 8

The graph has no x-intercepts x-intercepts: (4, 0), (−2, 0)

y-intercept: (0, 1) y-intercept: (0, −8)

x y (x, y) x y (x, y)
−2 5 (−2, 5) −3 7 (−3, 7)
−1 2 (−1, 2) −2 0 (−2, 0)
0 1 (0, 1) −1 −5 (−1, −5)
1 2 (1, 2) 0 −8 (0, −8)
2 5 (2, 5) 1 −9 (1, −9)
y 2 −8 (2, −8)
5
3 −5 (3, −5)
4
3 4 0 (4, 0)
2
1
5 7 (5, 7)
−2−1 1 2 x y
7
6
5
The graph is not symmetric about the 4
3
x-axis (e.g. (2, 5) is on the graph but 2
1
(2, −5) is not)
−3−2−1 1 2 3 4 5 x
−2
The graph is symmetric about the y-axis −3
−4
−5
The graph is not symmetric about the −6
−7
origin (e.g. (2, 5) is on the graph but −8
−9
(−2, −5) is not)

The graph is not symmetric about the

x-axis (e.g. (−3, 7) is on the graph but
(−3, −7) is not)
The graph is not symmetric about the
y-axis (e.g. (−3, 7) is on the graph but
(3, 7) is not)
The graph is not symmetric about the
origin (e.g. (−3, 7) is on the graph but
(3, −7) is not)
38 Relations and Functions

x3
43. y = x3 − x 44. y = 4 − 3x

√

x-intercepts: (−1, 0), (0, 0), (1, 0) x-intercepts: ±2 3, 0 , (0, 0)
y-intercept: (0, 0) y-intercept: (0, 0)
x y (x, y) x y (x, y)
−2 −6 (−2, −6) −4 −4 (−4, −4)
9
−1 0 (−1, 0) −3, 94


−3 4
0 0 (0, 0) −2 4 (−2, 4)
11
1 0 (1, 0) −1, 11


−1 4 4
2 6 (2, 6) 0 0 (0, 0)
− 11 1, − 11


y 1 4 4
6
5
2 −4 (2, −4)
− 94 3, − 94


4 3
3
2 4 4 (4, 4)
1
y
−2−1 1 2 x 4
−1
3
−2
2
−3
1
−4
−5 −4−3−2−1 1 2 3 4 x
−1
−6
−2
−3
−4
The graph is not symmetric about the
x-axis. (e.g. (2, 6) is on the graph but
(2, −6) is not) The graph is not symmetric about the
x-axis (e.g. (−4, −4) is on the graph but
The graph is not symmetric about the (−4, 4) is not)
y-axis. (e.g. (2, 6) is on the graph but
(−2, 6) is not) The graph is not symmetric about the
y-axis (e.g. (−4, −4) is on the graph but
The graph is symmetric about the origin. (4, −4) is not)
The graph is symmetric about the origin
1.2 Relations 39

√ √
45. y = x−2 46. y = 2 x + 4 − 2

x-intercept: (2, 0) x-intercept: (−3, 0)

The graph has no y-intercepts y-intercept: (0, 2)

x y (x, y) x y (x, y)
2 0 (2, 0) −4 −2 (−4, −2)
3 1 (3, 1) −3 0 (−3, 0)
√ √

6 2 (6, 2) −2 2 2−2 −2, 2 − 2
√ √

11 3 (11, 3) −1 2 3−2 −2, 3 − 2
y 0 2 (0, 2)
3
√ √

2
1 2 5−2 −2, 5 − 2
1 y
x 3
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
2
1
The graph is not symmetric about the
−4−3−2−1 1 2 x
x-axis (e.g. (3, 1) is on the graph but −1
−2
(3, −1) is not) −3

The graph is not symmetric about the

y-axis (e.g. (3, 1) is on the graph but The graph is not symmetric about the
(−3, 1) is not) x-axis (e.g. (−4, −2) is on the graph but
(−4, 2) is not)
The graph is not symmetric about the
origin (e.g. (3, 1) is on the graph but The graph is not symmetric about the
(−3, −1) is not) y-axis (e.g. (−4, −2) is on the graph but
(4, −2) is not)
The graph is not symmetric about the
origin (e.g. (−4, −2) is on the graph but
(4, 2) is not)
40 Relations and Functions

47. 3x − y = 7 48. 3x − 2y = 10
3x−10
Re-write as: y = 3x − 7. Re-write as: y = 2 .

x-intercept: ( 73 , 0)
10


y-intercept: (0, −7) x-intercepts: 3 ,0

x y (x, y) y-intercept: (0, −5)

−2 −13 (−2, −13)
−1 −10 (−1, −10) x y (x, y)
0 −7 (0, −7) −2 −8 (−2, −8)
− 13 −1, − 13


1 −4 (1, −4) −1 2 2
2 −1 (2, −1) 0 −5 (0, −5)
− 72 1, − 72


3 2 (3, 2) 1
y 2 −2 (2, −2)
3
2
y
1
2
−2−1 1 2 3 x 1
−1
−2 −3−2−1 1 2 3 4 x
−1
−3
−2
−4
−3
−5
−4
−6
−5
−7
−6
−8
−7
−9
−8
−10
−9
−11
−12
−13
The graph is not symmetric about the
The graph is not symmetric about the x-axis (e.g. (2, −2) is on the graph but
x-axis (e.g. (3, 2) is on the graph but (2, 2) is not)
(3, −2) is not)
The graph is not symmetric about the
The graph is not symmetric about the y-axis (e.g. (2, −2) is on the graph but
y-axis (e.g. (3, 2) is on the graph but (−2, −2) is not)
(−3, 2) is not)
The graph is not symmetric about the The graph is not symmetric about the
origin (e.g. (3, 2) is on the graph but origin (e.g. (2, −2) is on the graph but
(−3, −2) is not) (−2, 2) is not)
1.2 Relations 41

49. (x + 2)2 + y 2 = 16p 50. x2 − y 2 = 1 √

Re-write as y = ± 16 − (x + 2)2 . Re-write as: y = ± x2 − 1.

x-intercepts: (−6, 0), (2, 0)

√

y-intercepts: 0, ±2 3 x-intercepts: (−1, 0), (1, 0)
x y (x, y)
The graph has no y-intercepts
−6 0 (−6, 0)
√ √

−4 ±2 3 −4, ±2 3
x y (x, y)
−2 ±4 (−2, ±4) √ √
√ √
−3 ± 8 (−3, ± 8)
0 ±2 3 0, ±2 3 √ √
−2 ± 3 (−2, ± 3)
2 0 (2, 0)
−1 0 (−1, 0)
y
5 1 0 (1, 0)
√ √
4
2 ± 3 (2, ± 3)
3 √ √
2 3 ± 8 (3, ± 8)
1

−7−6−5−4−3−2−1 1 2 3 x y
−1
3
−2
2
−3
1
−4
−5 −3−2−1 1 2 3 x
−1
−2
−3
The graph is symmetric about the x-axis
The graph is not symmetric about the
y-axis (e.g. (−6, 0) is on the graph but The graph is symmetric about the x-axis
(6, 0) is not)
The graph is not symmetric about the The graph is symmetric about the y-axis
origin (e.g. (−6, 0) is on the graph but
(6, 0) is not) The graph is symmetric about the origin
42 Relations and Functions

51. 4y 2 − 9x2 = 36 52. x3 y = −4

4
√ Re-write as: y = − .
9x2 +36 x3
Re-write as: y = ± 2 .
The graph has no x-intercepts
The graph has no x-intercepts
The graph has no y-intercepts
y-intercepts: (0, ±3)
x y (x, y)
x y (x, y) −2 1
(−2, 12 )
√ √
2
−4 ±3 5 −4, ±3 5 −1 4 (−1, 4)
√ √

−2 ±3 2 −2, ±3 2 − 12 32 (− 12 , 32)
0 ±3 (0, ±3) 1
−32 ( 12 , −32)
√ √
2
2 ±3 2 2, ±3 2 1 −4 (1, −4)
√ √

4 ±3 5 4, ±3 5 2 −21
(2, − 12 )
y
y
7
32
6
5
4
3
2
1

−4−3−2−1 1 2 3 4 x 4
−1
−2 −2 −1 1 2 x
−4
−3
−4
−5
−6
−7

−32
The graph is symmetric about the x-axis
The graph is symmetric about the y-axis
The graph is not symmetric about the
The graph is symmetric about the origin x-axis (e.g. (1, −4) is on the graph but
(1, 4) is not)
The graph is not symmetric about the
y-axis (e.g. (1, −4) is on the graph but
(−1, −4) is not)
The graph is symmetric about the origin
1.3 Introduction to Functions 43

1.3 Introduction to Functions

One of the core concepts in College Algebra is the function. There are many ways to describe a
function and we begin by defining a function as a special kind of relation.

Definition 1.6. A relation in which each x-coordinate is matched with only one y-coordinate
is said to describe y as a function of x.

Example 1.3.1. Which of the following relations describe y as a function of x?

1. R1 = {(−2, 1), (1, 3), (1, 4), (3, −1)} 2. R2 = {(−2, 1), (1, 3), (2, 3), (3, −1)}

Solution. A quick scan of the points in R1 reveals that the x-coordinate 1 is matched with two
different y-coordinates: namely 3 and 4. Hence in R1 , y is not a function of x. On the other
hand, every x-coordinate in R2 occurs only once which means each x-coordinate has only one
corresponding y-coordinate. So, R2 does represent y as a function of x.

Note that in the previous example, the relation R2 contained two different points with the same
y-coordinates, namely (1, 3) and (2, 3). Remember, in order to say y is a function of x, we just
need to ensure the same x-coordinate isn’t used in more than one point.1
To see what the function concept means geometrically, we graph R1 and R2 in the plane.
y y

4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

−2 −1 1 2 3 x −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1 −1

The graph of R1 The graph of R2

The fact that the x-coordinate 1 is matched with two different y-coordinates in R1 presents itself
graphically as the points (1, 3) and (1, 4) lying on the same vertical line, x = 1. If we turn our
attention to the graph of R2 , we see that no two points of the relation lie on the same vertical line.
We can generalize this idea as follows

Theorem 1.1. The Vertical Line Test: A set of points in the plane represents y as a function
of x if and only if no two points lie on the same vertical line.

1
We will have occasion later in the text to concern ourselves with the concept of x being a function of y. In this
case, R1 represents x as a function of y; R2 does not.
44 Relations and Functions

It is worth taking some time to meditate on the Vertical Line Test; it will check to see how well
you understand the concept of ‘function’ as well as the concept of ‘graph’.

Example 1.3.2. Use the Vertical Line Test to determine which of the following relations describes
y as a function of x.
y y

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

1 2 3 x −1 1 x
−1 −1

The graph of R The graph of S

Solution. Looking at the graph of R, we can easily imagine a vertical line crossing the graph more
than once. Hence, R does not represent y as a function of x. However, in the graph of S, every
vertical line crosses the graph at most once, so S does represent y as a function of x.

In the previous test, we say that the graph of the relation R fails the Vertical Line Test, whereas
the graph of S passes the Vertical Line Test. Note that in the graph of R there are infinitely many
vertical lines which cross the graph more than once. However, to fail the Vertical Line Test, all you
need is one vertical line that fits the bill, as the next example illustrates.

Example 1.3.3. Use the Vertical Line Test to determine which of the following relations describes
y as a function of x.
y y

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

−1 1 x −1 1 x
−1 −1

The graph of S1 The graph of S2

1.3 Introduction to Functions 45

Solution. Both S1 and S2 are slight modifications to the relation S in the previous example whose
graph we determined passed the Vertical Line Test. In both S1 and S2 , it is the addition of the
point (1, 2) which threatens to cause trouble. In S1 , there is a point on the curve with x-coordinate
1 just below (1, 2), which means that both (1, 2) and this point on the curve lie on the vertical line
x = 1. (See the picture below and the left.) Hence, the graph of S1 fails the Vertical Line Test, so
y is not a function of x here. However, in S2 notice that the point with x-coordinate 1 on the curve
has been omitted, leaving an ‘open circle’ there. Hence, the vertical line x = 1 crosses the graph of
S2 only at the point (1, 2). Indeed, any vertical line will cross the graph at most once, so we have
that the graph of S2 passes the Vertical Line Test. Thus it describes y as a function of x.
y
y

4
4
3
3
2
2
1
1

−1 1 x
−1 x
−1
−1

S1 and the line x = 1 The graph of G for Ex. 1.3.4

Suppose a relation F describes y as a function of x. The sets of x- and y-coordinates are given
special names which we define below.

Definition 1.7. Suppose F is a relation which describes y as a function of x.

ˆ The set of the x-coordinates of the points in F is called the domain of F .

ˆ The set of the y-coordinates of the points in F is called the range of F .

We demonstrate finding the domain and range of functions given to us either graphically or via the
roster method in the following example.

Example 1.3.4. Find the domain and range of the function F = {(−3, 2), (0, 1), (4, 2), (5, 2)} and
of the function G whose graph is given above on the right.
Solution. The domain of F is the set of the x-coordinates of the points in F , namely {−3, 0, 4, 5}
and the range of F is the set of the y-coordinates, namely {1, 2}.
To determine the domain and range of G, we need to determine which x and y values occur as
coordinates of points on the given graph. To find the domain, it may be helpful to imagine collapsing
the curve to the x-axis and determining the portion of the x-axis that gets covered. This is called
projecting the curve to the x-axis. Before we start projecting, we need to pay attention to two
46 Relations and Functions

subtle notations on the graph: the arrowhead on the lower left corner of the graph indicates that the
graph continues to curve downwards to the left forever more; and the open circle at (1, 3) indicates
that the point (1, 3) isn’t on the graph, but all points on the curve leading up to that point are.

y y

4 4

3 3

2 project down 2

1 1

−1 1 x −1 1 x
−1 −1

project up

The graph of G The graph of G

We see from the figure that if we project the graph of G to the x-axis, we get all real numbers less
than 1. Using interval notation, we write the domain of G as (−∞, 1). To determine the range of
G, we project the curve to the y-axis as follows:
y y

4 4

3 3

project right 2 2

1 project left 1

−1 1 x −1 1 x
−1 −1

The graph of G The graph of G

Note that even though there is an open circle at (1, 3), we still include the y value of 3 in our range,
since the point (−1, 3) is on the graph of G. We see that the range of G is all real numbers less
than or equal to 4, or, in interval notation, (−∞, 4].
1.3 Introduction to Functions 47

All functions are relations, but not all relations are functions. Thus the equations which described
the relations in Section1.2 may or may not describe y as a function of x. The algebraic representation
of functions is possibly the most important way to view them so we need a process for determining
whether or not an equation of a relation represents a function. (We delay the discussion of finding
the domain of a function given algebraically until Section 1.4.)

Example 1.3.5. Determine which equations represent y as a function of x.

1. x3 + y 2 = 1 2. x2 + y 3 = 1 3. x2 y = 1 − 3y

Solution. For each of these equations, we solve for y and determine whether each choice of x will
determine only one corresponding value of y.

1.
x3 + y 2 = 1
y2 = 1 − x3
p √
y2 = 1 − x3 extract square roots
√
y = ± 1 − x3
√
If we substitute x = 0 into our equation for y, we get y = ± 1 − 03 = ±1, so that (0, 1)
and (0, −1) are on the graph of this equation. Hence, this equation does not represent y as a
function of x.

2.
x2 + y 3 = 1
y3 = 1 − x2
p
3
√3
y3 = 1 − x2
√3
y = 1 − x2
√
3
For every choice of x, the equation y = 1 − x2 returns only one value of y. Hence, this
equation describes y as a function of x.

3.
x2 y = 1 − 3y
x2 y + 3y = 1
y x2 + 3 = 1


factor
1
y = 2
x +3
For each choice of x, there is only one value for y, so this equation describes y as a function of x.
We could try to use our graphing calculator to verify our responses to the previous example, but
we immediately run into trouble. The calculator’s “Y=” menu requires that the equation be of the
form ‘y = some expression of x’. If we wanted to verify that the first equation in Example 1.3.5
48 Relations and Functions

does not represent y as a function of x, we would need to enter two separate expressions into the
calculator: one for the positive square root and one for the negative square root we found when
solving the equation for y. As predicted, the resulting graph shown below clearly fails the Vertical
Line Test, so the equation does not represent y as a function of x.

Thus in order to use the calculator to show that x3 + y 2 = 1 does not represent y as a function of x
we needed to know analytically that y was not a function of x so that we could use the calculator
properly. There are more advanced graphing utilities out there which can do implicit function
plots, but you need to know even more Algebra to make them work properly. Do you get the point
we’re trying to make here? We believe it is in your best interest to learn the analytic way of doing
things so that you are always smarter than your calculator.
1.3 Introduction to Functions 49

1.3.1 Exercises

In Exercises 1 - 12, determine whether or not the relation represents y as a function of x. Find the
domain and range of those relations which are functions.

1. {(−3, 9), (−2, 4), (−1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9)}

2. {(−3, 0), (1, 6), (2, −3), (4, 2), (−5, 6), (4, −9), (6, 2)}

3. {(−3, 0), (−7, 6), (5, 5), (6, 4), (4, 9), (3, 0)}

4. {(1, 2), (4, 4), (9, 6), (16, 8), (25, 10), (36, 12), . . .}

5. {(x, y) | x is an odd integer, and y is an even integer}

6. {(x, 1) | x is an irrational number}

7. {(1, 0), (2, 1), (4, 2), (8, 3), (16, 4), (32, 5), . . . }

8. {. . . , (−3, 9), (−2, 4), (−1, 1), (0, 0), (1, 1), (2, 4), (3, 9), . . . }

9. {(−2, y) | − 3 < y < 4} 10. {(x, 3) | − 2 ≤ x < 4}

11. { x, x2 | x is a real number} 12. { x2 , x | x is a real number}

In Exercises 13 - 32, determine whether or not the relation represents y as a function of x. Find
the domain and range of those relations which are functions.

13. y 14.
4 y
4
3
3
2
2
1
1

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 x −4 −3 −2 −1 1 x
−1 −1
50 Relations and Functions

15. 16.
y y
5 3

4 2

3 1

2
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
1 −1

−2
−2 −1 1 2 x
−3

17. 18.
y y
3 4

2 3

1 2

1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x

19. 20.
y y
2 4

3
1
2
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x 1
−1

−2 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1
−3
−2

21. 22.
y
9 y
8 5
7
4
6
5 3
4 2
3 1
2
1 −5−4−3−2−1 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1
−3−2−1
−1 1 2 3 x −2
−2 −3
−3
−4
−4
−5 −5
1.3 Introduction to Functions 51

23. 24.
y y
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

−5−4−3−2−1 1 2 3 4 5 x −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3
−4 −4
−5 −5

25. 26.
y y
4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

−2 −1 1 2 x −2 −1 1 2 x

27. 28.
y y
4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

−2 −1 1 2 x −2 −1 1 2 x

29. 30.
y y
2 2

1 1

−2 −1 1 2 x −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1 −1

−2 −2
52 Relations and Functions

31. 32.
y y
2 2

1 1

−2 −1 1 2 x −2 −1 1 2 x
−1 −1

−2 −2

In Exercises 33 - 47, determine whether or not the equation represents y as a function of x.

√
33. y = x3 − x 34. y = x−2 35. x3 y = −4
x
36. x2 − y 2 = 1 37. y = 38. x = −6
x2 −9

39. x = y 2 + 4 40. y = x2 + 4 41. x2 + y 2 = 4

√
42. y = 4 − x2 43. x2 − y 2 = 4 44. x3 + y 3 = 4

45. 2x + 3y = 4 46. 2xy = 4 47. x2 = y 2

48. Explain why the population P of Sasquatch in a given area is a function of time t. What
would be the range of this function?

49. Explain why the relation between your classmates and their email addresses may not be a
function. What about phone numbers and Social Security Numbers?

The process given in Example 1.3.5 for determining whether an equation of a relation represents y
as a function of x breaks down if we cannot solve the equation for y in terms of x. However, that
does not prevent us from proving that an equation fails to represent y as a function of x. What we
really need is two points with the same x-coordinate and different y-coordinates which both satisfy
the equation so that the graph of the relation would fail the Vertical Line Test 1.1. Discuss with
your classmates how you might find such points for the relations given in Exercises 50 - 53.

50. x3 + y 3 − 3xy = 0 51. x4 = x2 + y 2

52. y 2 = x3 + 3x2 53. (x2 + y 2 )2 = x3 + y 3

1.3 Introduction to Functions 53

1.3.2 Answers

1. Function 2. Not a function

domain = {−3, −2, −1, 0, 1, 2 ,3}
range = {0, 1, 4, 9}

3. Function 4. Function
domain = {−7, −3, 3, 4, 5, 6} domain = {1, 4, 9, 16, 25, 36, . . .}
range = {0, 4, 5, 6, 9} = {x | x is a perfect square}
range = {2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, . . .}
= {y | y is a positive even integer}

5. Not a function 6. Function

domain = {x | x is irrational}
range = {1}

7. Function 8. Function
domain = {x|x = 2n for some whole number n} domain = {x | x is any integer}
range = {y | y is any whole number} range = y | y = n2 for some integer n

9. Not a function 10. Function

domain = [−2, 4), range = {3}

11. Function 12. Not a function

domain = (−∞, ∞)
range = [0, ∞)

13. Function 14. Not a function

domain = {−4, −3, −2, −1, 0, 1}
range = {−1, 0, 1, 2, 3, 4}

15. Function 16. Not a function

domain = (−∞, ∞)
range = [1, ∞)

17. Function 18. Function

domain = [2, ∞) domain = (−∞, ∞)
range = [0, ∞) range = (0, 4]

19. Not a function 20. Function

domain = [−5, −3) ∪ (−3, 3)
range = (−2, −1) ∪ [0, 4)
54 Relations and Functions

21. Function 22. Not a function

domain = [−2, ∞)
range = [−3, ∞)

23. Function 24. Function

domain = [−5, 4) domain = [0, 3) ∪ (3, 6]
range = [−4, 4) range = (−4, −1] ∪ [0, 4]

25. Function 26. Function

domain = (−∞, ∞) domain = (−∞, ∞)
range = (−∞, 4] range = (−∞, 4]

27. Function 28. Function

domain = [−2, ∞) domain = (−∞, ∞)
range = (−∞, 3] range = (−∞, ∞)

29. Function 30. Function

domain = (−∞, 0] ∪ (1, ∞) domain = [−3, 3]
range = (−∞, 1] ∪ {2} range = [−2, 2]

31. Not a function 32. Function

domain = (−∞, ∞)
range = {2}

33. Function 34. Function 35. Function

36. Not a function 37. Function 38. Not a function

39. Not a function 40. Function 41. Not a function

42. Function 43. Not a function 44. Function

45. Function 46. Function 47. Not a function

Chapter 2

Linear and Quadratic Functions

2.1 Linear Functions

We now begin the study of families of functions. Our first family, linear functions, are old friends as
we shall soon see. Recall from Geometry that two distinct points in the plane determine a unique
line containing those points, as indicated below.

P (x0 , y0 )

Q (x1 , y1 )

To give a sense of the ‘steepness’ of the line, we recall that we can compute the slope of the line
using the formula below.
Equation 2.1. The slope m of the line containing the points P (x0 , y0 ) and Q (x1 , y1 ) is:
y1 − y0
m= ,
x1 − x0
provided x1 6= x0 .
A couple of notes about Equation 2.1 are in order. First, don’t ask why we use the letter ‘m’ to
represent slope. There are many explanations out there, but apparently no one really knows for
sure.1 Secondly, the stipulation x1 6= x0 ensures that we aren’t trying to divide by zero. The reader
is invited to pause to think about what is happening geometrically; the anxious reader can skip
along to the next example.

Example 2.1.1. Find the slope of the line containing the following pairs of points, if it exists.
Plot each pair of points and the line containing them.

1
See www.mathforum.org or www.mathworld.wolfram.com for discussions on this topic.
152 Linear and Quadratic Functions

1. P (0, 0), Q(2, 4) 2. P (−1, 2), Q(3, 4)

3. P (−2, 3), Q(2, −3) 4. P (−3, 2), Q(4, 2)

5. P (2, 3), Q(2, −1) 6. P (2, 3), Q(2.1, −1)

Solution. In each of these examples, we apply the slope formula, Equation 2.1.

y
4
Q
3
4−0 4
1. m= = =2 2
2−0 2 1

P 1 2 3 4 x

y
4
Q
3
4−2 2 1
2. m= = = 2
3 − (−1) 4 2 P
1

−1 1 2 3 x

y
4

P 3

1
−3 − 3 −6 3
3. m= = =−
2 − (−2) 4 2 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1

−2

−3 Q

−4

y
3

2−2 0 2
4. m= = =0 P Q
4 − (−3) 7 1

−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
2.1 Linear Functions 153

y
3 P

1
−1 − 3 −4
5. m= = , which is undefined
2−2 0 −1
1 2 x
Q

−2

−3

y
3 P

1
−1 − 3 −4
6. m= = = −40
2.1 − 2 0.1 −1
1 2 x
Q

−2

−3

A few comments about Example 2.1.1 are in order. First, for reasons which will be made clear
soon, if the slope is positive then the resulting line is said to be increasing. If it is negative, we
say the line is decreasing. A slope of 0 results in a horizontal line which we say is constant, and
an undefined slope results in a vertical line.2 Second, the larger the slope is in absolute value, the
steeper the line. You may recall from Intermediate Algebra that slope can be described as the
ratio ‘ rise 1
run ’. For example, in the second part of Example 2.1.1, we found the slope to be 2 . We can
interpret this as a rise of 1 unit upward for every 2 units to the right we travel along the line, as
shown below.
y

‘up 1’
3
‘over 2’
2

−1 1 2 3
x

2
Some authors use the unfortunate moniker ‘no slope’ when a slope is undefined. It’s easy to confuse the notions
of ‘no slope’ with ‘slope of 0’. For this reason, we will describe slopes of vertical lines as ‘undefined’.
154 Linear and Quadratic Functions

Using more formal notation, given points (x0 , y0 ) and (x1 , y1 ), we use the Greek letter delta ‘∆’ to
write ∆y = y1 − y0 and ∆x = x1 − x0 . In most scientific circles, the symbol ∆ means ‘change in’.
Hence, we may write
∆y
m= ,
∆x
which describes the slope as the rate of change of y with respect to x. Rates of change abound
in the ‘real world’, as the next example illustrates.

Example 2.1.2. Suppose that two separate temperature readings were taken at the ranger station
on the top of Mt. Sasquatch: at 6 AM the temperature was 24◦ F and at 10 AM it was 32◦ F.

1. Find the slope of the line containing the points (6, 24) and (10, 32).

2. Interpret your answer to the first part in terms of temperature and time.

3. Predict the temperature at noon.

Solution.
32−24 8
1. For the slope, we have m = 10−6 = 4 = 2.

2. Since the values in the numerator correspond to the temperatures in ◦ F, and the values in
2 2◦ F
the denominator correspond to time in hours, we can interpret the slope as 2 = = ,
◦
1 1 hour
or 2 F per hour. Since the slope is positive, we know this corresponds to an increasing line.
Hence, the temperature is increasing at a rate of 2◦ F per hour.

3. Noon is two hours after 10 AM. Assuming a temperature increase of 2◦ F per hour, in two
hours the temperature should rise 4◦ F. Since the temperature at 10 AM is 32◦ F, we would
expect the temperature at noon to be 32 + 4 = 36◦ F.

Now it may well happen that in the previous scenario, at noon the temperature is only 33◦ F.
This doesn’t mean our calculations are incorrect, rather, it means that the temperature change
throughout the day isn’t a constant 2◦ F per hour. As discussed in Section 1.4.1, mathematical
models are just that: models. The predictions we get out of the models may be mathematically
accurate, but may not resemble what happens in the real world.
In Section 1.2, we discussed the equations of vertical and horizontal lines. Using the concept of
slope, we can develop equations for the other varieties of lines. Suppose a line has a slope of m and
contains the point (x0 , y0 ). Suppose (x, y) is another point on the line, as indicated below.

(x, y)

(x0 , y0 )
2.1 Linear Functions 155

Equation 2.1 yields

y − y0
m =
x − x0
m (x − x0 ) = y − y0
y − y0 = m (x − x0 )
We have just derived the point-slope form of a line.3
Equation 2.2. The point-slope form of the line with slope m containing the point (x0 , y0 ) is
the equation y − y0 = m (x − x0 ).

Example 2.1.3. Write the equation of the line containing the points (−1, 3) and (2, 1).
Solution. In order to use Equation 2.2 we need to find the slope of the line in question so we
∆y 1−3
use Equation 2.1 to get m = ∆x = 2−(−1) = − 23 . We are spoiled for choice for a point (x0 , y0 ).
We’ll use (−1, 3) and leave it to the reader to check that using (2, 1) results in the same equation.
Substituting into the point-slope form of the line, we get

y − y0 = m (x − x0 )
2
y − 3 = − (x − (−1))
3
2
y − 3 = − (x + 1)
3
2 2
y−3 = − x−
3 3
2 7
y = − x+ .
3 3
We can check our answer by showing that both (−1, 3) and (2, 1) are on the graph of y = − 23 x + 73
algebraically, as we did in Section 1.2.1.
In simplifying the equation of the line in the previous example, we produced another form of a
line, the slope-intercept form. This is the familiar y = mx + b form you have probably seen in
Intermediate Algebra. The ‘intercept’ in ‘slope-intercept’ comes from the fact that if we set x = 0,
we get y = b. In other words, the y-intercept of the line y = mx + b is (0, b).
Equation 2.3. The slope-intercept form of the line with slope m and y-intercept (0, b) is the
equation y = mx + b.
Note that if we have slope m = 0, we get the equation y = b which matches our formula for a
horizontal line given in Section 1.2. The formula given in Equation 2.3 can be used to describe all
lines except vertical lines. All lines except vertical lines are functions (Why is this?) so we have
finally reached a good point to introduce linear functions.
3
We can also understand this equation in terms of applying transformations to the function I(x) = x. See the
Exercises.
156 Linear and Quadratic Functions

Definition 2.1. A linear function is a function of the form

f (x) = mx + b,

where m and b are real numbers with m 6= 0. The domain of a linear function is (−∞, ∞).

For the case m = 0, we get f (x) = b. These are given their own classification.

Definition 2.2. A constant function is a function of the form

f (x) = b,

where b is real number. The domain of a constant function is (−∞, ∞).

Recall that to graph a function, f , we graph the equation y = f (x). Hence, the graph of a
linear function is a line with slope m and y-intercept (0, b); the graph of a constant function is a
horizontal line (a line with slope m = 0) and a y-intercept of (0, b). Now think back to Section 1.6.1,
specifically Definition 1.10 concerning increasing, decreasing and constant functions. A line with
positive slope was called an increasing line because a linear function with m > 0 is an increasing
function. Similarly, a line with a negative slope was called a decreasing line because a linear function
with m < 0 is a decreasing function. And horizontal lines were called constant because, well, we
hope you’ve already made the connection.

Example 2.1.4. Graph the following functions. Identify the slope and y-intercept.

1. f (x) = 3 3 − 2x
3. f (x) =
4
x2 − 4
2. f (x) = 3x − 1 4. f (x) =
x−2

Solution.

1. To graph f (x) = 3, we graph y = 3. This is a horizontal line (m = 0) through (0, 3).

2. The graph of f (x) = 3x − 1 is the graph of the line y = 3x − 1. Comparison of this equation
with Equation 2.3 yields m = 3 and b = −1. Hence, our slope is 3 and our y-intercept is
(0, −1). To get another point on the line, we can plot (1, f (1)) = (1, 2).
2.1 Linear Functions 157

y
4
y
3
4 2
1
3
−2−1 1 2 x
2 −1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
f (x) = 3 f (x) = 3x − 1

3. At first glance, the function f (x) = 3−2x

4 does not fit the form in Definition 2.1 but after some
rearranging we get f (x) = 4 = 4 − 4 = − 12 x + 43 . We identify m
= − 12 and b = 34 . Hence,
3−2x 3 2x

our graph is a line with a slope of − 12 and 3

a y-intercept of 0, 4 . Plotting an additional
1
point, we can choose (1, f (1)) to get 1, 4 .

4. If we simplify the expression for f , we get

x2 − 4 (x
−2)(x
 + 2)
f (x) = = = x + 2.
x−2 (x
 −2)


If we were to state f (x) = x + 2, we would be committing a sin of omission. Remember, to

find the domain of a function, we do so before we simplify! In this case, f has big problems
when x = 2, and as such, the domain of f is (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞). To indicate this, we write
f (x) = x + 2, x 6= 2. So, except at x = 2, we graph the line y = x + 2. The slope m = 1
and the y-intercept is (0, 2). A second point on the graph is (1, f (1)) = (1, 3). Since our
function f is not defined at x = 2, we put an open circle at the point that would be on the
line y = x + 2 when x = 2, namely (2, 4).

y
4
y
3
2
2
1
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1 1 2 3 x
3 − 2x x2
−4
f (x) = f (x) =
4 x−2
158 Linear and Quadratic Functions

The last two functions in the previous example showcase some of the difficulty in defining a linear
function using the phrase ‘of the form’ as in Definition 2.1, since some algebraic manipulations may
be needed to rewrite a given function to match ‘the form’. Keep in mind that the domains of linear
2 −4
and constant functions are all real numbers (−∞, ∞), so while f (x) = xx−2 simplified to a formula
f (x) = x + 2, f is not considered a linear function since its domain excludes x = 2. However, we
would consider
2x2 + 2
f (x) = 2
x +1
to be a constant function since its domain is all real numbers (Can you tell us why?) and
2+


2x2 + 2 2x 1
 
f (x) = 2 = 2 

=2
x +1 x+ 1


The following example uses linear functions to model some basic economic relationships.
Example 2.1.5. The cost C, in dollars, to produce x PortaBoy4 game systems for a local retailer
is given by C(x) = 80x + 150 for x ≥ 0.

1. Find and interpret C(10).

2. How many PortaBoys can be produced for $15,000?

3. Explain the significance of the restriction on the domain, x ≥ 0.

4. Find and interpret C(0).

5. Find and interpret the slope of the graph of y = C(x).

Solution.

1. To find C(10), we replace every occurrence of x with 10 in the formula for C(x) to get
C(10) = 80(10) + 150 = 950. Since x represents the number of PortaBoys produced, and
C(x) represents the cost, in dollars, C(10) = 950 means it costs $950 to produce 10 PortaBoys
for the local retailer.

2. To find how many PortaBoys can be produced for $15,000, we solve C(x) = 15000, or 80x +
150 = 15000. Solving, we get x = 14850
80 = 185.625. Since we can only produce a whole
number amount of PortaBoys, we can produce 185 PortaBoys for $15,000.

3. The restriction x ≥ 0 is the applied domain, as discussed in Section 1.4.1. In this context,
x represents the number of PortaBoys produced. It makes no sense to produce a negative
quantity of game systems.5
4
The similarity of this name to PortaJohn is deliberate.
5
Actually, it makes no sense to produce a fractional part of a game system, either, as we saw in the previous part
of this example. This absurdity, however, seems quite forgivable in some textbooks but not to us.
2.1 Linear Functions 159

4. We find C(0) = 80(0) + 150 = 150. This means it costs $150 to produce 0 PortaBoys. As
mentioned on page 82, this is the fixed, or start-up cost of this venture.
5. If we were to graph y = C(x), we would be graphing the portion of the line y = 80x + 150
for x ≥ 0. We recognize the slope, m = 80. Like any slope, we can interpret this as a rate of
change. Here, C(x) is the cost in dollars, while x measures the number of PortaBoys so
∆y ∆C 80 $80
m= = = 80 = = .
∆x ∆x 1 1 PortaBoy
In other words, the cost is increasing at a rate of $80 per PortaBoy produced. This is often
called the variable cost for this venture.
The next example asks us to find a linear function to model a related economic problem.
Example 2.1.6. The local retailer in Example 2.1.5 has determined that the number x of PortaBoy
game systems sold in a week is related to the price p in dollars of each system. When the price was
$220, 20 game systems were sold in a week. When the systems went on sale the following week, 40
systems were sold at $190 a piece.
1. Find a linear function which fits this data. Use the weekly sales x as the independent variable
and the price p as the dependent variable.
2. Find a suitable applied domain.
3. Interpret the slope.
4. If the retailer wants to sell 150 PortaBoys next week, what should the price be?
5. What would the weekly sales be if the price were set at $150 per system?

Solution.
1. We recall from Section 1.4 the meaning of ‘independent’ and ‘dependent’ variable. Since x is
to be the independent variable, and p the dependent variable, we treat x as the input variable
and p as the output variable. Hence, we are looking for a function of the form p(x) = mx + b.
To determine m and b, we use the fact that 20 PortaBoys were sold during the week when
the price was 220 dollars and 40 units were sold when the price was 190 dollars. Using
function notation, these two facts can be translated as p(20) = 220 and p(40) = 190. Since
m represents the rate of change of p with respect to x, we have
∆p 190 − 220 −30
m= = = = −1.5.
∆x 40 − 20 20
We now have determined p(x) = −1.5x + b. To determine b, we can use our given data again.
Using p(20) = 220, we substitute x = 20 into p(x) = 1.5x + b and set the result equal to 220:
−1.5(20) + b = 220. Solving, we get b = 250. Hence, we get p(x) = −1.5x + 250. We can
check our formula by computing p(20) and p(40) to see if we get 220 and 190, respectively.
You may recall from page 82 that the function p(x) is called the price-demand (or simply
demand) function for this venture.
160 Linear and Quadratic Functions

2. To determine the applied domain, we look at the physical constraints of the problem. Cer-
tainly, we can’t sell a negative number of PortaBoys, so x ≥ 0. However, we also note that
the slope of this linear function is negative, and as such, the price is decreasing as more units
are sold. Thus another constraint on the price is p(x) ≥ 0. Solving −1.5x + 250 ≥ 0 results
500
in −1.5x ≥ −250 or x ≤ = 166.6. Since x represents the number of PortaBoys sold in a
3
week, we round down to 166. As a result, a reasonable applied domain for p is [0, 166].

3. The slope m = −1.5, once again, represents the rate of change of the price of a system with
respect to weekly sales of PortaBoys. Since the slope is negative, we have that the price
is decreasing at a rate of $1.50 per PortaBoy sold. (Said differently, you can sell one more
PortaBoy for every $1.50 drop in price.)

4. To determine the price which will move 150 PortaBoys, we find p(150) = −1.5(150)+250 = 25.
That is, the price would have to be $25.

5. If the price of a PortaBoy were set at $150, we have p(x) = 150, or, −1.5x+250 = 150. Solving,
we get −1.5x = −100 or x = 66.6. This means you would be able to sell 66 PortaBoys a week
if the price were $150 per system.

Not all real-world phenomena can be modeled using linear functions. Nevertheless, it is possible to
use the concept of slope to help analyze non-linear functions using the following.
Definition 2.3. Let f be a function defined on the interval [a, b]. The average rate of change
of f over [a, b] is defined as:
∆f f (b) − f (a)
=
∆x b−a
Geometrically, if we have the graph of y = f (x), the average rate of change over [a, b] is the slope of
the line which connects (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b)). This is called the secant line through these points.
For that reason, some textbooks use the notation msec for the average rate of change of a function.
Note that for a linear function m = msec , or in other words, its rate of change over an interval is
the same as its average rate of change.
y = f (x)

(b, f (b))
(a, f (a))

The graph of y = f (x) and its secant line through (a, f (a)) and (b, f (b))

The interested reader may question the adjective ‘average’ in the phrase ‘average rate of change’.
In the figure above, we can see that the function changes wildly on [a, b], yet the slope of the secant
line only captures a snapshot of the action at a and b. This situation is entirely analogous to the
2.1 Linear Functions 161

average speed on a trip. Suppose it takes you 2 hours to travel 100 miles. Your average speed is
100 miles
2 hours
= 50 miles per hour. However, it is entirely possible that at the start of your journey, you
traveled 25 miles per hour, then sped up to 65 miles per hour, and so forth. The average rate of
change is akin to your average speed on the trip. Your speedometer measures your speed at any
one instant along the trip, your instantaneous rate of change, and this is one of the central
themes of Calculus.6
When interpreting rates of change, we interpret them the same way we did slopes. In the context
of functions, it may be helpful to think of the average rate of change as:

change in outputs
change in inputs
Example 2.1.7. Recall from page 82, the revenue from selling x units at a price p per unit is given
by the formula R = xp. Suppose we are in the scenario of Examples 2.1.5 and 2.1.6.

1. Find and simplify an expression for the weekly revenue R(x) as a function of weekly sales x.

2. Find and interpret the average rate of change of R(x) over the interval [0, 50].

3. Find and interpret the average rate of change of R(x) as x changes from 50 to 100 and
compare that to your result in part 2.

4. Find and interpret the average rate of change of weekly revenue as weekly sales increase from
100 PortaBoys to 150 PortaBoys.

Solution.

1. Since R = xp, we substitute p(x) = −1.5x + 250 from Example 2.1.6 to get R(x) = x(−1.5x +
250) = −1.5x2 + 250x. Since we determined the price-demand function p(x) is restricted to
0 ≤ x ≤ 166, R(x) is restricted to these values of x as well.

2. Using Definition 2.3, we get that the average rate of change is

∆R R(50) − R(0) 8750 − 0

= = = 175.
∆x 50 − 0 50 − 0

Interpreting this slope as we have in similar situations, we conclude that for every additional
PortaBoy sold during a given week, the weekly revenue increases $175.

3. The wording of this part is slightly different than that in Definition 2.3, but its meaning is to
find the average rate of change of R over the interval [50, 100]. To find this rate of change,
we compute
∆R R(100) − R(50) 10000 − 8750
= = = 25.
∆x 100 − 50 50
6
Here we go again...
162 Linear and Quadratic Functions

In other words, for each additional PortaBoy sold, the revenue increases by $25. Note that
while the revenue is still increasing by selling more game systems, we aren’t getting as much
of an increase as we did in part 2 of this example. (Can you think of why this would happen?)

4. Translating the English to the mathematics, we are being asked to find the average rate of
change of R over the interval [100, 150]. We find

∆R R(150) − R(100) 3750 − 10000

= = = −125.
∆x 150 − 100 50

This means that we are losing $125 dollars of weekly revenue for each additional PortaBoy
sold. (Can you think why this is possible?)

We close this section with a new look at difference quotients which were first introduced in Section
1.4. If we wish to compute the average rate of change of a function f over the interval [x, x + h],
then we would have

∆f f (x + h) − f (x) f (x + h) − f (x)
= =
∆x (x + h) − x h
As we have indicated, the rate of change of a function (average or otherwise) is of great importance
in Calculus.7 Also, we have the geometric interpretation of difference quotients which was promised
to you back on page 81 – a difference quotient yields the slope of a secant line.

7
So we are not torturing you with these for nothing.
2.1 Linear Functions 163

2.1.1 Exercises
In Exercises 1 - 10, find both the point-slope form and the slope-intercept form of the line with the
given slope which passes through the given point.

1. m = 3, P (3, −1) 2. m = −2, P (−5, 8)

3. m = −1, P (−7, −1) 4. m = 23 , P (−2, 1)

5. m = − 51 , P (10, 4) 6. m = 17 , P (−1, 4)
√
7. m = 0, P (3, 117) 8. m = − 2, P (0, −3)
√ √
9. m = −5, P ( 3, 2 3) 10. m = 678, P (−1, −12)

In Exercises 11 - 20, find the slope-intercept form of the line which passes through the given points.

11. P (0, 0), Q(−3, 5) 12. P (−1, −2), Q(3, −2)

13. P (5, 0), Q(0, −8) 14. P (3, −5), Q(7, 4)

15. P (−1, 5), Q(7, 5) 16. P (4, −8), Q(5, −8)

1 3
, Q 25 , − 74 2 7
, Q − 13 , 32





17. P 2, 4 18. P 3, 2
√ √
√ √
√
√

19. P 2, − 2 , Q − 2, 2 20. P − 3, −1 , Q 3, 1

In Exercises 21 - 26, graph the function. Find the slope, y-intercept and x-intercept, if any exist.

21. f (x) = 2x − 1 22. f (x) = 3 − x

23. f (x) = 3 24. f (x) = 0

1−x
25. f (x) = 23 x + 1
3 26. f (x) =
2
27. Find all of the points on the line y = 2x + 1 which are 4 units from the point (−1, 3).

28. Jeff can walk comfortably at 3 miles per hour. Find a linear function d that represents the
total distance Jeff can walk in t hours, assuming he doesn’t take any breaks.

29. Carl can stuff 6 envelopes per minute. Find a linear function E that represents the total
number of envelopes Carl can stuff after t hours, assuming he doesn’t take any breaks.

30. A landscaping company charges $45 per cubic yard of mulch plus a delivery charge of $20.
Find a linear function which computes the total cost C (in dollars) to deliver x cubic yards
of mulch.
164 Linear and Quadratic Functions

31. A plumber charges $50 for a service call plus $80 per hour. If she spends no longer than 8
hours a day at any one site, find a linear function that represents her total daily charges C
(in dollars) as a function of time t (in hours) spent at any one given location.

32. A salesperson is paid $200 per week plus 5% commission on her weekly sales of x dollars.
Find a linear function that represents her total weekly pay, W (in dollars) in terms of x.
What must her weekly sales be in order for her to earn $475.00 for the week?

33. An on-demand publisher charges $22.50 to print a 600 page book and $15.50 to print a 400
page book. Find a linear function which models the cost of a book C as a function of the
number of pages p. Interpret the slope of the linear function and find and interpret C(0).

34. The Topology Taxi Company charges $2.50 for the first fifth of a mile and $0.45 for each
additional fifth of a mile. Find a linear function which models the taxi fare F as a function
of the number of miles driven, m. Interpret the slope of the linear function and find and
interpret F (0).

35. Water freezes at 0◦ Celsius and 32◦ Fahrenheit and it boils at 100◦ C and 212◦ F.

(a) Find a linear function F that expresses temperature in the Fahrenheit scale in terms of
degrees Celsius. Use this function to convert 20◦ C into Fahrenheit.
(b) Find a linear function C that expresses temperature in the Celsius scale in terms of
degrees Fahrenheit. Use this function to convert 110◦ F into Celsius.
(c) Is there a temperature n such that F (n) = C(n)?

36. Legend has it that a bull Sasquatch in rut will howl approximately 9 times per hour when it is
40◦ F outside and only 5 times per hour if it’s 70◦ F . Assuming that the number of howls per
hour, N , can be represented by a linear function of temperature Fahrenheit, find the number
of howls per hour he’ll make when it’s only 20◦ F outside. What is the applied domain of this
function? Why?

37. Economic forces beyond anyone’s control have changed the cost function for PortaBoys to
C(x) = 105x + 175. Rework Example 2.1.5 with this new cost function.

38. In response to the economic forces in Exercise 37 above, the local retailer sets the selling price
of a PortaBoy at $250. Remarkably, 30 units were sold each week. When the systems went
on sale for $220, 40 units per week were sold. Rework Examples 2.1.6 and 2.1.7 with this new
data. What difficulties do you encounter?

39. A local pizza store offers medium two-topping pizzas delivered for $6.00 per pizza plus a
$1.50 delivery charge per order. On weekends, the store runs a ‘game day’ special: if six or
more medium two-topping pizzas are ordered, they are $5.50 each with no delivery charge.
Write a piecewise-defined linear function which calculates the cost C (in dollars) of p medium
two-topping pizzas delivered during a weekend.
2.1 Linear Functions 165

40. A restaurant offers a buffet which costs $15 per person. For parties of 10 or more people, a
group discount applies, and the cost is $12.50 per person. Write a piecewise-defined linear
function which calculates the total bill T of a party of n people who all choose the buffet.

41. A mobile plan charges a base monthly rate of $10 for the first 500 minutes of air time plus
a charge of 15¢ for each additional minute. Write a piecewise-defined linear function which
calculates the monthly cost C (in dollars) for using m minutes of air time.
HINT: You may want to revisit Exercise 74 in Section 1.4

42. The local pet shop charges 12¢ per cricket up to 100 crickets, and 10¢ per cricket thereafter.
Write a piecewise-defined linear function which calculates the price P , in dollars, of purchasing
c crickets.

43. The cross-section of a swimming pool is below. Write a piecewise-defined linear function
which describes the depth of the pool, D (in feet) as a function of:

(a) the distance (in feet) from the edge of the shallow end of the pool, d.
(b) the distance (in feet) from the edge of the deep end of the pool, s.
(c) Graph each of the functions in (a) and (b). Discuss with your classmates how to trans-
form one into the other and how they relate to the diagram of the pool.

d ft. s ft.
37 ft.
2 ft.

8 ft. 10 ft.

15 ft.

In Exercises 44 - 49, compute the average rate of change of the function over the specified interval.

1
44. f (x) = x3 , [−1, 2] 45. f (x) = , [1, 5]
x
√
46. f (x) = x, [0, 16] 47. f (x) = x2 , [−3, 3]

x+4
48. f (x) = , [5, 7] 49. f (x) = 3x2 + 2x − 7, [−4, 2]
x−3
166 Linear and Quadratic Functions

In Exercises 50 - 53, compute the average rate of change of the given function over the interval
[x, x + h]. Here we assume [x, x + h] is in the domain of the function.
1
50. f (x) = x3 51. f (x) =
x
x+4
52. f (x) = 53. f (x) = 3x2 + 2x − 7
x−3
54. The height of an object dropped from the roof of an eight story building is modeled by:
h(t) = −16t2 + 64, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2. Here, h is the height of the object off the ground in feet, t
seconds after the object is dropped. Find and interpret the average rate of change of h over
the interval [0, 2].

55. Using data from Bureau of Transportation Statistics, the average fuel economy F in miles
per gallon for passenger cars in the US can be modeled by F (t) = −0.0076t2 + 0.45t + 16,
0 ≤ t ≤ 28, where t is the number of years since 1980. Find and interpret the average rate of
change of F over the interval [0, 28].

56. The temperature T in degrees Fahrenheit t hours after 6 AM is given by:

1
T (t) = − t2 + 8t + 32, 0 ≤ t ≤ 12
2
(a) Find and interpret T (4), T (8) and T (12).
(b) Find and interpret the average rate of change of T over the interval [4, 8].
(c) Find and interpret the average rate of change of T from t = 8 to t = 12.
(d) Find and interpret the average rate of temperature change between 10 AM and 6 PM.

57. Suppose C(x) = x2 − 10x + 27 represents the costs, in hundreds, to produce x thousand pens.
Find and interpret the average rate of change as production is increased from making 3000
to 5000 pens.

58. With the help of your classmates find several other “real-world” examples of rates of change
that are used to describe non-linear phenomena.

(Parallel Lines) Recall from Intermediate Algebra that parallel lines have the same slope. (Please
note that two vertical lines are also parallel to one another even though they have an undefined
slope.) In Exercises 59 - 64, you are given a line and a point which is not on that line. Find the
line parallel to the given line which passes through the given point.

59. y = 3x + 2, P (0, 0) 60. y = −6x + 5, P (3, 2)

2.1 Linear Functions 167

61. y = 23 x − 7, P (6, 0) 4−x

62. y = , P (1, −1)
3
63. y = 6, P (3, −2) 64. x = 1, P (−5, 0)

(Perpendicular Lines) Recall from Intermediate Algebra that two non-vertical lines are perpendic-
ular if and only if they have negative reciprocal slopes. That is to say, if one line has slope m1 and
the other has slope m2 then m1 · m2 = −1. (You will be guided through a proof of this result in
Exercise 71.) Please note that a horizontal line is perpendicular to a vertical line and vice versa, so
we assume m1 6= 0 and m2 6= 0. In Exercises 65 - 70, you are given a line and a point which is not
on that line. Find the line perpendicular to the given line which passes through the given point.

65. y = 31 x + 2, P (0, 0) 66. y = −6x + 5, P (3, 2)

67. y = 32 x − 7, P (6, 0) 4−x

68. y = , P (1, −1)
3
69. y = 6, P (3, −2) 70. x = 1, P (−5, 0)

71. We shall now prove that y = m1 x + b1 is perpendicular to y = m2 x + b2 if and only if

m1 · m2 = −1. To make our lives easier we shall assume that m1 > 0 and m2 < 0. We can
also “move” the lines so that their point of intersection is the origin without messing things
up, so we’ll assume b1 = b2 = 0. (Take a moment with your classmates to discuss why this is
okay.) Graphing the lines and plotting the points O(0, 0) , P (1, m1 ) and Q(1, m2 ) gives us
the following set up.
y

O x

The line y = m1 x will be perpendicular to the line y = m2 x if and only if 4OP Q is a right
triangle. Let d1 be the distance from O to P , let d2 be the distance from O to Q and let d3
be the distance from P to Q. Use the Pythagorean Theorem to show that 4OP Q is a right
triangle if and only if m1 · m2 = −1 by showing d21 + d22 = d23 if and only if m1 · m2 = −1.
168 Linear and Quadratic Functions

72. Show that if a 6= b, the line containing the points (a, b) and (b, a) is perpendicular to the line
y = x. (Coupled with the result from Example 1.1.7 on page 13, we have now shown that the
line y = x is a perpendicular bisector of the line segment connecting (a, b) and (b, a). This
means the points (a, b) and (b, a) are symmetric about the line y = x. We will revisit this
symmetry in section 5.2.)

73. The function defined by I(x) = x is called the Identity Function.

(a) Discuss with your classmates why this name makes sense.
(b) Show that the point-slope form of a line (Equation 2.2) can be obtained from I using a
sequence of the transformations defined in Section 1.7.
2.1 Linear Functions 169

2.1.2 Answers

1. y + 1 = 3(x − 3) 2. y − 8 = −2(x + 5)
y = 3x − 10 y = −2x − 2

3. y + 1 = −(x + 7) 4. y − 1 = 23 (x + 2)
y = −x − 8 y = 23 x + 73

5. y − 4 = − 15 (x − 10) 6. y − 4 = 71 (x + 1)
y = − 15 x + 6 y = 17 x + 29
7
√
7. y − 117 = 0 8. y + 3 =
√ − 2(x − 0)
y = 117 y = − 2x − 3
√ √
9. y − 2 3 = −5(x
√ − 3) 10. y + 12 = 678(x + 1)
y = −5x + 7 3 y = 678x + 666

11. y = − 53 x 12. y = −2

13. y = 85 x − 8 14. y = 49 x − 47
4

15. y = 5 16. y = −8

17. y = − 54 x + 11
8 18. y = 2x + 13
6
√
19. y = −x 3
20. y = 3 x
y
21. f (x) = 2x − 1
3
slope: m = 2 2

y-intercept: (0, −1) 1

x-intercept: 12 , 0


−2 −1 1 2 x
−1

−2

−3

y
22. f (x) = 3 − x
4
slope: m = −1 3

y-intercept: (0, 3) 2

x-intercept: (3, 0) 1

−1 1 2 3 4 x
−1
170 Linear and Quadratic Functions

y
23. f (x) = 3
4
slope: m = 0 3

y-intercept: (0, 3) 2

x-intercept: none 1

−2 −1 1 2 x

y
24. f (x) = 0
1
slope: m = 0
−2 −1 1 2 x
y-intercept: (0, 0) −1

x-intercept: {(x, 0) | x is a real number}

y
25. f (x) = 32 x + 1
3
2
2
slope: m = 3 1

y-intercept: 0, 31


−2 1 2 x
x-intercept: − 12 , 0


−1

1−x y
26. f (x) =
2 2

slope: m = − 12 1

1


y-intercept: 0, 2 −2 −1 1 2 x
−1
x-intercept: (1, 0)

11 27


27. (−1, −1) and 5 , 5 28. d(t) = 3t, t ≥ 0.

29. E(t) = 360t, t ≥ 0. 30. C(x) = 45x + 20, x ≥ 0.

31. C(t) = 80t + 50, 0 ≤ t ≤ 8. 32. W (x) = 200 + .05x, x ≥ 0 She must make
$5500 in weekly sales.

33. C(p) = 0.035p + 1.5 The slope 0.035 means it costs 3.5¢ per page. C(0) = 1.5 means there
is a fixed, or start-up, cost of $1.50 to make each book.

34. F (m) = 2.25m + 2.05 The slope 2.25 means it costs an additional $2.25 for each mile beyond
the first 0.2 miles. F (0) = 2.05, so according to the model, it would cost $2.05 for a trip of 0
miles. Would this ever really happen? Depends on the driver and the passenger, we suppose.
2.1 Linear Functions 171

35. (a) F (C) = 95 C + 32 (b) C(F ) = 95 (F − 32) = 59 F − 160

9

(c) F (−40) = −40 = C(−40).

2 43 35
36. N (T ) = − 15 T+ 3 and N (20) = 3 ≈ 12 howls per hour.
Having a negative number of howls makes no sense and since N (107.5) = 0 we can put an
upper bound of 107.5◦ F on the domain. The lower bound is trickier because there’s nothing
other than common sense to go on. As it gets colder, he howls more often. At some point
it will either be so cold that he freezes to death or he’s howling non-stop. So we’re going to
say that he can withstand temperatures no lower than −60◦ F so that the applied domain is
[−60, 107.5].
(
6p + 1.5 if 1 ≤ p ≤ 5
39. C(p) =
5.5p if p ≥ 6
(
15n if 1 ≤ n ≤ 9
40. T (n) =
12.5n if n ≥ 10
(
10 if 0 ≤ m ≤ 500
41. C(m) =
10 + 0.15(m − 500) if m > 500
(
0.12c if 1 ≤ c ≤ 100
42. P (c) =
12 + 0.1(c − 100) if c > 100

43. (a) 

 8 if 0 ≤ d ≤ 15
D(d) = − 12 d+ 31
2 if 15 ≤ d ≤ 27

2 if 27 ≤ d ≤ 37


(b) 

 2 if 0 ≤ s ≤ 10
D(s) = 1
2 s−3 if 10 ≤ s ≤ 22

8 if 22 ≤ s ≤ 37


(c)

8 8

2 2

15 27 37 10 22 37
y = D(d) y = D(s)
172 Linear and Quadratic Functions

23 − (−1)3 1
5− 11 1
44. =3 45. =−
2 − (−1) 5−1 5
√ √
16 − 0 1 32 − (−3)2
46. = 47. =0
16 − 0 4 3 − (−3)
7+4
7−3− 5+4
5−3 7 49.
(3(2)2 + 2(2) − 7) − (3(−4)2 + 2(−4) − 7)
= −4
48. =− 2 − (−4)
7−5 8
−1
50. 3x2 + 3xh + h2 51.
x(x + h)
−7
52. 53. 6x + 3h + 2
(x − 3)(x + h − 3)

54. The average rate of change is h(2)−h(0)

2−0 = −32. During the first two seconds after it is
dropped, the object has fallen at an average rate of 32 feet per second. (This is called the
average velocity of the object.)

55. The average rate of change is F (28)−F

28−0
(0)
= 0.2372. During the years from 1980 to 2008, the
average fuel economy of passenger cars in the US increased, on average, at a rate of 0.2372
miles per gallon per year.

56. (a) T (4) = 56, so at 10 AM (4 hours after 6 AM), it is 56◦ F. T (8) = 64, so at 2 PM (8 hours
after 6 AM), it is 64◦ F. T (12) = 56, so at 6 PM (12 hours after 6 AM), it is 56◦ F.
(b) The average rate of change is T (8)−T
8−4
(4)
= 2. Between 10 AM and 2 PM, the temperature
◦
increases, on average, at a rate of 2 F per hour.
(c) The average rate of change is T (12)−T
12−8
(8)
= −2. Between 2 PM and 6 PM, the temperature
decreases, on average, at a rate of 2◦ F per hour.
(d) The average rate of change is T (12)−T
12−4
(4)
= 0. Between 10 AM and 6 PM, the tempera-
ture, on average, remains constant.

57. The average rate of change is C(5)−C(3)

5−3 = −2. As production is increased from 3000 to 5000
pens, the cost decreases at an average rate of $200 per 1000 pens produced (20¢ per pen.)

59. y = 3x 60. y = −6x + 20 61. y = 23 x − 4

62. y = − 13 x − 2
3 63. y = −2 64. x = −5

65. y = −3x 66. y = 61 x + 3

2 67. y = − 32 x + 9

68. y = 3x − 4 69. x = 3 70. y = 0

2.2 Absolute Value Functions 173

2.2 Absolute Value Functions

There are a few ways to describe what is meant by the absolute value |x| of a real number x. You
may have been taught that |x| is the distance from the real number x to 0 on the number line. So,
for example, |5| = 5 and | − 5| = 5, since each is 5 units from 0 on the number line.
distance is 5 units distance is 5 units

−5 −4 −3 −2 −1 0 1 2 3 4 5

√
Another
p way to√define absolute value ispby the equation
√ |x| = x2 . Using this definition, we have
2 2
|5| = (5) = 25 = 5 and | − 5| = (−5) = 25 = 5. The long and short of both of these
procedures is that |x| takes negative real numbers and assigns them to their positive counterparts
while it leaves positive numbers alone. This last description is the one we shall adopt, and is
summarized in the following definition.

Definition 2.4. The absolute value of a real number x, denoted |x|, is given by
(
−x, if x < 0
|x| =
x, if x ≥ 0

In Definition 2.4, we define |x| using a piecewise-defined function. (See page 62 in Section 1.4.) To
check that this definition agrees with what we previously understood as absolute value, note that
since 5 ≥ 0, to find |5| we use the rule |x| = x, so |5| = 5. Similarly, since −5 < 0, we use the
rule |x| = −x, so that | − 5| = −(−5) = 5. This is one of the times when it’s best to interpret the
expression ‘−x’ as ‘the opposite of x’ as opposed to ‘negative x’. Before we begin studying absolute
value functions, we remind ourselves of the properties of absolute value.
Theorem 2.1. Properties of Absolute Value: Let a, b and x be real numbers and let n be
an integer.a Then

ˆ Product Rule: |ab| = |a||b|

ˆ Power Rule: |an | = |a|n whenever an is defined

a |a|
ˆ Quotient Rule: = , provided b 6= 0
b |b|

Equality Properties:

ˆ |x| = 0 if and only if x = 0.

ˆ For c > 0, |x| = c if and only if x = c or −x = c.

ˆ For c < 0, |x| = c has no solution.

a
See page 2 if you don’t remember what an integer is.
174 Linear and Quadratic Functions

The proofs of the Product and Quotient Rules in Theorem 2.1 boil down to checking four cases:
when both a and b are positive; when they are both negative; when one is positive and the other
is negative; and when one or both are zero.
For example, suppose we wish to show that |ab| = |a||b|. We need to show that this equation is
true for all real numbers a and b. If a and b are both positive, then so is ab. Hence, |a| = a, |b| = b
and |ab| = ab. Hence, the equation |ab| = |a||b| is the same as ab = ab which is true. If both a
and b are negative, then ab is positive. Hence, |a| = −a, |b| = −b and |ab| = ab. The equation
|ab| = |a||b| becomes ab = (−a)(−b), which is true. Suppose a is positive and b is negative. Then
ab is negative, and we have |ab| = −ab, |a| = a and |b| = −b. The equation |ab| = |a||b| reduces to
−ab = a(−b) which is true. A symmetric argument shows the equation |ab| = |a||b| holds when a is
negative and b is positive. Finally, if either a or b (or both) are zero, then both sides of |ab| = |a||b|
are zero, so the equation holds in this case, too. All of this rhetoric has shown that the equation
|ab| = |a||b| holds true in all cases.
The proof of the Quotient Rule is very similar, with the exception that b 6= 0. The Power Rule can
be shown by repeated application of the Product Rule. The ‘Equality Properties’ can be proved
using Definition 2.4 and by looking at the cases when x ≥ 0, in which case |x| = x, or when x < 0,
in which case |x| = −x. For example, if c > 0, and |x| = c, then if x ≥ 0, we have x = |x| = c.
If, on the other hand, x < 0, then −x = |x| = c, so x = −c. The remaining properties are proved
similarly and are left for the Exercises. Our first example reviews how to solve basic equations
involving absolute value using the properties listed in Theorem 2.1.

Example 2.2.1. Solve each of the following equations.

1. |3x − 1| = 6 2. 3 − |x + 5| = 1 3. 3|2x + 1| − 5 = 0

4. 4 − |5x + 3| = 5 5. |x| = x2 − 6 6. |x − 2| + 1 = x

Solution.

1. The equation |3x − 1| = 6 is of the form |x| = c for c > 0, so by the Equality Properties,
|3x − 1| = 6 is equivalent to 3x − 1 = 6 or 3x − 1 = −6. Solving the former, we arrive at x = 73 ,
and solving the latter, we get x = − 53 . We may check both of these solutions by substituting
them into the original equation and showing that the arithmetic works out.

2. To use the Equality Properties to solve 3 − |x + 5| = 1, we first isolate the absolute value.

3 − |x + 5| = 1
−|x + 5| = −2 subtract 3
|x + 5| = 2 divide by −1

From the Equality Properties, we have x + 5 = 2 or x + 5 = −2, and get our solutions to be
x = −3 or x = −7. We leave it to the reader to check both answers in the original equation.
2.2 Absolute Value Functions 175

3. As in the previous example, we first isolate the absolute value in the equation 3|2x+1|−5 = 0
and get |2x + 1| = 53 . Using the Equality Properties, we have 2x + 1 = 53 or 2x + 1 = − 53 .
Solving the former gives x = 13 and solving the latter gives x = − 43 . As usual, we may
substitute both answers in the original equation to check.

4. Upon isolating the absolute value in the equation 4 − |5x + 3| = 5, we get |5x + 3| = −1. At
this point, we know there cannot be any real solution, since, by definition, the absolute value
of anything is never negative. We are done.

5. The equation |x| = x2 − 6 presents us with some difficulty, since x appears both inside and
outside of the absolute value. Moreover, there are values of x for which x2 − 6 is positive,
negative and zero, so we cannot use the Equality Properties without the risk of introducing
extraneous solutions, or worse, losing solutions. For this reason, we break equations like this
into cases by rewriting the term in absolute values, |x|, using Definition 2.4. For x < 0,
|x| = −x, so for x < 0, the equation |x| = x2 − 6 is equivalent to −x = x2 − 6. Rearranging
this gives us x2 + x − 6 = 0, or (x + 3)(x − 2) = 0. We get x = −3 or x = 2. Since only x = −3
satisfies x < 0, this is the answer we keep. For x ≥ 0, |x| = x, so the equation |x| = x2 − 6
becomes x = x2 − 6. From this, we get x2 − x − 6 = 0 or (x − 3)(x + 2) = 0. Our solutions
are x = 3 or x = −2, and since only x = 3 satisfies x ≥ 0, this is the one we keep. Hence, our
two solutions to |x| = x2 − 6 are x = −3 and x = 3.

6. To solve |x − 2| + 1 = x, we first isolate the absolute value and get |x − 2| = x − 1. Since we see
x both inside and outside of the absolute value, we break the equation into cases. The term
with absolute values here is |x − 2|, so we replace ‘x’ with the quantity ‘(x − 2)’ in Definition
2.4 to get (
−(x − 2), if (x − 2) < 0
|x − 2| =
(x − 2), if (x − 2) ≥ 0

Simplifying yields (
−x + 2, if x < 2
|x − 2| =
x − 2, if x ≥ 2

So, for x < 2, |x − 2| = −x + 2 and our equation |x − 2| = x − 1 becomes −x + 2 = x − 1, which

gives x = 32 . Since this solution satisfies x < 2, we keep it. Next, for x ≥ 2, |x − 2| = x − 2, so
the equation |x − 2| = x − 1 becomes x − 2 = x − 1. Here, the equation reduces to −2 = −1,
which signifies we have no solutions here. Hence, our only solution is x = 32 .

Next, we turn our attention to graphing absolute value functions. Our strategy in the next example
is to make liberal use of Definition 2.4 along with what we know about graphing linear functions
(from Section 2.1) and piecewise-defined functions (from Section 1.4).

Example 2.2.2. Graph each of the following functions.

1. f (x) = |x| 2. g(x) = |x − 3| 3. h(x) = |x| − 3 4. i(x) = 4 − 2|3x + 1|
176 Linear and Quadratic Functions

Find the zeros of each function and the x- and y-intercepts of each graph, if any exist. From the
graph, determine the domain and range of each function, list the intervals on which the function is
increasing, decreasing or constant, and find the relative and absolute extrema, if they exist.
Solution.

1. To find the zeros of f , we set f (x) = 0. We get |x| = 0, which, by Theorem 2.1 gives us x = 0.
Since the zeros of f are the x-coordinates of the x-intercepts of the graph of y = f (x), we get
(0, 0) as our only x-intercept. To find the y-intercept, we set x = 0, and find y = f (0) = 0,
so that (0, 0) is our y-intercept as well.1 Using Definition 2.4, we get
(
−x, if x < 0
f (x) = |x| =
x, if x ≥ 0

Hence, for x < 0, we are graphing the line y = −x; for x ≥ 0, we have the line y = x.
Proceeding as we did in Section 1.6, we get

y y
4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
f (x) = |x|, x < 0 f (x) = |x|, x ≥ 0

Notice that we have an ‘open circle’ at (0, 0) in the graph when x < 0. As we have seen before,
this is due to the fact that the points on y = −x approach (0, 0) as the x-values approach 0.
Since x is required to be strictly less than zero on this stretch, the open circle is drawn at the
origin. However, notice that when x ≥ 0, we get to fill in the point at (0, 0), which effectively
‘plugs’ the hole indicated by the open circle. Thus we get,

y
4

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
f (x) = |x|
1
Actually, since functions can have at most one y-intercept (Do you know why?), as soon as we found (0, 0) as the
x-intercept, we knew this was also the y-intercept.
2.2 Absolute Value Functions 177

By projecting the graph to the x-axis, we see that the domain is (−∞, ∞). Projecting to
the y-axis gives us the range [0, ∞). The function is increasing on [0, ∞) and decreasing on
(−∞, 0]. The relative minimum value of f is the same as the absolute minimum, namely 0
which occurs at (0, 0). There is no relative maximum value of f . There is also no absolute
maximum value of f , since the y values on the graph extend infinitely upwards.

2. To find the zeros of g, we set g(x) = |x − 3| = 0. By Theorem 2.1, we get x − 3 = 0 so

that x = 3. Hence, the x-intercept is (3, 0). To find our y-intercept, we set x = 0 so that
y = g(0) = |0 − 3| = 3, which yields (0, 3) as our y-intercept. To graph g(x) = |x − 3|, we use
Definition 2.4 to rewrite g as

(
−(x − 3), if (x − 3) < 0
g(x) = |x − 3| =
(x − 3), if (x − 3) ≥ 0

Simplifying, we get

(
−x + 3, if x < 3
g(x) =
x − 3, if x ≥ 3

As before, the open circle we introduce at (3, 0) from the graph of y = −x + 3 is filled by the
point (3, 0) from the line y = x − 3. We determine the domain as (−∞, ∞) and the range as
[0, ∞). The function g is increasing on [3, ∞) and decreasing on (−∞, 3]. The relative and
absolute minimum value of g is 0 which occurs at (3, 0). As before, there is no relative or
absolute maximum value of g.

3. Setting h(x) = 0 to look for zeros gives |x| − 3 = 0. As in Example 2.2.1, we isolate the
absolute value to get |x| = 3 so that x = 3 or x = −3. As a result, we have a pair of x-
intercepts: (−3, 0) and (3, 0). Setting x = 0 gives y = h(0) = |0| − 3 = −3, so our y-intercept
is (0, −3). As before, we rewrite the absolute value in h to get

(
−x − 3, if x < 0
h(x) =
x − 3, if x ≥ 0

Once again, the open circle at (0, −3) from one piece of the graph of h is filled by the point
(0, −3) from the other piece of h. From the graph, we determine the domain of h is (−∞, ∞)
and the range is [−3, ∞). On [0, ∞), h is increasing; on (−∞, 0] it is decreasing. The relative
minimum occurs at the point (0, −3) on the graph, and we see −3 is both the relative and
absolute minimum value of h. Also, h has no relative or absolute maximum value.
178 Linear and Quadratic Functions

y
y
1
4

3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1
2
−2
1
−3
1 2 3 4 5 x −4
g(x) = |x − 3| h(x) = |x| − 3

4. As before, we set i(x) = 0 to find the zeros of i and get 4−2|3x+1| = 0. Isolating the absolute
value term gives |3x + 1| = 2, so either 3x + 1 = 2 or 3x + 1 = −2. We get x = 13 or x = −1, so
our x-intercepts are 13 , 0 and (−1, 0). Substituting x = 0 gives y = i(0) = 4−2|3(0)+1| = 2,

for a y-intercept of (0, 2). Rewriting the formula for i(x) without absolute values gives
( (
4 − 2(−(3x + 1)), if (3x + 1) < 0 6x + 6, if x < − 13
i(x) = =
4 − 2(3x + 1), if (3x + 1) ≥ 0 −6x + 2, if x ≥ − 13

The usual analysis near the trouble spot x = − 31 gives the ‘corner’ of this graph is − 13 , 4 ,

and we get the distinctive ‘∨’ shape:

y
5

−1 1 x
−1

i(x) = 4 − 2|3x + 1|

The domain  of i is (−∞, ∞) while the

range is (−∞, 4]. The function i is increasing1 on

1 1
−∞, − 3 and decreasing on − 3 , ∞ . The relative maximum occurs at the point − 3 , 4
and the relative and absolute maximum value of i is 4. Since the graph of i extends downwards
forever more, there is no absolute minimum value. As we can see from the graph, there is no
relative minimum, either.

Note that all of the functions in the previous example bear the characteristic ‘∨’ shape of the graph
of y = |x|. We could have graphed the functions g, h and i in Example 2.2.2 starting with the
graph of f (x) = |x| and applying transformations as in Section 1.7 as our next example illustrates.
2.2 Absolute Value Functions 179

Example 2.2.3. Graph the following functions starting with the graph of f (x) = |x| and using
transformations.

1. g(x) = |x − 3| 2. h(x) = |x| − 3 3. i(x) = 4 − 2|3x + 1|

Solution. We begin by graphing f (x) = |x| and labeling three points, (−1, 1), (0, 0) and (1, 1).
y
4

(−1, 1) 1 (1, 1)

−3 −2 −1 (0, 0) 1 2 3 x

f (x) = |x|

1. Since g(x) = |x − 3| = f (x − 3), Theorem 1.7 tells us to add 3 to each of the x-values of the
points on the graph of y = f (x) to obtain the graph of y = g(x). This shifts the graph of
y = f (x) to the right 3 units and moves the point (−1, 1) to (2, 1), (0, 0) to (3, 0) and (1, 1)
to (4, 1). Connecting these points in the classic ‘∨’ fashion produces the graph of y = g(x).

y y
4 4

3 3

2 2

(−1, 1) 1 (1, 1) 1 (2, 1) (4, 1)

−3 −2 −1 (0, 0) 1 2 3 x shift right 3 units 1 2 (3, 0) 4 5 6 x

−−−−−−−−−−−−→
f (x) = |x| add 3 to each x-coordinate g(x) = f (x − 3) = |x − 3|

2. For h(x) = |x| − 3 = f (x) − 3, Theorem 1.7 tells us to subtract 3 from each of the y-values of
the points on the graph of y = f (x) to obtain the graph of y = h(x). This shifts the graph of
y = f (x) down 3 units and moves (−1, 1) to (−1, −2), (0, 0) to (0, −3) and (1, 1) to (1, −2).
Connecting these points with the ‘∨’ shape produces our graph of y = h(x).

y
y
1
4

3 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
−1
2
(−1, −2) −2 (1, −2)
(−1, 1) 1 (1, 1)
−3 (0, −3)
−3 −2 −1 (0, 0) 1 2 3 x shift down 3 units −4
−−−−−−−−−−−−→
f (x) = |x| subtract 3 from each y-coordinate h(x) = f (x) − 3 = |x| − 3
180 Linear and Quadratic Functions

3. We re-write i(x) = 4 − 2|3x + 1| = 4 − 2f (3x + 1) = −2f (3x + 1) + 4 and apply Theorem

1.7. First, we take care of the changes on the ‘inside’ of the absolute value. Instead of |x|,
we have |3x + 1|, so, in accordance with Theorem 1.7, we first subtract 1 from each of the
x-values of points on the graph of y = f (x), then divide each of those new values by 3. This
effects a horizontal shift left 1 unit followed by a horizontal shrink by a factor of 3. These
2 1



transformations move (−1, 1) to − 3 , 1 , (0, 0) to − 3 , 0 and (1, 1) to (0, 1). Next, we take
care of what’s happening ‘outside of’ the absolute value. Theorem 1.7 instructs us to first
multiply each y-value of these new points by −2 then add 4. Geometrically, this corresponds
to a vertical stretch by a factor of 2, a reflection
across the
x-axis and

finally,
a vertical shift
up 4 units. These transformations move − 23 , 1 to − 32 , 2 , − 13 , 0 to − 13 , 4 , and (0, 1) to
(0, 2). Connecting these points with the usual ‘∨’ shape produces our graph of y = i(x).

− 13 , 4


y
3
4
− 23 , 2


2 (0, 2)
3
1
2

(−1, 1) 1 (1, 1) −1 1 x
−1
−3 −2 −1 (0, 0) 1 2 3 x −−−−−−−−−−−−→
f (x) = |x| i(x) = −2f (3x + 1) + 4
= −2|3x + 1| + 4

While the methods in Section 1.7 can be used to graph an entire family of absolute value functions,
not all functions involving absolute values posses the characteristic ‘∨’ shape. As the next example
illustrates, often there is no substitute for appealing directly to the definition.

Example 2.2.4. Graph each of the following functions. Find the zeros of each function and the
x- and y-intercepts of each graph, if any exist. From the graph, determine the domain and range
of each function, list the intervals on which the function is increasing, decreasing or constant, and
find the relative and absolute extrema, if they exist.

|x| 2. g(x) = |x + 2| − |x − 3| + 1
1. f (x) =
x
Solution.

1. We first note that, due to the fraction in the formula of f (x), x 6= 0. Thus the domain is
(−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞). To find the zeros of f , we set f (x) = |x|
x = 0. This last equation implies
|x| = 0, which, from Theorem 2.1, implies x = 0. However, x = 0 is not in the domain of f ,
2.2 Absolute Value Functions 181

which means we have, in fact, no x-intercepts. We have no y-intercepts either, since f (0) is
undefined. Re-writing the absolute value in the function gives

−x

, if x < 0
 (
x −1, if x < 0

f (x) = =
x 1, if x > 0
, if x > 0


x
To graph this function, we graph two horizontal lines: y = −1 for x < 0 and y = 1 for x > 0.
We have open circles at (0, −1) and (0, 1) (Can you explain why?) so we get
y

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x

|x|
f (x) =
x
As we found earlier, the domain is (−∞, 0) ∪ (0, ∞). The range consists of just two y-values:
{−1, 1}. The function f is constant on (−∞, 0) and (0, ∞). The local minimum value of f
is the absolute minimum value of f , namely −1; the local maximum and absolute maximum
values for f also coincide − they both are 1. Every point on the graph of f is simultaneously
a relative maximum and a relative minimum. (Can you remember why in light of Definition
1.11? This was explored in the Exercises in Section 1.6.2.)

2. To find the zeros of g, we set g(x) = 0. The result is |x + 2| − |x − 3| + 1 = 0. Attempting

to isolate the absolute value term is complicated by the fact that there are two terms with
absolute values. In this case, it easier to proceed using cases by re-writing the function g with
two separate applications of Definition 2.4 to remove each instance of the absolute values, one
at a time. In the first round we get

( (
−(x + 2) − |x − 3| + 1, if (x + 2) < 0 −x − 1 − |x − 3|, if x < −2
g(x) = =
(x + 2) − |x − 3| + 1, if (x + 2) ≥ 0 x + 3 − |x − 3|, if x ≥ −2

Given that
( (
−(x − 3), if (x − 3) < 0 −x + 3, if x < 3
|x − 3| = = ,
x − 3, if (x − 3) ≥ 0 x − 3, if x ≥ 3

we need to break up the domain again at x = 3. Note that if x < −2, then x < 3, so we
replace |x − 3| with −x + 3 for that part of the domain, too. Our completed revision of the
form of g yields
182 Linear and Quadratic Functions

 
 −x − 1 − (−x + 3), if x < −2
  −4, if x < −2

g(x) = x + 3 − (−x + 3), if x ≥ −2 and x < 3 = 2x, if −2 ≤ x < 3
 
x + 3 − (x − 3), if x ≥ 3 6, if x ≥ 3
 

To solve g(x) = 0, we see that the only piece which contains a variable is g(x) = 2x for −2 ≤ x < 3.
Solving 2x = 0 gives x = 0. Since x = 0 is in the interval [−2, 3), we keep this solution and have
(0, 0) as our only x-intercept. Accordingly, the y-intercept is also (0, 0). To graph g, we start with
x < −2 and graph the horizontal line y = −4 with an open circle at (−2, −4). For −2 ≤ x < 3,
we graph the line y = 2x and the point (−2, −4) patches the hole left by the previous piece. An
open circle at (3, 6) completes the graph of this part. Finally, we graph the horizontal line y = 6
for x ≥ 3, and the point (3, 6) fills in the open circle left by the previous part of the graph. The
finished graph is
y
6
5
4
3
2
1

−4 −3 −2 −1 −1 1 2 3 4 x
−2
−3
−4

g(x) = |x + 2| − |x − 3| + 1

The domain of g is all real numbers, (−∞, ∞), and the range of g is all real numbers between −4
and 6 inclusive, [−4, 6]. The function is increasing on [−2, 3] and constant on (−∞, −2] and [3, ∞).
The relative minimum value of f is −4 which matches the absolute minimum. The relative and
absolute maximum values also coincide at 6. Every point on the graph of y = g(x) for x < −2 and
x > 3 yields both a relative minimum and relative maximum. The point (−2, −4), however, gives
only a relative minimum and the point (3, 6) yields only a relative maximum. (Recall the Exercises
in Section 1.6.2 which dealt with constant functions.)

Many of the applications that the authors are aware of involving absolute values also involve
absolute value inequalities. For that reason, we save our discussion of applications for Section 2.4.
2.2 Absolute Value Functions 183

2.2.1 Exercises
In Exercises 1 - 15, solve the equation.

1. |x| = 6 2. |3x − 1| = 10 3. |4 − x| = 7

4. 4 − |x| = 3 5. 2|5x + 1| − 3 = 0 6. |7x − 1| + 2 = 0

5 − |x| 2 1
7. =1 8. 3 |5 − 2x| − 2 =5 9. |x| = x + 3
2
10. |2x − 1| = x + 1 11. 4 − |x| = 2x + 1 12. |x − 4| = x − 5

13. |x| = x2 14. |x| = 12 − x2 15. |x2 − 1| = 3

Prove that if |f (x)| = |g(x)| then either f (x) = g(x) or f (x) = −g(x). Use that result to solve the
equations in Exercises 16 - 21.

16. |3x − 2| = |2x + 7| 17. |3x + 1| = |4x| 18. |1 − 2x| = |x + 1|

19. |4 − x| − |x + 2| = 0 20. |2 − 5x| = 5|x + 1| 21. 3|x − 1| = 2|x + 1|

In Exercises 22 - 33, graph the function. Find the zeros of each function and the x- and y-intercepts
of each graph, if any exist. From the graph, determine the domain and range of each function, list
the intervals on which the function is increasing, decreasing or constant, and find the relative and
absolute extrema, if they exist.

22. f (x) = |x + 4| 23. f (x) = |x| + 4 24. f (x) = |4x|

1
25. f (x) = −3|x| 26. f (x) = 3|x + 4| − 4 27. f (x) = |2x − 1|
3
|x + 4| |2 − x|
28. f (x) = 29. f (x) = 30. f (x) = x + |x| − 3
x+4 2−x
31. f (x) = |x + 2| − x 32. f (x) = |x + 2| − |x| 33. f (x) = |x + 4| + |x − 2|

34. With the help of your classmates, find an absolute value function whose graph is given below.
y
4
3
2
1

−8−7−6−5−4−3−2−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x

35. With help from your classmates, prove the second, third and fifth parts of Theorem 2.1.
36. Prove The Triangle Inequality: For all real numbers a and b, |a + b| ≤ |a| + |b|.
184 Linear and Quadratic Functions

2.2.2 Answers
11
1. x = −6 or x = 6 2. x = −3 or x = 3 3. x = −3 or x = 11

4. x = −1 or x = 1 5. x = − 12 or x = 1
10 6. no solution

7. x = −3 or x = 3 8. x = − 13
8 or x =
53
8 9. x = − 32

10. x = 0 or x = 2 11. x = 1 12. no solution

13. x = −1, x = 0 or x = 1 14. x = −3 or x = 3 15. x = −2 or x = 2

16. x = −1 or x = 9 17. x = − 17 or x = 1 18. x = 0 or x = 2

3 1
19. x = 1 20. x = − 10 21. x = 5 or x = 5
y
22. f (x) = |x + 4|
f (−4) = 0 4
x-intercept (−4, 0) 3
y-intercept (0, 4)
Domain (−∞, ∞) 2
Range [0, ∞) 1
Decreasing on (−∞, −4]
Increasing on [−4, ∞) −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 x
Relative and absolute min. at (−4, 0)
No relative or absolute maximum
y
23. f (x) = |x| + 4
8
No zeros
7
No x-intercepts
y-intercept (0, 4) 6

Domain (−∞, ∞) 5
Range [4, ∞) 4
Decreasing on (−∞, 0] 3
Increasing on [0, ∞) 2
Relative and absolute minimum at (0, 4) 1
No relative or absolute maximum
−4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
2.2 Absolute Value Functions 185

y
24. f (x) = |4x|
8
f (0) = 0
7
x-intercept (0, 0)
y-intercept (0, 0) 6

Domain (−∞, ∞) 5
Range [0, ∞) 4
Decreasing on (−∞, 0] 3
Increasing on [0, ∞) 2
Relative and absolute minimum at (0, 0) 1
No relative or absolute maximum
−2 −1 1 2 x

y
25. f (x) = −3|x|
f (0) = 0 −2 −1 1 2 x
−1
x-intercept (0, 0)
−2
y-intercept (0, 0)
Domain (−∞, ∞) −3

Range (−∞, 0] −4
Increasing on (−∞, 0] −5
Decreasing on [0, ∞) −6
Relative and absolute maximum at (0, 0)
No relative or absolute minimum
y
26. f (x) =
3|x + 4| − 4

f − 16 8
3 = 0, f − 3
= 0
8

x-intercepts − 16 8 7


3 , 0 , −3, 0 6
y-intercept (0, 8) 5

Domain (−∞, ∞) 4
3
Range [−4, ∞) 2
Decreasing on (−∞, −4] 1

Increasing on [−4, ∞) −8−7−6−5−4−3−2−1 1 x

−1
Relative and absolute min. at (−4, −4) −2
No relative or absolute maximum −3
−4

27. f (x)
= 13 |2x − 1| Relative and absolute min. at 12 , 0

f 12 = 0 No relative or absolute maximum

x-intercepts 12 , 0



y
y-intercept 0, 31 2

Domain (−∞, ∞) 1

Range [0, ∞) −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x
Decreasing on  −∞,
21


Increasing on 21 , ∞
186 Linear and Quadratic Functions

|x + 4| where x < −4
28. f (x) =
x+4 Absolute maximum at every point (x, 1)
No zeros
where x > −4
No x-intercept
Relative maximum AND minimum at every
y-intercept (0, 1)
point on the graph
Domain (−∞, −4) ∪ (−4, ∞)
y
Range {−1, 1} 1
Constant on (−∞, −4)
Constant on (−4, ∞) −8 −7 −6 −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 x
−1
Absolute minimum at every point (x, −1)

|2 − x| where x > 2
29. f (x) =
2−x Absolute maximum at every point (x, 1)
No zeros
where x < 2
No x-intercept
Relative maximum AND minimum at every
y-intercept (0, 1)
point on the graph
Domain (−∞, 2) ∪ (2, ∞) y
Range {−1, 1} 1
Constant on (−∞, 2)
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 x
Constant on (2, ∞) −1
Absolute minimum at every point (x, −1)

30. Re-write(f (x) = x + |x| − 3 as Relative minimum at every point (x, −3)
−3 if x < 0 where x ≤ 0
f (x) = Relative maximum at every point (x, −3)
2x − 3 if x ≥ 0
where x < 0
f 32 = 0


y
x-intercept 32 , 0


2
y-intercept (0, −3)
1
Domain (−∞, ∞)
Range [−3, ∞) −2 −1 1 2 x
Increasing on [0, ∞) −1

Constant on (−∞, 0] −2
Absolute minimum at every point (x, −3) −3
where x ≤ 0 −4
No absolute maximum
2.2 Absolute Value Functions 187

31. Re-write(f (x) = |x + 2| − x as No absolute maximum

−2x − 2 if x < −2 Relative minimum at every point (x, 2) where
f (x) = x ≥ −2
2 if x ≥ −2
Relative maximum at every point (x, 2) where
No zeros
x > −2
No x-intercepts y
y-intercept (0, 2)
Domain (−∞, ∞) 3
Range [2, ∞) 2
Decreasing on (−∞, −2] 1
Constant on [−2, ∞)
Absolute minimum at every point (x, 2) where −3 −2 −1 1 2 x
x ≥ −2

32. Re-writef (x) = |x + 2| − |x| as Absolute maximum at every point (x, 2) where

 −2 if x < −2 x≥0
f (x) = 2x + 2 if −2 ≤ x < 0 Relative minimum at every point (x, −2) where
 x ≤ −2 and at every point (x, 2) where x > 0
2 if x ≥ 0

Relative maximum at every point (x, −2) where
f (−1) = 0
x < −2 and at every point (x, 2) where x ≥ 0
x-intercept (−1, 0)
y
y-intercept (0, 2)
Domain (−∞, ∞) 2
Range [−2, 2] 1
Increasing on [−2, 0]
Constant on (−∞, −2] −3 −2 −1 1 2 x
−1
Constant on [0, ∞)
Absolute minimum at every point (x, −2) where −2
x ≤ −2

33. Re-writef (x) = |x + 4| + |x − 2| as −4 ≤ x ≤ 2

 −2x − 2 if x < −4
 Relative maximum at every point (x, 6) where
f (x) = 6 if −4 ≤ x < 2 −4 < x < 2
 y
2x + 2 if x ≥ 2

8
No zeros
No x-intercept 7
y-intercept (0, 6) 6
Domain (−∞, ∞) 5
Range [6, ∞)
4
Decreasing on (−∞, −4]
Constant on [−4, 2] 3
Increasing on [2, ∞) 2
Absolute minimum at every point (x, 6) where 1
−4 ≤ x ≤ 2
No absolute maximum −5 −4 −3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
Relative minimum at every point (x, 6) where

35. f (x) = ||x| − 4|

188 Linear and Quadratic Functions

2.3 Quadratic Functions

You may recall studying quadratic equations in Intermediate Algebra. In this section, we review
those equations in the context of our next family of functions: the quadratic functions.

Definition 2.5. A quadratic function is a function of the form

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c,

where a, b and c are real numbers with a 6= 0. The domain of a quadratic function is (−∞, ∞).

The most basic quadratic function is f (x) = x2 , whose graph appears below. Its shape should look
familiar from Intermediate Algebra – it is called a parabola. The point (0, 0) is called the vertex
of the parabola. In this case, the vertex is a relative minimum and is also the where the absolute
minimum value of f can be found.

(−2, 4) 4 (2, 4)
3

(−1, 1) 1 (1, 1)

−2 −1 (0, 0) 1 2 x

f (x) = x2

Much like many of the absolute value functions in Section 2.2, knowing the graph of f (x) = x2
enables us to graph an entire family of quadratic functions using transformations.

Example 2.3.1. Graph the following functions starting with the graph of f (x) = x2 and using
transformations. Find the vertex, state the range and find the x- and y-intercepts, if any exist.

1. g(x) = (x + 2)2 − 3 2. h(x) = −2(x − 3)2 + 1

Solution.

1. Since g(x) = (x + 2)2 − 3 = f (x + 2) − 3, Theorem 1.7 instructs us to first subtract 2 from

each of the x-values of the points on y = f (x). This shifts the graph of y = f (x) to the left
2 units and moves (−2, 4) to (−4, 4), (−1, 1) to (−3, 1), (0, 0) to (−2, 0), (1, 1) to (−1, 1) and
(2, 4) to (0, 4). Next, we subtract 3 from each of the y-values of these new points. This moves
the graph down 3 units and moves (−4, 4) to (−4, 1), (−3, 1) to (−3, −2), (−2, 0) to (−2, 3),
(−1, 1) to (−1, −2) and (0, 4) to (0, 1). We connect the dots in parabolic fashion to get
2.3 Quadratic Functions 189

y y

(−2, 4) 4 (2, 4) (−4, 1) 1 (0, 1)

3
−4 −3 −2 −1 x
2 −1

(−1, 1) 1 (1, 1) (−3, −2) (−1, −2)

−3
−2 −1 (0, 0) 1 2 x (−2, −3)
f (x) = x2 −−−−−−−−−−−−→ g(x) = f (x + 2) − 3 = (x + 2)2 − 3

From the graph, we see that the vertex has moved from (0, 0) on the graph of y = f (x)
to (−2, −3) on the graph of y = g(x). This sets [−3, ∞) as the range of g. We see that
the graph of y = g(x) crosses the x-axis twice, so we expect two x-intercepts. To find
these, we set y = g(x) = 0 and solve. Doing so yields √ (x + 2)2 − 3 = 0, or
the equation √
(x + 2)2 = √3. Extracting square roots gives
√ x + 2 = ± 3, or x = −2 ± 3. Our x-intercepts
are (−2 − 3, 0) ≈ (−3.73, 0) and (−2 + 3, 0) ≈ (−0.27, 0). The y-intercept of the graph,
(0, 1) was one of the points we originally plotted, so we are done.

2. Following Theorem 1.7 once more, to graph h(x) = −2(x − 3)2 + 1 = −2f (x − 3) + 1, we first
start by adding 3 to each of the x-values of the points on the graph of y = f (x). This effects
a horizontal shift right 3 units and moves (−2, 4) to (1, 4), (−1, 1) to (2, 1), (0, 0) to (3, 0),
(1, 1) to (4, 1) and (2, 4) to (5, 4). Next, we multiply each of our y-values first by −2 and then
add 1 to that result. Geometrically, this is a vertical stretch by a factor of 2, followed by a
reflection about the x-axis, followed by a vertical shift up 1 unit. This moves (1, 4) to (1, −7),
(2, 1) to (2, −1), (3, 0) to (3, 1), (4, 1) to (4, −1) and (5, 4) to (5, −7).

y
(3, 1)
1

1 2 3 4 5 x
−1 (2, −1) (4, −1)
−2
y
−3

(−2, 4) 4 (2, 4) −4

3 −5

2 −6

(−1, 1) 1 (1, 1) (1, −7) (5, −7)

−2 −1 (0, 0) 1 2 x
h(x) = −2f (x − 3) + 1
f (x) = x2 −−−−−−−−−−−−→ = −2(x − 3)2 + 1

The vertex is (3, 1) which makes the range of h (−∞, 1]. From our graph, we know that
there are two x-intercepts, so we set y = h(x) = 0 and solve. We get −2(x − 3)2 + 1 = 0
190 Linear and Quadratic Functions

√
1 2
which gives (x − 3)2 = Extracting square roots1 gives x − 3 =
2.  ±√2 , so
 that when we
√
2 6± 2 6− 2
add 3 to each side, we get x = 2 . Hence, our x-intercepts are 2 , 0 ≈ (2.29, 0) and
 √ 
6+ 2
2 , 0 ≈ (3.71, 0). Although our graph doesn’t show it, there is a y-intercept which can
be found by setting x = 0. With h(0) = −2(0 − 3)2 + 1 = −17, we have that our y-intercept
is (0, −17).

A few remarks about Example 2.3.1 are in order. First note that neither the formula given for
g(x) nor the one given for h(x) match the form given in Definition 2.5. We could, of course,
convert both g(x) and h(x) into that form by expanding and collecting like terms. Doing so, we
find g(x) = (x + 2)2 − 3 = x2 + 4x + 1 and h(x) = −2(x − 3)2 + 1 = −2x2 + 12x − 17. While
these ‘simplified’ formulas for g(x) and h(x) satisfy Definition 2.5, they do not lend themselves to
graphing easily. For that reason, the form of g and h presented in Example 2.3.2 is given a special
name, which we list below, along with the form presented in Definition 2.5.
Definition 2.6. Standard and General Form of Quadratic Functions: Suppose f is a
quadratic function.

ˆ The general form of the quadratic function f is f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, where a, b and c
are real numbers with a 6= 0.

ˆ The standard form of the quadratic function f is f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k, where a, h and
k are real numbers with a 6= 0.
It is important to note at this stage that we have no guarantees that every quadratic function can
be written in standard form. This is actually true, and we prove this later in the exposition, but
for now we celebrate the advantages of the standard form, starting with the following theorem.
Theorem 2.2. Vertex Formula for Quadratics in Standard Form: For the quadratic
function f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k, where a, h and k are real numbers with a 6= 0, the vertex of the
graph of y = f (x) is (h, k).
We can readily verify the formula given Theorem 2.2 with the two functions given in Example
2.3.1. After a (slight) rewrite, g(x) = (x + 2)2 − 3 = (x − (−2))2 + (−3), and we identify h = −2
and k = −3. Sure enough, we found the vertex of the graph of y = g(x) to be (−2, −3). For
h(x) = −2(x − 3)2 + 1, no rewrite is needed. We can directly identify h = 3 and k = 1 and, sure
enough, we found the vertex of the graph of y = h(x) to be (3, 1).
To see why the formula in Theorem 2.2 produces the vertex, consider the graph of the equation
y = a(x − h)2 + k. When we substitute x = h, we get y = k, so (h, k) is on the graph. If x 6= h, then
x − h 6= 0 so (x − h)2 is a positive number. If a > 0, then a(x − h)2 is positive, thus y = a(x − h)2 + k
is always a number larger than k. This means that when a > 0, (h, k) is the lowest point on the
graph and thus the parabola must open upwards, making (h, k) the vertex. A similar argument
1
and rationalizing denominators!
2
and get common denominators!
2.3 Quadratic Functions 191

shows that if a < 0, (h, k) is the highest point on the graph, so the parabola opens downwards, and
(h, k) is also the vertex in this case.
Alternatively, we can apply the machinery in Section 1.7. Since the vertex of y = x2 is (0, 0), we can
determine the vertex of y = a(x−h)2 +k by determining the final destination of (0, 0) as it is moved
through each transformation. To obtain the formula f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k, we start with g(x) = x2
and first define g1 (x) = ag(x) = ax2 . This is results in a vertical scaling and/or reflection.3 Since
we multiply the output by a, we multiply the y-coordinates on the graph of g by a, so the point
(0, 0) remains (0, 0) and remains the vertex. Next, we define g2 (x) = g1 (x − h) = a(x − h)2 . This
induces a horizontal shift right or left h units4 moves the vertex, in either case, to (h, 0). Finally,
f (x) = g2 (x) + k = a(x − h)2 + k which effects a vertical shift up or down k units5 resulting in the
vertex moving from (h, 0) to (h, k).
In addition to verifying Theorem 2.2, the arguments in the two preceding paragraphs have also
shown us the role of the number a in the graphs of quadratic functions. The graph of y = a(x−h)2 +k
is a parabola ‘opening upwards’ if a > 0, and ‘opening downwards’ if a < 0. Moreover, the symmetry
enjoyed by the graph of y = x2 about the y-axis is translated to a symmetry about the vertical line
x = h which is the vertical line through the vertex.6 This line is called the axis of symmetry of
the parabola and is dashed in the figures below.

vertex

vertex
a>0 a<0
Graphs of y = a(x − h)2 + k.

Without a doubt, the standard form of a quadratic function, coupled with the machinery in Section
1.7, allows us to list the attributes of the graphs of such functions quickly and elegantly. What
remains to be shown, however, is the fact that every quadratic function can be written in standard
form. To convert a quadratic function given in general form into standard form, we employ the
ancient rite of ‘Completing the Square’. We remind the reader how this is done in our next example.

Example 2.3.2. Convert the functions below from general form to standard form. Find the vertex,
axis of symmetry and any x- or y-intercepts. Graph each function and determine its range.

1. f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3. 2. g(x) = 6 − x − x2

3
Just a scaling if a > 0. If a < 0, there is a reflection involved.
4
Right if h > 0, left if h < 0.
5
Up if k > 0, down if k < 0
6
You should use transformations to verify this!
192 Linear and Quadratic Functions

Solution.

1. To convert from general form to standard form, we complete the square.7 First, we verify
that the coefficient of x2 is 1. Next, we find the coefficient of x, in this case −4, and take half
of it to get 21 (−4) = −2. This tells us that our target perfect square quantity is (x − 2)2 . To
get an expression equivalent to (x − 2)2 , we need to add (−2)2 = 4 to the x2 − 4x to create
a perfect square trinomial, but to keep the balance, we must also subtract it. We collect the
terms which create the perfect square and gather the remaining constant terms. Putting it
all together, we get

f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 (Compute 12 (−4) = −2.)

x2 − 4x + 4 − 4 + 3 (Add and subtract (−2)2 = 4 to (x2 + 4x).)


=
x2 − 4x + 4 − 4 + 3


= (Group the perfect square trinomial.)
= (x − 2)2 − 1 (Factor the perfect square trinomial.)

Of course, we can always check our answer by multiplying out f (x) = (x − 2)2 − 1 to see
that it simplifies to f (x) = x2 − 4x − 1. In the form f (x) = (x − 2)2 − 1, we readily find the
vertex to be (2, −1) which makes the axis of symmetry x = 2. To find the x-intercepts, we
set y = f (x) = 0. We are spoiled for choice, since we have two formulas for f (x). Since we
recognize f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 to be easily factorable,8 we proceed to solve x2 − 4x + 3 = 0.
Factoring gives (x − 3)(x − 1) = 0 so that x = 3 or x = 1. The x-intercepts are then (1, 0) and
(3, 0). To find the y-intercept, we set x = 0. Once again, the general form f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3
is easiest to work with here, and we find y = f (0) = 3. Hence, the y-intercept is (0, 3). With
the vertex, axis of symmetry and the intercepts, we get a pretty good graph without the need
to plot additional points. We see that the range of f is [−1, ∞) and we are done.

2. To get started, we rewrite g(x) = 6 − x − x2 = −x2 − x + 6 and note that the coefficient of
x2 is −1, not 1. This means our first step is to factor out the (−1) from both the x2 and x
terms. We then follow the completing the square recipe as above.

g(x) = −x2 − x + 6
= (−1) x2 + x + 6 (Factor the coefficient of x2 from x2 and x.)


 
= (−1) x2 + x + 41 − 14 + 6
= (−1) x2 + x + 41 + (−1) − 41 + 6



(Group the perfect square trinomial.)
2
= − x + 12 + 25


4

7
If you forget why we do what we do to complete the square, start with a(x − h)2 + k, multiply it out, step by
step, and then reverse the process.
8
Experience pays off, here!
2.3 Quadratic Functions 193

2
From g(x) = − x + 21 + 25 1 25


4 , we get the vertex to be − 2 , 4 and the axis of symmetry to
be x = − 21 . To get the x-intercepts, we opt to set the given formula g(x) = 6 − x − x2 = 0.
Solving, we get x = −3 and x = 2 , so the x-intercepts are (−3, 0) and (2, 0). Setting x = 0,
we find g(0) = 6, so the y-intercept is (0, 6). Plotting these points gives us the graph below.
We see that the range of g is −∞, 25 4 .

− 12 , 25


y 4 y
8 6 (0, 6)
7 5

6 4

5 x=2 3

4 2
1
(0, 3) 3 x= 2
(−3, 0) (2, 0)
2
−3 −2 −1 1 2 x
(1, 0) (3, 0)
−1 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1
(2, −1)

f (x) = x2 − 4x + 3 g(x) = 6 − x − x2

With Example 2.3.2 fresh in our minds, we are now in a position to show that every quadratic
function can be written in standard form. We begin with f (x) = ax2 + bx + c, assume a 6= 0, and
complete the square in complete generality.

f (x) = ax2 + bx + c
 
2 b
= a x + x +c (Factor out coefficient of x2 from x2 and x.)
a
b2 b2
 
2 b
= a x + x+ 2 − 2 +c
a 4a 4a
b2
   2 
2 b b
= a x + x+ 2 −a +c (Group the perfect square trinomial.)
a 4a 4a2

b 2 4ac − b2
 
= a x+ + (Factor and get a common denominator.)
2a 4a
b


Comparing this last expression with the standard form, we identify (x − h) with x + 2a so that
4ac−b2
b b

4ac−b2
h = − 2a . Instead of memorizing the value k = 4a , we see that f − 2a = 4a . As such, we
have derived a vertex formula for the general form. We summarize both vertex formulas in the box
at the top of the next page.
194 Linear and Quadratic Functions

Equation 2.4. Vertex Formulas for Quadratic Functions: Suppose a, b, c, h and k are
real numbers with a 6= 0.

ˆ If f (x) = a(x − h)2 + k, the vertex of the graph of y = f (x) is the point (h, k).
  
b b
ˆ If f (x) = ax + bx + c, the vertex of the graph of y = f (x) is the point − , f −
2 .
2a 2a

There are two more results which can be gleaned from the completed-square form of the general
form of a quadratic function,

b 2 4ac − b2
 
2
f (x) = ax + bx + c = a x + +
2a 4a

We have seen that the number a in the standard form of a quadratic function determines whether
the parabola opens upwards (if a > 0) or downwards (if a < 0). We see here that this number
a is none other than the coefficient of x2 in the general form of the quadratic function. In other
words, it is the coefficient of x2 alone which determines this behavior – a result that is generalized
in Section 3.1. The second treasure is a re-discovery of the quadratic formula.

Equation 2.5. The Quadratic Formula: If a, b and c are real numbers with a 6= 0, then the
solutions to ax2 + bx + c = 0 are
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x= .
2a

Assuming the conditions of Equation 2.5, the solutions to ax2 + bx + c = 0 are precisely the zeros
of f (x) = ax2 + bx + c. Since

b 2 4ac − b2
 
f (x) = ax2 + bx + c = a x + +
2a 4a

the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is equivalent to

b 2 4ac − b2
 
a x+ + = 0.
2a 4a

Solving gives
2.3 Quadratic Functions 195

2
4ac − b2

b
a x+ + = 0
2a 4a

b 2 4ac − b2
 
a x+ = −
2a 4a
"   #
b 2 1 b2 − 4ac
 
1
a x+ =
a 2a a 4a

b 2 b2 − 4ac
 
x+ =
2a 4a2
r
b b2 − 4ac
x+ = ± extract square roots
2a 4a2
√
b b2 − 4ac
x+ = ±
2a 2a
√
b b2 − 4ac
x = − ±
2a 2a
√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x =
2a
In our discussions of domain,
√ we were warned against having negative numbers underneath the
square root. Given that b2 − 4ac is part of the Quadratic Formula, we will need to pay special
attention to the radicand b2 − 4ac. It turns out that the quantity b2 − 4ac plays a critical role in
determining the nature of the solutions to a quadratic equation. It is given a special name.
Definition 2.7. If a, b and c are real numbers with a 6= 0, then the discriminant of the
quadratic equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 is the quantity b2 − 4ac.

The discriminant ‘discriminates’ between the kinds of solutions we get from a quadratic equation.
These cases, and their relation to the discriminant, are summarized below.

Theorem 2.3. Discriminant Trichotomy: Let a, b and c be real numbers with a 6= 0.

ˆ If b2 − 4ac < 0, the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has no real solutions.

ˆ If b2 − 4ac = 0, the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has exactly one real solution.

ˆ If b2 − 4ac > 0, the equation ax2 + bx + c = 0 has exactly two real solutions.
The proof of Theorem 2.3 stems from the position of the discriminant in the quadratic equation,
and is left as a good mental exercise for the reader. The next example exploits the fruits of all of
our labor in this section thus far.
196 Linear and Quadratic Functions

Example 2.3.3. Recall that the profit (defined on page 82) for a product is defined by the equation
Profit = Revenue − Cost, or P (x) = R(x) − C(x). In Example 2.1.7 the weekly revenue, in dollars,
made by selling x PortaBoy Game Systems was found to be R(x) = −1.5x2 + 250x with the
restriction (carried over from the price-demand function) that 0 ≤ x ≤ 166. The cost, in dollars,
to produce x PortaBoy Game Systems is given in Example 2.1.5 as C(x) = 80x + 150 for x ≥ 0.

1. Determine the weekly profit function P (x).

2. Graph y = P (x). Include the x- and y-intercepts as well as the vertex and axis of symmetry.

3. Interpret the zeros of P .

4. Interpret the vertex of the graph of y = P (x).

5. Recall that the weekly price-demand equation for PortaBoys is p(x) = −1.5x + 250, where
p(x) is the price per PortaBoy, in dollars, and x is the weekly sales. What should the price
per system be in order to maximize profit?

Solution.

1. To find the profit function P (x), we subtract

P (x) = R(x) − C(x) = −1.5x2 + 250x − (80x + 150) = −1.5x2 + 170x − 150.

Since the revenue function is valid when 0 ≤ x ≤ 166, P is also restricted to these values.

2. To find the x-intercepts, we set P (x) = 0 and solve −1.5x2 + 170x − 150 = 0. The mere
thought of trying to factor the left hand side of this equation could do serious psychological
damage, so we resort to the quadratic formula, Equation 2.5. Identifying a = −1.5, b = 170,
and c = −150, we obtain

√
−b ± b2 − 4ac
x =
2ap
−170 ± 1702 − 4(−1.5)(−150)
=
2(−1.5)
√
−170 ± 28000
=
−3√
170 ± 20 70
=
3
 √   √ 
We get two x-intercepts: 170−203
70
, 0 and 170+20 70
3 , 0 . To find the y-intercept, we set
x = 0 and find y = P (0) = −150 for a y-intercept of (0, −150). To find the vertex, we use
the fact that P (x) = −1.5x2 + 170x − 150 is in the general form of a quadratic function and
170
appeal to Equation 2.4. Substituting a = −1.5 and b = 170, we get x = − 2(−1.5) = 170
3 .
2.3 Quadratic Functions 197

170

14000
To find the y-coordinate of the vertex, we compute P 3 = 3 and find that our vertex
is 170 14000


3 , 3 . The axis of symmetry is the vertical line passing through the vertex so it is
the line x = 170 3 . To sketch a reasonable graph, we approximate the x-intercepts, (0.89, 0)
and (112.44, 0), and the vertex, (56.67, 4666.67). (Note that in order to get the x-intercepts
and the vertex to show up in the same picture, we had to scale the x-axis differently than
the y-axis. This results in the left-hand x-intercept and the y-intercept being uncomfortably
close to each other and to the origin in the picture.)

y
4000

3000

2000

1000

10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 x

3. The zeros of P are the solutions to P (x) = 0, which we have found to be approximately
0.89 and 112.44. As we saw in Example 1.5.3, these are the ‘break-even’ points of the profit
function, where enough product is sold to recover the cost spent to make the product. More
importantly, we see from the graph that as long as x is between 0.89 and 112.44, the graph
y = P (x) is above the x-axis, meaning y = P (x) > 0 there. This means that for these values
of x, a profit is being made. Since x represents the weekly sales of PortaBoy Game Systems,
we round the zeros to positive integers and have that as long as 1, but no more than 112
game systems are sold weekly, the retailer will make a profit.

4. From the graph, we see that the maximum value of P occurs at the vertex, which is approx-
imately (56.67, 4666.67). As above, x represents the weekly sales of PortaBoy systems, so we
can’t sell 56.67 game systems. Comparing P (56) = 4666 and P (57) = 4666.5, we conclude
that we will make a maximum profit of $4666.50 if we sell 57 game systems.

5. In the previous part, we found that we need to sell 57 PortaBoys per week to maximize profit.
To find the price per PortaBoy, we substitute x = 57 into the price-demand function to get
p(57) = −1.5(57) + 250 = 164.5. The price should be set at $164.50.

Our next example is another classic application of quadratic functions.

Example 2.3.4. Much to Donnie’s surprise and delight, he inherits a large parcel of land in
Ashtabula County from one of his (e)strange(d) relatives. The time is finally right for him to
pursue his dream of farming alpaca. He wishes to build a rectangular pasture, and estimates that
he has enough money for 200 linear feet of fencing material. If he makes the pasture adjacent to
a stream (so no fencing is required on that side), what are the dimensions of the pasture which
maximize the area? What is the maximum area? If an average alpaca needs 25 square feet of
grazing area, how many alpaca can Donnie keep in his pasture?
198 Linear and Quadratic Functions

Solution. It is always helpful to sketch the problem situation, so we do so below.

river

w pasture w
l

We are tasked to find the dimensions of the pasture which would give a maximum area. We let
w denote the width of the pasture and we let l denote the length of the pasture. Since the units
given to us in the statement of the problem are feet, we assume w and l are measured in feet. The
area of the pasture, which we’ll call A, is related to w and l by the equation A = wl. Since w and
l are both measured in feet, A has units of feet2 , or square feet. We are given the total amount
of fencing available is 200 feet, which means w + l + w = 200, or, l + 2w = 200. We now have
two equations, A = wl and l + 2w = 200. In order to use the tools given to us in this section to
maximize A, we need to use the information given to write A as a function of just one variable,
either w or l. This is where we use the equation l + 2w = 200. Solving for l, we find l = 200 − 2w,
and we substitute this into our equation for A. We get A = wl = w(200 − 2w) = 200w − 2w2 . We
now have A as a function of w, A(w) = 200w − 2w2 = −2w2 + 200w.
Before we go any further, we need to find the applied domain of A so that we know what values
of w make sense in this problem situation.9 Since w represents the width of the pasture, w > 0.
Likewise, l represents the length of the pasture, so l = 200 − 2w > 0. Solving this latter inequality,
we find w < 100. Hence, the function we wish to maximize is A(w) = −2w2 +200w for 0 < w < 100.
Since A is a quadratic function (of w), we know that the graph of y = A(w) is a parabola. Since
the coefficient of w2 is −2, we know that this parabola opens downwards. This means that there
is a maximum value to be found, and we know it occurs at the vertex. Using the vertex formula,
200
we find w = − 2(−2) = 50, and A(50) = −2(50)2 + 200(50) = 5000. Since w = 50 lies in the applied
domain, 0 < w < 100, we have that the area of the pasture is maximized when the width is 50
feet. To find the length, we use l = 200 − 2w and find l = 200 − 2(50) = 100, so the length of the
pasture is 100 feet. The maximum area is A(50) = 5000, or 5000 square feet. If an average alpaca
requires 25 square feet of pasture, Donnie can raise 5000
25 = 200 average alpaca.

We conclude this section with the graph of a more complicated absolute value function.

Example 2.3.5. Graph f (x) = |x2 − x − 6|.

Solution. Using the definition of absolute value, Definition 2.4, we have

− x2 − x − 6 , if x2 − x − 6 < 0


f (x) =
x2 − x − 6, if x2 − x − 6 ≥ 0

The trouble is that we have yet to develop any analytic techniques to solve nonlinear inequalities
such as x2 − x − 6 < 0. You won’t have to wait long; this is one of the main topics of Section 2.4.
9
Donnie would be very upset if, for example, we told him the width of the pasture needs to be −50 feet.
2.3 Quadratic Functions 199

Nevertheless, we can attack this problem graphically. To that end, we graph y = g(x) = x2 − x − 6
using the intercepts and the vertex. To find the x-intercepts, we solve x2 − x − 6 = 0. Factoring
gives (x − 3)(x + 2) = 0 so x = −2 or x = 3. Hence, (−2, 0) and (3, 0) are x-intercepts. The
b −1
y-intercept (0, −6) is found by setting x = 0. To plot the vertex, we find x = − 2a = − 2(1) = 12 , and
2
y = 21 − 12 − 6 = − 25



4 = −6.25. Plotting, we get the parabola seen below on the left. To obtain
points on the graph of y = f (x) = |x2 − x − 6|, we can take points on the graph of g(x) = x2 − x − 6
and apply the absolute value to each of the y values on the parabola. We see from the graph of g
that for x ≤ −2 or x ≥ 3, the y values on the parabola are greater than or equal to zero (since the
graph is on or above the x-axis), so the absolute value leaves these portions of the graph alone. For
x between −2 and 3, however, the y values on the parabola are negative. For example, the point
(0, −6) on y = x2 − x − 6 would result in the point (0, | − 6|) = (0, −(−6)) = (0, 6) on the graph of
f (x) = |x2 − x − 6|. Proceeding in this manner for all points with x-coordinates between −2 and
3 results in the graph seen below on the right.
y y
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

−3−2−1 1 2 3 x −3−2−1 1 2 3 x
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3
−4 −4
−5 −5
−6 −6

y = g(x) = x2 − x − 6 y = f (x) = |x2 − x − 6|

If we take a step back and look at the graphs of g and f in the last example, we notice that to
obtain the graph of f from the graph of g, we reflect a portion of the graph of g about the x-axis.
We can see this analytically by substituting g(x) = x2 − x − 6 into the formula for f (x) and calling
to mind Theorem 1.4 from Section 1.7.

−g(x), if g(x) < 0
f (x) =
g(x), if g(x) ≥ 0

The function f is defined so that when g(x) is negative (i.e., when its graph is below the x-axis),
the graph of f is its refection across the x-axis. This is a general template to graph functions
of the form f (x) = |g(x)|. From this perspective, the graph of f (x) = |x| can be obtained by
reflecting the portion of the line g(x) = x which is below the x-axis back above the x-axis creating
the characteristic ‘∨’ shape.
200 Linear and Quadratic Functions

2.3.1 Exercises
In Exercises 1 - 9, graph the quadratic function. Find the x- and y-intercepts of each graph, if any
exist. If it is given in general form, convert it into standard form; if it is given in standard form,
convert it into general form. Find the domain and range of the function and list the intervals on
which the function is increasing or decreasing. Identify the vertex and the axis of symmetry and
determine whether the vertex yields a relative and absolute maximum or minimum.

1. f (x) = x2 + 2 2. f (x) = −(x + 2)2 3. f (x) = x2 − 2x − 8

4. f (x) = −2(x + 1)2 + 4 5. f (x) = 2x2 − 4x − 1 6. f (x) = −3x2 + 4x − 7

7. f (x) = x2 + x + 1 8. f (x) = −3x2 + 5x + 4 1

9.10 f (x) = x2 − x−1
100
In Exercises 10 - 14, the cost and price-demand functions are given for different scenarios. For each
scenario,

ˆ Find the profit function P (x).

ˆ Find the number of items which need to be sold in order to maximize profit.

ˆ Find the maximum profit.

ˆ Find the price to charge per item in order to maximize profit.

ˆ Find and interpret break-even points.

10. The cost, in dollars, to produce x “I’d rather be a Sasquatch” T-Shirts is C(x) = 2x + 26,
x ≥ 0 and the price-demand function, in dollars per shirt, is p(x) = 30 − 2x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 15.

11. The cost, in dollars, to produce x bottles of 100% All-Natural Certified Free-Trade Organic
Sasquatch Tonic is C(x) = 10x + 100, x ≥ 0 and the price-demand function, in dollars per
bottle, is p(x) = 35 − x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 35.

12. The cost, in cents, to produce x cups of Mountain Thunder Lemonade at Junior’s Lemonade
Stand is C(x) = 18x + 240, x ≥ 0 and the price-demand function, in cents per cup, is
p(x) = 90 − 3x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 30.

13. The daily cost, in dollars, to produce x Sasquatch Berry Pies is C(x) = 3x + 36, x ≥ 0 and
the price-demand function, in dollars per pie, is p(x) = 12 − 0.5x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 24.

14. The monthly cost, in hundreds of dollars, to produce x custom built electric scooters is
C(x) = 20x + 1000, x ≥ 0 and the price-demand function, in hundreds of dollars per scooter,
is p(x) = 140 − 2x, 0 ≤ x ≤ 70.
10
We have already seen the graph of this function. It was used as an example in Section 1.6 to show how the
graphing calculator can be misleading.
2.3 Quadratic Functions 201

15. The International Silver Strings Submarine Band holds a bake sale each year to fund their
trip to the National Sasquatch Convention. It has been determined that the cost in dollars
of baking x cookies is C(x) = 0.1x + 25 and that the demand function for their cookies is
p = 10 − .01x. How many cookies should they bake in order to maximize their profit?

16. Using data from Bureau of Transportation Statistics, the average fuel economy F in miles
per gallon for passenger cars in the US can be modeled by F (t) = −0.0076t2 + 0.45t + 16,
0 ≤ t ≤ 28, where t is the number of years since 1980. Find and interpret the coordinates of
the vertex of the graph of y = F (t).

17. The temperature T , in degrees Fahrenheit, t hours after 6 AM is given by:

1
T (t) = − t2 + 8t + 32, 0 ≤ t ≤ 12
2

What is the warmest temperature of the day? When does this happen?

18. Suppose C(x) = x2 − 10x + 27 represents the costs, in hundreds, to produce x thousand pens.
How many pens should be produced to minimize the cost? What is this minimum cost?

19. Skippy wishes to plant a vegetable garden along one side of his house. In his garage, he found
32 linear feet of fencing. Since one side of the garden will border the house, Skippy doesn’t
need fencing along that side. What are the dimensions of the garden which will maximize
the area of the garden? What is the maximum area of the garden?

20. In the situation of Example 2.3.4, Donnie has a nightmare that one of his alpaca herd fell into
the river and drowned. To avoid this, he wants to move his rectangular pasture away from
the river. This means that all four sides of the pasture require fencing. If the total amount
of fencing available is still 200 linear feet, what dimensions maximize the area of the pasture
now? What is the maximum area? Assuming an average alpaca requires 25 square feet of
pasture, how many alpaca can he raise now?

21. What is the largest rectangular area one can enclose with 14 inches of string?

22. The height of an object dropped from the roof of an eight story building is modeled by
h(t) = −16t2 + 64, 0 ≤ t ≤ 2. Here, h is the height of the object off the ground, in feet, t
seconds after the object is dropped. How long before the object hits the ground?

23. The height h in feet of a model rocket above the ground t seconds after lift-off is given by
h(t) = −5t2 + 100t, for 0 ≤ t ≤ 20. When does the rocket reach its maximum height above
the ground? What is its maximum height?

24. Carl’s friend Jason participates in the Highland Games. In one event, the hammer throw, the
height h in feet of the hammer above the ground t seconds after Jason lets it go is modeled by
h(t) = −16t2 + 22.08t + 6. What is the hammer’s maximum height? What is the hammer’s
total time in the air? Round your answers to two decimal places.
202 Linear and Quadratic Functions

25. Assuming no air resistance or forces other than the Earth’s gravity, the height above the
ground at time t of a falling object is given by s(t) = −4.9t2 + v0 t + s0 where s is in meters, t
is in seconds, v0 is the object’s initial velocity in meters per second and s0 is its initial position
in meters.

(a) What is the applied domain of this function?

(b) Discuss with your classmates what each of v0 > 0, v0 = 0 and v0 < 0 would mean.
(c) Come up with a scenario in which s0 < 0.
(d) Let’s say a slingshot is used to shoot a marble straight up from the ground (s0 = 0) with
an initial velocity of 15 meters per second. What is the marble’s maximum height above
the ground? At what time will it hit the ground?
(e) Now shoot the marble from the top of a tower which is 25 meters tall. When does it hit
the ground?
(f) What would the height function be if instead of shooting the marble up off of the tower,
you were to shoot it straight DOWN from the top of the tower?

26. The two towers of a suspension bridge are 400 feet apart. The parabolic cable11 attached to
the tops of the towers is 10 feet above the point on the bridge deck that is midway between
the towers. If the towers are 100 feet tall, find the height of the cable directly above a point
of the bridge deck that is 50 feet to the right of the left-hand tower.

27. Graph f (x) = |1 − x2 |

28. Find all of the points on the line y = 1 − x which are 2 units from (1, −1).

29. Let L be the line y = 2x + 1. Find a function D(x) which measures the distance squared from
a point on L to (0, 0). Use this to find the point on L closest to (0, 0).

30. With the help of your classmates, show that if a quadratic function f (x) = ax2 + bx + c has
two real zeros then the x-coordinate of the vertex is the midpoint of the zeros.

In Exercises 31 - 36, solve the quadratic equation for the indicated variable.

31. x2 − 10y 2 = 0 for x 32. y 2 − 4y = x2 − 4 for x 33. x2 − mx = 1 for x

34. y 2 − 3y = 4x for y 35. y 2 − 4y = x2 − 4 for y 36. −gt2 + v0 t + s0 = 0 for t

(Assume g 6= 0.)

11
The weight of the bridge deck forces the bridge cable into a parabola and a free hanging cable such as a power
line does not form a parabola. We shall see in Exercise 35 in Section 6.5 what shape a free hanging cable makes.
2.3 Quadratic Functions 203

2.3.2 Answers
y
1. f (x) = x2 + 2 (this is both forms!) 10
No x-intercepts 9

y-intercept (0, 2) 8
7
Domain: (−∞, ∞) 6
Range: [2, ∞) 5
4
Decreasing on (−∞, 0] 3
Increasing on [0, ∞) 2
Vertex (0, 2) is a minimum 1

Axis of symmetry x = 0 −2 −1 1 2 x

2. f (x) = −(x + 2)2 = −x2 − 4x − 4

y
x-intercept (−2, 0)
y-intercept (0, −4) −4 −3 −2 −1
−1
x

Domain: (−∞, ∞) −2
−3
Range: (−∞, 0] −4
Increasing on (−∞, −2] −5

Decreasing on [−2, ∞) −6
−7
Vertex (−2, 0) is a maximum −8
Axis of symmetry x = −2
y
3. f (x) = x2 − 2x − 8 = (x − 1)2 − 9 2
x-intercepts (−2, 0) and (4, 0) 1

y-intercept (0, −8) −2 −1 1 2 3 4 x

−1
Domain: (−∞, ∞) −2
Range: [−9, ∞) −3
−4
Decreasing on (−∞, 1] −5
Increasing on [1, ∞) −6

Vertex (1, −9) is a minimum −7

−8
Axis of symmetry x = 1 −9

4. f (x) = −2(x + 1)2 √+ 4 = −2x2 − 4x√+ 2

y
x-intercepts (−1 − 2, 0) and (−1 + 2, 0)
4
y-intercept (0, 2) 3
Domain: (−∞, ∞) 2
1
Range: (−∞, 4]
Increasing on (−∞, −1] −3 −2 −1 1 x
−1

Decreasing on [−1, ∞) −2
−3
Vertex (−1, 4) is a maximum −4
Axis of symmetry x = −1
204 Linear and Quadratic Functions

y
5. f (x) = 2x2 −4x − 1 = 2(x − 1)2 −3
√ √ 4
x-intercepts 2−2 6 , 0 and 2+2 6 , 0
3
y-intercept (0, −1)
2
Domain: (−∞, ∞)
1
Range: [−3, ∞)
Increasing on [1, ∞) −1 1 2 3 x
Decreasing on (−∞, 1] −1

Vertex (1, −3) is a minimum −2

Axis of symmetry x = 1 −3

2 2 17 y
6. f (x) = −3x2 + 4x − 7 = −3 x −


3 − 3
1 2 x
No x-intercepts −1
−2
y-intercept (0, −7) −3
Domain: (−∞, ∞) −4
Range: −∞, − 17 3
−5
−6
Increasing on −∞,
23

−7
Decreasing on
23 , ∞ −8

Vertex 23 , − 17
3 is a maximum
−9
−10
Axis of symmetry x = 23 −11
−12
−13
−14

2
7. f (x) = x2 + x + 1 = x + 12 + 3
4
y
No x-intercepts
y-intercept (0, 1) 4

Domain: (−∞,
∞) 3
3
Range: 4 , ∞ 
Increasing on − 21 , ∞ 

2

Decreasing on
−∞, − 12 1

Vertex − 12 , 43 is a minimum
Axis of symmetry x = − 12 −2 −1 1 x
2.3 Quadratic Functions 205

2 y
8. f (x) = −3x2+ 5x + 4= −3 x − 65 + 73
12
√ √ 6
x-intercepts 5−6 73 , 0 and 5+6 73 , 0
5
y-intercept (0, 4)
4
Domain: (−∞, ∞)
73
 3
Range: −∞, 12
Increasing on −∞,
65
 2

Decreasing on
56 , ∞ 1

Vertex 56 , 73
12 is a maximum −1 1 2 3 x
Axis of symmetry x = 56 −1

−2

−3

1 1

2 40001
9. f (x) = x2 − 100 x − 1 = x − 200 −
40000
√ √  y
1+ 40001 1− 40001
x-intercepts 200 and 200 8
7
y-intercept (0, −1)
6
Domain: (−∞, ∞)
5
Range: − 40001
40000 , ∞
4
1
 3
Decreasing on  −∞, 200 2
1


Increasing on 200 ,∞ 1
1 40001
Vertex 200 , − 40000 is a minimum12


−2 −1 1 2 x
1
Axis of symmetry x = 200

10. ˆ P (x) = −2x2 + 28x − 26, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 15.

ˆ 7 T-shirts should be made and sold to maximize profit.
ˆ The maximum profit is $72.
ˆ The price per T-shirt should be set at $16 to maximize profit.
ˆ The break even points are x = 1 and x = 13, so to make a profit, between 1 and 13
T-shirts need to be made and sold.

11. ˆ P (x) = −x2 + 25x − 100, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 35

ˆ Since the vertex occurs at x = 12.5, and it is impossible to make or sell 12.5 bottles of
tonic, maximum profit occurs when either 12 or 13 bottles of tonic are made and sold.
ˆ The maximum profit is $56.
ˆ The price per bottle can be either $23 (to sell 12 bottles) or $22 (to sell 13 bottles.)
Both will result in the maximum profit.
ˆ The break even points are x = 5 and x = 20, so to make a profit, between 5 and 20
bottles of tonic need to be made and sold.
12
You’ll need to use your calculator to zoom in far enough to see that the vertex is not the y-intercept.
206 Linear and Quadratic Functions

12. ˆ P (x) = −3x2 + 72x − 240, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 30

ˆ 12 cups of lemonade need to be made and sold to maximize profit.
ˆ The maximum profit is 192¢ or $1.92.
ˆ The price per cup should be set at 54¢ per cup to maximize profit.
ˆ The break even points are x = 4 and x = 20, so to make a profit, between 4 and 20 cups
of lemonade need to be made and sold.

13. ˆ P (x) = −0.5x2 + 9x − 36, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 24

ˆ 9 pies should be made and sold to maximize the daily profit.
ˆ The maximum daily profit is $4.50.
ˆ The price per pie should be set at $7.50 to maximize profit.
ˆ The break even points are x = 6 and x = 12, so to make a profit, between 6 and 12 pies
need to be made and sold daily.

14. ˆ P (x) = −2x2 + 120x − 1000, for 0 ≤ x ≤ 70

ˆ 30 scooters need to be made and sold to maximize profit.
ˆ The maximum monthly profit is 800 hundred dollars, or $80,000.
ˆ The price per scooter should be set at 80 hundred dollars, or $8000 per scooter.
ˆ The break even points are x = 10 and x = 50, so to make a profit, between 10 and 50
scooters need to be made and sold monthly.

15. 495 cookies

16. The vertex is (approximately) (29.60, 22.66), which corresponds to a maximum fuel economy
of 22.66 miles per gallon, reached sometime between 2009 and 2010 (29 – 30 years after 1980.)
Unfortunately, the model is only valid up until 2008 (28 years after 1908.) So, at this point,
we are using the model to predict the maximum fuel economy.

17. 64◦ at 2 PM (8 hours after 6 AM.)

18. 5000 pens should be produced for a cost of $200.

19. 8 feet by 16 feet; maximum area is 128 square feet.

20. 50 feet by 50 feet; maximum area is 2500 feet; he can raise 100 average alpacas.

21. The largest rectangle has area 12.25 square inches.

22. 2 seconds.

23. The rocket reaches its maximum height of 500 feet 10 seconds after lift-off.

24. The hammer reaches a maximum height of approximately 13.62 feet. The hammer is in the
air approximately 1.61 seconds.
2.3 Quadratic Functions 207

25. (a) The applied domain is [0, ∞).

(d) The height function is this case is s(t) = −4.9t2 + 15t. The vertex of this parabola
is approximately (1.53, 11.48) so the maximum height reached by the marble is 11.48
meters. It hits the ground again when t ≈ 3.06 seconds.
(e) The revised height function is s(t) = −4.9t2 + 15t + 25 which has zeros at t ≈ −1.20 and
t ≈ 4.26. We ignore the negative value and claim that the marble will hit the ground
after 4.26 seconds.
(f) Shooting down means the initial velocity is negative so the height functions becomes
s(t) = −4.9t2 − 15t + 25.

26. Make the vertex of the parabola (0, 10) so that the point on the top of the left-hand tower
where the cable connects is (−200, 100) and the point on the top of the right-hand tower is
9
(200, 100). Then the parabola is given by p(x) = 4000 x2 + 10. Standing 50 feet to the right of
the left-hand tower means you’re standing at x = −150 and p(−150) = 60.625. So the cable
is 60.625 feet above the bridge deck there.
√ √ ! √ √ !
27. y = |1 − x2 | 3 − 7 −1 + 7 3 + 7 −1 − 7
y 28. , , ,
2 2 2 2
7
6
5
4
3

2
1

−2 −1 1 2 x

29. D(x) = x2 +(2x+1)2 = 5x 2 +4x+1, D is minimized when x = − 2 , so the point on y = 2x+1

5
closest to (0, 0) is − 52 , 51

√
√ m ± m2 + 4
31. x = ±y 10 32. x = ±(y − 2) 33. x =
2
√ p
3 ± 16x + 9 v0 ± v02 + 4gs0
34. y = 35. y = 2 ± x 36. t =
2 2g
Chapter 6

Exponential and Logarithmic

Functions

6.1 Introduction to Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Of all of the functions we study in this text, exponential and logarithmic functions are possibly the
ones which impact everyday life the most.1 This section introduces us to these functions while the
rest of the chapter will more thoroughly explore their properties. Up to this point, we have dealt
with functions which involve terms like x2 or x2/3 , in other words, terms of the form xp where the
base of the term, x, varies but the exponent of each term, p, remains constant. In this chapter,
we study functions of the form f (x) = bx where the base b is a constant and the exponent x is
the variable. We start our exploration of these functions with f (x) = 2x . (Apparently this is a
tradition. Every College Algebra book we have ever read starts with f (x) = 2x .) We make a table
of values, plot the points and connect the dots in a pleasing fashion.

x f (x) (x, f (x)) y

8
2−3 = 18 −3, 18


−3
7

2−2 = 14 −2, 14


−2 6

5
2−1 = 12 −1, 12


−1 4

0 20 = 1 (0, 1) 3

2
1 21 = 2 (1, 2)
1
2 22 = 4 (2, 4)
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 x
3 23 = 8 (3, 8)
y = f (x) = 2x

A few remarks about the graph of f (x) = 2x which we have constructed are in order. As x → −∞
1
Take a class in Differential Equations and you’ll see why.
418 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

and attains values like x = −100 or x = −1000, the function f (x) = 2x takes on values like
f (−100) = 2−100 = 2100
1
or f (−1000) = 2−1000 = 21000
1
. In other words, as x → −∞,

1
2x ≈ ≈ very small (+)
very big (+)

So as x → −∞, 2x → 0+ . This is represented graphically using the x-axis (the line y = 0) as a

horizontal asymptote. On the flip side, as x → ∞, we find f (100) = 2100 , f (1000) = 21000 , and so
on, thus 2x → ∞. As a result, our graph suggests the range of f is (0, ∞). The graph of f passes
the Horizontal Line Test which means f is one-to-one and hence invertible. We also note that when
we ‘connected the dots in a pleasing fashion’, we have made the implicit assumption that f (x) = 2x
is continuous 2 and has a domain of all real numbers. In particular, we have suggested that things
√ √
like 2 exist as real numbers. We should take a moment to discuss what something like 2 3 might
3

mean, and refer√ the interested reader to a solid course in Calculus for a more rigorous explanation.
The number 3 = 1.73205 . . . is an irrational number3 and as√such, its decimal representation
neither repeats nor terminates. We can, however, approximate√ 3 by terminating decimals, and
√
4 3
it stands to reason we can use√ these to approximate√2 . For example, if we approximate 3
173 100 173
by 1.73, we can approximate 2 3 ≈ 21.73 = 2 100 = 2 . It is not, by any means, a pleasant
number, but it is at least a number that we understand √ in terms of powers and roots. It also stands
to√ reason that better √and better approximations of 3 yield better and better approximations of
2 3 , so the value of 2 3 should be the result of this sequence of approximations.5
Suppose we wish to study the family of functions f (x) = bx . Which bases b make sense to study?
We find that we run into difficulty if b < 0. For example, x
1 1/2
√ if b = −2, then the function f (x) = (−2)
has trouble, for instance, at x = 2 since (−2) = −2 is not a real number. In general, if x
is any rational number with an even denominator, then (−2)x is not defined, so we must restrict
our attention to bases b ≥ 0. What about b = 0? The function f (x) = 0x is undefined for x ≤ 0
because we cannot divide by 0 and 00 is an indeterminant form. For x > 0, 0x = 0 so the function
f (x) = 0x is the same as the function f (x) = 0, x > 0. We know everything we can possibly know
about this function, so we exclude it from our investigations. The only other base we exclude is
b = 1, since the function f (x) = 1x = 1 is, once again, a function we have already studied. We are
now ready for our definition of exponential functions.
Definition 6.1. A function of the form f (x) = bx where b is a fixed real number, b > 0, b 6= 1
is called a base b exponential function.

We leave it to the reader to verify6 that if b > 1, then the exponential function f (x) = bx will share

x
the same basic shape and characteristics as f (x) = 2x . What if 0 < b < 1? Consider g(x) = 12 .
We could certainly build a table of values and connect the points, or we could take a step back and
2
Recall that this means there are no holes or other kinds of breaks in the graph.
3
You can actually prove this by considering the polynomial p(x) = x2 − 3 and showing it has no rational zeros by
applying Theorem 3.9.
4
This is where Calculus and continuity come into play.
5
Want more information? Look up “convergent sequences” on the Internet.
6
Meaning, graph some more examples on your own.
6.1 Introduction to Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 419

x
x
note that g(x) = 12 = 2−1 = 2−x = f (−x), where f (x) = 2x . Thinking back to Section 1.7,
the graph of f (−x) is obtained from the graph of f (x) by reflecting it across the y-axis. We get
y y
8 8
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

−3−2−1 1 2 3 x reflect across y-axis −3−2−1 1 2 3 x

−−−−−−−−−−−−→ 1 x
y = f (x) = 2x y = g(x) = 2−x =


multiply each x-coordinate by −1 2

We see that the domain and range of g match that of f , namely (−∞, ∞) and (0, ∞), respectively.
Like f , g is also one-to-one. Whereas f is always increasing, g is always decreasing. As a result,
as x → −∞, g(x) → ∞, and on the flip side, as x → ∞, g(x) → 0+ . It shouldn’t be too surprising
that for all choices of the base 0 < b < 1, the graph of y = bx behaves similarly to the graph of g.
We summarize the basic properties of exponential functions in the following theorem.7
Theorem 6.1. Properties of Exponential Functions: Suppose f (x) = bx .

ˆ The domain of f is (−∞, ∞) and the range of f is (0, ∞).

ˆ (0, 1) is on the graph of f and y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote to the graph of f .

ˆ f is one-to-one, continuous and smootha

ˆ If b > 1: ˆ If 0 < b < 1:

– f is always increasing – f is always decreasing

– As x → −∞, f (x) → 0+ – As x → −∞, f (x) → ∞
– As x → ∞, f (x) → ∞ – As x → ∞, f (x) → 0+
– The graph of f resembles: – The graph of f resembles:

y = bx , b > 1 y = bx , 0 < b < 1

a
Recall that this means the graph of f has no sharp turns or corners.

7
The proof of which, like many things discussed in the text, requires Calculus.
420 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Of all of the bases for exponential functions, two occur the most often in scientific circles. The first,
base 10, is often called the common base. The second base is an irrational number, e ≈ 2.718,
called the natural base. We will more formally discuss the origins of this number in Section 6.5.
For now, it is enough to know that since e > 1, f (x) = ex is an increasing exponential function.
The following examples give us an idea how these functions are used in the wild.

x
Example 6.1.1. The value of a car can be modeled by V (x) = 25 45 , where x ≥ 0 is age of the
car in years and V (x) is the value in thousands of dollars.

1. Find and interpret V (0).

2. Sketch the graph of y = V (x) using transformations.

3. Find and interpret the horizontal asymptote of the graph you found in 2.

Solution.

0
1. To find V (0), we replace x with 0 to obtain V (0) = 25 45 = 25. Since x represents the age
of the car in years, x = 0 corresponds to the car being brand new. Since V (x) is measured
in thousands of dollars, V (0) = 25 corresponds to a value of $25,000. Putting it all together,
we interpret V (0) = 25 to mean the purchase price of the car was $25,000.

x
x
2. To graph y = 25 45 , we start with the basic exponential function f (x) = 45 . Since the
base b = 54 is between 0 and 1, the
graph of y
= f (x) is decreasing. We plot the y-intercept
(0, 1) and two other points, −1, 54 and 1, 45 , and label the horizontal asymptote y = 0.
x
To obtain V (x) = 25 54 , x ≥ 0, we multiply the output from f by 25, in other words,

V (x) = 25f (x). In accordance with Theorem 1.5, this results in a vertical stretch by a factor
of 25. We multiply all of the y values in the graph
by 25 (including the y value of the
horizontal asymptote) and obtain the points −1, 125 4 , (0, 25) and (1, 20). The horizontal
asymptote remains y = 0. Finally, we restrict the domain to [0, ∞) to fit with the applied
domain given to us. We have the result below.
y
y
30
2
(0, 25)
(0, 1) 20
15
10
−3−2−1 1 2 3 5
x

1 2 3 4 5 6 x
H.A. y = 0 vertical scale by a factor of 25 H.A. y = 0
4 x

−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−−→
y = f (x) = 5
multiply each y-coordinate by 25 y = V (x) = 25f (x), x ≥ 0

3. We see from the graph of V that its horizontal asymptote is y = 0. (We leave it to reader to
verify this analytically by thinking about what happens as we take larger and larger powers
of 54 .) This means as the car gets older, its value diminishes to 0.
6.1 Introduction to Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 421

The function in the previous example is often called a ‘decay curve’. Increasing exponential func-
tions are used to model ‘growth curves’ and we shall see several different examples of those in
Section 6.5. For now, we present another common decay curve which will serve as the basis for
further study of exponential functions. Although it may look more complicated than the previ-
ous example, it is actually just a basic exponential function which has been modified by a few
transformations from Section 1.7.

Example 6.1.2. According to Newton’s Law of Cooling8 the temperature of coffee T (in degrees
Fahrenheit) t minutes after it is served can be modeled by T (t) = 70 + 90e−0.1t .

1. Find and interpret T (0).

2. Sketch the graph of y = T (t) using transformations.

3. Find and interpret the horizontal asymptote of the graph.

Solution.

1. To find T (0), we replace every occurrence of the independent variable t with 0 to obtain
T (0) = 70 + 90e−0.1(0) = 160. This means that the coffee was served at 160◦ F.

2. To graph y = T (t) using transformations, we start with the basic function, f (t) = et . As we
have already remarked, e ≈ 2.718 > 1 so the graph of f is an increasing
exponential with
y-intercept (0, 1) and horizontal asymptote y = 0. The points −1, e−1 ≈ (−1, 0.37) and
(1, e) ≈ (1, 2.72) are also on the graph. Since the formula T (t) looks rather complicated, we
rewrite T (t) in the form presented in Theorem 1.7 and use that result to track the changes
to our three points and the horizontal asymptote. We have

T (t) = 70 + 90e−0.1t = 90e−0.1t + 70 = 90f (−0.1t) + 70

Multiplication of the input to f , t, by −0.1 results in a horizontal expansion by a factor of 10

as well as a reflection about the y-axis. We divide each of the x
values of our points by −0.1
(which amounts to multiplying them by −10) to obtain 10, e−1 , (0, 1), and (−10, e). Since
none of these changes affected the y values, the horizontal asymptote remains y = 0. Next,
we see that the output from f is being multiplied by 90. This results in a vertical stretch
by a factor of 90. We multiply the y-coordinates by 90 to obtain 10, 90e−1 , (0, 90), and

(−10, 90e). We also multiply the y value of the horizontal asymptote y = 0 by 90, and it
remains y = 0. Finally,
we add 70 to all of the y-coordinates, which shifts the graph upwards to
obtain 10, 90e−1 + 70 ≈ (10, 103.11), (0, 160), and (−10, 90e + 70) ≈ (−10, 314.64). Adding
70 to the horizontal asymptote shifts it upwards as well to y = 70. We connect these three
points using the same shape in the same direction as in the graph of f and, last but not least,
we restrict the domain to match the applied domain [0, ∞). The result is below.
8
We will discuss this in greater detail in Section 6.5.
422 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

y 180

7 160

6 140

5 120

4 100

3 80

2 60
H.A. y = 70
(0, 1) 40
20
−3−2−1 1 2 3 t
H.A. y = 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 t

y = f (t) = et −−−−−−−−−−−−→ y = T (t)

3. From the graph, we see that the horizontal asymptote is y = 70. It is worth a moment or two
of our time to see how this happens analytically and to review some of the ‘number sense’
developed in Chapter 4. As t → ∞, We get T (t) = 70 + 90e−0.1t ≈ 70 + 90every big (−) . Since
e > 1,
1 1
every big (−) = very big (+) ≈ ≈ very small (+)
e very big (+)

The larger t becomes, the smaller e−0.1t becomes, so the term 90e−0.1t ≈ very small (+).
Hence, T (t) ≈ 70 + very small (+) which means the graph is approaching the horizontal line
y = 70 from above. This means that as time goes by, the temperature of the coffee is cooling
to 70◦ F, presumably room temperature.

As we have already remarked, the graphs of f (x) = bx all pass the Horizontal Line Test. Thus the
exponential functions are invertible. We now turn our attention to these inverses, the logarithmic
functions, which are called ‘logs’ for short.

Definition 6.2. The inverse of the exponential function f (x) = bx is called the base b loga-
rithm function, and is denoted f −1 (x) = logb (x) We read ‘logb (x)’ as ‘log base b of x.’

We have special notations for the common base, b = 10, and the natural base, b = e.

Definition 6.3. The common logarithm of a real number x is log10 (x) and is usually written
log(x). The natural logarithm of a real number x is loge (x) and is usually written ln(x).

Since logs are defined as the inverses of exponential functions, we can use Theorems 5.2 and 5.3 to
tell us about logarithmic functions. For example, we know that the domain of a log function is the
range of an exponential function, namely (0, ∞), and that the range of a log function is the domain
of an exponential function, namely (−∞, ∞). Since we know the basic shapes of y = f (x) = bx for
the different cases of b, we can obtain the graph of y = f −1 (x) = logb (x) by reflecting the graph of
f across the line y = x as shown below. The y-intercept (0, 1) on the graph of f corresponds to
an x-intercept of (1, 0) on the graph of f −1 . The horizontal asymptotes y = 0 on the graphs of the
exponential functions become vertical asymptotes x = 0 on the log graphs.
6.1 Introduction to Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 423

y = bx , b > 1 y = bx , 0 < b < 1

y = logb (x), b > 1 y = logb (x), 0 < b < 1

On a procedural level, logs undo the exponentials. Consider the function f (x) = 2x . When we
evaluate f (3) = 23 = 8, the input 3 becomes the exponent on the base 2 to produce the real
number 8. The function f −1 (x) = log2 (x) then takes the number 8 as its input and returns the
exponent 3 as its output. In symbols, log2 (8) = 3. More generally, log2 (x) is the exponent you
put on 2 to get x. Thus, log2 (16) = 4, because 24 = 16. The following theorem summarizes the
basic properties of logarithmic functions, all of which come from the fact that they are inverses of
exponential functions.
Theorem 6.2. Properties of Logarithmic Functions: Suppose f (x) = logb (x).

ˆ The domain of f is (0, ∞) and the range of f is (−∞, ∞).

ˆ (1, 0) is on the graph of f and x = 0 is a vertical asymptote of the graph of f .

ˆ f is one-to-one, continuous and smooth

ˆ ba = c if and only if logb (c) = a. That is, logb (c) is the exponent you put on b to obtain c.

ˆ logb (bx ) = x for all x and blogb (x) = x for all x > 0

ˆ If b > 1: ˆ If 0 < b < 1:

– f is always increasing – f is always decreasing

– As x → 0+ , f (x) → −∞ – As x → 0+ , f (x) → ∞
– As x → ∞, f (x) → ∞ – As x → ∞, f (x) → −∞
– The graph of f resembles: – The graph of f resembles:

y = logb (x), b > 1 y = logb (x), 0 < b < 1

424 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

As we have mentioned, Theorem 6.2 is a consequence of Theorems 5.2 and 5.3. However, it is worth
the reader’s time to understand Theorem 6.2 from an exponential perspective. For instance, we
know that the domain of g(x) = log2 (x) is (0, ∞). Why? Because the range of f (x) = 2x is (0, ∞).
In a way, this says everything, but at the same time, it doesn’t. For example, if we try to find
log2 (−1), we are trying to find the exponent we put on 2 to give us −1. In other words, we are
looking for x that satisfies 2x = −1. There is no such real number, since all powers of 2 are positive.
While what we have said is exactly the same thing as saying ‘the domain of g(x) = log2 (x) is (0, ∞)
because the range of f (x) = 2x is (0, ∞)’, we feel it is in a student’s best interest to understand
the statements in Theorem 6.2 at this level instead of just merely memorizing the facts.
Example 6.1.3. Simplify the following.
 
1 √ 
3 2
1. log3 (81) 2. log2 3. log√5 (25) 4. ln e
8
5. log(0.001) 6. 2log2 (8) 7. 117− log117 (6)

Solution.
1. The number log3 (81) is the exponent we put on 3 to get 81. As such, we want to write 81 as
a power of 3. We find 81 = 34 , so that log3 (81) = 4.
2. To find log2 18 , we need rewrite 81 as a power of 2. We find 81 = 213 = 2−3 , so log2 18 = −3.

√
3. To determine log√5 (25), we need to express 25 as a power of 5. We know 25 = 52 , and
√
2  √
2 2 √
4
5= 5 , so we have 25 = 5 = 5 . We get log√5 (25) = 4.
√  √ 
3 2 3 2
4. First, recall that the notation ln e means loge e , so we are looking for the exponent
√
3 2
√
3 2
√ 
3 2
to put on e to obtain e . Rewriting e = e2/3 , we find ln e = ln e2/3 = 23 .

5. Rewriting log(0.001) as log10 (0.001), we see that we need to write

0.001 as a power of 10. We
1
have 0.001 = 1000 = 1013 = 10−3 . Hence, log(0.001) = log 10−3 = −3.

6. We can use Theorem 6.2 directly to simplify 2log2 (8) = 8. We can also understand this problem
by first finding log2 (8). By definition, log2 (8) is the exponent we put on 2 to get 8. Since
8 = 23 , we have log2 (8) = 3. We now substitute to find 2log2 (8) = 23 = 8.
7. From Theorem 6.2, we know 117log117 (6) = 6, but we cannot directly apply this formula to the
expression 117− log117 (6) . (Can you see why?) At this point, we use a property of exponents
followed by Theorem 6.2 to get9
1 1
117− log117 (6) = =
117log117 (6) 6

9
It is worth a moment of your time to think your way through why 117log117 (6) = 6. By definition, log117 (6) is the
exponent we put on 117 to get 6. What are we doing with this exponent? We are putting it on 117. By definition
we get 6. In other words, the exponential function f (x) = 117x undoes the logarithmic function g(x) = log117 (x).
6.1 Introduction to Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 425

Up until this point, restrictions on the domains of functions came from avoiding division by zero
and keeping negative numbers from beneath even radicals. With the introduction of logs, we now
have another restriction. Since the domain of f (x) = logb (x) is (0, ∞), the argument10 of the log
must be strictly positive.

Example 6.1.4. Find the domain of the following functions. Check your answers graphically using
the calculator.
 
1. f (x) = 2 log(3 − x) − 1 x
2. g(x) = ln
x−1

Solution.

1. We set 3−x > 0 to obtain x < 3, or (−∞, 3). The graph from the calculator below verifies this.
Note that we could have graphed f using transformations. Taking a cue from Theorem 1.7, we
rewrite f (x) = 2 log10 (−x + 3) − 1 and find

the main function involved is y = h(x) = log10 (x).
1
We select three points to track, 10 , −1 , (1, 0) and (10, 1), along with the vertical asymptote
x = 0. Since f (x) = 2h(−x + 3) − 1, Theorem 1.7 tells us that to obtain the destinations of
these points, we first subtract 3 from the x-coordinates (shifting the graph left 3 units), then
divide (multiply) by the x-coordinates by −1 (causing a reflection across the y-axis). These
transformations apply to the vertical asymptote x = 0 as well. Subtracting 3 gives us x = −3
as our asymptote, then multplying by −1 gives us the vertical asymptote x = 3. Next, we
multiply the y-coordinates by 2 which results in a vertical stretch by a factor of 2, then we
finish by subtracting 1 from the y-coordinates which shifts the graph down 1 unit. We leave
it to the reader to perform the indicated arithmetic on the points themselves and to verify
the graph produced by the calculator below.
x
2. To find the domain of g, we need to solve the inequality x−1 > 0. As usual, we proceed using
x
a sign diagram. If we define r(x) = x−1 , we find r is undefined at x = 1 and r(x) = 0 when
x = 0. Choosing some test values, we generate the sign diagram below.

(+) 0 (−) ” (+)

0 1

x
We find x−1 > 0 on (−∞, 0) ∪ (1, ∞) to get the domain of g. The graph of y = g(x) confirms
this. We can tell from the graph of g that it is not the result of Section 1.7 transformations
being applied to the graph y = ln(x), so barring a more detailed analysis using Calculus, the
calculator graph is the best we can do. One thing worthy of note, however, is the end behavior
of g. The graph suggests that as x → ±∞, g(x) → 0. We can verify this analytically. Using
x
results from Chapter 4 and continuity, we know that as x → ±∞, x−1 ≈ 1. Hence, it makes
 
x
sense that g(x) = ln x−1 ≈ ln(1) = 0.
10
See page 55 if you’ve forgotten what this term means.
426 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

 
x
y = f (x) = 2 log(3 − x) − 1 y = g(x) = ln
x−1
While logarithms have some interesting applications of their own which you’ll explore in the exer-
cises, their primary use to us will be to undo exponential functions. (This is, after all, how they
were defined.) Our last example solidifies this and reviews all of the material in the section.
Example 6.1.5. Let f (x) = 2x−1 − 3.
1. Graph f using transformations and state the domain and range of f .
2. Explain why f is invertible and find a formula for f −1 (x).
3. Graph f −1 using transformations and state the domain and range of f −1 .
4. Verify f −1 ◦ f (x) = x for all x in the domain of f and f ◦ f −1 (x) = x for all x in the

domain of f −1 .
5. Graph f and f −1 on the same set of axes and check the symmetry about the line y = x.
Solution.
1. If we identify g(x) = 2x , we see f (x) = g(x − 1) − 3. We pick the points −1, 21 , (0, 1)

and (1, 2) on the graph of g along with the horizontal asymptote y = 0 to track through
the transformations. By Theorem 1.7 we first add 1 to the
x-coordinates of the points on
the graph of g (shifting g to the right 1 unit) to get 0, 21 , (1, 1) and (2, 2). The horizontal
asymptote remains y = 0. Next, we subtract 3 from the y-coordinates, shifting the graph
5


down 3 units. We get the points 0, − 2 , (1, −2) and (2, −1) with the horizontal asymptote
now at y = −3. Connecting the dots in the order and manner as they were on the graph of
g, we get the graph below. We see that the domain of f is the same as g, namely (−∞, ∞),
but that the range of f is (−3, ∞).

y y
7 7
6 6
5 5
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

−3−2−1 1 2 3 4 x −3−2−1
−1 1 2 3 4 x
−1
−2 −2
−3

y = h(x) = 2x −−−−−−−−−−−−→ y = f (x) = 2x−1 − 3

6.1 Introduction to Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 427

2. The graph of f passes the Horizontal Line Test so f is one-to-one, hence invertible. To find
a formula for f −1 (x), we normally set y = f (x), interchange the x and y, then proceed to
solve for y. Doing so in this situation leads us to the equation x = 2y−1 − 3. We have yet
to discuss how to solve this kind of equation, so we will attempt to find the formula for f −1
from a procedural perspective. If we break f (x) = 2x−1 − 3 into a series of steps, we find f
takes an input x and applies the steps

(a) subtract 1
(b) put as an exponent on 2
(c) subtract 3

Clearly, to undo subtracting 1, we will add 1, and similarly we undo subtracting 3 by adding
3. How do we undo the second step? The answer is we use the logarithm. By definition,
log2 (x) undoes exponentiation by 2. Hence, f −1 should

(a) add 3
(b) take the logarithm base 2
(c) add 1

In symbols, f −1 (x) = log2 (x + 3) + 1.

3. To graph f −1 (x) = log
2 (x + 3) + 1 using transformations, we start with j(x) = log2 (x). We
track the points 21 , −1 , (1, 0) and (2, 1) on the graph of j along with the vertical asymptote
x = 0 through the transformations using Theorem 1.7. Since f −1 (x) = j(x + 3) + 1, we first
subtract 3 from each of the x values (including the vertical asymptote) to obtain − 25 , −1 ,

(−2, 0) and (−1, 1) with

a vertical asymptote x = −3. Next, we add 1 to the y values on the
5
graph and get − 2 , 0 , (−2, 1) and (−1, 2). If you are experiencing déjà vu, there is a good
reason for it but we leave it to the reader to determine the source of this uncanny familiarity.
We obtain the graph below. The domain of f −1 is (−3, ∞), which matches the range of f ,
and the range of f −1 is (−∞, ∞), which matches the domain of f .

y y
4 4
3 3
2 2
1 1

−3−2−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x −2−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3

y = j(x) = log2 (x) −−−−−−−−−−−−→ y = f −1 (x) = log2 (x + 3) + 1

4. We now verify that f (x) = 2x−1 − 3 and f −1 (x) = log2 (x + 3) + 1 satisfy the composition
requirement for inverses. For all real numbers x,
428 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

f −1 ◦ f (x) = f −1 (f (x))

= f −1 2x−1 − 3

= log2 2x−1 − 3 + 3 + 1
 

= log2 2x−1 + 1

= (x − 1) + 1 Since log2 (2u ) = u for all real numbers u

= xX

For all real numbers x > −3, we have11

f ◦ f −1 (x) = f f −1 (x)

= f (log2 (x + 3) + 1)
= 2(log2 (x+3)+1)−1 − 3
= 2log2 (x+3) − 3
= (x + 3) − 3 Since 2log2 (u) = u for all real numbers u > 0
= xX

5. Last, but certainly not least, we graph y = f (x) and y = f −1 (x) on the same set of axes and
see the symmetry about the line y = x.
y
8
7
6

5
4
3
2
1

−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x
−1
−2

y = f (x) = 2x−1 − 3
y = f −1 (x) = log2 (x + 3) + 1

11
Pay attention - can you spot in which step below we need x > −3?
6.1 Introduction to Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 429

6.1.1 Exercises
In Exercises 1 - 15, use the property: ba = c if and only if logb (c) = a from Theorem 6.2 to rewrite
the given equation in the other form. That is, rewrite the exponential equations as logarithmic
equations and rewrite the logarithmic equations as exponential equations.

1. 23 = 8 2. 5−3 = 1
125 3. 45/2 = 32
1 −2 4 −1/2 6. 10−3 = 0.001


5
4. 3 =9 5. 25 = 2

1
7. e0 = 1 8. log5 (25) = 2 9. log25 (5) = 2

1 3



10. log3 81 = −4 11. log 4 4 = −1 12. log(100) = 2
3
 
13. log(0.1) = −1 14. ln(e) = 1 15. ln √1 = − 12
e

In Exercises 16 - 42, evaluate the expression.

16. log3 (27) 17. log6 (216) 18. log2 (32)

1


19. log6 36 20. log8 (4) 21. log36 (216)

22. log 1 (625) 23. log 1 (216) 24. log36 (36)

5 6

1
27. ln e3



25. log 1000000 26. log(0.01)
√

28. log4 (8) 29. log6 (1) 30. log13 13
√
32. 7log7 (3) 33. 36log36 (216)
4


31. log36 36
√ 
34. log36 36216 35. ln e5


9
36. log 1011
√   
39. log5 3log3 (5)
3


37. log 105 38. ln √1
e

40. log eln(100) 41. log2 3− log3 (2) 42. ln 426 log(1)

In Exercises 43 - 57, find the domain of the function.

43. f (x) = ln(x2 + 1) 44. f (x) = log7 (4x + 8)

46. f (x) = log x2 + 9x + 18

45. f (x) = ln(4x − 20)
430 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

x2 + 9x + 18
 
x+2
 
47. f (x) = log 48. f (x) = log
x2 − 1 4x − 20

50. f (x) = ln(4x − 20) + ln x2 + 9x + 18

49. f (x) = ln(7 − x) + ln(x − 4)
p
51. f (x) = log x2 + x + 1


52. f (x) = 4 log4 (x)
√
53. f (x) = log9 (|x + 3| − 4) 54. f (x) = ln( x − 4 − 3)
√
1 −1 − x
55. f (x) = 56. f (x) =
3 − log5 (x) log 1 (x)
2

57. f (x) = ln(−2x3 − x2 + 13x − 6)

In Exercises 58 - 63, sketch the graph of y = g(x) by starting with the graph of y = f (x) and using
transformations. Track at least three points of your choice and the horizontal asymptote through
the transformations. State the domain and range of g.

58. f (x) = 2x , g(x) = 2x − 1 1 x 1 x−1

59. f (x) = 3 , g(x) = 3
x+1
60. f (x) = 3x , g(x) = 3−x + 2 61. f (x) = 10x , g(x) = 10 2 − 20

62. f (x) = ex , g(x) = 8 − e−x 63. f (x) = ex , g(x) = 10e−0.1x

In Exercises 64 - 69, sketch the graph of y = g(x) by starting with the graph of y = f (x) and using
transformations. Track at least three points of your choice and the vertical asymptote through the
transformations. State the domain and range of g.

64. f (x) = log2 (x), g(x) = log2 (x + 1) 65. f (x) = log 1 (x), g(x) = log 1 (x) + 1
3 3

66. f (x) = log3 (x), g(x) = − log3 (x − 2) 67. f (x) = log(x), g(x) = 2 log(x + 20) − 1
x


68. f (x) = ln(x), g(x) = − ln(8 − x) 69. f (x) = ln(x), g(x) = −10 ln 10

70. Verify that each function in Exercises 64 - 69 is the inverse of the corresponding function in
Exercises 58 - 63. (Match up #58 and #64, and so on.)

In Exercises 71 - 74, find the inverse of the function from the ‘procedural perspective’ discussed in
Example 6.1.5 and graph the function and its inverse on the same set of axes.

71. f (x) = 3x+2 − 4 72. f (x) = log4 (x − 1)

73. f (x) = −2−x + 1 74. f (x) = 5 log(x) − 2

6.1 Introduction to Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 431

(Logarithmic Scales) In Exercises 75 - 77, we introduce three widely used measurement scales which
involve common logarithms: the Richter scale, the decibel scale and the pH scale. The computations
involved in all three scales are nearly identical so pay attention to the subtle differences.

75. Earthquakes are complicated events and it is not our intent to provide a complete discussion
of the science involved in them. Instead, we refer the interested reader to a solid course in Ge-
ology12 or the U.S. Geological Survey’s Earthquake Hazards Program found here and present
only a simplified version of the Richter scale. The Richter scale measures the magnitude of an
earthquake by comparing the amplitude of the seismic waves of the given earthquake to those
of a “magnitude 0 event”, which was chosen to be a seismograph reading of 0.001 millimeters
recorded on a seismometer 100 kilometers from the earthquake’s epicenter. Specifically, the
magnitude of an earthquake is given by
 x 
M (x) = log
0.001
where x is the seismograph reading in millimeters of the earthquake recorded 100 kilometers
from the epicenter.

(a) Show that M (0.001) = 0.

(b) Compute M (80, 000).
(c) Show that an earthquake which registered 6.7 on the Richter scale had a seismograph
reading ten times larger than one which measured 5.7.
(d) Find two news stories about recent earthquakes which give their magnitudes on the
Richter scale. How many times larger was the seismograph reading of the earthquake
with larger magnitude?

76. While the decibel scale can be used in many disciplines,13 we shall restrict our attention to
its use in acoustics, specifically its use in measuring the intensity level of sound.14 The Sound
Intensity Level L (measured in decibels) of a sound intensity I (measured in watts per square
meter) is given by  
I
L(I) = 10 log .
10−12
Like the Richter scale, this scale compares I to baseline: 10−12 m
W
2 is the threshold of human
hearing.

(a) Compute L(10−6 ).

12
Rock-solid, perhaps?
13
See this webpage for more information.
14
As of the writing of this exercise, the Wikipedia page given here states that it may not meet the “general notability
guideline” nor does it cite any references or sources. I find this odd because it is this very usage of the decibel scale
which shows up in every College Algebra book I have read. Perhaps those other books have been wrong all along
and we’re just blindly following tradition.
432 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

(b) Damage to your hearing can start with short term exposure to sound levels around 115
decibels. What intensity I is needed to produce this level?
(c) Compute L(1). How does this compare with the threshold of pain which is around 140
decibels?

77. The pH of a solution is a measure of its acidity or alkalinity. Specifically, pH = − log[H+ ]

where [H+ ] is the hydrogen ion concentration in moles per liter. A solution with a pH less
than 7 is an acid, one with a pH greater than 7 is a base (alkaline) and a pH of 7 is regarded
as neutral.

(a) The hydrogen ion concentration of pure water is [H+ ] = 10−7 . Find its pH.
(b) Find the pH of a solution with [H+ ] = 6.3 × 10−13 .
(c) The pH of gastric acid (the acid in your stomach) is about 0.7. What is the corresponding
hydrogen ion concentration?

78. Show that logb 1 = 0 and logb b = 1 for every b > 0, b 6= 1.

79. (Crazy bonus question) Without using your calculator, determine which is larger: eπ or π e .
6.1 Introduction to Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 433

6.1.2 Answers

1 5


1. log2 (8) = 3 2. log5 125 = −3 3. log4 (32) = 2

5
= − 12


4. log 1 (9) = −2 5. log 4 2 6. log(0.001) = −3
3 25

1
7. ln(1) = 0 8. 52 = 25 9. (25) 2 = 5

10. 3−4 = 1 4 −1 3 12. 102 = 100

81 11. 3 = 4

1
13. 10−1 = 0.1 14. e1 = e 15. e− 2 = √1
e

16. log3 (27) = 3 17. log6 (216) = 3 18. log2 (32) = 5

1 2 3


19. log6 36 = −2 20. log8 (4) = 3 21. log36 (216) = 2

22. log 1 (625) = −4 23. log 1 (216) = −3 24. log36 (36) = 1

5 6

1
27. ln e3 = 3


25. log 1000000 = −6 26. log(0.01) = −2

3
√
1
28. log4 (8) = 2 29. log6 (1) = 0 30. log13 13 = 2
√ 1
32. 7log7 (3) = 3 33. 36log36 (216) = 216
4


31. log36 36 = 4
√ 
34. log36 36216 = 216 35. ln(e5 ) = 5

9 11
36. log 1011 = 9

√   
39. log5 3log3 5 = 1
3


5 √1
37. log 105 = 3 38. ln e
= − 12

40. log eln(100) = 2 41. log2 3− log3 (2) = −1 42. ln 426 log(1) = 0

43. (−∞, ∞) 44. (−2, ∞) 45. (5, ∞)

46. (−∞, −6) ∪ (−3, ∞) 47. (−2, −1) ∪ (1, ∞) 48. (−6, −3) ∪ (5, ∞)

49. (4, 7) 50. (5, ∞) 51. (−∞, ∞)

52. [1, ∞) 53. (−∞, −7) ∪ (1, ∞) 54. (13, ∞)

1


55. (0, 125) ∪ (125, ∞) 56. No domain 57. (−∞, −3) ∪ 2, 2
434 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

58. Domain of g: (−∞, ∞) 59. Domain of g: (−∞, ∞)

Range of g: (−1, ∞) Range of g: (0, ∞)

y y
8 9
7 8
6 7
5 6
4 5
3 4
2 3
1 2
−3−2−1
1
1 2 3 x
H.A. y = −1 −3−2−1 1 2 3 x
y = g(x) = 2x −1 y = g(x) = 1 x−1


3

60. Domain of g: (−∞, ∞) 61. Domain of g: (−∞, ∞)

Range of g: (2, ∞) Range of g: (−20, ∞)
y
11 y
10 80
9 70
8 60
7 50
6 40
5 30
4 20
3 10
2
−3−2 1 2 3 x
1 H.A. y = 2 −10

−3−2−1 1 2 3 x H.A. y = −20

x+1
y = g(x) = 3−x + 2 y = g(x) = 10 2 − 20

62. Domain of g: (−∞, ∞) 63. Domain of g: (−∞, ∞)

Range of g: (−∞, 8) Range of g: (0, ∞)
y
y
8
80
7
70
6 H.A. y = 8
60
5
50
4
40
3
30
2
20
1
10
−3−2−1 1 2 3 x
−10 10 20 30 x

y = g(x) = 8 − e−x y = g(x) = 10e−0.1x

6.1 Introduction to Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 435

64. Domain of g: (−1, ∞) 65. Domain of g: (0, ∞)

Range of g: (−∞, ∞) Range of g: (−∞, ∞)

y y
3 3
2 2
1 1

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 x
−1 −1
−2 −2
−3 −3
V.A. x = −1

y = g(x) = log2 (x + 1) y = g(x) = log 1 (x) + 1

3

66. Domain of g: (2, ∞) 67. Domain of g: (−20, ∞)

Range of g: (−∞, ∞) Range of g: (−∞, ∞)

y
3 y
2 3
1 2
1
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 x
−1
−10 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 x
−2
−3 −2
V.A. x = 2 −3 V.A. x = −20

y = g(x) = − log3 (x − 2) y = g(x) = 2 log(x + 20) − 1

68. Domain of g: (−∞, 8) 69. Domain of g: (0, ∞)

Range of g:(−∞, ∞) Range of g: (−∞, ∞)
y y
3 30
2 20
1 10

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 x 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 x
−1 −10
−2
−3 V.A. x = 8

y = g(x) = − ln(8 − x) x


y = g(x) = −10 ln 10
436 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

71. f (x) = 3x+2 − 4 72. f (x) = log4 (x − 1)

f −1 (x) = log3 (x + 4) − 2 f −1 (x) = 4x + 1

y y
6
6
5
5
4
3 4
2 3
1
2
−4−3−2−1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x 1
−1
−2
−3 −2 −1 1 2 3 4 5 6 x
−1
−4
−2
y = f (x) = 3x+2 − 4
y = f −1 (x) = log3 (x + 4) − 2 y = f (x) = log4 (x − 1)
y = f −1 (x) = 4x + 1

73. f (x) = −2−x + 1 74. f (x) = 5 log(x) − 2

x+2
f −1 (x) = − log2 (1 − x) f −1 (x) = 10 5
y y
5
2
4
1 3
2

x 1
−2 −1 1 2
−1 −4−3−2−1 1 2 3 4 5 x
−1

−2 −2
−3
−4
y = f (x) = −2−x
+1
y = f −1 (x) = − log2 (1 − x) y = f (x) = 5 log(x) − 2
x+2
y = f −1 (x) = 10 5

0.001


75. (a) M (0.001) = log 0.001 = log(1) = 0.
 
(b) M (80, 000) = log 80,000
0.001 = log(80, 000, 000) ≈ 7.9.

76. (a) L(10−6 ) = 60 decibels.

(b) I = 10−.5 ≈ 0.316 watts per square meter.
(c) Since L(1) = 120 decibels and L(100) = 140 decibels, a sound with intensity level 140
decibels has an intensity 100 times greater than a sound with intensity level 120 decibels.
77. (a) The pH of pure water is 7.
(b) If [H+ ] = 6.3 × 10−13 then the solution has a pH of 12.2.
(c) [H+ ] = 10−0.7 ≈ .1995 moles per liter.
6.2 Properties of Logarithms 437

6.2 Properties of Logarithms

In Section 6.1, we introduced the logarithmic functions as inverses of exponential functions and
discussed a few of their functional properties from that perspective. In this section, we explore
the algebraic properties of logarithms. Historically, these have played a huge role in the scientific
development of our society since, among other things, they were used to develop analog computing
devices called slide rules which enabled scientists and engineers to perform accurate calculations
leading to such things as space travel and the moon landing. As we shall see shortly, logs inherit
analogs of all of the properties of exponents you learned in Elementary and Intermediate Algebra.
We first extract two properties from Theorem 6.2 to remind us of the definition of a logarithm as
the inverse of an exponential function.
Theorem 6.3. (Inverse Properties of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions)
Let b > 0, b 6= 1.
ˆ ba = c if and only if logb (c) = a

ˆ logb (bx ) = x for all x and blogb (x) = x for all x > 0
Next, we spell out what it means for exponential and logarithmic functions to be one-to-one.
Theorem 6.4. (One-to-one Properties of Exponential and Logarithmic Functions)
Let f (x) = bx and g(x) = logb (x) where b > 0, b 6= 1. Then f and g are one-to-one and
ˆ bu = bw if and only if u = w for all real numbers u and w.

ˆ logb (u) = logb (w) if and only if u = w for all real numbers u > 0, w > 0.
We now state the algebraic properties of exponential functions which will serve as a basis for the
properties of logarithms. While these properties may look identical to the ones you learned in
Elementary and Intermediate Algebra, they apply to real number exponents, not just rational
exponents. Note that in the theorem that follows, we are interested in the properties of exponential
functions, so the base b is restricted to b > 0, b 6= 1. An added benefit of this restriction is that it

3/2
eliminates the pathologies discussed in Section 5.3 when, for example, we simplified x2/3 and
obtained |x| instead of what we had expected from the arithmetic in the exponents, x = x. 1

Theorem 6.5. (Algebraic Properties of Exponential Functions) Let f (x) = bx be an

exponential function (b > 0, b 6= 1) and let u and w be real numbers.

ˆ Product Rule: f (u + w) = f (u)f (w). In other words, bu+w = bu bw

f (u) bu
ˆ Quotient Rule: f (u − w) = . In other words, bu−w = w
f (w) b
ˆ Power Rule: (f (u))w = f (uw). In other words, (bu )w = buw
While the properties listed in Theorem 6.5 are certainly believable based on similar properties of
integer and rational exponents, the full proofs require Calculus. To each of these properties of
438 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

exponential functions corresponds an analogous property of logarithmic functions. We list these

below in our next theorem.
Theorem 6.6. (Algebraic Properties of Logarithmic Functions) Let g(x) = logb (x) be a
logarithmic function (b > 0, b 6= 1) and let u > 0 and w > 0 be real numbers.

ˆ Product Rule: g(uw) = g(u) + g(w). In other words, logb (uw) = logb (u) + logb (w)
u u
ˆ Quotient Rule: g = g(u) − g(w). In other words, logb = logb (u) − logb (w)
w w
ˆ Power Rule: g (uw ) = wg(u). In other words, logb (uw ) = w logb (u)
There are a couple of different ways to understand why Theorem 6.6 is true. Consider the product
rule: logb (uw) = logb (u) + logb (w). Let a = logb (uw), c = logb (u), and d = logb (w). Then, by
definition, ba = uw, bc = u and bd = w. Hence, ba = uw = bc bd = bc+d , so that ba = bc+d . By
the one-to-one property of bx , we have a = c + d. In other words, logb (uw) = logb (u) + logb (w).
The remaining properties are proved similarly. From a purely functional approach, we can see
the properties in Theorem 6.6 as an example of how inverse functions interchange the roles of
inputs in outputs. For instance, the Product Rule for exponential functions given in Theorem 6.5,
f (u + w) = f (u)f (w), says that adding inputs results in multiplying outputs. Hence, whatever f −1
is, it must take the products of outputs from f and return them to the sum of their respective inputs.
Since the outputs from f are the inputs to f −1 and vice-versa, we have that that f −1 must take
products of its inputs to the sum of their respective outputs. This is precisely what the Product Rule
for Logarithmic functions states in Theorem 6.6: g(uw) = g(u) + g(w). The reader is encouraged to
view the remaining properties listed in Theorem 6.6 similarly. The following examples help build
familiarity with these properties. In our first example, we are asked to ‘expand’ the logarithms.
This means that we read the properties in Theorem 6.6 from left to right and rewrite products
inside the log as sums outside the log, quotients inside the log as differences outside the log, and
powers inside the log as factors outside the log.1

Example 6.2.1. Expand the following using the properties of logarithms and simplify. Assume
when necessary that all quantities represent positive real numbers.
   2
8 3
10x2


1. log2 2. log0.1 3. ln
x ex
s
100x2
5. log117 x2 − 4


4. log 3
yz 5

Solution.
8


1. To expand log2 x , we use the Quotient Rule identifying u = 8 and w = x and simplify.
1
Interestingly enough, it is the exact opposite process (which we will practice later) that is most useful in Algebra,
the utility of expanding logarithms becomes apparent in Calculus.
6.2 Properties of Logarithms 439

 
8
log2 = log2 (8) − log2 (x) Quotient Rule
x
= 3 − log2 (x) Since 23 = 8
= − log2 (x) + 3

2. In the expression log0.1 10x2 , we have a power (the x2 ) and a product. In order to use the

Product Rule, the entire quantity inside the logarithm must be raised to the same exponent.
Since the exponent 2 applies only to the x, we first apply the Product Rule with u = 10 and
w = x2 . Once we get the x2 by itself inside the log, we may apply the Power Rule with u = x
and w = 2 and simplify.

log0.1 10x2 = log0.1 (10) + log0.1 x2

Product Rule
= log0.1 (10) + 2 log0.1 (x) Power Rule
= −1 + 2 log0.1 (x) Since (0.1)−1 = 10
= 2 log0.1 (x) − 1

3 2


3. We have a power, quotient and product occurring in ln ex . Since the exponent 2 applies
3
to the entire quantity inside the logarithm, we begin with the Power Rule with u = ex and
w = 2.
Next, we see the Quotient Rule is applicable, with u = 3 and w = ex, so we replace
3 3


ln ex with the quantity ln(3) − ln(ex). Since ln ex is being multiplied by 2, the entire
quantity ln(3) − ln(ex) is multiplied by 2. Finally, we apply the Product Rule with u = e and
w = x, and replace ln(ex) with the quantity ln(e) + ln(x), and simplify, keeping in mind that
the natural log is log base e.

 2  
3 3
ln = 2 ln Power Rule
ex ex
= 2 [ln(3) − ln(ex)] Quotient Rule
= 2 ln(3) − 2 ln(ex)
= 2 ln(3) − 2 [ln(e) + ln(x)] Product Rule
= 2 ln(3) − 2 ln(e) − 2 ln(x)
= 2 ln(3) − 2 − 2 ln(x) Since e1 = e
= −2 ln(x) + 2 ln(3) − 2

4. In Theorem 6.6, there is no mention of how to deal with radicals. However, thinking back to
Definition 5.5, we can rewrite the cube root as a 13 exponent. We begin by using the Power
440 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

Rule2 , and we keep in mind that the common log is log base 10.
s 1/3
100x2 100x2

log 3 = log
yz 5 yz 5
100x2
 
1
= 3 log Power Rule
yz 5
= 13 log 100x2 − log yz 5



Quotient Rule
= 31 log 100x2 − 31 log yz 5

= 13 log(100) + log x2 − 31 log(y) + log z 5


 

Product Rule
= 31 log(100) + 31 log x2 − 31 log(y) − 13 log z 5

1
= 3 log(100) + 32 log(x) − 13 log(y) − 53 log(z) Power Rule
2
= 3 + 23 log(x) − 31 log(y) − 53 log(z) Since 102 = 100
2
= 3 log(x) − 13 log(y) − 53 log(z) + 2
3

5. At first it seems as if we have no means of simplifying log117 x2 − 4 , since none of the

properties of logs addresses the issue of expanding a difference inside the logarithm. However,
we may factor x2 − 4 = (x + 2)(x − 2) thereby introducing a product which gives us license
to use the Product Rule.

log117 x2 − 4


= log117 [(x + 2)(x − 2)] Factor
= log117 (x + 2) + log117 (x − 2) Product Rule

A couple of remarks about Example 6.2.1 are in order. First, while not explicitly stated in the above
example, a general rule of thumb to determine which log property to apply first to a complicated
problem is ‘reverse order of
operations.’ For example, if we were to substitute a number for x into
the expression log0.1 10x2 , we would first square the x, then multiply by 10. The last step is the
multiplication, which tells us the first log property to apply is the Product Rule. In a multi-step
problem, this rule can give the required guidance on which log property to apply at each step.
The reader is encouraged to look through the solutions to Example 6.2.1 to see this rule in action.
Second, while we were instructed to assume when necessary that all quantities represented positive
real numbers, the authors would be committing
a sin of omission if we failed to point out that, for
instance, the functions f (x) = log117 x2 − 4 and g(x) = log117 (x + 2) + log117 (x − 2) have different
domains, and, hence, are different functions. We leave it to the reader to verify the domain of f
is (−∞, −2) ∪ (2, ∞) whereas the domain of g is (2, ∞). In general, when using log properties to
2
At this point in the text, the reader is encouraged to carefully read through each step and think of which quantity
is playing the role of u and which is playing the role of w as we apply each property.
6.2 Properties of Logarithms 441

expand a logarithm, we may very well be restricting the domain as we do so. One last comment
before we move to reassembling logs from their various bits and pieces. The authors are well aware
of the propensity
for some students to become overexcited and invent their own properties of logs
like log117 x − 4 = log117 x − log117 (4), which simply isn’t true, in general. The unwritten3
2 2

property of logarithms is that if it isn’t written in a textbook, it probably isn’t true.

Example 6.2.2. Use the properties of logarithms to write the following as a single logarithm.

1. log3 (x − 1) − log3 (x + 1) 2. log(x) + 2 log(y) − log(z)

1
3. 4 log2 (x) + 3 4. − ln(x) − 2

Solution. Whereas in Example 6.2.1 we read the properties in Theorem 6.6 from left to right to
expand logarithms, in this example we read them from right to left.
 
x−1
1. The difference of logarithms requires the Quotient Rule: log3 (x−1)−log3 (x+1) = log3 x+1 .

2. In the expression, log(x) + 2 log(y) − log(z), we have both a sum and difference of logarithms.
However, before we use the product rule to combine log(x) + 2 log(y), we note that we need
to somehow deal with the coefficient 2 on log(y). This can be handled using the Power Rule.
We can then apply the Product and Quotient Rules as we move from left to right. Putting it
all together, we have

log(x) + 2 log(y) − log(z) = log(x) + log y 2 − log(z)

Power Rule

= log xy 2 − log(z)


Product Rule
 2
xy
= log Quotient Rule
z

3. We can certainly
get started rewriting 4 log2 (x) + 3 by applying the Power Rule to 4 log2 (x)
to obtain log2 x4 , but in order to use the Product Rule to handle the addition, we need to
rewrite 3 as a logarithm base 2. From Theorem 6.3, we know 3 = log2 23 , so we get

4 log2 (x) + 3 = log2 x4 + 3

Power Rule
4 3 Since 3 = log2 23




= log2 x + log2 2
= log2 x4 + log2 (8)

= log2 8x4


Product Rule

3
The authors relish the irony involved in writing what follows.
442 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

4. To get started with − ln(x) − 12 , we rewrite − ln(x) as (−1) ln(x). We can then use the Power
Rule to obtain (−1) ln(x) = ln x−1 . In order to use the Quotient Rule, we need to write 21


√
as a natural logarithm. Theorem 6.3 gives us 21 = ln e1/2 = ln ( e). We have

1
− ln(x) − 2 = (−1) ln(x) − 12
= ln x−1 − 21


Power Rule
= ln x−1 − ln e1/2 Since 12 = ln e1/2




√
= ln x−1 − ln ( e)


 −1 
x
= ln √ Quotient Rule
e
 
1
= ln √
x e

As we would expect, the rule of thumb for re-assembling logarithms is the opposite of what it
was for dismantling them. That is, if we are interested in rewriting an expression as a single
logarithm, we apply log properties following the usual order of operations: deal with multiples of
logs first with the Power Rule, then deal with addition and subtraction using the Product and
Quotient Rules, respectively. Additionally, we find that using log properties in this fashion can
increase the domain of the expression. For example, we leave it to the reader
  to verify the domain
x−1
of f (x) = log3 (x−1)−log3 (x+1) is (1, ∞) but the domain of g(x) = log3 x+1 is (−∞, −1)∪(1, ∞).
We will need to keep this in mind when we solve equations involving logarithms in Section 6.4 - it
is precisely for this reason we will have to check for extraneous solutions.
The two logarithm buttons commonly found on calculators are the ‘LOG’ and ‘LN’ buttons which
correspond to the common and natural logs, respectively. Suppose we wanted an approximation to
log2 (7). The answer should be a little less than 3, (Can you explain why?) but how do we coerce
the calculator into telling us a more accurate answer? We need the following theorem.

Theorem 6.7. (Change of Base Formulas) Let a, b > 0, a, b 6= 1.

ˆ ax = bx logb (a) for all real numbers x.

logb (x)
ˆ loga (x) = for all real numbers x > 0.
logb (a)

The proofs of the Change of Base formulas are a result of the other properties studied in this
section. If we start with bx logb (a) and use the Power Rule in the exponent to rewrite x logb (a) as
logb (ax ) and then apply one of the Inverse Properties in Theorem 6.3, we get
x)
bx logb (a) = blogb (a = ax ,
6.2 Properties of Logarithms 443

as required. To verify the logarithmic form of the property, we also use the Power Rule and an
Inverse Property. We note that
 
loga (x) · logb (a) = logb aloga (x) = logb (x),

and we get the result by dividing through by logb (a). Of course, the authors can’t help but point
out the inverse relationship between these two change of base formulas. To change the base of
an exponential expression, we multiply the input by the factor logb (a). To change the base of a
logarithmic expression, we divide the output by the factor logb (a). While, in the grand scheme
of things, both change of base formulas are really saying the same thing, the logarithmic form is
the one usually encountered in Algebra while the exponential form isn’t usually introduced until
Calculus.4 What Theorem 6.7 really tells us is that all exponential and logarithmic functions are
just scalings of one another. Not only does this explain why their graphs have similar shapes, but
it also tells us that we could do all of mathematics with a single base - be it 10, e, 42, or 117. Your
Calculus teacher will have more to say about this when the time comes.

Example 6.2.3. Use an appropriate change of base formula to convert the following expressions
to ones with the indicated base. Verify your answers using a calculator, as appropriate.

1. 32 to base 10 2. 2x to base e

3. log4 (5) to base e 4. ln(x) to base 10

Solution.

1. We apply the Change of Base formula with a = 3 and b = 10 to obtain 32 = 102 log(3) . Typing
the latter in the calculator produces an answer of 9 as required.

2. Here, a = 2 and b = e so we have 2x = ex ln(2) . To verify this on our calculator, we can graph
f (x) = 2x and g(x) = ex ln(2) . Their graphs are indistinguishable which provides evidence
that they are the same function.

y = f (x) = 2x and y = g(x) = ex ln(2)

4
The authors feel so strongly about showing students that every property of logarithms comes from and corresponds
to a property of exponents that we have broken tradition with the vast majority of other authors in this field. This
isn’t the first time this happened, and it certainly won’t be the last.
444 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

ln(5)
3. Applying the change of base with a = 4 and b = e leads us to write log4 (5) = ln(4) . Evaluating
ln(5)
this in the calculator gives ≈ 1.16. How do we check this really is the value of log4 (5)?
ln(4)
By definition, log4 (5) is the exponent we put on 4 to get 5. The calculator confirms this.5

4. We write ln(x) = loge (x) = log(x)

log(e) . We graph both f (x) = ln(x) and g(x) =
log(x)
log(e) and find
both graphs appear to be identical.

log(x)
y = f (x) = ln(x) and y = g(x) = log(e)

5
Which means if it is lying to us about the first answer it gave us, at least it is being consistent.
6.2 Properties of Logarithms 445

6.2.1 Exercises

In Exercises 1 - 15, expand the given logarithm and simplify. Assume when necessary that all
quantities represent positive real numbers.

 
128  z 3
1. ln(x3 y 2 ) 2. log2 2
3. log5
x +4 25

√ 
z
4. log(1.23 × 1037 ) 6. log5 x2 − 25


5. ln
xy

7. log√2 4x3 8. log 1 (9x(y 3 − 8)) 9. log 1000x3 y 5

3

x2
  r  4
xy

216
10. log3 11. ln 4
12. log6
81y 4 ez x3 y

√  √
3
!  √
100x y 4 x2
 
3
x
13. log √ 14. log 1 √ 15. ln √
3
10 2 y z 10 yz

In Exercises 16 - 29, use the properties of logarithms to write the expression as a single logarithm.

16. 4 ln(x) + 2 ln(y) 17. log2 (x) + log2 (y) − log2 (z)

1
18. log3 (x) − 2 log3 (y) 19. 2 log3 (x) − 2 log3 (y) − log3 (z)

20. 2 ln(x) − 3 ln(y) − 4 ln(z) 21. log(x) − 13 log(z) + 21 log(y)

22. − 31 ln(x) − 31 ln(y) + 13 ln(z) 23. log5 (x) − 3

24. 3 − log(x) 25. log7 (x) + log7 (x − 3) − 2

1
26. ln(x) + 2 27. log2 (x) + log4 (x)

28. log2 (x) + log4 (x − 1) 29. log2 (x) + log 1 (x − 1)

2
446 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions

In Exercises 30 - 33, use the appropriate change of base formula to convert the given expression to
an expression with the indicated base.

30. 7x−1 to base e 31. log3 (x + 2) to base 10

 x
2
32. to base e 33. log(x2 + 1) to base e
3
In Exercises 34 - 39, use the appropriate change of base formula to approximate the logarithm.

34. log3 (12) 35. log5 (80) 36. log6 (72)

 
1
37. log4 38. log 3 (1000) 39. log 2 (50)
10 5 3

40. Compare and contrast the graphs of y = ln(x2 ) and y = 2 ln(x).

41. Prove the Quotient Rule and Power Rule for Logarithms.
42. Give numerical examples to show that, in general,

(a) logb (x + y) 6= logb (x) + logb (y)

(b) logb (x − y) 6= logb (x) − logb (y)
 
x logb (x)
(c) logb 6=
y logb (y)
43. The Henderson-Hasselbalch Equation: Suppose HA represents a weak acid. Then we have a
reversible chemical reaction
HA H + + A− .
The acid disassociation constant, Ka , is given by
[H + ][A− ] [A− ]
Kα = = [H + ] ,
[HA] [HA]
where the square brackets denote the concentrations just as they did in Exercise 77 in Section
6.1. The symbol pKa is defined similarly to pH in that pKa = − log(Ka ). Using the definition
of pH from Exercise 77 and the properties of logarithms, derive the Henderson-Hasselbalch
Equation which states
[A− ]
pH = pKa + log
[HA]
44. Research the history of logarithms including the origin of the word ‘logarithm’ itself. Why is
the abbreviation of natural log ‘ln’ and not ‘nl’ ?
45. There is a scene in the movie ‘Apollo 13’ in which several people at Mission Control use slide
rules to verify a computation. Was that scene accurate? Look for other pop culture references
to logarithms and slide rules.
6.2 Properties of Logarithms 447

6.2.2 Answers

1. 3 ln(x) + 2 ln(y) 2. 7 − log2 (x2 + 4)

3. 3 log5 (z) − 6 4. log(1.23) + 37

1
5. 2 ln(z) − ln(x) − ln(y) 6. log5 (x − 5) + log5 (x + 5)

7. 3 log√2 (x) + 4 8. −2 + log 31 (x) + log 31 (y − 2) + log 13 (y 2 + 2y + 4)

9. 3 + 3 log(x) + 5 log(y) 10. 2 log3 (x) − 4 − 4 log3 (y)

1
11. 4 ln(x) + 14 ln(y) − 1
4 − 14 ln(z) 12. 12 − 12 log6 (x) − 4 log6 (y)
5
13. 3 + log(x) + 12 log(y) 14. −2 + 32 log 1 (x) − log 1 (y) − 12 log 1 (z)
2 2 2

1
15. 3 ln(x) − ln(10) − 12 ln(y) − 12 ln(z) 16. ln(x4 y 2 )
  √ 
xy
x x
17. log2 z 18. log3 19. log3
y2 y2 z
   √  q 
x2 x y z
20. ln y3 z4
21. log √
3z 22. ln 3
xy
 
x 1000 x(x−3)



23. log5 125 24. log x 25. log7 49

√ √
27. log2 x3/2



26. ln (x e) 28. log2 x x − 1
 
log(x+2)
x
29. log2 x−1 30. 7x−1 = e(x−1) ln(7) 31. log3 (x + 2) = log(3)

2 x 2 ln(x2 +1)
= ex ln( 3 )


32. 3 33. log(x2 + 1) = ln(10)

34. log3 (12) ≈ 2.26186 35. log5 (80) ≈ 2.72271

1


36. log6 (72) ≈ 2.38685 37. log4 10 ≈ −1.66096

38. log 3 (1000) ≈ −13.52273 39. log 2 (50) ≈ −9.64824

5 3