Physics 12th

CBSE 2025
PHYSICS
Including Case Based Questions
CLASS 12
Chapter-wise Question Bank

Based on Previous 20 Years 63 Papers
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CBSE Physics Question Bank Class 12
Edition July 2024
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CONTENTS
Exam 2024 Solved Paper 5-20
CHAP 1. Electric Charges and Fields 21-61
CHAP 2. Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance 62-117
CHAP 3. Current Electricity 118-170
CHAP 4. Moving Charge and Magnetism 171-217
CHAP 5. Magnetism and Matter 218-242
CHAP 6. Electromagnetic Induction 243-278
CHAP 7. Alternating Current 279-320
CHAP 8. Electromagnetic Wave 321-344
CHAP 9. Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 345-413
CHAP 10. Wave Optics 414-456
CHAP 11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 457-488
CHAP 12. Atoms 489-513
CHAP 13. Nuclei 514-534
CHAP 14. Semiconductor and Electronics Devices 535-556
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Page 5 Exam 2024 Solved Paper CBSE Physics Class 12
Exam 2024 Solved Paper

Class XII 2023-24
Physics
Time: 3 Hours Max. Marks: 80
General Instructions:
1. This question paper consists of 33 questions in 5 sections.
2. All questions are compulsory. However, an internal choice is provided in some questions. A student is expected
to attempt only one of these questions.
3. This question paper is divided into five sections Sections A, B, C, D and E.
4. In Section A Questions no. 1 to 16 are Multiple Choice type questions. Each question carries 1 mark.
5. In Section B Questions no. 17 to 21 are Very Short Answer type questions. Each question carries 2 marks.
6. In Section C Questions no. 22 to 28 are Short Answer type questions. Each question carries 3 marks.
7. In Section D Questions no. 29 and 30 are case study-based questions. Each question carries 4 marks.
8. In Section E Questions no. 31 to 33 are Long Answer type questions. Each question carries 5 marks.
SECTION-A
1. An ammeter and a voltmeter are connected in series
to a battery. Their readings are noted as A and
V respectively. If a resistor is connected in parallel
with the voltmeter, then
(a) A will increase, V will decrease.
p
(b) A will decrease, V will increase. Current through inductor,i = i0 sin `wt - 2 j
(c) Both A and V will decrease. p
i.e., current lags by a phase difference of 2
(d) Both A and V will increase. 1
hence it lags the voltage by 4 cycle
Ans : Thus option (b) is correct
When the resistor is connected in parallel with
the voltmeter then the equivalent resistance of 3. An iron needle is kept near a strong bar magnet. It
the circuit decreases hence the current flowing will experience
through circuit increases. As a result of increase in (a) A force of attraction and no torque.
the current through circuit the ammeter reading (b) A force of attraction and a torque.
increases while the reading of voltmeter decreases (c) A torque and no force.
as potential difference across it decreases.
(d) Neither a force nor a torque.
Thus option (a) is correct
Ans :
2. An ac voltage is applied across an ideal inductor. The iron needle experiences a non-uniform field due
The current in it to a bar magnet. There is induced magnetic moment
1
(a) Leads the voltage by a 4 k cycle. in the nail hence it experiences an attractive force.
Due to presence of magnetic moment, it will
1
(b) Lags the voltage by a 4 k cycle. experience a net torque also.
Thus option (b) is correct
1
(c) Leads the voltage by a 4 k cycle.
4. A galvanometer shows full scale deflection for a
1 current Ig . If a shunt of resistance S1 is connected to
(d) Lags the voltage by a 4 k cycle. the galvanometer, it gets converted into an ammeter
Ans : of range (0 - I) . When resistance of the shunt is
S
Let the A.C voltage applied across inductor be made, S2 its range becomes ^0 - 2I h . Then a S1 k is
2
e = e 0 sin (wt)
I + Ig I - Ig 6. A pure Si crystal having 5 # 1028 atoms m-3 is

(a) (b)
I - Ig I + Ig dopped with 1 ppm concentration of antimony. If
the concentration of holes in the doped crystal is
2I - Ig I - Ig
(c)
I - Ig
(d)
2I - Ig found to be 4.5 # 10 9 m-3 , the concentration (in m-3 )
of intrinsic charge carriers in Si crystal is about
Ans :
(a) 1.2 × 1015 (b) 1.5 × 1016
(c) 3.0 × 1015 (d) 2.0 × 1018
Ans :
Number of atoms in pure Si crystal
= 5 # 1028 atoms m-3
5 # 1028
Number of electrons, ne =
10 8
ne = 5 # 1022 m-3
S1 = Ig Hole concentration = 4.5 # 10 9 m-3
...(i)
G I - Ig We know that,
ni2 = ne # nh
= 5 # 1022 # 4.5 # 109
ni2 = 22.5 # 10 31 = 225 # 10 30
n = 15 # 1015 = 1.5 # 1016
This option (b) is correct
7. The potential energy between two nucleons inside a

S2 = Ig
nucleus is minimum at a distance of about
G 2I - Ig
(a) 0.8 fm (b) 1.6 fm
From equations (1) and (2)
(c) 2.0 fm (d) 2.8 fm
S1 = 2I - Ig
S2 I - Ig Ans :
Thus option (c) is correct The potential energy is minimum at a distance r0 of
about 0.8 fm.
5. A coil of area of cross-section 0.5 m2 is placed in Thus option (a) is correct
a magnetic field acting normally to its plane. The
field varies as B = 0.5t2 + 2t, where B is in tesla and 8. In a Young’s double-slit experiment in air, the fringe
tin seconds. The emf induced in the coil at t = 1 s is width is found to be 0.44 mm. If the entire setup is
4
(a) 0.5 V (b) 1.0 V immersed in water an = 3 k , the fringe width will
(c) 1.5 V (d) 3.0 V be
(a) 0.88 mm (b) 0.59 mm
Ans :
(c) 0.33 mm (d) 0.44 mm
magnetic flux f = BA cos 0 0
Ans :
f = B # A = (0.5t2 + 2t) (0.5)
lD
f = 0.25t2 + t, b = d ...(i)
- df -d When the whole setup is immersed in water then
Now, e = dt = dt (0.25t2 + t)
l l 3l
ll = m = 4 = 4
e = - [0.5t + 1] 3
eat t = 1 = - (0.5 # 1 + 1) = 1.5V ll D 3l D 3 3
b l = d = 4 d = 4 # b = 4 # 0.44 = 0.33 mm
This option (c) is correct
Thus option (c) is correct
9. The variation of the stopping potential (V0) with Ans :

the frequency ^v h of the incident radiation for four
(T.E) ground state = 13.6 eV
metals A, B, C and D is shown in the figure. For
the same frequency of incident radiation producing - 13.6
(T.E) first excited state = 4
= - 3.4 eV
photo-electrons in all metals, the kinetic energy of
photo-electrons will be maximum for metal (P.E) first excited state = 3.4 # 2 = - 6.8 eV
(K.E) first excited state = - (- 3.4 eV) = 3.4 eV

11. The electromagnetic waves used to purify water are

(a) Infrared rays (b) Ultraviolet rays
(c) X-rays (d) Gamma rays
Ans :
Ultraviolet rays are used to kill germs in water
purifiers.
(a) A (b) B Thus option (b) is correct
(c) C (d) D
Ans : 12. The focal lengths of the objective and the eyepiece
of a compound microscope are 1 cm and 2 cm
respectively. If the tube length of the microscope is
10 cm, the magnification obtained by the microscope
for most suitable viewing by relaxed eye is :
(a) 250 (b) 200
(c) 150 (d) 125
Ans :
When the image is formed at infinity,
L D
m = f ;f E
0 e
10 25
m = 1 # 2 = 125
Thus option (d) is correct
For Questions 13 to 16, two statements are given - one

labelled Assertion (A) and other labelled Reason (R).
Select the correct answer to these questions from the
As per the variation shown above, for the same options as given below.
frequency of incident radiation the work function
for metal A is minimum hence the kinetic energy of (a) If both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are
photo electrons will be maximum for metal A . true and Reason (R) is correct explanation of
This option (a) is correct Assertion (A).
(b) If both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true
10. The energy of an electron in the ground state of and Reason (R) is not the correct explanation
hydrogen atom is - 13.6 eV . The kinetic and of Assertion (A).
potential energy of the electron in the first excited (c) If Assertion (A) is true but Reason (R) is false.
state will be
(d) If both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are false.
(a) - 13.6 eV, 27.2 eV
(b) - 6.8eV, 13.6 eV
13. Assertion (A) : An alpha particle is moving towards
(c) 3.4 eV, - 6.8 eV a gold nucleus. The impact parameter is maximum
(d) 6.8 eV, - 3.4 eV for the scattering angle of 180°.
Reason (R) : The impact parameter in an alpha Ans :

particle scattering experiment does not depend The net field at point O is along OC due to vector
upon the atomic number of the target nucleus. sum of all the fields. Hence assertion is correct.
Ans : The potential at centre of ring will be zero.
Hence reason is incorrect.
When q = 180° , then the impact parameter would
be zero.
q
ze2 cot a 2 k 16. Assertion (A) : The energy of a charged particle
b = 4pe 0 E moving in a magnetic field does not change.
Reason (R) : It is because the work done by the
Impact parameter is directly proportional to atomic magnetic force on the charge moving in a magnetic
number of target nucleus. field is zero.
Hence both assertion and reason are incorrect.
Thus option (d) is correct Ans :
Yes, the energy of the moving charged particle in a
14. Assertion (A) : In a Young’s double-slit experiment, magnetic field does not change as no work is done
interference pattern is not observed when two by the magnetic force on the charged particle. Hence
coherent sources are infinitely close to each other. both assertion and reason are correct and reason is
Reason (R) : The fringe width is proportional to the correct explanation.
separation between the two sources. Thus option (a) is correct
Ans :
lD
b = d as d " 0, b " 3 & since the fringe width SECTION-B
is tending to infinity hence when two sources are
17. (a) Four-point charges of 1 mC, - 2C, mC, 1mC and
placed infinitely close then interference pattern
- 2 mC are placed at the corners A, B, C and D
would not be observed. Hence assertion is correct. respectively, of a square of side 30 cm. Find the
lD 1 net force acting on a charge of 4 mC placed at
b = d & b \ d & Reason incorrect.
the centre of the square.
or
15. Assertion (A) : Equal amount of positive and (b) Three-point charges, 1 pC each, are kept at the
negative charges are distributed uniformly on two vertices of an equilateral triangle of side 10 cm.
halves of a thin circular ring as shown in figure. The Find the net electric field at the centroid of
resultant electric field at the centre O of the ring is triangle.
along OC. Ans :
Reason (R) : It is so because the net potential at O
is not zero. (a)
R # 1 # 4 # 10-12
FvOA =
0.3 2
c 2 m
FvOC = - FvOA Here A is the area of cross-section of the wire and

-12 n is the number of free electrons per unit volume.
R # 4 # 2 # 10
FvOB = Each electron experiences an average magnetic force
0.3 2
c 2 m
fvm = - evvd # B
FvOB = - FvOB The number of free electrons in the small element
Net force on 4 μC due to charges at corners is considered is nAd , . Thus, the magnetic force on the
zero. wire of length dl is
dFv = (nAd ,) ^- evvd # Bv h
If we denote the length d , along the direction of the
current by cre, the above equation becomes
dFv = nAevd d v, # Bv
Using (i)
dFv = Id v, # Bv
The quantity I d v, is called a current element.
If a straight wire of length , carrying a current I
is placed in a uniform magnetic field Bv, the force
on it is
Fv = I v, # Bv
Yes , it is valid for zig-zag wire as,

Net electric field at the centroid of equilateral
triangle will be zero. Fvm = I (Lveff # Bv)
For zig-zag wire effective length of wire is considered
Evnet = 0 between initial and final point (Leff shortest distance
Thus option (a) is correct between initial and final point).
18. Derive an expression for magnetic force Fv acting on 19. The radius of curvature of a convex mirror is 30
a straight conductor of length L carrying current I cm. It forms an image of an object which is half the
in an external magnetic field Bv . Is it valid when size of the object. Find the separation between the
the conductor is in zig-zag form? Justify. object and the image.
Ans : Ans :
Consider a conducting wire, carrying a current I
is placed in a magnetic field B . Consider a small R = 2f
element dl of the wire. The free electrons drift with Here R = 30 cm
a speed Vd opposite to the direction of the current. 30 = 2f
The relation between the current I and the drift
speed Vd is f = 15 cm
from mirror formal
1 =1+1
f v u
v = +v
15 1 u ...(i)
hi = 1
Given h0 2
I = jA = nevd A ...(i) v = -1
u 2
from eq. (i) Here,

v = -1
1 2 K.E = 1.6 # 10 6 # 1.6 # 10-19
15
= 2.56 # 10-13 J
v =1
15 2 9 # 10 9 # 79 # (1.6 # 10-19) 2
r =
2.56 # 10-13
2v = 15
9 # 10 9 # 79 # (1.6 # 10-19) 2
15 =
v = 2 cm 2.56 # 10-13
-38
= 9 # 10 # 79 # 1.6 #-131.6 # 10
9
Now u =- v # 2 2.56 # 10
- 15
= = 9 # 79 # 10-16
2 #2
= 711 # 10-16 m
u = - 15 cm
So, separation R . 71.1 fm
15
d = 15 + 2
+
= 30 15
2
SECTION-C
= 45 cm 22. A photosensitive surface of work function 2.1 eV
2 is irradiated by radiation of wavelength 150 nm.
Calculate (i) the threshold wavelength, (ii) energy
20. Calculate the energy released/absorbed (in MeV) in (in eV) of an incident photon, and (iii) maximum
the nuclear reaction: kinetic energy of emitted photoelectron.
1
1 H + 13 H $ 12 H + 12 H Ans :
Given: m ^11 Hh 1.007825 u
Given,
m ^12 Hh = 2.014102 u (i) Threshold wavelength :
m ^13 Hh = 3.016049 u f 0 = 2.1 eV
Ans : 12400
E = l
1
1 H + 13 H $ 12 H + 12 H
12400
Mass of products = 2 (2.014102) u l = 2.1 = 5904.7 A
= 4.028204 u (ii) Energy of an incident photon
Mass of reactants = (3.016049 + 1.007825) u l = 150 nm = 1500 A
= 4.023874 u Energy of photon
12400
Mass of products 2 Mass of reactants E = eV
l (A)
So, energy is absorbed.
12400
Dm = 0.00433 E = 1500 eV = 8.26 eV
Eabs = 0.00433 # 931 MeV. (iii) Einstein’s photoelectric equation:
= 4.03123 MeV E = f 0 + KEmax
KEmax = E - f 0
21. A proton of energy 1.6 MeV approaches a gold
nucleus (Z = 79). Find the distance of its closest = 8.26 - 2.1
approach. KEmax = 6.16 eV
Ans :
Distance of closest approach 23. (a) (i) State Lenz’s Law. In a closed circuit, the
induced current opposes the change in
1 ze2 magnetic flux that produced it as per the
r = 4pe K.E
0
law of conservation of energy. Justify.
(ii) A metal rod of length 2 m is rotated with If B is directed along the tangent to every
a frequency 60 rev/s about an axis passing point on the perimeter L of a closed
through its centre and perpendicular to curve and is constant in magnitude along
its length. A uniform magnetic field of perimeter then
2T perpendicular to its plane of rotation BL = m 0 Ie
is switched-on in the region. Calculate the where Ie is the net current enclosed by the
e.m.f. induced between the centre and the closed circuit.
end of the rod. (ii) Net magnetic field at point P
or Bnet = Bdue to I + Bdue to I
1 2
(b) (i) State and explain Ampere’s circuital law.

(ii) Two long straight parallel wires separated
by 20 cm, carry 5 A and 10 A current
respectively, in the same direction. Find the
magnitude and direction of the net magnetic
field at a point midway between them.
Ans :
(a) (i) Lenz’s law states that the direction of the
electric current induced in a conductor
by a changing magnetic field is such that
the magnetic field created by the induced
current opposes change in the initial
magnetic field. m 0 2I m0 2 # 5
In a closed circuit, there will be extra effort B1 = 4p r 1 = 4p
10-1
to work against opposing force. This extra
effort is transformed into electrical energy (perpendicularly downward)
which satisfy the conservation of energy. m 0 2I m 0 2 # 10
B2 = 4p r 2 = 4p
(ii) Given l = 2m, 10-1
w = 60 # 2prad/s = 120p rad/s (perpendicularly upward)
B = 2T Hence,
m0 2
Emf between the centre and the end of the Bnet = 4p -1 (10 - 5)
10
rod is given by (perpendicularly upward)
m0 2 # 5
=
4p # 10-1
= 10-7 # 10-1 = 10-5 T

10
Bwr2 24. (i) Define ‘temperature coefficient of resistance’ of

e = 2 a metal.
(ii) Show the variation of resistivity of copper with
2 # 120p # (1) 2
e = = 120p volt rise in temperature.
2
(iii) The resistance of a wire is 10 W at 27 °C.
or Find its resistance at -73 °C. The temperature
(b) (i) Ampere’s circuital law-Ampere’s law states coefficient of resistance of the material of the
that the path integral or line integral wire is 1.70 # 10-4° C-1 .
over a closed loop in any magnetic field B Ans :
produced by a current distribution is given
(i) Temperature coefficient of resistance is defined
by
as resistance change factor per degree celsius of
# Bv.dlv = m0 I temperature change.
DR
where I refers to the current enclosed by a = R DT
0
the loop.
(ii) Variation of resistivity of copper with

temperature
(iii) Given,
R1 = 10W at T1 = 27°C
a = 1.7 # 10-4° C-1
R2 = ? at T2 = - 73°C
R2 = R1 ^1 + aDT h
R2 = 10 61 + 1.7 # 10-4 ^- 73—27h@
R2 = 10 61 - 1.7 # 10-4 # 100@
R2 = 10 61 - .017@
= 10 # 0.983 = 9.83 W
25. Name the part of the electromagnetic spectrum During positive cycle diode D1 is on and D2 is off.
which are The current will flow through load resistance ^RLh
(i) stopped by face mask worn by welders. from A to B . For negative cycle diode D2 is on
(ii) used in detectors in Earth satellites. and D1 is off but direction of current through load
resistance ^RLh is still from A to B . The output is
(iii) used in ‘short-wave band’ in communication.
always in same direction irrespective direction of
Also write the order of wavelengths, in each case. input.
Ans :
(i) UV rays produced by welding arcs are 27. Explain the following giving reasons:
stopped by face mask worn by welders. (a) A doped semiconductor is electrically neutral.
1nm 1 l uv 1 400 nm (b) In a p-n junction under equilibrium, there is no
(ii) Infrared detectors are used in Earth satellites. net current.
700 nm 1 lIR 1 1 mm (c) In a diode, the reverse current is practically not
(iii) Radio waves are used in short wave band dependent on the applied voltage.
communication. lR > 0.1 m
Ans :
26. (a) Explain the characteristics of a p-n junction diode (a) In a doped semiconductor the total positive
that makes it suitable for its use as a rectifier. charge is equal to total negative charge so its is
(b) With the help of a circuit diagram, explain the electrically neutral.
working of a full wave rectifier. (b) Under equilibrium condition the diffusion
current is equal to the drift current in
Ans :
magnitude and they are in opposite direction.
(a) An ideal p - n junction diode is conducting So net current is zero.
or act as short circuit. When forward bias is (c) Under reverse bias, drift current is very small
applied and it becomes open at reverse bias. It because it is due to the flow of minority charge
acts as switch. So this allow current to pass in carrier. Increasing voltage does increase the
one direction and block in opposite direction minority carrier density so current remains
(b) Full wave rectifier : It convert A.C. current to constant with respect to applied voltage.
D.C. current
28. An electron moving with a velocity (i) The critical angle for glass is q1 and that for
vv = (1.0 # 107 m/s) i + (0.5 # 107 m/s) jt enters a water is q2 . The critical angle for glass-water
region of uniform magnetic field Bv = (0.5 mT) jt surface would be (given amg = 1.5, amW = 1.33 )
Find the radius of the circular path described by it. (a) less than q2 (b) between q1 and q2
While rotating does the electron trace a linear path
(c) greater than q2 (d) less than q1
too? If so, calculate the linear distance covered by it
during the period of one revolution. (ii) When a ray of light of wavelength l and
frequency v is refracted into a denser medium
Ans : (a) l and v both increase.
Given, (b) l increases but v is unchanged.
vv = (1.0 # 107 it) + (0.5 # 107 jt) (c) l decreases but v is unchanged.
Bv = ^0.5 # 10 - 3h tesla (d) l and v both decrease.
(iii) (a) The critical angle for a ray of light passing
m e = 9.1 # 10-31 kg
from glass to water is minimum for
qe = 1.6 # 10-19 C (a) red colour (b) blue colour
Radius of path, (c) yellow colour (d) violet colour
mv
R = qB
or
Where v = is component of velocity perpendicular to (b) Three beams of red, yellow and violet
magnetic field. colours are passed through a prism, one
9.1 # 10-31 # 1 # 107 by one under the same condition. When
R =
1.6 # 10-19 # 0.5 # 10-3 the prism is in the position of minimum
-31 + 7 + 22 deviation, the angles of refraction from the
= 9.1 # 10 second surface are rR, rY and rV respectively.
0.8
Then
R = 11.375 # 10-2 m = 11.375 cm (a) rV 1 rY 1 rR (b) rY 1 rR 1 rV
Since the electron has perpendicular and parallel (c) rR 1 rY 1 rV (d) rR 1 rY 1 rV
components of velocity, it will move on helical path, (iv) A ray of light is incident normally on a prism
hence it will trace a linear path too virtually. The ABC of refractive index 2 as shown in figure.
linear distance covered by it during one period of After it strikes face AC, it will
revolution is equal to pitch ^P h
2pm
P = V< # T &T = qB 0
0.5 # 107 # 2p # 9.1 # 10-31

P =
1.6 # 10-19 # 0.5 # 10-3
-24
= 18.2p # 10-22
1.6 # 10
= 11.375p # 10-2 m or 11.375p cm
Section C (a) go straight undeviated

(b) refract and go out of the prism
29. A prism is an optical medium bounded by three
refracting plane surfaces. A ray of light suffers (c) just graze along the face AC
successive refractions on passing through its two (d) undergo total internal reflection
surfaces and deviates by a certain angle from its Ans :
original path. The refractive index of the material
of the prism is given by m = sin ^ A 2 d h I sin A2 If the
+ m
1 2
(i) sin q1 = mg = 3
angle of incidence on the second surface is greater
than an angle called critical angle, the ray will not 2
be refracted from the second surface and is totally q1 = sin-1 a 3 k
internally reflected.
1 3 in an external electric field, opposite charges appear

sin q2 = mW = 4
on the two surfaces of the slab perpendicular
to electric field. Due to this an electric field is
3
q2 = sin-1 a 4 k established inside the dielectric.
The capacitance of a capacitor is determined by
mW 4#2 8 the dielectric constant of the material that fills the
sin q 3 = mg = 3 # 3 = 9
space between the plates. Consequently, the energy
8 storage capacity of a capacitor is also affected. Like
q 3 = sin-1 a 9 k resistors, capacitors can also be arranged in series
Thus option (c) is correct and/or parallel.
(i) Which of the following is a polar molecule?
(ii) v = frequency remain unchanged for light ray
(a) O2 (b) H2
in different medium.
(c) N2 (d) HCI
l
l' = m (ii) Which of the following statements about
dielectrics is correct?
(a) A polar dielectric has a net dipole moment
(iii) (a)
in absence of an external electric field which
mW 1 gets modified due to the induced dipoles.
sin qC = mg = m
(b) The net dipole moments of induced dipoles
Refractive index of glass water is maximum is along the direction of the applied electric
for violet colour. So, critical angle is field.
minimum for violet colour. (c) Dielectrics contain free charges.
(d) The electric field produced due to induced
or surface charges inside a dielectric is along
the external electric field.
(b) For second surface, angle of emergence is
angle of refraction. (iii) When a dielectric slab is inserted between the
So rV 2 r Y 2 rR plates of an isolated charged capacitor, the
Thus option (c) is correct energy stored in it:
(iv) (a) Increases and the electric field inside it also
increases.
(b) Decreases and the electric field also
decreases.
(c) Decreases and the electric field increases.
(d) Increases and the electric field decreases.
(iv) (a) An air-filled capacitor with plate area A
and plate separation d has capacitance C0 .
A slab of dielectric constant K , area A
d
and thickness a 5 k is inserted between the
plates. The capacitance of the capacitor
will become
4K K+5
(a) : (b) : 4 D C0
5K + 1 D 0
q = 60º C
5K K+4
1 1 (c) : (d) : 5K D C0
sin qC = m = 4K + 1 D 0
C
2
qC = 45º (b) Two capacitors of capacitances 2C0 and
6C0 are first connected in series and then in
q > qC, so the ray will undergo total internal
parallel across the same battery. The ratio
reflection at AC.
of energies stored in series combination to
that in parallel is
1 1
30. Dielectrics play an important role in design of (a) 4 (b) 6
capacitors. The molecules of a dielectric may be
2 3
polar or non-polar. When a dielectric slab is placed (c) 15 (d) 16
Ans : When capacitors is connected in the series

(i) HCl is a polar molecule combination the equivalent resistance is
given by
2C0 (6C0) 12C 20
C1 = = = 3 C0
2C0 + 6C0 8C0 2
energy stored in capacitor
1
U = 2 CV2
because its one end is positive, other end is 1 3
U1 = ` 2 j` 2 C0 j V
2
negative.
U2 1
Thus option (d) is correct ` 2 j (8C0) V2
(ii) The net dipole moment of induced dipoles is
along the direction of the applied electric field U1 = 3
because dipole moment is along negative to U2 16
positive charge Thus option (d) is correct
SECTION-E
31. (a) (i) A plane light wave propagating from a rarer
into a denser medium, is incident at an angle
i on the surface separating two media. Using
Huygen’s principle, draw the refracted wave
(iii) For isolated charge capacitor Q is constant and hence verify Snell’s law of refraction.
C l = KC (ii) In a Young’s double slit experiment, the
slits are separated by 0.30 mm and the
Q Q screen is kept 1.5 m away. The wavelength
Vl = = =V
Cl KC K of light used is 600 nm. Calculate the
E distance between the central bright fringe
El = K and the 4th dark fringe.
The electric field decreases or
1Q 1 Q
2 2
U (b) (i) Discuss briefly diffraction of light from
U l = 2 l = 2 KC = K
C a single slit and draw the shape of the
The energy also decreases diffraction pattern.
Thus option (b) is correct (ii) An object is placed between the pole and
(iv) (a) the focus of a concave mirror. Using mirror
e0 A eA formula, prove mathematically that it
Cl = t and C0 = d0 produces a virtual and an enlarged image.
d-t+ K
Ans :
= e0 A (a)
d d
d - 5 + 5K (i) Laws of Refracting using Huygen’s Principle
= e0 A = e0 A
4d + d d + 1
5 5K 5a 4 Kk
e 0 A5K = (5K) C0
d (4K + 1) 4K + 1
(iv) (b) When the capacitors of is connected in
parallel combination than equivalent
capacitors is given by
C2 = 2C0 + 6C0 = 8C0
where, XXl = two media separating surface 7 # 6 # 10-7 # 1.5

XD =
AB = incident wavefront 2 # 3 # 10-4
CD = refracted wavefront = 10.5 # 10-3 m

+i = incident angle = 10.5 nm
+r = refracted angle or
c1 = speed of light in rarer medium (b)
c2 = speed of light in denser medium (i) The bending of light from the corner of small
The point P on incident wavefront is reached obstacles or apertures is called diffraction of
at Q on refracted wavefront in time t as taken light.
by point B to reach at C and point A to reach Diffraction due to a Single Slit :
at D . When a parallel beam of light is incident
OQ normally on a single slit, the beam is diffracted
i.e., t = PO + from the slit and the diffraction pattern
c1 c2
consists of a very intense central maximum and
In TAPO , sin i = PO secondary maxima and minima on either side
AO
alternately.
PO = AO sin i If a is width of slit and q the angle of diffraction,
OQ then for maxima
In TCQO , sin r =
OC 1
a sin q = `n + 2 j l
OQ = OC sin r
Hence, t = AO sin i + OC sin r n = 1, 2, 3
c1 c2
The position of n th minima is given by
(AC - AO) sin r
= AO sin i + a sin q = nl,
c1 c2
= AO b sin i - sin r l + AC sin r Where n = ±1, ±2, ±3, .... for various minima
c1 c2 c2 on either side of principal maxima.
AO and AC independent on time, hence we Width of Central Maximum:
get The width of central maximum is the separation
sin i - sin r = 0 between the first minima on either side.
c1 c2 The condition of minima is
sin i = sin r a sin q = + nl (n = 1, 2, 3, ......) .
c1 c2 The angular position of the first minimum (n = 1)
on either side of central maximum is given by
c1 = sin i
c2 sin r a sin q = + l
l
The ratio of speed of light in rarer medium q = + sin-1 a a k
to denser medium is called refractive index of
l
optical medium. Half-width of central maximum, q = sin-1 a a k
i.e., m = c1 Total width of central maximum,
c2
l
b = 2q = 2 sin a a k
-1
Hence, m = sin i
sin r
Linear width : If D is the distance of the screen
This is Snell’s law. from slit and y is the distance of nth minima
^2n - 1h lD from the centre of the principal maxima, then
(ii) Position of dark fringe XD = 2d
y
For fourth dark n = 4 sin q - tan ° - q = D
(2 # 4 - 1) lD Now,
XD = = a 7lD k
2d 2d
l = a sin q - aq
D = 1.5 m, d = 0.30 mm, l = 600 nm ln yn
On putting these value in above equation q = a =D
lD 32. (a) (i) Draw equipotential surfaces for an electric

Linear half-width of central maximum, y = a
dipole.
Total linear width of central maximum, (ii) Two-point charges q1 and q2 are located at
2lD rv1 and rv2 respectively in an external electric
b = 2y = a
field Ev . Obtain an expression for the
potential energy of the system.
(iii) The dipole moment of a molecule is 10-30
cm. It is placed in an electric field Ev of 105
V/m such that its axis is along the electric
field. The direction of t is suddenly changed
by 60° at an instant. Find the change in
the potential energy of the dipole, at that
instant.
or
(b) (i) A thin spherical shell of radius R has a
uniform surface charge density s . Using
Gauss’s law, deduce an expression for
electric field (i) outside and (ii) inside the
shell.
(ii) Two long straight thin wires AB and CD
have linear charge densities 10 mC/m , and
- 20 mC/m respectively. They are kept
(ii) parallel to each other at a distance 1 m.
Find magnitude and direction of the net
electric field at a point midway between
them.
Ans :
(a)
(i)
Using mirror equation

1 =1+ 1
-f v -u
(ii) Potential energy of a charge q at r in an
1 +1 =1 external field = qV ^r h
-f u v
Work done on q1 to bringing it from infinity to
uf r1 against the electric field Ê h = q1 V ^r1 h
v = - Work done on q2 to bringing it from infinity to
f u
r2 against the electric field Ê h = q2 V ^r2 h
f >u
Work done on q2 against the electric field of q1
v will always be positive i.e., virtual and erect q1 q2
f is 4pe r
Also, magnification, M =
0 12
u-f
(where r12 is distance between the charges)
u 1 f Numerator will always be greater than
Potential energy of the system = the total work
denominator
done in assembling the configuration
Hence, M 2 1
Enlarged image will be formed. q1 q2
= q1 V (r1) + q2 V (r2) +
4pe 0 r12
(iii) The potential energy of a dipole in electric field

is given by
U = - Pv.Ev
U = - PE cos q
Ui = - PE cos q
= - PE
Uf = - PE cos 60º
Net electric field at P, E = ECD + EAB
= - PE
2 = Kl1 + Kl2
2r 2r
DU = Uf - Ui
9 # 10 9
- E = +
1 [10 20] # 10
-6
= PE + PE 2` 2 j
2
= PE E = 9 # 30 # 10 3
2
E = 270 # 10 3
-30
= 10 # 10 5
E = 2.7 # 105 N/C
2
= 5 # 10-26 J 33. (a) (i) You are given three circuit elements X,
or Y and Z. They are connected one by one
(b) across a given ac source. It is found that V
(i) Consider a thin spherical shell of radius R and I are in phase for element X.V leads I
[Surface charge density by ^ p4 h for element Y while I leads V by ^ p4 h
Charge on sphere for element Z. Identify elements X, Y and
Z.
(ii) Establish the expression for impedance of
circuit when elements, X, Y and Z are
connected in series to an ac source. Show
the variation of current in the circuit with
the frequency of the applied ac source.
(iii) In a series LCR circuit, obtain the
conditions under which (1) impedance is
minimum and (2) wattless current flows in
the circuit.
Here q = sA or
q = s4pR 2 (b) (i) Describe the construction and working of a
transformer and hence obtain the relation
For : r 2 R for ^ vv h terms of number of turns of primary
s
p
Using Gauss’s law and secondary.

qin (ii) Discuss four main causes of energy loss in a
# Ev.dsv =
e0 real transformer.
E # ds cos 0c = sA Ans :
E (4pr ) = s (4pR )
2 2
(a)
sR 2 (i) If an ac source applied across resistor, then
E = 2 current will be in phase of voltage.
r
1. If an ac source applied across the capacitor,
For: r 1 R
then current will lead with voltage.
qin
# Ev.dsv =
e0
2. If an ac source applied across the inductor,
then current will lag with voltage.
But qin = 0 6shell@ So X is resistor, Y is inductor and Z is
capacitor.
E =0
(ii) Consider a resistor of resistance R, capacitor of or

capacitance C and an inductor of inductance L (b)
is connected with a ac source V = V0 sin ^2pft h (i) Construction : It consists of laminated core
in series given below of soft iron, on which two coils of insulated
copper wire are separately, wound. These coils
are kept insulated from each other and from
the iron-core, but are coupled through mutual
induction. The number of turns in these coils
are different. Out of these coils one coil is called
primary coil and other is called the secondary
coil. The terminals of primary coils are
connected to ac mains and the terminals of the
secondary coil are connected to external circuit
in which alternating current of desired voltage
is required. Transformers are of two types:
From Phasor diagram

V = VR2 + (VL - VC ) 2
V = (IR) 2 + I2 (XL - XC ) 2
V = IZ
IZ = (IR) 2 + I2 (XL - XC ) 2
Z = R2 + (XL - XC ) 2
XL = 2pfL
1 2
Z = R2 + a2pfL - 2pfL k
(iii) 1. We know that impedance
Z = R2 + (XL - XC ) 2
For impedance
Z = Zmin
XL = XC
1
2pfL = 2pfC
1. Step up Transformer: It transforms the
1 1
f = 2p alternating low voltage to alternating high
LC voltage and in this the number of turns in
Hence, for minimum impedance secondary coil is more than that in primary
XL = XC or Z = R coil î.e., Ns 2 Nph .
2. Step down Transformer: It transforms the
2. Wattless current I1 = I sin f alternating high voltage to alternating low
R voltage and in this the number of turns in
And cos f = Z
secondary coil is less than that in primary
For Wattless current coil î.e., Ns 2 Nph .
Working: When alternating current source
cos f = 0 , it means R = 0 . is connected to the ends of primary coil,
the current changes continuously in the

primary coil; due to which the magnetic
flux linked with the secondary coil changes
continuously, therefore the alternating emf
of same frequency is developed across the
secondary.
Let Np be the number of turns in primary
coil, Ns the number of turns in secondary
coil and f the magnetic flux linked with
each turn. We assume that there is no
leakage of flux so that the flux linked with
each turn of primary coil and secondary coil
is the same. According to Faraday’s laws
the emf induced in the primary coil.
Df
eP = - NP Dt ...(i)
and emf induced in the secondary coil.
Df
es = - Ns Dt ..(ii)
From (i) and (ii)
eS = NS
eP NP ...(iii)
For step up transformer es 2 eP as NS 2 NP
For step down transformer eS < eP as NS < NP
(ii) Energy Losses and Efficiency of a Transformer
1. Copper Losses: When current flows in
primary and secondary coils, heat is
produced. The power loss due to Joule’s
heating in coils will be I2 R , where R is
resistance and i is the current.
2. Iron Losses (Eddy currents): The varying
magnetic flux produces eddy currents in
iron-core, which leads to dissipation of
energy in the core of transformer. This is
minimised by using a laminated iron core
or by cutting slots in the plate.
3. Flux Leakage: In actual transformer, the
coupling of primary and secondary coils is
never perfect, i.e., the whole of magnetic
flux generated in primary coil is never
linked up with the secondary coil. This
causes loss of energy.
4. Hysteresis Loss: The alternating current
flowing through the coils magnetises and
demagnetises the iron core repeatedly.
The complete cycle of magnetisation and
demagnetisation is termed as hysteresis.
During each cycle some energy is dissipated.
However, this loss of energy is minimised
by choosing silicon-iron core having a thin
hysteresis loop.

Chap 1 Electric Charges and Fields Page 21
CHAPTER 1
Electric Charges and Fields
SUMMARY Also, 1 = 9 109 N - m2 /C2

4pe 0 #
where, e 0 = permittivity of free space

1. ELECTRIC CHARGE = 8.85419 # 1012 C2 /N - m2
Charge is the property associated with matter due The force between two charges q1 and q 2 located at a
to which it produces and experiences electric and distance in a medium other than free space may be
magnetic effect. Benjamin Franklin introduced two expressed as
types of charges namely positive charge and negative qq
charge based on frictional electricity produced by F = 1 $ 122
4pe 0 r
rubbing two unlike objects like amber and wood.
In vector form, Fv = 1 $ q1 q2 rt
Properties of Electric Charge 4pe 0 rv 2
Electric charge have the following properties-
Electrostatic forces are conservatives forces.
1. Additivity of Charge : Charges are scalars and
they add up like real numbers. It means of a system 3. PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION OF ELECTROSTATIC
consists of n charges q1 , q2 , q3 , ....., qn then total FORCES
charge of the system will be q1 + q2 + q3 + ..... + qn
. This principle states that the net electric force
experienced by a given charge particle q 0 due to a
2. Quantisation of Charge : The total charge on system of charged particles is equal to the vector sum
a body is integral multiple of fundamental of all the forces exerted on it due to all the other
charge e , i.e., q = ! ne where, n is an integer
charged particles of the system.
(n = 1, 2, 3, .....).
3. Conservation of Charge : The total charge of an
isolated system is always conserved, i.e., charge
cannot be created or destroyed. It transfer from
one body to another body.
4. Like charge repel each other while unlike charge
attract each other.
2. COULOMB’S LAW
It states that the electrostatic force of attraction or
repulsion acting between two stationary point charges
is given by,
i.e., Fv0 = Fv01 + Fv02 + Fv03 + ..... + Fv0n

qq
F = 1 122
4pe 0 r Fv0 = 1 = q1 q03 rv01 + q2 q03 rv02 + .... + qn q03 rv0nG
4pe 0 rv01 rv02 rv0n
where, q1 and q2 are the stationary point charges and
r is the separation between them in air or vacuum. where, rv01 = rv0 - rv01
Page 22 Electric Charges and Fields Chap 1
Fv01 = Force on q0 due to q1 .

Similarly, rv0n = rv0 - rvn
Fv0n = Force on q0 due to qn
n
q qi
Hence, Fv0 = 0 =/ (rv - rvi)G
4pe 0 i = 1 rv0 - rvi 3 0
Electric field
IfFv is the force acting on infinitesimal positive test
v = Fv , electric
charge q 0 then electric field strength E
(c)
q0
field can be given as
v
Ev = lim F
q " 0 q0
0
4. ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

Electric field lines are a way of pictorially mapping the
electric field around a configuration of charge. These
lines start from positive charge and end on negative
charge. The tangent on these lines at any point gives
the direction of field at that point.
(d)
Electric field lines due to positive and negative charge
and their combinations are shown as below:
Electric Field Lines Due to Combination of Charge
5. ELECTRIC FLUX
The total number of electric field lines crossing (or
diverging) a surface normally is called electric flux.
Electric flux surface element TSv is
v v
Tf = E $ TS = ETS cos q
where, Ev is electric field strength.
Electric flux through entire closed surface is
(a) f = # Ev $ dSv
S
6. ELECTRIC DIPOLE
Two point charges of same magnitude and opposite
nature separated by a small distance altogether form
an electric dipole.
pv = q $ 2lv
It is a vector quantity, directed from - q and + q .
7. ELECTRIC FIELD DUE TO A SHORT DIPOLE

A point P on axis,
(b) E = 1 2p
4pe 0 r3
At a point Pl on equatorial plane,
Electric Field Lines Due to Positive and Negative
p
Charge El = - 1 3
4pe 0 r
Torque on an electric dipole placed in a uniform OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS

electric field (E ) is given by,
t = p#E 1. The magnitude of the electric field due to a point
t = pE sin q charge object at a distance of 4.0 m is 9 N/C. From
the same charged object the electric field of magnitude
8. GAUSS’S THEOREM 16 N/C will be at a distance of
It states that the total electric flux through a closed (a) 1 m (b) 2 m
surface is equal to 1 times the net charge enclosed (c) 3 m (d) 6 m
e0
by the surface Ans : OD 2023
Here, distance, r = 4 m
i.e., #S Ev = dSv = e10 / q kq
E = = 9 N/C
Formulae for Electric Field Strength Calculated from r2
kq
Electric field due to infinitely long straight wire of =9 ...(i)
(4) 2
charge per unit length l at a distance r from the
wire is kq
and = 16 ...(ii)
r2
E = 1 2l where,r is the distance at which the given charge is
4pe 0 r
Electric field strength due to an infinite plane sheet of kept
charge per unit are s is Divide Eq. (i) by (ii), we get
r2 = 9
E = s , 16
2e 0 42
independent of distance of a point from the sheet. r = 3m
Electric field strength due to a uniformly charged Thus (c) is correct option.
thin spherical shell or conducting sphere of radius R
2. A point P lies at a distance x from the mid point of
having total charge q , at a distance r form centre is
an electric dipole on its axis. The electric potential at
1. At external point Eext = 1 $ q (r > R) Point P is proportional to
4pe 0 r2
(a) 12 (b) 13
1 q x x
2. At surface point ES =
4pe 0 R2
(c) 14 (d) 1
3. At internal point E int = 0 . x x1/2
Ans : Foreign 2021, SQP 2012
" "
The electric potential due to electric dipole, p = qd
at a distance x from the mid-point of the dipole is
***********
given as :
p cos q
V = 1 #
4p e 0 x2
" "
where, q is the angle vector r forms with vector d .
Hence, V a 12
x
Thus (a) is correct option.
3. Ampere-hour is unit of
(a) Power (b) Charge
(c) Energy (d) Potential difference
Ans : OD 2020
An ampere-hour is the amount of energy charge in

battery that will allow one ampere of current to flow
for one hour.
Thus (b) is correct option.
4. When a body is connected to the earth, then electrons Ans : Delhi 2017
from the earth, flow into the body. It means that the One e.s.u of charge or one stat-coulomb is that charge
body is which repels an identical charge in vacuum at a distance
(a) unchanged (b) an insulator of one centimetre from it with a force of 1 dyne.
(c) positively charged (d) negatively charged 1 coulomb = 3 # 109 e.s.u
Ans : Delhi 2021

When a positively charged body is connected to the 9. The specific charge of electron is
earth, then electrons from the earth flow into the (a) 1.8 # 10-11 C/kg (b) 1.8 # 10-19 C/kg
body. (c) 1.9 # 10-19 C/kg (d) none of these
Thus (c) is correct option.
Ans : OD 2017, SQP 2011
5. When a body is charged, its mass- Charge an electron
Specific charge of electron =
(a) increase Mass of the electron
-19
(b) decrease = 1.6 # 10 -31
9.1 # 10
(c) remains same
= 0.1758 # 10-12 C/kg
(d) may increase or decrease
= 1.758 # 1011 C/kg
Ans : Foreign 2018, Delhi 2010
Charging of a body depends upon transfer of electrons . 1.8 # 1011 C/kg

so, if a body becomes negatively charged it will gain Thus (a) is correct option.
electrons that is its mass will increase and when body 10. Two charged spheres separated by a distance d exert
becomes positively charged it loose the electron that some force F on each other. If they are immersed in a
is its mass will decrease. liquid of dielectric constant 4, then what is the force
Thus (d) is correct option. exerted, if all other conditions are same?
6. 1 stat-coulomb = .......... coulomb. (a) 2F (b) 4F
(a) 3 # 10 9 (b) 3 # 10 - 9
(c) F (d) F
2 4
(c) 1 # 10 9 (d) 1 # 10 - 9
3 3 Ans : Foreign 2011, Comp 2006
Ans : Delhi 2005 Distance between two charged sphere = d
One stat-coulomb of charge is that charge which when
and dielectric constant of liquid, K =4
placed at a distance of 1 cm in air from an equal and
similar charge repels it and it is also repelled by it Force between two charged spheres,
with a force of one dyne. 1q1 q2
F = ...(1)
1 stat-coulomb = 3 # 109 coulomb 4pe 0 r2
and force between two charged spheres when they are
immersed in a dielectric medium,
7. The electrostatic field is 1q1 q2
Fl = 1 #
(a) conservative (b) non-conservative K 4pe 0 r2
(c) both (a) and (b) (d) none of these From Eq. (1), we get
Ans : SQP 2000 Fl = F = F
K 4
A force is conservative if the work done by the force
Thus (d) is correct option.
in displacing a particle from one point to another is
independent of the path followed by the particle and 11. Three point charges are placed at the corners of an
depends only on the end points. Hence, electrostatic equilateral triangle. Assuming only electrostatic forces
force is conservative force. are acting, the system
Thus (a) is correct option. (a) Can never be in equilibrium
8. 1 coulomb charge = .......... esu. (b) Will be in equilibrium if charges rotate about the
(a) 3 # 10 9 (b) 9 # 10 9 centre of the triangle
(c) 8.85 # 10 - 12 (d) none of these (c) Will be in equilibrium if charges have same
magnitude but different signs
(d) Will be in equilibrium if charges have different Q:Q Q2

F1 = k : 2 = k:
magnitudes and different signs (2x) 4x2
Ans : OD 2017, Comp 2011 where 2x is distance between the point charges.
When three point charges are placed at the corners of Similarly, force at the same charge Q due to charge q
an equilateral triangle, then some electrostatic forces at the centre,
will act on the system. As a result of this, the system qQ
can never be in equilibrium. F2 = k : 2
x
Thus (a) is correct option. For equilibrium, sum of these two forces should be
12. Three charges, each equal to + q , are placed at the equal to zero. Therefore,
corners of an equilateral triangle. If the force between Q2 qQ
0 = k: +k: 2
any two charges is F , then net force on either charge 4x2 x
will be Q
or q =-
(a) 2F (b) 3F 4
(c) 2F (d) 3F
14. Permittivity of free space is
Ans : SQP 2004
(a) 9 # 109 mF-1 (b) 1.6 # 10-19 C
First charge, q1 = q
(c) 8.85 # 10-12 Fm-1 (d) 8.85 # 10-9 Fm-1
Second charge, q2 = q
Ans : OD 2006
Third charge, q3 = q The permittivity of free space (vacuum) is a physical
Force between any two charge F1 = F2 = F constant equal to approximately 8.85 # 10-12
farad per meter. It is symbolized e 0 . It is constant
Force acting on a charge due to other two charges,
of proportionality that exists between electric
placed at the corners of an equilateral triangle is F
displacement and electric field intensity in free space.
and it is acting at an angle 60c.
Therefore net force on either charge
15. Columbian force is
= F 12 + F 22 + 2F1 F2 cos q
(a) central force (b) electric force
= F 2 + F 2 + 2F.F cos 60c
(c) both a and b (d) none of these
2 2 2
= F + F + 2F # 0.5 Ans : Delhi 2016
= 3F 2
Columbian force also called electrostatic or electric
force because this force are working between two
= 3F
charges. This force is central in nature because the
Thus (d) is correct option. force between the charges acts along the line joining
13. A charge q is placed at the centre of the line joining the centers of two charges.
two equal point charges each equal to + Q . The system Thus (c) is correct option.
of three charges will be in equilibrium, if q is equal to 16. The electric field at a distance 2 cm from the centre
Q Q of a hollow spherical conducting shell of radius 4 cm
(a) - (b) +
4 4
having a charge of 2 # 10-3 C on its surface, is
Q Q
(c) - (d) + (a) zero (b) 1.1 # 1010 V -m-1
2 2
Ans : Foreign 2009 (c) 4.5 # 10-10 V -m-1 (d) 4.5 # 10+10 V -m-1
Charge placed at centre = q Ans : SQP 2014
Two equal point charges = + Q Distance of point from centre, x = 2 cm

Electrostatic force at charge Q due to the other charge Radius of shell, r = 4 cm
at Q . Electric field inside a hollow spherical conducting
shell is zero as potential inside the spherical shell is
same at all points.
17. Two point charges each equal to 2 mC are 0.5 m apart. (c) s (d) 1 se 0
If both of them exist inside vacuum, then electrostatic 2e 0 2
force between them is Ans : Delhi 2004
(a) 0.144 N (b) 0.288 N The electric field at a point near an infinite thin sheet
(c) 1.44 N (d) 2.88 N of charged conductor is given by,
Ans : SQP 2006 Ev = s
2e 0
-6
First charge, q1 = 2 mC = 2 # 10 C
where, s = Surface Charge Density
Second charge, q2 = 2 mC = 2 # 10-6 C
e 0 = Permittivity of free space
and distance between the charge, r = 0.5 m
Electrostatic force between two point charges in
20. The electric field required to keep a water drop of
vacuum is given by,
mass m just to remain suspended, when charged with
qq one electron, is
F = k : 1 22
r
(a) m g (b) e m g
Here, K = Electrostatic force constant
mg
(c) (d) e m
= 9 # 109 N - m2 - C-2 e g
(2 # 10-6) # (2 # 10-6) Ans : Foreign 2015
Hence, F = (9 # 109) #
(0.5) 2 Mass of water drop = m
= 0.144 N Weight of water drop, w = mg
Thus (a) is correct option. Charge on drop, q =e
18. Two point charge Q and - 2Q are placed at some where, e = Charge on one electron
distance apart. If the electric field at the location of Electrostatic force on the water drop due to electric
Q is E , then the electric field at the location of - 2Q field,
will be
= qE = eE
(a) - E (b) - 3E
2 2 Since, the water drop is to remain suspended due to
(c) - E (d) - 2E electrostatic force, therefore weight of the water drop
Ans : OD 2008, Delhi 2004
should be equal to the electrostatic force.
First charge, q1 = Q Thus, mg = eE

mg
Second charge, q2 = - 2Q or E =
e
and electric field at the location of first charge due to (where, E = Electric field required)
second charge only,
E1 = E
21. The S.I. unit of electric field Ev is
Electric field at the location of Q due to second charge,
-2
q (a) Cm (b) NC-1
E1 = k : 22 \ q2
r (c) Am (d) Vm-1
E1 = q2 = - 2Q = - 2 Ans : OD 2009
Therefore,
E2 q1 Q The electric field intensity at any point due to source
charge is defined as the force experienced per unit
E2 = - E1 = E positive charge placed at that point without disturbing
2 2
(where, E2 = Electric field at the location of - 2Q ) the source charge i.e.,
Thus (a) is correct option. E = F = N = NC-1

q C
19. The electric field at a point near an infinite thin sheet Since, it is equivalent to volt per meter (Vm-1).
of charged conductor is Thus (b,d) is correct option.
(a) e 0 s (b) s 22. Electric intensity due to an electric dipole varies with
e0
distance r as E \ rn , where n is equal to
(a) 0 (b) - 1 E = s
2e 0
(c) - 2 (d) - 3
Therefore, force on the ball due to conducting sheet,
Ans : SQP 2011
qs
Electric intensity due to an electric dipole, F = qE = q# s =
2e 0 2e 0
E ? rn ...(1) In equilibrium, horizontal component of tension in
Electric intensity due to an electric dipole varies thread is equal to the force on ball due to conducting
inversely as cube of he distance of he point, sheet i.e.,
qs
i.e., E ? 13 ...(2) T sin q =
2e 0
...(1)
r
Similarly, in equilibrium vertical component of the
Comparing the Eq. (1) with (2), we get
tension in thread is equal to the weight of the ball i.e.,
n =- 3
T cos q = mg ...(2)
Dividing Eq. (1) by (2),
23. An electric dipole consists of a positive and negative qs
charge of 4 mC each placed at a distance of 5 mm. The tan q =
2e0 mg
dipole moment is
2e mg tan q
(a) 2 # 10-8 C-m (b) 4 # 10-8 C-m s = 0
q
(c) 6 # 10-8 C-m (d) 8 # 10-8 C-m s ? tan q
Ans : OD 2012, Delhi 2008 Thus (c) is correct option.
Magnitude of each charge on dipole,
q = 4 mC = 4 # 10-6 C
and distance between the charges,
ASSERTION AND REASON
2a = 5 mm = 5 # 10-3 m 25. Assertion (A) : Work done in moving a charge around
Dipole moment, p = q # 2a a closed path in an electric field is always zero.
Reason (R) : Electrostatic force is a conservative force.
= (4 # 10-6) # (5 # 10-3)
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
= 2 # 10-8 C-m Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion
Thus (a) is correct option. (A).
24. A charged ball B hangs from a silk thread S , which (b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
makes an angle q with a large charged conducting Reason (R) is NOT the correct explanation of
sheet P , as shown in the figure. The surface charge Assertion (A).
density s of the sheet is proportional to (c) Assertion (A) is true and Reason (R) is false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false and Reason (R) is also false.
Ans : OD 2023
We know that the work done by the conservative

force around any closed path is zero is # F.dl = 0 and
electrostatic force is a conservative force.
26. Assertion (A) : Two concentric charged shells are
given. The potential difference between the shells
depends on charge of inner shell.
(a) sin q (b) cos q
(c) tan q (d) cot q
Ans : Foreign 2017
Angle between thread and sheet = q and surface

charge density = s .
Electric field due to conducting sheet,
Reason (R) : Potential due to charge of outer shell

remains same at every point inside the sphere. (a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
(A).
(A). (b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
Reason (R) is NOT the correct explanation of
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
Assertion (A).
Assertion (A). (c) Assertion (A) is true and Reason (R) is false.
(c) Assertion (A) is true and Reason (R) is false. (d) Assertion (A) is false and Reason (R) is also false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false and Reason (R) is also false. Ans :
Ans : For isolated capacitor,
Q = constant,
F = constant,
But, E = s , hence E decreases

Kd0
VA = 1 Q1 + Q2
4pe 0 R2
VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
Q Q
VB = 1 c 1 + 2 m
4pe 0 R1 R2
29. Why must electrostatic field at the surface of a charged
VB - VA = 1 Q1 b 1 + 1 l
4pe 0 R1 R2 conductor be perpendicular to every point on it?
Thus (a) is correct option. Ans : Delhi 2021
27. Assertion (A) : For a non-uniformly charged thin As, electric field inside a conductor is always zero.
circular ring with net charge is zero, the electric field The electric line of force exert. Internal pressure on
at any point on axis of the ring is zero. each other leads to repulsion between like charges.
Reason (R) : For a non-uniformly charged thin circular Thus, in order to stable spacing, the electric field lines
ring with net charge zero, the electric potential at are normal on the surface.
each point on axis of the ring is zero. 30. Draw lines of force of electric field due to a system of
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and two equal point charges.
Reason (R) is the correct explanation of Assertion Ans : Foreign 2019
(A).
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and
Assertion (A).
(c) Assertion (A) is true and Reason (R) is false.
(d) Assertion (A) is false and Reason (R) is also false.
Ans :
For a non-uniformly charged thin circular ring with
net zero charge, electric potential at each point on its 31. Why must electrostatic field at the surface of a
axis must be perpendicular to the axis. charged conductor be normal to the surface at every
Thus (d) is correct option. point? Give reason.
28. Assertion (A) : The electrostatic force between the Ans : SQP 2019
plates of a charged isolated capacitor decreases when The work done in moving a charge from one point to
dielectric fills whole space between plates. another on an equipotential surface is zero. If electric
Reason (R) : The electric field between the plates of a field is not normal, it will have a non-zero component
charged isolated capacitance increases when dielectric along the surface which would cause work to be done
fills whole space between plates. in moving a charge on an equipotential surface.
32. Why should electrostatic field be zero inside a opposite charge on the paper. The electrostatic force
conductor? of attraction between the comb and the paper is much
Ans : OD 2015 greater than the weight of paper therefore it is lifted.
Charge on conductor resides on its surface. So if we On a wet day, the hair is wet, the friction is quite less
consider a Gaussian surface inside the conductor to and hence, comb does not get charged.
find the electrostatic field. 37. What is electrostatic shielding? Give one of its
q practical applications.
f =
e0 Ans : OD 2014
where, q = charge enclosed in Gaussian surface. Electrostatic Shielding
Hence q = 0, The phenomena of protecting certain region of space
inside the conductor, hence the electrostatic field from electric field is called electrostatic shielding.
inside the conductor is zero. It is based on the fact that electric field vanishes
inside the cavity of a hollow conductor.
q
f = # E $ ds = Application of Electrostatic Shielding
e0
In a thunderstorm accompanied by lighting, it is safest
# E $ ds cos q = eq0 to sit inside a car, rather than near a tree or on the
open ground. The metallic body of the car becomes an
33. A proton is placed in a uniform electric field directed
electrostatic shielding from lighting.
along the position X-axis. In which direction will it
bend to move? 38. Two metallic spheres of exactly equal masses are
Ans : Comp 2021, OD 2004 taken. One is given a positive charge q coulomb and
Proton will tend to move along the X-axis in the the other an equal negative charge by friction. Art
direction of a uniform electric field. their masses after charging equal?
34. A charge q is placed at the centre of a cube of side l. Ans : Foreign 2014
What is the electric flux passing through two opposite No. Because when two bodies are rubbed together,
faces of the cube? there is transfer of electrons from one body to another.
Ans : Delhi 2016 Since electrons are material particles, so their transfer
from one body to another causes a change in mass.
By symmetry, the flux through each of the six faces
The body from which electrons are removed becomes
of the cube will be same when charge q is placed at
positively charged and body to which electrons get
its centre.
transferred becomes negatively charged. Hence the
q
fE = 1 $ mass of negatively charged body will be more than
6 e0
positively charged body.
35. State and explain the superposition principle for
39. Define electric dipole moment. Is it a scalar or a vector
electric fields?
quantity? What are its SI unit?
Ans : Delhi 2007
Ans : Comp 2020
The electric intensity at a point due to several charges
The electric dipole moment is defined as the product
is the vector sum of electric intensities produced
of either charge and the distance between the two
by each charge individually in the absence of other
charges. Its direction is from negative to positive
charge.
charge.
Let the electric field intensities due to individual
" " " " i.e., p = q ^2l h
charges are E1 , E2 , E3 .......... En respectively, than
resultant electric field intensity is given by,
" " " " "
E = E1 + E2 + E3 + ..........En
36. A comb after passing through dry hair attracts small
pieces of paper. What happens if the hair is wet or if
it is a rainy day? 40. What is the electric flux through a cube of side 1 cm
Ans : SQP 2016
which encloses an electric dipole?
A dry comb when passed through hair gets charged Ans : Comp 2011
due to friction and because of this it induces an Net electric flux is zero.
Reason: 2. This law is applicable only to point charge.

1. Independent to the shape and size. 46. What do you mean by additive nature of electric
2. Net charge of the electric dipole is zero. charges?
41. A thin straight infinitely long conducting wire having Ans : SQP 2011
charge density l is enclosed by a cylindrical surface The additivity of electric charge means that the total
of radius r and length l , its axis coinciding with the charge of a system is the algebraic sum of all the
length of the wires. Find the expression for the electric individual charges located at different points inside
flux through the surface of the cylinder. the system. If a system contains charges q1, q2, ....., qn ;
Ans : SQP 2011 then its total charge is
Charge enclosed by the cylindrical surface = ll q = q1 + q2 + ..... + qn
By Gauss Theorem,
47. Figure shows the field lines due to a negative point
Electric flux = 1 # charge enclosed charge. Give the sign of the potential energy difference
e0
of a small negative charge between the point A and
= 1 ^ll h B.
e0
42. Atmosphere is not electrically neutral. Explain why?
Ans : OD 2020, SQP 2009
The atmosphere is continuously being charged by

thunderstorms and lightning bolts all over the globe.
This maintains an equilibrium with the discharge of
the atmosphere in ordinary weather conditions.
43. How rubbing of the two bodies produces electricity?
Ans : Delhi 2016
Ans : Foreign 2015
When we rub two bodies, due to friction, some
u = 1 $ q1 q2
electrons are transferred from one body to another. 4pe 0 r
The body which gains electrons become negatively Here, UA 2 UB
charged and which loses electrons become positively
charged by equal amount. Therefore, UA - UB is positive.
44. Figure shows the field lines on a positive charge is 48. Why do the electrostatic field lines not form closed
the work done by the field in moving a small positive loops?
charge from Q to P positive or negative? Give reason. Ans : Delhi 2017
Electric field lines start from positive charge and

terminate at negative charge. If there is a single
positive charge, the field lines start from the charge
and terminate at infinity. So, the electric field lines do
not form closed loops.
49. Why do the electric field lines never cross each other?
Ans : Comp 2009
At the intersection point if electric field lines cross

each other, then there would be two directions of
Ans : Comp 2021 electric field which is not possible so lines of forces
The work done by the field is negative. This is because never cross each other.
the charge is moved against the force exerted by the 50. Two point charges q1 and q2 are placed at a distance
field. d apart as shown in the figure. The electric field
45. What are the limitations of Coulomb’s law ? intensity is zero at the point P on the line joining
Ans : Comp 2014 them as shown. Write two conclusions that you can
The limitation of coulomb’s law are following: draw from this.
1. Coulomb’s law has been verified over distances
ranging from nuclear dimension (- 10-15 m) to
macroscopic distance (- 1018 m).
Ans : Delhi 2005

i.e., p = q # 2l
1. The two point charges (q1 and q2 ) should be of
opposite nature. or p = q (2l)
2. Magnitude of charge q1 must be greater than It is a vector quantity and its direction is always from
magnitude of charge q2 . negative charge to positive charge. The SI unit of
51. What is electric charge? Is it a scalar or vector dipole moment is coulomb-metre (C-m).
quantity? Name its SI unit. 54. What do you mean by permittivity of a medium?
Ans : Foreign 2018 Ans : OD 2008
It is an intrinsic property of elementary particles Permittivity is a property of the medium which
of matter which gives rise to electric force between determines the electric force between two charges
various objects. It is a scalar quantity and its SI unit situated in that medium. For example, the force
is coulomb(C). between two charges located some distance apart in
52. Sketch the electric field lines for two point charges q1 water is about 1/80th of the force between them when
and q2 for q1 = q2 and q1 > q2 separated by a distance they are separated by same distance in air. This is
d. because the permittivity of water is about 80 times
Ans : OD 2013
greater than the permittivity of air.
When the charges are equal, the neutral point N lies 55. Compare the electric fields due to a monopole (single
at the centre of the joining the charges. However, charge) and dipole.
when the charges are unequal, the point N is closer Ans : Delhi 2005, Comp 2010
to the smaller charge.
Electric Monopole Electric Dipole
1. It is due to charge Net charge is zero.
where value is not
zero.
2. E ? 12 E ? 13
r r
3. Electric field is Electric field is not

spherically symmetric. spherically symmetric.
56. Give the physical significance of electric dipoles.

Ans : OD 2013
Electric dipoles have a common occurrence in nature.

A molecule consisting of positive and negative ions
is an electric dipole. Moreover, a complicated array
of charges can be described and analysed in terms of
electric dipoles. The concept of electric dipole is used
1. In the study of the effect of electric field on an
insulator, and
2. In the study of radiation of energy from an antenna.
53. Define electric dipole moment and write its SI unit.
57. Write two basic properties of electric charge.
Ans : OD 2012
Ans : Delhi 2012
The strength of an electric dipole is measure by a
Two properties of electric charge is following:
vector quantity known as electric dipole moment p
1. Quantisation of Charge : The total charge on a
which is the product of the charge q and separation
body is integral multiple of fundamental charge of
between the charges 2l .
electron e .
q = ! ne
where, n is an integer (n = 1, 2, 3.....)
2. Like charges repel while unlike charges attract
each other.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS force on charge q0 at that point. This force is,
Fv = q0 Ev (r)
58. Two charged conducting spheres of radii a and b are i.e., Electrostatic force = Charge # Electric field.
connected to each other by a wire. Find the ratio of
Thus an electric field plays an intermediary role in the
the electric fields at their surfaces.
forces between two charges:
Ans : 2023
Let q1 and q2 be the charges C1 and C2 be the Charge Electric field Charge
capacitance of two spheres. The charge flows from 61. Distinguish between conductors and insulators. Give
the sphere at higher potential to the other at lower examples.
potential, till their potentials become equal. Ans : SQP 2017, Comp 2011
After sharing, the charges on two spheres, will be Conductors
q1
= C1 V ...(i) The substance through which electric charge can flow
q2 C2 V
easily are called conductors. They contain a large
Also C1 = a ...(ii) number of free electrons. Metals, human and animal
C2 b
bodies, graphite, acids, alkalise, etc. are conductors.
Then, ratio of surface charge on the two spheres Insulators
s 1 = q1 4pb2 = q1 . b2 The substances through which electric charges cannot
s2 2 # q q2 a2
4pa 2 flow easily are called insulators. They contain very
2 few free electrons. Most of the non-metals like glass,
= a . b 2 [From Eqs. (i) and (ii)] diamond, porcelain, plastic, nylon, wood, mica, etc.
b a
are insulators.
=a
b When some charge in transferred to a conductor, it
The, ratio of electric fields at the surfaces of two readily gets distributed over its entire surface. On the
spheres E1 = s 1 = b . other hand, if some charge is put on an insulator, it
E2 s 2 a stays at the same place.
59. Two equal balls having equal positive charge q 62. State the law of conservation of charge. Give two
coulombs are suspended by two insulating strings of examples to illustrate it.
equal length. What would be the effect on the force
Ans : Foreign 2014
when a plastic sheet is inserted between the two?
Law of Conservation of Charge
Ans : OD 2020
This law can be stated in a number of ways:
Form Coulomb’s law, electric force between the two
charged bodies, in a medium, 1. The total charge of an isolated system remains
constant.
1 q1 q2
F = 2. The electric charges can neither be created nor
4pe 0 K r2 destroyed, they can only be transferred from one
where, K = dielectric constant of the medium. body to another.
For vacuum, K =1 Examples
1. Charge s conserved during the fission of a nucleus
For plastic, K >1 by a neutron.
Therefore, after insertion of plastic sheet, the force n + 235 141 92 1
92 U $ 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n + Energy
1
0
between the two balls will reduce.
Total charge before fission (0 + 92) = Total charge
60. Give the physical significance of electric field.
after fission (56 + 36 + 3 # 0)
Ans : Comp 2021, 15
2. Electric charge is conserved during the phenomenon
By knowing electric field at any point, we can of pair production in which a g -ray photon
determine the force on a charge placed at that point. materialises into an electron-positron pair.
The Coulomb force on a charge q0 due to a source
g - ray $ electron + positron .
charge q may be treated as two stage process: zero charge (- e) (+ e)
1. The source charge q produces a definite field Ev (r) 63. What is a continuous charge distribution? How can
at every point rv . we calculate the force on a point charge q due to a
2. The value of Ev (r) at any point rv determines the continuous charge distribution?
Ans : Delhi 2019

Electric Charge Mass
When the charge involved is much greater than the
charge on an electron, we can ignore its quantum 3. Electric charge is Mass increases with
nature and assume that the charge is distributed in invariant with respect speed.
a continuous manner. This is known as a continuous to speed.
charge distribution.
4. Strictly conserved. The phenomenon is
Force on a point charge due to a continuous charge more apparent at high
distribution. As shown in Fig. 1.8, consider a point speeds.
charge q0 lying near a region of continuous charge
5. A charge always Not conserved by itself
distribution. This continuous charge distribution can
possesses non-zero in relativistic process.
be imagined to consist of a large number of small
mass. A mass may have non-
charges dq . According to Coulomb’s law, the force on
zero charge.
point charge q0 due to small charge dq is
65. What is the nature of electrostatic force between two
point electric charges q1 and q2 if
1. q1 + q2 > 0 ?
2. q1 + q2 < 0 ?
Ans : SQP 2010, Delhi 2001
1. If both q1 and q2 are positive, the electrostatic
force between these will be repulsive.
However, if one of these charges is positive and
is greater than the other negative charge, the
electrostatic force between them will be attractive.
Force on a Point Charge q0 due to a continuous charge Thus, the nature of force between them can be
distribution, repulsive or attractive.
q dq 2. If both q1 and q2 are - ve , the force between these
dFv = 1 0 2 $ rt will be repulsive.
4pe 0 r
However, if one of them is - ve and it is greater
where, rt = rv/r , is a unit vector pointing from the
than the second + ve charge, the force between
small charge dq towards the point charge q0 By the them will be attractive.
principle of superposition, the total force on charge q0
Thus, the nature of force between them can be
will be the vector sum of the forces exerted by all such
repulsive or attractive.
small charges and is given by,
q dq 66. Define dielectric strength and relative permittivity.
Fv = # dFv = # 1 $ 0 2 $ rt Ans : Foreign 2016
4pe 0 r
1. Dielectric Strength : The maximum electric field
q0
=
4pe 0 # dq
r2
$ rt that can exist in a dielectric without causing the
breakdown of its insulating property is called
64. Compare the properties of electric charge and mass dielectric strength of the material.
2. Relative Permittivity : The dielectric constant or
which are not similar.
relative permittivity of medium may be defined
Ans : Foreign 2018
as the ratio of the force between two charged
placed some distance apart in free space to the
Electric Charge Mass
force between the same two charges when they
1. Electric charge can be Strictly positive. are placed the same distance apart in the given
+ ve , - ve or zero. medium. It is given by,
2. Electric charge is Quantisation of mass Relative permittivity, er = e
e0
always quantised i.e. is not so clear.
the charge in a given 67. Derive the expression for electric field intensity at a
body is always an point due to a point charge.
integral multiple of a Ans : OD 2014, SQP 2011
minimum value e , i.e. Suppose we have to calculate electric field intensity
q = ! ne .
at any point P due to a point charge q at O , where
OP = r . Imagine a positive test charge q0 at P . 69. Define uniform and non-uniform electric fields. How
According to Coulomb’s law, force at P is are they represented geometrically?
Ans : OD 2009, Foreign 2014
A uniform electric field has same intensity (both in

magnitude and direction) at all points in it. Therefore,
the electric field vectors at all the points must be of the
same length and point in the same direction. Hence a
uniform field is represented by a set of parallel lines
Fv = 1 qq0 rt pointing in the same direction.
4pe 0 r2
A non-uniform field is that in which electric intensity
(where, rt is unit vector directed from q towards q0 ) is different at different parts, either in magnitude or
v direction or both.
As, Ev = F
q0 A uniform and a non-uniform electric field are
represented by the lines of force as shown in Figures
Hence, Ev = 1 q rt
4pe 0 r2 (a) and (b) respectively.
rt is the unit vector in the direction of force.
If q is + ve , the field intensity is directed radially
outwards along OP . If q is negative, the field intensity
is directed towards q , along PO .
68. Show that charge always resides on the outer surface
of a conductor.
or
Show that net charge in the interior of a conductor
is zero.
Ans : Comp 2007
Consider a conductor of any shape or size, which is

given a + ve charge + q . Consider a Gaussian closed
surface just inside the outer surface of the conductor
as shown in the figure by dotted lines.
From Gauss’s theorem,
70. Derive an expression for the torque experienced by

electric dipole in external electric field.
Ans : Delhi 2010
# Ev $ ds
v = q/e 0
But, Ev = 0 inside the conductor

Hence, q =0 " "
The forces F1 and F2 from a couple (or torque) which
i.e., charge inside the conductor is zero, Hence we find tends to rotate and align the dipole along the direction
that charge always resides on the outer surface of the of electric field. This couple is called the torque and
conductor. is denoted by t .
Hence, Torque (Coulomb) 2

=
t = magnitude of one force # perpendicular Newton-(meter) 2
Here, q = [AT ]
distance between lines of action of forces
F = [M 1 L1 T - 2]
= qE (BN) = qE (2l sin q)
r = [L ]
= (q 2l) E sin q
[AT ] [AT ]
= pE sin q [using (1)] ...(2) Hence, e0 =
[M 1 L1 T - 2] [L] 2
Clearly, the magnitude of torque depends on
orientation (q) of the electric dipole relative to electric = [M - 1 L-3 T 4 A2]
field. Torque (t) is a vector quantity whose direction (ii) Net electric flux through the surface.
is perpendicular to the plane containing given by right Total charge in Gaussian surface
" "
hand screw rule p and E . q = q1 + q2 + q3
" " "
In vector form, t = p#E Here, q1 = - q
71. An electric dipole is placed in a uniform electric field q2 = + 2q
E with its dipole moment p parallel to the field. Find: q3 = - q
1. The work done in turning the dipole till its dipole
moment points in the direction opposite to E . = - q + 2q - q = 0
q
2. The orientation of the dipole for which the torque Net flux, f = = 0 =0
acting on it becomes maximum. e0 e0
Ans : Foreign 2017 73. State Coulomb’s law. Define Coulomb’s dielectric
1. We know that, constant.
q2 Ans : Foreign 2008
W = #q tdq
1 The low states that two stationary electric point
p
= #0 pE sin qd q charges attract or repel each other with a force
which is directly proportional to the product of the
= pE [- cos q] p0 magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional
= 2pE to the square of the distance between them.
Let q1 , q2 two point like charges separated by a
2. We know that,
distance r , then the force between the two charges is
t = pE sin q
p
If, q = , then t is maximum.
2
i.e., r = pE sin p
2 F ? q1 q2
t = pE (Maximum)
? 12
72. (i) Write down unit and dimension of permittivity of r
free space. q1 q2
Hence, F ? 2
(ii) A Gaussian surface contains three charges (- q) r
, (+ 2q) and (- q). Evaluate net electric flux q1 q2
or F =k 2 ...(1)
through the surface. r
Ans : OD 2018, Comp 2015 where k is the constant of proportionality and its
(i) Unit and dimension of permittivity of free space. value depends upon (1) system of unit adopted and
(2) the nature of medium separating q1 and q2 .
According to the Coulomb’s Law,
qq In SI, k = 1
F = 1 22 4pe
4pe 0 r
Hence, Permittivity = 1 [since, e = e 0 e r ]
4pe 0 e r
qq where e is called absolute permittivity, and e 0 is
e0 = 1 2 2
4pFr called permittivity of free space (vacuum) and e r is
called relative permittivity (or dielectric constant K )
of the medium. Equipotential Surface

The value of e 0 = 8.854 # 10 -12 2
CN m-1 -2 Any surface which has same electrostatic potential at
all point, on it is called an equipotential surface.
So, Eq. (1) becomes,
1 q1 q2 76. Two point charges q1 and q2 are located at points
F =
4pe 0 e r r2 â, 0, 0h and ^0, b, 0h respectively. Find the electric field
due to both these charges at the point ^0, 0, c h ?
In vacuum (or in air) e r = 1.
Ans : OD 2012
qq
F = 1 122 We have, v v v
E net = E1 + E2
4pe 0 r
In SI, 1 = 1 1 q1 r" + 1 q2 r"
4pe 0 =
4 # 3.142 # 8.854 # 10-12 4pe 0 r 13 1 4pe 0 r 13 2
= 9 # 109 Nm2 C-2 where
"
r1 = - ait + ckt
q1 q2
F = 9 # 109 and
"
r2 = - bjt + ckt
r2
1 q1 ^- ai + ck h + q2 `bj + ck j
Plot a graph showing the variation of Coulomb force t t t t
> H
74. "
E net =
F , versus (1/r2), where r is the distance between the 4pe 0 â2 + c2h 3
^b + c h
2 2 2 3
2
two charges of each pair of charges (1mC, 2mC) and

(2mC, - 3mC). Interpret the graphs obtained. 77. A metallic spherical shell has an inner radius R1 and
outer radius R2 . A charge Q is placed at the centre
Ans : Delhi 2014, OD 2004 of the spherical cavity. What will be surface charge
F = 1 q1 q2 density on
4pe 0 r2 1. The inner surface
The graph between F and 1/r2 is a straight line of 2. The outer surface?
slope 4pe1 q1 q2 passing through origin in both the cases.
0
Ans : Comp 2006
When a charge + Q is placed at the centre of spherical

cavity,
The charge induced on the inner surface = - Q
The charge induced on the outer surface = + Q
-Q
Surface charge density on the inner surface = .
4pR 12
+Q
Surface charge density on the outer surface = .
4pR 22
Since, magnitude of the slope is more for attraction,

therefore, attractive force is greater than repulsive
force.
75. Define electric field intensity in current carrying
conductor and equipotential surface.
Ans : SQP 2013
Electric Field Intensity

The electric field intensity at any point due to source
charge is defined as the force experienced per unit
positive charge placed at that point without disturbing
the source charge.
78. Plot a graph showing the variation of Coulomb force
"
"
F (F) versus 1/r2 , where r is the distance between the
E = q0
two charges of each pair of charges ^1mC, 2mC h and
where,
"
E = Electric field intensity ^1mC - 3mC h . Interpret the graphs obtained.
"
Ans : Delhi 2011, OD 2009
and F = Force experienced by the test charge q0 According to Coulomb’s law, the magnitude of force
acting between two stationary point charges is given (b) Two electric lines of force can never cross each other
qq because if they cross, there will be two directions
by F = b 1 2 lb 12 l
4pe 0 r of electric field at the point of intersection (say A
); which is impossible.
80. A small metal sphere carrying a charge + Q is located
at the centre of a spherical cavity in a large uncharged
metallic spherical shell. Write the charges on the inner
and outer surfaces of the shell. Write the expression
for the electric field at the point P1 .
For given q1 q2 F \ b 12 l
r
2
The slope of F versus 1/r graph depends on q1 q2 .
Magnitude of q1 q2 is higher for second pair.
Hence Slope of F versus 1/r2 graph.
Ans : Foreign 2015
According to question,
the charge on inner surface = - Q
Charge on other surface = + Q
Electric field at point P1 is given by
Q
E =
4pe 0 r21
81. (a) A point charge ^+ Q h is kept in the vicinity of

uncharged conducting plate. Sketch electric field
lines between the charge and the plate.
(b) Two infinitely large plane thin parallel sheets
79. (a) An electrostatic field line is a continuous curve.
having surface charge densities s 1 and s 2
That is a field line cannot have sudden breaks.
^s 1 2 s 2h are shown in the figure. Write the
Why is it so? magnitudes and directions of the net fields in the
(b) Explain why two field lines never cross each other regions marked II and III.
at any point.
Ans : OD 2017, Comp 2005
(a) An electrostatic field line is the path of movement
of a positive test charge ^q0 " 0h .
A moving charge experiences a continuous force
in an electrostatic field, so an electrostatic field
line is always a continuous curve.
Ans : SQP 2014 So, resultant dipole moment,

(a) The lines of force start from + Q and terminate
^p1 = p2 = p h
"
pl = p 12 + p 22 + 2p1 p2 cos q
at metal place inducing negative charge on it. The
lines of force will be perpendicular to the metal = p2 + p2 + 2p2 cos 120c
surface.
= 2p2 + 2p2 b 1 l
(b) (i) Net electric field in regions 2
II = 1 ^s 1 - s 2h
"
So, pl = p
2e 0
Direction of electric field is from sheet A to and direction of pl
sheet B . p sin 120c
tan a =
(ii) Net electric field in region p + p cos 120c
p 23
III = 1 ^s 1 + s 2h =
p + p ^ 12 h
2e 0
82. Two small identical electrical dipoles AB and CD 3 p/2
each of dipole moment p are kept at an angle of =
p/2
120c as shown in the figure. What is the resultant
dipole moment of this combination? If this system = 3
is subjected to electric field Ê h directed along + X tan a =

"
3
direction. What will be the magnitude and direction So, a = 60c
of the torque acting on this?
Now the system of dipole moment pl and E will be
as follows :
So, torque on system

t = pE sin q
= pE sin 30c
= 1 pE
2
The direction of dipole moment will be from negative
83. Sketch the electric field lines for a uniformly charged
to positive charge, so both dipoles form following
hollow cylinder shown in figure.
structure :
The two charges experience force qE each. These

forces are equal, parallel and opposite. Therefore,
the net force acting on the dipole is
En = qE - qE = 0
Thus, the net force acting on the dipole is zero.
(ii) W = - pE ^cos q 1 - cos q 2h
= - pE ^cos 0c - cos 180ch
= + 2pE
Ans : OD 2012, Comp 2015
Here, the hollow cylinder is positively charged. We know

that the electric lines of force appear to come out from LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS
the conductor. Thus, the lines of force of a uniformly
positive charged hollow cylinder is shown in figure. 85. What is an electric dipole? Drive an expression for
the torque acting on an electric dipole, when held
in a uniform electric field. Hence, define the dipole
moment.
Ans : SQP 2013
An electric dipole is a pair of your charges with equal

magnitude and opposite sign separated by a small
distance.
Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges - q
and + q and dipole length d placed in a uniform
electric field as shown in figure below. Let the dipole
moment make an angle f with the direction of the
electric field.
84. An electric dipole is held in a uniform electric field.

(i) Show that the net force acting on it is zero.
(ii) The dipole is aligned parallel to the field.
Find the work done in rotating it through an angle
of 180c.
Ans : Delhi 2010
(i) Consider an electric dipole consisting of charges
- q and + q and dipole length d placed in a
uniform electric field E as shown in figure. Let
the dipole moment make an angle q with the
direction of the electric field.
The two charges experience force qE each. These
forces are equal, parallel and opposite. Therefore, the
net force is zero. But these two forces constitute a
couple. This applies a torque on the dipole given by
t = Either force # Arm of the couple
t = qE # d sin f ,
where d sin f is the are of the couple.
t = qdE sin f ,
where, p = qd ,
Dipole moment, t = p E sin f
2EA = sA
" " "
In vector form, t = p#E
e0
"
The direction of torque is perpendicular to both p E = s
" 2e 0
and E .
This gives the electric field due to an infinite
If E = 1 and f = 90c, then t = p , thus, electric plane sheet of charge which is independent of the
dipole moment is defined as numerically equal to distance from the sheet.
the torque experienced by an electric dipole placed
(b) (i) Directed outwards.
perpendicular to a unit electric field.
(ii) Directed inwards.
86. (a) Using Gauss’s theorem prove that the electric
field at a point due to a uniformly charged infinite 87. (i) Use Gauss’s law to obtain an expression for the
plane sheet is independent of the distance from it. electric field due to an infinitely long thin straight
wire with uniform linear charge density.
(b) How is the field directed if (i) the sheet is positively
charged, (ii) negatively charged? (ii) An Infinitely long positively charged straight
wire has a linear charge density l . An electron
Ans : Comp 2019, OD 2004
is revolving in a circle with a constant speed v
(a) Consider an infinite plane sheet of charge. Let s
such that the wire passes through the centre
be the uniform surface charge density, i.e., the
and is perpendicular to the plane of the circle.
charge per unit surface area. From symmetry, we
Find the kinetic energy of the electron in terms
find that the electric field must be perpendicular
to the plane of the sheet, and that the direction of of magnitudes of the charge and linear charge
" density l on the wire.
E on one side of the plane must be opposite of its
(iii) Draw a graph of kinetic energy as a function of
direction on the other side as shown in figure below.
In such a case, let us choose a Gaussian surface in linear charge density l .
the form of a cylinder with its axis perpendicular Ans : OD 2023
to the sheet of charge, with ends of area A. The (i) Take a long thin wire of uniform linear charge
charged sheet passes through the middle of the densityl .
cylinder’s length, so that the cylinder’s ends are
equidistant from the sheet. The electric field has a
normal component at each end of the cylinder and
no normal component along the curved surface of
the cylinder. As a result, the electric flux is linked
with only the ends and not the curved surface.
Consider a point A at a perpendicular distance l from

the mid-point O of the wire. Let E be the electric
field at point A due to the wire XY. Consider a small
length element dx on the wire section with OZ = x .
Let q be charge on this piece.
q l.dx
Electric field due to the piece ;
dE = 1
4pe 0 (AZ) 2
Therefore, by the definition of electric flux, the AZ = l 2 + x2

flux linked with the Gaussian surface is given by ldx
dE =
f = EA + EA = 2EA ...(1) 4pe 0 (l 2 + x2)
But by Gauss’s law, The electric field is resolved into rectangular
components dE cos q and dE sin q when the whole
q
f = = sA ...(2) wire is considered the component dE sin q is cancelled.
e0 e0
From equations (1) and (2), we have Only the perpendicular component dE cos q
affects points.
Hence, effective electric field at point A due to element 88. (i) State and explain Superposition Principle.
dx is dE1, (ii) Find an expression for the total force acting on
a given charge due to a number of other charges,
dE1 = ldx cos x ...(1)
4pe 0 (x2 + l 2) when the source charges are point charges.
In DAZO , tan q = x Ans : Comp 2021, SQP 2005
l (i) Principle of Superposition : The resultant electric
x = l tan q ...(2) force at a point charge due to a number of
Differentiating equation (1), we obtain charges in its neighbourhood is the vector sum
of the electric forces produced by each charge
dx = l sec2 qd q individually in the absence of other charges.
dE1 = l cos q d q If a charge q1 experiences forces Fv12, Fv13 ..... Fv1n due
4pe 0 l to other charge q2 , q3 ..... respectively then the
p/2
l cos q dq = l total force Fv experienced by the charge q1 is given
E1 = # 4pe 0 l 2pe 0 l by,
- p/2
Fv = Fv12 + Fv13 + ..... + Fv1n
(ii) Infinitely long charged wire produces a radical
electric field
E = l ...(1)
2pe 0 l
The revolving electron experiences an electrostatic
force and provides necessary centripetal force.
(ii) Suppose we have many point charges q1 , q2 , q3 .....

2 at points P1 , P2 , P3 ..... in space, with position
eE = mv ...(2) vectors rv1 , rv2 , rv3 , ...... The total force Fv1 on charge
r
q1 is the vector sum of the individual forces that
el = mv2 each of the other charges q2 , q3 ..... exert on it.
2pe 0 r r
Therefore, using Coulomb’s law of electrostatics
mv2 = el q1 q2
2pe 0 Fv12 = 1
4pe 0 rv1 - rv2 3 ^ 1
rv - rv2h
Kinetic energy of the electron,
Similarly, force on charge q1 due to charge q2
K = 1 mv2 = el
2 4pe 0 q1 q3
Fv13 = 1
4pe 0 rv1 - rv3 3 ^ 1
rv - rv3h s
(iii)
q1 qn
Fv1n = 1
4pe 0 rv1 - rvn 3 ^ 1
rv - rvn h s`
Hence, total force on charge q1 due to all other

charges
F = Fv12 + Fv13 + ..... + Fv1n
v
R q2 q V
S v v 3 ^rv1 - rv2h + v 3 v 3 ^rv1 - rv3h W
q r - r2 r1 - r 3
= 1 S 1 W
4pe 0 S qn W
+ ..... + 3 ^r 1 - r n hW
SS v v
r1 - rn
v v W
T X
q1 i = n qi 2 p
v v 3^ 1
rv - rvi h
4pe 0 i/
= EP = ...(1)
= 1 r1 - ri 4pe 0 x3
89. (i) Define electric intensity. The direction of EP is along BP produced.
(ii) Derive an expression for electric intensity at a Clearly, EP \ 13
point situated on the axis of electric dipole. x
Ans : Delhi 2020
90. Define electric flux. State and prove Gauss theorem.
(i) Electric Field Intensity
The electric field intensity at any point due to source
charge is defined as the force experienced per unit Electric Flux
positive test charge placed at that point without Electric flux linked with any surface is defined as the
disturbing the source charge. total number of electric field lines that normally pass
It is expressed as, through that surface.
Electric flux df through a small area element dS due
E =F "
q0 to an electric field E at an angle q with dS is,
Where, E = electric field intensity and df = E $ dS
and F = force experienced by the test charge q0 = E dS cos q
It is a vector quantity and its SI unit is NC-1 . Which is proportional to the number of field lines
(ii) Electric Field Intensity a Point Situated on the cutting the area element. Total electric flux f over
Axis of Electric Dipole the whole surface S due to an electric field E ,
We have to calculate the field intensity E at a point f = # E $ dS
P on the axial line of the dipole and at a distance OP S
= x from the centre O of the dipole. = # E dS cos q
S
Electric flux is a scalar quantity. But it is a property

of vector field.
SI unit of electric flux is N-m2 C-1 .
Gauss’ Theorem
The surface integral of the electric field intensity over
any closed surface (called Gaussian surface) in free
Electric field on axial line of an electric dipole. space is equal to e1 times the net charge enclosed
0
Resultant electric field intensity at the point P , within the surface.

" " " n
EP = EA + E B q
fE = # E $ dS = 1 / qi =
" " e0 i =1 e0
The vectors E A and E B are collinear and opposite. S
n
EP = EB - EA where, fE = / qi is the algebraic sum of all the
i=1
Here,
"
EA = 1 $ q charges inside the closed surface.
4pe 0 (x + l) 2
Hence, total electric flux over a closed surface in
" 1 $ q vacuum is e1 times to total charge within the surface,
and EB =
4pe 0 (x - 1) 2
0
regardless of how the charges may be distributed.

1 q q
4pe 0 ;(x - l) 2 (x + l) 2 E
Hence, EP = - Proof of Gauss’ Theorem
Electric flux through a surface element dS is given by,
= 1 $ 4qlx
q
4pe 0 (x2 - l2) 2 df E = E $ dS = 1 $ 2 rt $ (dS nt)
4pe 0 r
Hence, EP = 1 $ 2px
4pe 0 (x2 - l2) 2 1 $ q dS rt $ nt
df E =
[Since, p = q # 2l ] 4pe 0 r2
2px Here, rt $ nt = 1.1 cos 0c = 1
EP = 1 $ 2 2 2
"
In vector from,
pe 0 (x - l ) 1 $ q dS
So, df E =
4pe 0 r2
If dipole is short, i.e., 2l << x , then
" 1 q
E1 = (along B to P ) ....(1)
4pe 0 r2 + l2
q
E2 = 1
"
(along P to A) ...(2)
4pe 0 r2 + l2
" "
Clearly E1 and E 2 are equal in magnitude, i.e.,
" "
E1 = E 2 or E1 = E2
" "
To find the resultant of E1 and E 2 we resolve them
Total electric flux through the spherical surface, into rectangular components.
"
q Components of E1 parallel to AB = E1 cos q , in the
f E = # df E = 1 $ 2 # dS
4pe 0 r direction of BA
$
S S
1 $ q $ 4pr2 = q
"
= Component of E1 perpendicular to AB = E1 sin q along
4pe 0 r2 e0 "
OP component of E 2 parallel to AB = E2 cos qJ in
q
fE = $
the direction BA .
e0
"
91. Derive an expression for the electric field intensity at Component of E2 perpendicular on AB = E2 sin q
a point on the equatorial line of an electric dipole of along PO .
" " "
dipole moment p and length 2l . What is the direction Clearly, components of E1 and E2 perpendicular to
of this field? AB : E1 sin q and E2 sin q being equal and opposite
"
Ans : OD 2019 cancel each other, while the components of E1 and
Consider an electric dipole AB . The charges - q and "
E2 parallel to AB : E1 cos q and E2 cos q, being in the
- q of dipole are situated at A and B respectively same direction add up and give the resultant electric
as shown in the figure. The separation between the $
field whose direction is parallel to BA .
charges is 2l .
Hence resultant electric field at p is
Electric dipole moment, p = q $ 2l
The direction of dipole moment is from - q to + q . E = E1 cos q + E2 cos q
At a point of equatorial line. Consider a point P on 1 q
But E1 = E2 =
broad side on the position of dipole formed of charges 4pe 0 ^r2 + l2h
+ q and - q at separation 2l . The distance of point P From the figure,
"
from mid point O of electric dipole is r . Let E1 and
cos q = OB = l = 2 l 2 1/2
^r + l h
"
E 2 be the electric field strengths due to charges + q PB r2 + l2
and - q of electric dipole. E = 2E1 cos q
q l
= 2# 1
4pe 0 ^r2 + l2h ^r2 + l2h1/2
2ql
= 1
4pe 0 ^r2 + l2h3/2
But, q $ 21 = p = electric dipole moment
1 p
E = ...(3)
4pe 0 ^r2 + l2h3/2
If dipole is infinitesimal and point P is far away, we
have l 11 r, so l2 may be neglected as compared to
r2 and so equation (3) gives
p p
E = 1 = 1
4pe 0 ^r2h3/2 4pe 0 r3
i.e., electric field strength due to a short dipole at bro-
aside on position
p
From figure, AP = BP = r2 + l2 E = 1 , ...(4)
4pe 0 r3
$
in the direction parallel to BA .
Its direction is parallel to the axis of dipole from
positive to negative charge.
92. Using Gauss’s theorem to obtain the expression for the
electric field intensity at a point due to an infinitely
long, thin, uniformly charged straight wire. Plot a
graph showing the variation of electric field E with r .
Ans : OD 2013, Comp 2008
Consider an infinitely long, thin wire charged

positively and having uniform linear charge density
l . Symmetry of the charge distribution shows that
"
E must be perpendicular to the line charge and 93. A charge is distributed uniformly over a ring of radius
directed onwards. As a result of this symmetry, we a . Obtain an expression for the electric intensity E at
consider a Gaussian surface in the form of a cylinder a point on the axis of the ring. Hence show that for
with arbitrary radius r and arbitrary length L with points at large distances from the ring, it behaves like
its ends perpendicular to the wire as shown in figure a point charge.
below. Ans : Foreign 2018
Consider a point P on the axis of uniformly charged

ring at a distance x from its centre O . Point P is at
distance r = R2 + x2 from each element dl of rings.
If q is total charge on ring, then, charge per metre
length,
q
l =
2pR
The ring may be supposed to be formed of a large
number of ring elements.
"
For the cylindrical part of this Gaussian surface, E
is constant in magnitude and perpendicular to the
surface at each point. Furthermore, the flux through
"
the ends of the Gaussian cylinder is zero, since E
is parallel to these surface, i.e., there is no normal
component of electric field at these faces. Therefore,
by the definition of electric flux, we have
f = E#A ...(1)
where A is the curved surface area of the cylinder
Consider an element of length dl situated at A.
or f = E # 2prL ...(2)
The charge on element, dq = ldl
By Gauss’s law, the electric flux is given by
Hence the electric field at P due to this element
q
f = = lL ...(3) dq
e0 e0 dE1 = 1
4pe 0 r2
From equations (2) and (3) we have
1 ldl , along PC
$
E # 2prL = lL ...(4) =
4pe 0 r2
e0
l The electric field strength due to opposite symmetrical
or E = = 2K l ...(5) element of length dl at B is
2pe 0 r r
dg
This is the expression for the electric field due to an dE 2 = 1
"
infinitely long thin wire. 4pe 0 r2

The graph is shown as :
= 1 ldl , along PD
$
4pe 0 r2
$ $
If we resolve dE1 and dE2 along the axis and
perpendicular on axis, we note that the components
perpendicular to axis are oppositely directed and so
get cancelled, while those along the axis are added up.
Hence, due to symmetry of the ring, the electric field
strength is directed along the axis.
The electric field strength due to charge element of "
By symmetry, E has same magnitude at all points
length dl , situated at A, along the axis will be " $
on S. Also, E and dS at any point on S are directed
dE = dE1 cos q $
radially outward. Hence, flux through area dS is
= 1 ldl cos q
4pe 0 r2
" "
df E = E.dS = EdS cos 0c = EdS
But cos q = x Net flux through closed surface S is,
r
" $
dE = 1 ldlx fE = # E. dSs = # EdS =E # dS
4pe 0 r3 S S S
= 1 2x dl = E # total surface area of S

4pe 0 r3
= E # 4pr2 ...(1)
The resultant electric field along the axis will obtained
Using Gauss’s theorem,
by adding fields due to all elements of the ring, i.e.,
From Eq. (1), we get,
E = # 1 lx3 dl q
4pe 0 r fE =
e0
1 lx dl
4pe 0 r3 #
= q
E # 4p r 2 =
e0
But, # dl = whole length of ring = 2pR
q
and r ^R2 + x2h2/2 E = 1 . 2
4pe 0 r
Hence, E = 1 lx 2pR The force on the point charge q0 if placed on surface
4pe 0 ^R2 + x2h3/2 S will be,
q qq0
As, l = we have F = q0 E = 1
2pR 4pe 0 r2
q
1 a 2pR k x This proves the Coulomb’s law.
E = 2pR
4pe 0 ^R2 + x2h3/2 95. (i) State Gauss theorem.
qx
(ii) Apply this to obtain the expression for the electric
= 1 along the axis
4pe 0 ^R2 + x2h3/2 field intensity at a point due to an infinitely long,
thin, uniformly charged straight wire.
At large distance, i.e., x 22 R ,
Ans : Delhi 2009
q
E = 1 (i) Gauss’ Theorem
4pe 0 x2
The surface integral of the electric field intensity over
i.e., the electric field due to a point charge at a
any closed surface (called Gaussian surface) in free
distance x .
space is equal to 1/e 0 times the net charge enclosed
For points on the axis at distances much larger than within the surface.
the radius of ring, the ring behaves like a point charge. n
q
fE = # E.dS = 1 / qi =
94. Deduce Coulomb’s law from Gauss law. e0 i =1 e0
S
n
Ans : OD 2017, SQP 2003
where, q = / qi is the algebraic sum of all the
As shown in figure consider an isolated positive point i=1
charge q. We select a spherical surface S of radius r charges inside the closed surface.
centred at charge q as the Gaussian surface. Hence, total electric flux over a closed surface in
vacuum is e1 times the total charge within the surface,
0
regardless of how the charges may be distributed.

(ii) Electric Field Intensity Due to an Infinity Long Ans : SQP 2013, Comp 2011
Thin Straight Charged Wire (i) Electric Dipole Moment

Consider an infinitely long with straight wire with The strength of an electric dipole is measured by the
uniform linear charge density l . quantity electric dipole moment. Its magnitude is
equal to the product of the magnitude of either charge
and the distance between the two charges.
Electric dipole moment,
p = q#d
It is a vector quantity.
In vector form it is written as p = qv # dv , where the
direction of dv is from negative charge to positive
charge.
(ii) Electric field of dipole at points on the equatorial
plane
From symmetry, the electric field is everywhere

radial in the plane cutting the wire normally and its
magnitude only depends on the radial distance r .
From Gauss’ law,
q
f E = # E.dS =
e0
S
Now, fE = # E.dS = # E.nt dS

S S
= # E.nt dS + # E.nt dS + # E.nt dS

A B C
Hence, # E.dS = # E dS cos 90c + # E dS cos 90c

S A B
+ # E dS cos 0c
C
= # E dS = E (2prl)
C
Charge enclosed in the cylinder,

The magnitudes of the electric field due to the two
q = ll
charges + q and - q are given by,
Hence, E (2prl) = ll q
e0 E+q = $ 1 ...(1)
4pe 0 r2 + a2
or E = l
q
2pe 0 r E-q = $ 1 ...(2)
4pe 0 r2 + a2
Vectorially, E = l rt Hence, E+q = E-q
2pe 0 r
The direction of the electric field is radially outward The direction of E+q and E-q are as shown in the
from the positive line charge. For negative line charge, figure.
it will be radially inward. The components normal to the dipole axis cancel
Thus, electric field E due to the linear charge is away.
inversely proportional to the distance r from the The components along the dipole axis add up.
linear charge. Hence, Total electric field,
96. (i) Define electric dipole moment. Is it a scalar or a E = - (E+q - E-q) cos qpt
vector?
[Negative sign shows that field is opposite to pt ]
(ii) Derive the expression for the electric field of a
dipole at a point on the equatorial plane of the 2qa
E = pt ...(3)
dipole. 4pe 0 (r2 + a2) 3/2
At large distances (r >> a), this reduces to According to Gauss’s theorem.

2qa t Total electric flux
E = p ...(4)
4pe 0 r3
= 1 # (total charge enclosed by the surface)
Since, pv = q # 2apvt e0
- pv i.e., 2Ea = 1 (sa)
Hence, E = (r >> a) e0
4pe 0 r3
Using Gauss’s law, prove that the electric field at a Hence, E = s
97. 2e 0
point due to a uniformly charged infinite plane sheet Thus, electric field strength due to an infinite flat
is independent of the distance from it. sheet of charge is independent of the distance of the
Ans : Foreign 2016 point and is directed normally away from the charge.
Let electric charge be uniformly distributed over If the surface charge density s is negative the electric
the surface of a thin, non-conducting infinite sheet. field is directed towards the surface charge.
Let the surface charge density (i.e., charge per unit
98. (i) Define electric flux. Write its SI unit.
surface area) be s . We need to calculate the electric
(ii) A small metal sphere carrying charge +Q is
field strength at any point distance r form the sheet
located at the centre of a spherical cavity inside
of charge.
a large uncharged metallic spherical shell as
shown in the figure. Use Gauss’s law to find the
expressions for the electric field at points P1 and
P2 .
To calculate the electric field strength near the

sheet, we now consider a cylindrical Gaussian surface
bounded by two plane faces A and B lying on the (iii) Draw the pattern of electric field lines in this
opposite sides and parallel to the charged sheet and arrangement.
the cylindrical surface perpendicular to the sheet
Ans : Delhi 2019, SQP 2011
(fig). By symmetry the electric field strength at every
(i) Electric Flux over an area in an electric field
point on the flat surface is the same and its direction
represents the total number of electric field lines
is normal outwards at the points on the two plane
crossing this area and is given by the product of
surfaces and parallel to the curved surface, dSv1 surface area and the component of electric field
Total electric flux, intensity normal to the area.
# Ev $ dSv = # Ev $ dSv + # Ev $ dSv + # Ev $ dSv
1 2 3 The SI unit of flux is NM2 C-2 .
S S1 S2 S3
(iii) Let point P1 is at distance R from the centre O .
or #S Ev $ dSv = #S EdS1 cos 0c + #S EdS2 cos 0c
1 2
S1 is the Gaussian surface, then according to
Gauss’s theorem
+ # EdS3 cos 90c
t = q
" $ "
S3
#S E. dS = #S E.nds e0
= E # dS1 + E # dS2
q q
= Ea + Ea = 2Ea or E # dS = =
S e0 4pe 0 R2
Hence, Total electric flux = 2Ea .
:As #S dS = 4pr D
2
As s is charge per unit area of sheet and a is the

intersecting area, the charge enclosed by Gaussian Inside the shell the charge is zero, so the field is
surface = sa . also zero.
(iii) The direction of electric field is shown in following # = E0 dS cos 0

figure.
= E0 $ 4pr2
Now, Gaussian surface is outside the given charged
shell, so charge enclosed by Gaussian surface is Q .
Hence, by Gauss’s theorem
" $
#S = E 0 $ dS
= 1 # charged enclosed
e0
Q
E0 4pr2 = 1 # Q E0 = 1
e0 4pe 0 r2
Thus, electric field outside a charged thin
spherical shell is the same as if the whole charge
99. (i) Using Gauss Theorem show mathematically that Q is concentrated at the centre.
for any point outside the shell, the field due to a If s is the surface charge density of the spherical
uniformly charged spherical shell is same as the shell, then
entire charge on the shell a concentrated at the
Q = 4pR2 s coulomb
centre.
(ii) Why do you expect the electric field inside the E0 = 1 4pR2 s
shell to be zero according to this theorem? 4pe 0 r2
2
or = R s2
Using Gauss’s law obtain the expression for the e0r
electric field due to a uniformly charged thin (ii) Electric field inside the shell (hollow charged
spherical shell of radius R at a point outside conducting sphere) The charge resides on the
the shell. Draw a graph showing the variation of surface of a conductor. Thus a hollow charged
electric field with r , for r 2 R and r 1 R . conductor is equivalent to a charged spherical
shell. To find the electric field inside the shell,
Ans : Comp 2019
we consider a spherical Gaussian surface of radius
(i) Electric field intensity at a point outside a
^r 1 Rh, concentric with the given shell. If E is
"
uniformly charged thin spherical shell : Consider a
uniformly charged thin spherical shell of radius R the electric field inside the shell, then by symmetry
carrying charge Q . To find the electric field outside electric field strength has the same magnitude Ei
the shell, we consider a spherical Gaussian surface on the Gaussian surface and is directed radially
outward. Also the directions of normal at each
of radius ^r 2 Rh , concentric with given shell. If E
"
"
is electric field outside the shell, then by symmetry point is radially outward, so angle between Ei
$
electric field strength has same magnitude E0 and dS is zero at each point. Hence, electric flux
on the Gaussian surface and is directed radially through Gaussian surface
outward. Also the directions of normal at each " $
" #S Ei $ dS = # Ei dS cos 0
point is radially outward, so angle between E 1
= Ei $ 4pr2
$
and dS is zero at each point. Hence, electric flux
" $
through Gaussian surface #S = E 0 $ dS
Now, Gaussian surface is inside the given charged " "

Therefore, the flux f = E $3 S is separately zero and
shell, so charged shell, so enclosed by Gaussian for each face of the cube except the two shaded ones.
surface is zero. Hence, by Gauss’s theorem
Now the magnitude of the electric field at the left face is
#S Ei $ dS = e10 # charge enclosed
" $
EL = ax = a ^0.1h = 0.1a
Ei 4pr2 = 1 # 0 (as x = 0.1 at left face)

e0
The magnitude of electric field at the right face is
Ei = 0
ER = ax = a ^2 # 0.1h = 0.2a
Thus, electric field at each point inside a charged
The corresponding flux are
thin and spherical shell in zero. The graph is
" "
shown in figure. f L = EL $3 S
" "
= 3 S E1 $ nL
= EL 3 S cos Q (as q = 180c)
= - EL 3 S = - E1 â2h
= - E2 ^0.1h2
Similarly f R for q = 0c
100. The electric field components due to a charge inside f R = ER â2h = ER ^0.1h2
the cube of side 0.1 m are as shown : So, net flux through the cube
= fR + fL
= ER ^0.1h2 - EL ^0.1h2
= ^0.1h2 60.2a - 0.1a@
= 0.01 # 0.1 # a
= 0.001 # 500
= 0.5 Nm2 C-1
101. (i) An electric dipole of dipole moment p consists of
point charges + q and - q separated by a distance
2a apart. Deduce the expression for the electric
Ex = ax , where a = 500 N/C-m
field E due to the dipole at a distance x from the
Ey = 0, Ez = 0 centre of the dipole on the axial line in terms of the
Calculate (i) the flux through the cube and (ii) the dipole moment p . Hence, show that in the limit
charge inside the cube. 2p
x 22 a, E =
^ 0x h
3
Ans : OD 2018, Comp 2006 4 pe
(i) Since the electric field has only an x - component (ii) Given the electric field in the region E = 2xi ,
for face perpendicular to x direction. find the net electric flux through the cube and the
" " charge enclosed by it.
The angle between E and 3 S is !p/2
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Ans : OD 2015
face is
(i) Electric field on an axial line of an electric dipole.
El = 0 (as, x = 0 at the left face)
The magnitude of the electric field at the right face is
ER = 3a (as, x = 0 at the right face)
The corresponding fluxes are
Let P be at distance r from the centre of the dipole "
f L = EL $3 S = 0
"
on the side of charge - q . " "

Then, the electric field at point P due to charge - q f R = ER $3 S
of the dipole is given by = ER 3 S cos q
q
E-q = pt = ER 3 S ]a q = 0cg
4pe 0 ^r + a h2
2
where, pt is the unit vector along the dipole axis (from f R = ER a
- q to q ) Net flux ^fh through the cube
Also, the electric field at point P due to charge + q of = fL + fR
the dipole is given by
= 0 + ER a 2 = ER a 2
q
E+q = pt
4pe 0 ^r - a h2 q = 2a â h2 = 2a3
The total field at point P is We can use Gauss’s law to find the total charge q
E = E+q + E-q inside the cube.
q 1 1 q
f =
4pe 0 =^r - a h2 ^r + a h2 G
= + pt e0
q = 2a3 /e 0
E = $ 4ar pt
4pe 0 ^r2 - a2h2
102. (i) Derive an expression for the electric field E due
Since r =x (given) to a dipole of length 2a at a point distance r from
q the centre of the dipole on the axial line.
E = $ 4ax pt
4pe 0 ^x2 - a2h2 (ii) Draw a graph of E versus r for r 22 a .
for x 22 a , Ans : Delhi 2017, OD 2007
4qa t (i) Expression for the electric field

E = p
4pe 0 x3 Electric field at an axial point of a electric dipole. As
2p shown in figure, consider an electric dipole consisting
E =
4pe 0 x3 of charges + q and - q separated by distance 2a and
(ii) placed in vacuum.
Let P be a point on the axial line at distance r
from the centre O of the dipole on the side of the
charge + q .
" -q
E-q = pt (towards left)
4pe 0 ^r + a h2
Since, the electrical field has only a component, for where pt is a unit vector along the dipole axis from
faces normal to x - direction, the angle between E - q to + q . Electric field due to charge + q at point
and 3 S is ! p . p is
2 " q
Therefore, the flux is separately zero for each of the E +q = pt (towards right)
4pe 0 ^r - a h2
cube. The magnitude of the electric field at the left
Hence, the resultant electric field at point p is " "

" " " On the right face, 3 E and 3 S are parallel, so
E axial = E +q + E-q
" " "
q 1 1 f R = E $3 S Ex it $3 S
4pe 0 =^r - a h2 ^r + a h2 G
= - pt
= Ex 3 S
q
= $ 4ar pt For any point on the side of the cylinder, E is
"
4pe 0 ^r2 - a2h2
" " "
perpendicular to 3 S , hence 3 E $3 S = 0 . So, the
"
E axial = 1 $ 4qar pt
4pe 0 ^r2 - a2h flux out of the side of the cylinder is zero.
So net outward flux
Here, p = q # 2a = dipole moment.
f = fL + fR
For r 22 a , a can be neglected compared to r2
2
2p = Ex $3 S + Ex $3 S
E axial = 1 $ 3 pt
+
Hence,
4pe 0 r = 2Ex 3 S
(ii)
Here, 3 S = pr 2
So, net outward flux = 2Ex pr2 = 2pEx r2
(ii) The net charge within the cylinder can be found
by using Gauss’s law which gives
q = e0f
= 2pe 0 Ex r2
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
"
103. A uniform electric field E = Ex it N/C for x 2 0 and
"
E = - Ex it N/C for x 1 0 are given. A right circular 104. Consider two identical point charges located at points
cylinder of length l cm and radius r cm has its centre (0, 0) and â, 0h .
at the origin and its axis along the x -axis. Find out (i) Is there a point on the line joining them at which
the net outward flux. Using Gauss’s law write the the electric field is zero.
expression for the net charge within the cylinder. (ii) Is there a point on the line joining them at which
Ans : SQP 2013 the electric potential is zero?
Justify your answer for each case.
Ans : Delhi 2023
If at a point electric field due to two charges are equal

and opposite, then electric field at that point is zero.
The ends of cylinder are at - 12 and 12 - as clearly seen

from figure.
" "
We can see from figure, on the left face E and 3 S are
Now, here both charges are equal or identical, then
parallel. Therefore outward flux is
magnitude of the electric field at the mid-point of the
" " "
f L = E $3 S = - Ex it $3 S line joining the charges is the same but opposite.
= + Ex 3 S So, they will cancel out each other and the net electric
field is zero.
"
(since it $3 s = -3 s )
105. Find the electric dipole moment electron and a proton 109. The dielectric constant of water is 80. What is its
which distance is 4.3 nm apart. permittivity?
Ans : Delhi 2015 Ans : SQP 2013
Charge, q = 1.6 # 10-19 Given, K = 80

d = 4.3 # 10-9 cm We have, K = em
e0
Dipole moment, p = q#d
Hence, e m = Ke 0
= 1.6 # 10-19 # 4.3 # 10-9
[Since, e 0 = 8.85 # 10-12 C2 N-1 m-2 ]
-28
= 6.8 # 10 C-m
= 80 # 8.85 # 10-12
4
106. An infinite line charge produces a field of 9 # 10 N/C
= 708 # 10-12
at a distance of 2 cm . Calculate the linear charge
density. = 7.08 # 10-10 C2 N-1 m-2
Ans : SQP 2008
110. A metal sphere has a charge of - 6 mC . When 5 # 1012
4
Electric Field, E = 9 # 10 N/C electrons are removed from the sphere, what would be
net charge on it?
r = 2 cm = 2 # 10-2 m
Ans : Delhi 2015
and l =?
Here, q1 = - 6 mC
As we know that,
and, q2 = ne = 5 # 1012 # (1.6 # 10-19)
E = l
2pe 0 r = 8.0 # 10-7 C = 0.8 # 10-6 C
l = 2pe 0 rE = 0.8 mC
= 1 -2 4
# 2 # 10 # 9 # 10 111. An infinite number of charges each equal to q are
2 # 9 # 109
placed along X-axis at x = 1, x = 2 , x = 4 , x = 8 and
= 10-7 Cm-1
so on. Find the electric field at the point x = 0 due to
107. What is the total charge of a system containing five this set up of charges.
charges + 1, + 2, - 3, + 4 and - 5 in some arbitrary Ans : Foreign 2016
unit? At the point x = 0 , the electric field due to all the
Ans : Comp 2018, SQP 2009 charges are in the same negative x - direction and
As charges are additive in nature, i.e. the total charge hence get added up, i.e.
of a system is the algebraic sum of all the individual q q q q
E = 1 : 2 + 2 + 2 + 2 + ...D
charges located at different points inside the system, 4pe 0 1 2 4 8
i.e. q
1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ...D
4pe 0 :
=
q net = q1 + q2 + q3 + q 4 + q5 4 16 64
q 1 q
Hence, Total charge = + 1 + 2 - 3 + 4 - 5 = =
4pe 0 [1 - 14 ] 3pe 0
= - 1 in the same unit This electric field is along negative X-axis.
108. How many electrons are there in one coulomb of 112. Calculate the amount of work done in turning an
negative charge? electric dipole of dipole moment 3 # 10-8 cm from
Ans : OD 2019 its position of unstable equilibrium to the position
The negative charge is due to the presence of of stable equilibrium in a uniform electric field of
excess electrons. Because an electron has a charge intensity 103 N/C.
whose magnitude is e = 1.6 # 10-19 C , the number Ans : Delhi 2010
" "
of electrons is equal to the charge q divided by the For unstable equilibrium, the angle between p and E
charge e on each electron. is q 1 = 180c
Therefore, the number of electrons is Finally, for stable equilibrium, q 2 = 0c
q 1.0 Required work done
n = =
e 1.6 # 10-19
W = pE ^cos q 1 - cos q 2h
= 6.25 # 1018 electrons
= 3 # 10-8 # 103 ^cos 180c - cos 0ch Fair = K

FMedium
6sin ce cos 180c = - 1, cos 0c = + 1@ 8 = 80
W = - 6 # 10-5 J Fwater
113. A charge q = 1 mC is placed at point (1 m, 2 m, 4 m). Fwater = 8 = 1 N
80 10
Find the electric field at point P (0 m, - 4 m, 3 m).
Ans : OD 2011
116. Two charges of + 25 # 10-9 C and - 25 # 10-9 C are
Here, rq = i + 2j + 4k
t t t
placed 6 m apart. Find the electric field at a point
and rp = - 4tj + 3kt 4 m from the centre of the electric dipole
1. On axial line
Hence, rp - rq = - it - 6tj - kt
2. On equatorial line.
rp - rq = (- 1) 2 + (- 6) 2 + (- 1) 2 Ans : OD 2019
= 38 m Given, q = 25 # 10-9 C
1 $ q 2r = 6 m , r = 4 m
Now, Electric field, E = (r - r )
4pe 0 rp - rq 3 p q
p = q (2r) = 25 # 10-9 # 6
Substituting the values, we get
= 1.5 # 10-7 C - m
(9.0 # 109) (1.0 # 10-6)
E = (- it - 6tj - kt)
(38) 3/2 Now, Eaxial = 1 $ 2pr
4pe 0 (r2 - a2) 2
= (- 38.42it - 230.52tj - 38.42kt) N/C 9
= 9 # 10 # 2 # 1.5 # 10-7 # 4
114. What is the electric dipole moment of an electric dipole (4 - 32) 2
2
made up of two opposite charges having magnitude = 2700 # 4 = 220.4 NC-1

+ 3.2 # 10-19 C and - 3.2 # 10-19 C separates by a 49
distance 2.4 # 10-10 m ? p
Hence, E = 1 $ 2
Ans : Foreign 2013, OD 2005 4pe 0 (r + a2) 3/2
Magnitude of charge, q = 3.2 # 10-19 C 9
= 9 # 10 2# 1.253# 10-7 = 1350
(4 + 3 ) /2 125
Length of dipole, 2l = 2.4 # 10-10 m
We know that, = 10.8 N - C-1
Electric dipole moment, 117. Two charges q1 and q2 of 0.1 mC and - 0.1 mC
p = q # 2l c apart. What is the electric field
respectively are 10 A
at a point on the line joining them at a distance of
= 3.2 # 10-19 # 2.4 # 10-10
10 cm from their mid-point?
= 7.68 # 10-29 C -m Ans : Comp 2006, SQP 2015
115. Two point charges having equal charges separated by Here, q1 = q2 = q = 0.1 mmC
1 m distance experience a force of 8 N . What will be
= 10-13 C [in magnitude]
the force experienced by them, if they are held in
Length of the electric dipole formed by these charges,
water, at the same distance? (Given: K water = 80 )
Ans : Delhi 2018 2a = 10-10 m = 10-9 m
Two point charges system is taken from air to water Thus, electric dipole moment,
keeping other variables (e.g. distance, magnitude of p = 2aq = 10-13 # 10-9
charge) unchanged. So, the only factor which may
= 10-22 C - m
affect the interacting force is dielectric constant of
medium. Distance of the point under consideration on the axial
line from the mid-point,
Force acting between two point charges.
q1 q2 r = 10 cm = 0.1 m
F = 1
4pe 0 K r2 Since, a << r , electric field at a point on the axial line,
2p
or F ? 1 E = kc 3
r
K
-22
(9 # 109) (6.5 # 10-7) # (6.5 # 10-7)
= (9 # 109) 2 # 103 = #
(0.1) 80 (0.5) 2
= 18 # 10-10 N/C = 1.9 # 10-4 N
118. A sphere of lead of mass 10 g has net charge 120. The opposite corners of a square carry Q charge each
- 2.5 # 10-9 C . and the other two opposite corners of the same square
(i) Find the number of excess electrons on the sphere. carry q charge each. If the resultant force on q is zero,
(ii) How many excess electrons are per lead atom? how are Q and q related?
Atomic number of lead is 82 and its atomic mass Ans : SQP 2010
is 207 g/mol . Let each side of square be x .
Ans : Foreign 2020
Diagonal = x2 + x2 = x 2
(i) The charge of an electron
Qq
= - 1.6 # 10-19 C F1 = F2 =
4pe 0 x2
Net charge on sphere = - 2.5 # 10-9 C qq q2
and F3 = =
So, the number of excess electrons 4pe 0 (x 2 ) 2 2 # 4pe 0 x2
-9
As, F1 and F2 are perpendicular to each other, their
= - 2.5 # 10-19 C
- 1.6 # 10 C resultant force.
= 1.5 # 1010 electrons F = F 12 + F 22 = F 12 + F 12
(ii) Atomic number of lead is 82. F = F1 2
Atomic mass of lead is 207 g/mol .
As, net force on q is zero. Therefore,
Hence, 10 g of lead will have
10 g F1 2 = - F3
23
# 6.02 # 10 atoms/mol
207 g/mol Qq 2 - q2
2 =
= 2.91 # 1022 atoms 4pe 0 x 2 # 4pe 0 x2
Hence, the number of excess electrons per atom q =- 2 2 Q
10
= 1.56 # 10 22 121. In the given figure, if net force on Q is zero then find
2.91 # 10 Q
the value of .
= 5.36 # 10-13 electrons q
119. Two insulated charged copper spheres A and B

each having charge of 6.5 # 10-7 C are separated
by a distance 50 cm. If they are placed in water of
dielectric constant 80, then find the electrostatic force
of repulsion between them.
Ans : OD 2005, Comp 2014
Charge on sphere A, q1 = 6.5 # 10-7 C

Charge on sphere B , q2 = 6.5 # 10-7 C
Ans :
Distance between the charges, r = 50 cm
According to the question,
= 0.5 m
Dielectric constant, Km = 80
Electrostatic force of repulsion (due to similar
charges), between two spheres when they are placed
in a dielectric medium,
qq
F = k : 122
Km r
where, k = Electrostatic force constant
= 9 # 109 N-m2-C-2 .
In TABC , According to Pythagorean theorem, Ans : OD 2014

-2
AC 2 = AB 2 + BC 2 Given, length 2a = 4 cm = 4 # 10 m
AC = a2 + a2 = 2a Angle, q = 60c
Resultant force, FR = F 12 + F 22 ...(1) Torque, t = 4 3 Nm
According to coulomb’s law, Charge, Q = 8 # 10-9 C

KQq Electric field,
F1 = 2
a t
E =
KQq Q ^2a h sin q
Similarly, F2 = 2
a 4 3
= N/C
KQQ KQ2 8 # 10-9 # 4 # 10-2 # sin 600
F3 = =
( 2 a) 2
2a2 Potential energy,
From equation (1), C = - pE cos q = Q ^2a h E cos q
KQq 2 KQq 2
FR = c a2 m + c a2 m U = - 8 # 10-9 # 4 # 10-2
4 3 # cos 60c
KQq 2 KQq 2 #
= c a2 m (1 + 1) = 8 # 10 # 4 # 10-2 # sin 60c
-9
a2
Since, FR - F3 = 0 = - 4 3 J = - 4J
3
FR = F3
124. Two point charge A and B of charge + 4 mC and
KQq 2 KQ2 - 1 mC are placed in air at a distance 1 m apart. What
2 =
a 2a2 is the distance of the point from the charge B on the
Q line joining the charges, where the resultant electric
=2 2
q field is zero.
122. A particle of mass 10-3 kg and charge 5 mC enters into
a uniform electric field of 2 # 105 NC-1 , moving with Charge at A, q A = + 4 mC
a velocity of 20 ms-1 in a direction opposite to that of Charge at B , q B = - 1 mC
the field. Calculate the distance it would travel before Distance between the charges = 1 m .
coming to rest. If x is the distance between the point (where, resultant
Ans : Foreign 2012, OD 2002 electric field is zero) and charge B , then distance
Given, m = 10-3 kg, q = 5 # 10-6 C , between this point and charge.
E = 2 # 105 N/C, A = 1+x
u = 20 m/s, v = 0 Electric field at this point due to charge A,

q 4
As it enters opposite to the field, so particle will E1 = k : A2 = k :
r1 (1 + x) 2
retard.
qE = 4k
Acceleration, a = (1 + x) 2
m
-6
2 # 105 = 102 m/s2
Similarly, electric field at this point due to charge B,
= 5 # 10 # q (- 1)
E2 = k : B2 = k : 2 = - k2
-3
10
r2 x x
Using v2 = u2 - 2as , we get
Since the resultant electric field is zero. Therefore,
0 = ^20h2 - 2 # 1000 # s
0 = 4k 2 - k2
or s = 400 = 1 = 0.2 m (1 + x) x
2000 5 1 = 4
x2 (1 + x) 2
123. An electric dipole of length 4 cm when placed with its
axis making an angle of 60c with a uniform electric 1 = 2
x 1+x
field, experiences a torque of 4 3 Nm. Calculate the
potential energy of the dipole if it has charge ! 8 nC. 2x = 1 + x = 1 m
125. An electric dipole as held in a uniform electric field.

(i) Show that the net force acting on it is zero.
(ii) The dipole is aligned parallel to the field. Find
the work done in rotating it through the angle of
180c.
Ans : Delhi 2018
(i) The dipole moment of dipole is

p = q # ^2a h
"
"
Force on - q at A = - qE (i) Find the electric flux through the shell.
" (ii) State the law used.
Force on + q at B = + qE
" "
(iii) Find the force on the charges at the centre C of
Net force on the dipole = qE - qE = 0 the shell and at the point A.
(ii) Work done on dipole Ans : Foreign 2016
W =3 U (i) Electric flux through a Gaussian surface,

Total enclosed ch arg e
= pE ^cos q 2 - cos q 2h f =
e0
= pE ^cos 0c - cos 180ch = 2pE Q 3Q
Total enclosed charge = Q + =
2 2
126. An electric dipole consists of two opposite charges
each of 10-4 C separated by 0.5 cm. If dipole is placed Hence electric flux through the shell
in an external uniform field of 106 N-C-1 , how much 3Q
f =
work is done in rotating the dipole through 180c, 2e 0
(starting from the position q = 0c)? (ii) Gauss’s Law : Electric flux through a Gaussian
surface is 1 times the net charge enclosed within
Ans : Delhi 2019 e0
it.
Magnitude of each charge on dipole,
Mathematically,
q = 10-4 C
= 1 #q
" $
Distance between the charge, # E $ dS
o
e0
2a = 0.5 cm = 0.5 # 10-2 m (iii) Electric field or net charge inside the spherical
Electric field, E = 106 N-C-1 conducting shell is zero. Hence, the force on
Q
Initial angle of dipole with electric field, q 1 = 0c. charge is zero.
2
and final angle of dipole with electric field, q 2 = 180c. Force on charge at A,
Electric dipole moment, Q
2Q # bQ + l
p = q # 2a 1 2
FA =
4pe 0 x 2
= 10-4 # (0.5 # 10-2) 2

= 1 3Q
= 0.5 # 10-6 C-m 4pe 0 x 2
Therefore, work done in rotating the electric dipole in 128. (i) Can two equipotential surfaces intersect each
uniform electric field, other? Give reasons.
W = pE (cos q 1 - cos q 2) (ii) Two charges - q and + q are located at points
A ^0, 0, - a h and B ^0, 0, + a h respectively. How
= (0.5 # 10-6) # 106 # (cos 0c - cos 180c)
much work is done in moving a test charge from
= 0.5 # [1 - (- 1)] = 1 point P ^7, 0, 0h to Q ^- 3, 0, 0h ?
Ans : Comp 2007, Foreign 2010
127. A thin metallic spherical shell of radium R carries a
charge Q on its surface. A point charge Q2 is placed (i) No, if two equipotential surfaces (as these are
at the centres C and other charge + 2Q is placed normal to electric field) intersect each other,
then at the point of intersection there will be two
outside the shell at A at a distance X from the centre
directions of electric field, which is impossible.
as shown in the figure.
Hence, two equipotential surfaces cannot intersect
each other.
(ii) Suppose W1 and W2 be the work done in moving a q = 1000 mC = 10-3 C

test charge q0 from P ^7, 0, 0h to Q ^- 3, 0, 0h in the Distance between the charges,
fields of + q ^0, 0, a h and - q ^0, 0, - a h respectively.
2a = 2 mm = 2 # 10-3 m
Angle of dipole with direction of electric field, q = 30c.
and Electric field, E = 8 # 105 N-C-1
We know that,
Dipole moment, p = q # 2a
= 10-3 # (2 # 10-3)
= 2 # 10-6 C-m
Therefore, torque acting on the dipole in uniform
$ electric field,
Here, BP = 7it + akt,
$
t = pE sin q
BQ = - 3it - akt
= (2 # 10-6) # (8 # 105) # sin 30c
$
AP = 7it - akt, = 0.8 N-m
$
AQ = - 3it - akt 130. Electric charge is uniformly distributed along a long
BP = 49 + a , 2 straight wire of radius 1 mm. The charge per cm
length of the wire is Q coulomb. A cylindrical surface
BQ = 9 + a2 of radius 50 cm and length 1 m symmetrically encloses
AP = 49 + a2 , the wire as shown in the figure. Find out the total
electric flux passing through the cylindrical surface?
AQ = 9 + a2
From the relation,
WAB = 1 $ q b 1 - 1 l
4pe 0 rB rA
1 $q 1 - 1
4pe 0 c BQ BP m
W1 =
= 1 $ qc 1 1
49 + a2 m
-
4pe 0 9 + a2
1 $ -q 1 - 1
4pe 0 ^ hc AQ AP m
and W2 =
-q 1 1
4pe 0 c 9 + a2 49 + a2 m
or W2 = -
Hence, Total work done,

W = W1 + W2 Ans : Comp 2009
q 1 1 Radius of wire, r = 1 mm
4pe 0 c
= -
9 + a2 49 + a2 Charge on the wire per cm length = Q .
1 1 Charge on 1 meter long wire
49 + a2 m
- +
9 + a2
= Q # 100 = 100Q coulomb
= 0 (zero)
Length of cylinder, l = 1 m = 100 cm
129. Two charges of ! 1000 mC are separated by 2 mm .
The dipole so formed is held at an angle of 30c with a and radius of cylinder,
uniform electric field of 8 # 105 N-C-1 . Find out the R = 50 cm
value of torque acting on the dipole? We know from the Gauss’s theorem that total electric
Ans : OD 2009 flux passing through the cylindrical surface,
Given, Ch arg e enclosed by the cylinder
f =
Magnitude of each charge on dipole, e0
Ch arg e on one metre length of wire R[(2 # 10-9) + (1 + 10-9) + V

= S W
e0 S(- 2 # 10-9) + (- 3 # 10-9)]W
100Q = kS W
= 0.707
e0 T X
= k # (- 2.83 # 10-9)
where e 0 = Absolute electric permittivity of free space
= (9 # 109) # (- 2.83 # 10-9)
131. A regular hexagon of side 10 cm has charge 5 mC at
each of its vertices. What is the resultant potential at = 25.5 V
the centre of the hexagon?
where, k = Electrostatic force constant
Ans : Delhi 2017
= 9 # 109 N-m2-C-2
Side of hexagon, a = 10 cm = 0.1 m
and Charge at each vertex, 133. Two spherical conductors of radii 4 cm and 5 cm are
charged to the same potential. If s 1 and s 2 be the
q = 5 mC = 5 # 10-6 C respective values of the surface density of charge on
We know that, distance of each charge from the centre both the conductors, What is the ratio of s 1 ?
of regular hexagon, s2
Ans : Foreign 2016, OD 2009
r = a = 0.1 m
Radius of first conductor, r1 = 4 cm
We also know that, resultant potential at the centre
of hexagon, Radius of second conductor, r2 = 5 cm
q + q 2 + q 3+ q 4 + q 5 + q 6 Potential on first conductor, V1 = V2
V = k: 1 D
r
where, V2 = potential on second conductor
q+q+q+q+q+q
= k: D Surface density of charge on first conductor = s 1 , and
r
6q surface density of charge on second conductor = s 2 .
= k: We know that,
r
6 # (5 # 10-6) q
= (9 # 109) # Electric potential, V = k $
0.1 r
= 27 # 105 V q \r (as potential is same)
q1
where, k = Electrostatic force constant Therefore, = r1
q2 r2
= 9 # 109 N-m2-C-2 We also know that, surface charge density of a sphere,
132. A square of side 1 m , has four charges of Ch arg e on sphere
s =
+ 2 # 10-9 C, + 1 # 10-9 C, - 2 # 10-9 C and Surface area of sphere
- 3 # 10-9 C respectively at its corners. What is the q q
= \ 2
resultant potential at the centre of the square? 4p r 2 r
Ans : s 1 = q1 r2 2
q2 # 9r1 C
OD 2012, Delhi 2005
Therefore,
s2
Side of square, a = 1m
= r1 # 9r2 C = r2 = 5
2
First charge, q1 = 2 # 10-9 C r2 r1 r1 4
Second charge, q2 = 1 # 10-9 C 134. Two pith balls of mass 0.2 gm each are suspended
by two nylon strings of length 50 cm each. They are
Third charge, q3 = - 2 # 10-9 C
charged with charge of equal magnitude and same
Fourth charge, q 4 = - 3 # 10-9 C nature. If they come to rest after repulsion at a
Distance of each charge form the centre of the square, distance of 4 cm, then find the charge on each ball.
a2 + a2 Ans : Comp 2020
r =
2 Distance between ball,
(1) 2 + (1) 2 r = 4 cm = 4 # 10-2 m
= = 0.707 m
2 Let the charge on each ball is Q . Then force of
Therefore, potential at the centre of square, repulsion between two ball is given by,
q + q2 + q3 + q 4 Q$Q
V = k: 1 D F = 1
r 4pe 0 (4 # 10-2) 2
CASE BASED QUESTIONS

135. Ramesh’s aunt was housewife, she had a little
knowledge of science. In a dark room when she pulled
over a woollen sweater, she heard little crackles with
tiny sparks. She became frightened and called Ramesh.
Being a science student he explained the appropriate
reason behind it with appropriate figure and than her
aunt calmed down.
Q 2 # 9 # 109
F = ...(1)
16 # 10-4
Weight of each ball = mg
Here, m = 0.2 # 10-3 kg
Transfer of charge
= 0.2 # 10-3 # 9.8 Due to a charge ,there a electric field is produce
= 1.96 # 10-3 N ...(2) around a sphere.
If tension in string is T and ball are in equilibrium (a) A hollow conducting sphere of radius 8 cm is
then algebraic sum of moments of force acting on it given a charge of 16 mC . What is the electric field
is zero. at the centre of the sphere?
(b) A hollow conducting sphere of radius 8 cm is
F # OC - Mg # AC + T # 0 = 0
given a charge of 16 mC . What is the electric field
or F # OC = mg # AC on the outer surface of the sphere?
F = AC Ans :
mg OC (a) Electric field at its centre = 0 , because electric
Since in TOAC , field at any point inside a hollow sphere is always
zero.
OA2 = AC 2 + OC 2
(b) Electric field on the outer surface of the sphere is
OC = OA2 - AC 2 q
E = 1 $ 2
F = AC 4pe 0 r
Now,
mg -6
OA2 - AC 2 = 9 # 109 # 16 # 102
AB/2 ^0.08h
=
(OA) 2 - ^ AB
2 h
-6
= 9 # 109 # 16 # 10-4
2
64 # 10
4 # 10-2 /2
= = 2.25 # 10 NC-1
7
(50 # 10-2) 2 - (2 # 10-2) 2
= 2 # 10-2
(50 # 10-2) 2 - (2 # 10-2) 2
= 2 # 10-2
-2
10 2500 - 4
= 2 # 10-2 = 2
49.95 # 10-2 49.95 136. While travelling back to his residence in the car, Dr.
From Eq. 1 and 2, we get Pathak was caught up in a thunderstorm. It became
very dark. He stopped driving the car and waited for
Q 2 # 9 # 109
= 2 thunderstorm to stop. Suddenly he noticed a child
16 # 10-4 # 1.96 # 10-3 49.95
walking alone on the road. He asked the boy to come
-4 -3
s = 2 # 16 # 10 -9 # 1.96 # 10 inside the car till the thunderstorm stopped. Dr.
9 # 10 # 49.95 Pathak dropped the boy at his residence. The boy
Q = 1.39 # 10-17 insisted that Dr. Pathak should meet his parents. The
parents expressed their gratitude to Dr. Pathak for
= 3.73 # 10-9 = 3.73 mC
his concern for safety of the child.
test charge at location B in the figure attempts to

move in against the electric field direction. Hence,
the negative test charge moves towards point A.
137. In 1909, Robert Millikan and Harvey Fletcher
conducted the oil drop experiment to determine the
charge of an electron. They suspended tiny, charged
droplets of oil between two metal electrodes by
balancing downward gravitational force with upward
drag and electric forces. The density of the oil was
known, so Millikan and Fletcher could determine the
Answer the following questions based on the above droplets’ masses from their observed radii (since from
information : the radii they could calculate the volume and thus, the
(a) Why is it safer to sit inside a car during a mass). Using the known electric field and the values
thunderstorm? of gravity and mass, Millikan and Fletcher determined
(b) Can charge be stored in a body? the charge on oil droplets in mechanical equilibrium.
(c) An electric field map is graphically expressed as By repeating the experiment, they confirmed that
shown in the figure. There are 4 indicated locations the charges were all multiples of some fundamental
(A, B, C, and D) along one of the field lines. If a value. They calculated this value to be 1.5924 × 10−19
negative test charge is released at location B and Coulombs (C), which is within 1% of the currently
free to move, in which way will it move toward? accepted value of 1.602 × 10−19 C. They proposed that
this was the charge of a single electron.
(a) What was determined from Millikan’s oil drop

experiment?
(b) What is the currently accepted value of electric
charge of an electron?
(c) How was the mass of an electron determined?
(d) Does an electron have mass?
(e) What was the conclusion of Millikan’s oil drop
experiment?
Ans : Ans :
(a) It is safer to be inside a car during thunderstorm (a) In 1909, Robert Millikan and Harvey Fletcher
because the car acts like a Faraday cage. The developed an experiment to determine the
metal in the car will shield you from any external fundamental charge of the electron.
electric fields and thus prevent the lighting from (b) 1.602× 10−19 C.
the travelling within the car. (c) The mass of an electron determined by the
(b) Yes, Charge can be stored in a capacitor, which is calculation of density and Volume.
a combination of two conductors with something (d) Yes
insulating (a dielectric) between them. (e) Electric charge is integral multiple of fundamental
(c) A negative electric charge always seeks to travel charge
in against the electric field direction or toward
138. When a glass rod is rubbed with silk, the rod acquires
the positive charge, whereas a positive electric
charge always goes in the electric field direction or one kind of charge and the silk acquires the second
towards the negative charge. It can be concluded kind of charge. This is true for any pair of objects
from the preceding explanation that a negative that are rubbed to be electrified. Now if the electrified
glass rod is brought in contact with silk, with which 139. For electrostatics, the concept of electric field is
it was rubbed, they no longer attract each other. convenient, but not really necessary. Electric field
They also do not attractor repel other light objects is an elegant way of characterizing the electrical
as they did on being electrified. Thus, the charges environment of a system of charges. Electric field at a
acquired after rubbing are lost when the charged point in the space around a system of charges tells you
bodies are brought in contact. What can you conclude the force a unit positive test charge would experience
from these observations? It just tells us that unlike if placed at that point (without disturbing the
charges acquired by the objects neutralise or nullify system). Electric field is a characteristic of the system
each other’s effect. Therefore, the charges were named of charges and is independent of the test charge that
as positive and negative by the American scientist you place at a point to determine the field. The term
Benjamin Franklin. We know that when we add a field in physics generally refers to a quantity that is
positive number to a negative number of the same defined at every point in space and may vary from
magnitude, the sum is zero. This might have been point to point. Electric field is a vector field, since
the philosophy in naming the charges as positive and force is a vector quantity.
negative. By convention, the charge on glass rod or (a) What do you mean by electric field ?
cat’s fur is called positive and that on plastic rod (b) What is the SI unit of electric field ?
or silk is termed negative. If an object possesses an Ans :
electric charge, it is said to be electrified or charged.
(a) The force per unit charge is known as electric field
When it has no charge it is said to be electrically
(b) N/C
neutral.
***********
(a) When you charge a balloon by rubbing it on

your hair this is an example of what method of
charging?
(b) Which particle in an atom can you physically
manipulate?
(c) If a negatively charged rod touches a conductor,
the conductor will be charged by what method?
Ans :
(a) Frication
(b) Electrons
(c) Conduction
Page 62 Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance Chap 2
CHAPTER 2
Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance
SUMMARY Where, q is the angle between r and p .
1. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL
The electric potential at any point in an electric field
is defined as the work done in bringing a unit positive
test charge from infinity to that point without
acceleration.
If W is the work done in bringing infinitesimal Electrostatic potential due to a thin charged
positive test charge q from infinity to given point,
0
spherical shell carrying charge q and radius R
then electric potential, respectively, at any point P lying.
q
V =W Inside the shell is Voltage = 1 $
q0 4pe 0 R
q
Its SI unit is Volt V and its dimensional formula On the surface of shell is Voltage = 1 $
is 6ML2 T-3 A-1@ . 4pe 0 R
q
2. POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE Outside the shell is Voltage = 1 $ for
4pe 0 R
r>R
The potential difference between two points in an
electric field is defined as the work done in bringing Where, r is the distance of point P from the centre
unit positive charge from one point to another. of the shell.
VB - VA = WAB 5. EQUIPOTENTIAL SURFACE
q0
Where, WAB is work done in taking charge q0 form A surface which have same electrostatic potential at
A to B against of electrostatic force. every point on it is known as equipotential surface.
The shape of equipotential surface due to line
3. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL DUE TO A POINT CHARGE
charge is cylindrical.
Electrostatic potential due to a point charge q at any Point charge is spherical as shown below:
p lying at a distance r from the origin, it is given by
q
V = 1 $
4pe 0 r
4. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL DUE TO AN ELECTRIC

DIPOLE AT ANY POINT
Electrostatic potential due to an electric dipole at any
point P whose position vector is r w.r.t. mid-point of
dipole is given by
p cos q
V = 1 $
4pe 0 r2
or V = 1 $ pv $ rt
4pe 0 rv
2
Chap 2 Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance Page 63
Properties of Equipotential Surface where,

1. Equipotential surface do not intersect each other q1 and q2 = two point charges at position vectors
as it gives two directions of electric field E at r1 and r2, respectively
intersecting point which is not possible.
2. Electric field is always normal to equipotential V (r1) = potential at r1 due to the external
surface at every point of it and directly from one field
equipotential surface at higher potential to the
V (r2) = potential at r2 due to the external
equipotential surface at lower potential.
3. Work done in moving a test charge form one point field
of equipotential surface to other is zero. Potential energy of an electric dipole in an uniform
The electric field at a point is related to the negative electric field
potential gradient as follows, U = - pE cos q
E = - dV = pv $ Ev , if cos q = 1
dr
i.e., EX = -2V 7. CAPACITANCE OF A CONDUCTOR
2x
If charge q is given to an insulated conductor, it leads
EY = - V2
2y to increase its electric potential by V such that,
EZ = - V2 q \ V & q = CV
2z
where, C is known as capacitance of a conductor. The
Where negative sign indicates that the direction of capacitance depends on the shape, size and geometry
electric field is from higher potential to lower potential, of conductor, nature of surrounding medium and
i.e., in the direction of decreasing potential. presence of other conductor in the neighbourhood of
it.
6. ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL ENERGY
Its SI unit is farad F .
The work done against electrostatic force gets stored
as potential energy. This is called electrostatic Here, 1 farad = 1 coulomb
1 volt
potential energy. Farad is a very large unit of capacitance, So, mF is
i.e., TU = UB - UA = WAB usually taken.
The work done in moving a unit positive test charge
8. COMBINATION OF CAPACITORS
over a closed path in an electric field is zero.
1. Series Combination : When capacitance are
Thus, electrostatic forces are conservative in nature.
connected in series, then net capacitance C is
1. Electrostatic potential energy of a system of two given by
point charges is given by
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
qq
U = 1 $ 1 2 C C1 C2 C3
4pe 0 r
Putting the values of charge with their signs.
2. Electrostatic potential of a system of n point
charges is given by
Net charge Q = q1 = q2 = q3 (remain same)
n n
qq
U = 1 / / j i j ! i and ij = ji Net potential difference V = V1 + V2 + V3
4pe 0 j = 1 i = 1 rji
2. Parallel Combination : When capacitors are
Potential Energy in an External Field
connected in parallel, then the net capacitance is
1. Potential energy of a single charge q at a point given by
with position vector r , in an external field is
C = C1 + C2 + C3
qV (r), where V (r) is the potential at the point
due to external electric field E . In parallel combination net charge,
2. Potential Energy of a system of two charges in an Q = q1 = q2 = q3
external field. Net potential difference,
qq
U = q1 V (r1) + q2 V (r2) + 1 2 V = V1 = V2 = V3 (remain same)
4pe 0 r12
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS
1. The electric potential due to a small electric dipole

at a large distance r from the center of the dipole is
proportional to
(a) r (b) 1
r
(c) 21 (d) 13
9. CAPACITANCE OF PARALLEL PLATE CAPACITOR r r
A parallel plate capacitor consists of two parallel Ans : OD 2018
metallic plates separated by a dielectric. The Electric potential at an axial point of a dipole is given
capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is given by, by,
p
C = 0
ke A V = 1
d 4pe 0 r2 - a2
where,
where, K = dielectric constant
p = Electric dipole moment
A = area of each plate
r = Distance of axial point from the center of
and d = separation between the plates
dipole
Special Cases
2a = Length of the dipole
1. When there is no medium between the plates,
then K = 1. So, For large distance r2 >>> a2 ,
e A p
C vaccum = 0 = C0 V =
d 4pe 0 r2
2. When space between the plates is partly filled Hence, V ? 12
r
with a medium of thickness t and dielectric
constant K , then capacitance
e0A 2. If the uniform electric field exists along X-axis,then
C =
d - t + Kt equipotential is along
e0 A (a) XY-plane (b) XZ-plane
=
d - t ^1 - K1 h (c) YZ-plane (d) anywhere
Clearly, C > C0 , i.e., on introduction slab between Ans : OD 2009
the plates of a parallel plate capacitor, its capacitance
Equipotential surface are planes in uniform electric
increases.
field. So its lies in plane XY-plane.
10. ENERGY STORED IN A CHARGED CAPACITOR Thus (a) is correct option.
U = 1 CV 2 3. If 125 water drops of equal radius and equal capacitance

2 C, coalesce to form a single drop of capacitance Cl the
Q2 relation between C and Cl is
= = 1 QV joule
2C 2 (a) C l = C (b) C l = 5C
This energy resides n the medium between the plates. (c) C l = 125C (d) C l = 250C
The energy stored per unit volume of a charged
Ans : SQP 2005
capacitor is given by
Number of water drops n = 125
u =U
V Capacitance of each water drop = C
= 1 eE 2 joule/m3 If n small drops, each of capacitance C , coalesce to
2 form a big drop, then capacitance of the big drop,
where, E is electric field strength.
Cl = n1/3 # C = (125) 1/3 # C = 5C
***********
4. The ratio of charge to potential of a capacitor is 7. Which of the following ratios is constant for an
known as its isolated conductor?
(a) capacitance (b) conductance Total charg e Ch arge added
(a) (b)
Potential Potential difference
(c) inductance (d) resistance
Ans : (Total charg e) 2
Delhi 2016 (c) (d) none of these
Potential
Capacitance of a capacitor,
Ans : OD 2007
q
C = Capacitance of isolated conductor is given by,
V
It is also called electrostatic capacity of the capacitor. Total charg e (Q)
C =
Potential (V)
where, q = charge,
Capacitance is constant for a conductor.
and V = potential of the capacitor Thus (a) is correct option.
Thus (a) is correct option. 8. Minimum number of capacitors of 2 mF each required
5. Two plates of a parallel plate capacitor are 1 cm apart to obtain a capacitance of 5 mF will be
and potential difference between them is 10 V. The (a) 4 (b) 3
electric field between the plates is (c) 5 (d) 6
(a) 10 N-C-1 (b) 250 N-C-1
Ans : SQP 2018
(c) 500 N-C-1 (d) 1000 N-C-1 To obtain a equivalent capacitance of 5 mF , we will
Ans : Foreign 2017, Delhi 2002 arranged the capacitor as shown in the figure.
Distance between plates,
d = 1cm = 0.01 m
and potential difference between them,
V = 10 V
Electric field between the plates in a parallel plate
capacitor,
E = V = 10 = 1000 N-C-1
d 0.01
In the circuit diagram C1 and C2 are connected in
6. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor .......... series combination.
by the introduction of a dielectric between the plates
Hence, Equivalent capacitance,
of capacitor.
1 = 1 + 1 =1+1
(a) increases (b) decreases C l C1 C2 2 2
(c) remains same (d) nothing can be said Cl = 1 mF
Ans : OD 2010 C2 and C3 capacitors are connected in parallel
When vacuum is present between the plates of combination.
capacitor, then capacitance of parallel plate is given Hence, Equivalent capacitance,
by,
Cll = C3 + C 4
e A
C = 0 ...(1) = 2 + 2 = 4 mF
d
If a medium of dielectric strength K is introduced Cl and Cll are connected in parallel combination
between the plate of capacitor then, .Hence, Total equivalent capacitance,
Ke 0 A Ceq = C l + C ll
Capacitance, Cl = [From equation (1)]
d
= 1 + 4 = 5 mF
Cl = KC
Hence, four capacitors are required to obtain
i.e. capacitance increase K time equivalent capacitance of 5 mF .
Thus (a) is correct option. Thus (a) is correct option.
9. Three capacitors each of capacity C are connected in It is also called capacitance of the capacitor.
series. The resultant capacity will be where, q = charge,
(a) 3C (b) 3/C
and V = potential of the capacitor
(c) C/3 (d) 1/3C
Ans : OD 2017
12. 64 identical drops each of capacity of 5 mF combine
to form a big drop. What is the capacity of big drop?
(a) 25 mF (b) 4 mF
(c) 164 mF (d) 20 mF
Resultant capacity is given by, Ans : OD 2016, SQP 2013
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 Capacitance of spherical conductor is given by,

Ceq C1 C2 C3 Cs = 4pe 0 r
= 1+1+1 5 = 4pe 0 r (for small drop) ...(1)
C C C
Ceq = C/3 When small drops combine to form a big drop than
volume remains constant,
Big drop volume = 64 # One small drop volume
10. A parallel plate air capacitor is charged to a potential
difference of V . If distance between the plates is 4 pR3 = 64 4 pr3
3 #3
increased, then potential difference between the plates
(a) decreases (b) increases R = 4r ...(2)
(c) becomes zero (d) does not change CB = 4pe 0 R

Ans : Delhi 2008, OD 2014 where, R = radius of big drop
Initial potential difference of capacitor, CB = 4pe 0 (4r) [From equation (2)]
V1 = V CB = 4 (4pe 0 r) ...(3)
Charge on the plates of a parallel plate air capacitor Dividing equation (1) by (2), we get
always remains constant after increasing or decreasing
5 = 4pe 0 r
the distance between the plate. CB 4 (4pe 0 r)
i.e., Q = Constant CB = 5 # 4 = 20 mF
Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor, Thus (d) is correct option.
e A
C = 0 13. The charge on plate X in the given figure
d
We also know that charge on the plates of capacitor,
e A
Q = CV = 0 # V
d
or V \d
Since distance between the plates is increases,
therefore potential difference V between the plates (a) 20 mC (b) - 20 mC
also increases. (c) zero (d) - 10 mC
Thus (b) is correct option. Ans : Delhi 2011
11. The electrostatic capacity of a capacitor depends Charge (Q)

Capacitance, C =
upon its Potential (V)
(a) charge (b) potential Q = CV
(c) resistance (d) both a and b Here, C = 2 mF = 2 # 10-6 F
Ans : Foreign 2006 V = 20 - 10 = 10 Volt
Electrostatic capacity of a capacitor,
Now, Q = 2 # 10-6 # 10
q
C = Q = 20 # 10-6 = 20 mC
V
In the capacitor charge on Y plate is 20 mC and the (a) 2 mF (b) 3 mF

charge on X -plate is - 20 mF . (c) 6 mF (d) 9 mF
Ans : Delhi 2016
14. The equivalent capacity between A and B is Capacitance of first capacitor,
C1 = 3 mF
and capacitance of second capacitor,
C 2 = 6 mF
Equivalent capacitance of the capacitors in series
combination,
Ceq = C1 # C2 = 3 # 6 = 2 mF
(a) 20 mF (b) 9 mF C1 + C2 3+6
9
(c) 1 mF (d) 1 mF
9 17. Three capacitors of capacitances 2 mF , 4 mF and
Ans : OD 2013, SQP 2010 6 mF are connected in a parallel combination. Their
equivalent capacitance will be
(a) 2 mF (b) 4 mF
(c) 6 mF (d) 12 mF
Ans : SQP 2005
Capacitance of first capacitor, C1 = 2 mF

Capacitance of second capacitor, C2 = 4 mF
In the given circuit C1 and C2 are connected in parallel Capacitance of third capacitor C 3 = 6 mF
combination Hence, equivalent capacitance, Equivalent capacitance of the capacitors in parallel
Cl = C1 + C2 combination,
= 3 + 2 = 5 mF Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3
Cl and C3 are connected in series combination Now, = 2 + 4 + 6 = 12 mF
equivalent capacitance between A and B , Thus (d) is correct option.
C l # C3
CAB = A parallel plate capacitor is made by stacking n
C l + C3 18.
equally spaced plates connected alternatively. If
= 5 # 4 = 20 mF capacitance between any two adjacent plates is C ,
5+4 9
Thus (a) is correct option. then the resultant capacitance is
15. The energy stored in a capacitor is actually stored (a) C (b) nC
(a) between the plates (c) (n - 1)C (d) (n + 1)C
(b) on the positive plate Ans : Foreign 2014
Number of plates = n and capacitance between any

(c) on the negative plate
two adjacent plates = C . We know that as n plates
(d) on the outer surfaces of the plates are joined alternatively.
Ans : Foreign 2006 Therefore, no. of capacitors = (n - 1).
Energy stored in a capacitor is in the form of Thus resultant capacitance of parallel plate capacitor,
electrostatic energy. It is actually stored between the Cl = (n - 1)C
plates of the capacitor.
19. An infinite number of capacitors with capacitances
16. Two capacitors of capacitance 3 mF and 6 mF are 1 mF , 12 mF , 14 mF, 18 mF , .... etc. are connected in
connected in a series combination. Their equivalent parallel combination. Their equivalent capacitance
capacitance will be will be
(a) 8 mF (b) 6 mF Ans : Foreign 2008
Capacitance of the capacitor,

(c) 4 mF (d) 2 mF
C = 10 mF
Ans : Delhi 2010
Capacitance of infinite number of capacitors, = 10 # 10-6 F

and voltage of the battery,
C1 = 1 mF , C2 = 1 mF , C3 = 1 mF ,
2 4 V = 100 Volt
1
C 4 = mF , ... etc.
8 Electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor,
Equivalent capacitance of infinite capacitors in U = 1 # CV 2
2
parallel combination,
Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3 + C 4 + ... upto 3 = 1 # (10 # 10-6) # (100) 2
2
= 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 + ... upto 3 = 0.05 J
2 4 8
= 1 = 2 mF
1 - ^ 12 h 23. A 4 mF capacitor is charged to 400 V. If its plates are
Thus (d) is correct option. joined through a resistance, then heat produced in the
resistance will be
20. The electrostatic energy stored in a capacitor is
(a) 0.16 J (b) 0.32 J
(a) 1 QV (b) 1 (c) 0.64 J (d) 1.28 J
2 QV
(c) 2 (d) QV Ans : OD 2008
QV
Capacitance of the capacitor,
Ans : OD 2016
C = 4 mF = 4 # 10-6 F
Electrostatic energy stored in a capacitor,
Voltage, V = 400 Volt
U = 1 # CV 2
2 Heat produced in the resistance
Q
= 1 # # V 2 = 1 QV = Electrical energy stored in the capacitor
2 V 2
where, Q = Charge, = 1 # CV 2
2
V = Potential = 1 # (4 # 10-6) # (400) 2 = 0.32 J
2
and C = Capacity of the capacitor
24. A parallel plate capacitor is made by stacking n
21. A parallel plate capacitor is first charged and then a equally spaced plates connected alternatively. If
dielectric slab is introduced between the plates. The capacitance between any two adjacent plates is C ,
quantity that remains unchanged is then the resultant capacitance is
(a) charge (b) energy (a) C (b) nC
(c) potential (d) capacitance (c) (n - 1)C (d) (n + 1)C
Ans : SQP 2003, Delhi 2006 Ans : Delhi 2009
When a dielectric slab is introduced between the Number of plates = n and capacitance between any
plates of a charged parallel plate capacitor, the charge two adjacent plates = C . We know that as n plates
remains unchanged. are joined alternatively.
Thus (a) is correct option. Therefore, no. of capacitors = (n - 1).
22. A 10 mF capacitor is charged by a battery of e.m.f. Thus resultant capacitance of parallel plate capacitor,
100 V. The electrostatic energy stored in the capacitor Cl = (n - 1)C
is
(a) 0.5 J (b) 0.05 J
25. A parallel plate capacitor having a plate separation of
(c) 0.5 mJ (d) 0.05 mJ
2 mm is charged by connecting it to a 300 V supply.
The energy density is
(a) 0.01 J-m-3 (b) 0.1 J-m-3 of the other, then the potential difference across each
(c) 1.0 J-m -3
(d) 10 J-m -3 capacitor will be zero.
Ans : SQP 2016
Distance between the plates, 28. A sheet of aluminium foil of negligible thickness is
-3 introduced between the plates of a capacitor. The
d = 2 mm = 2 # 10 m
capacitance of the capacitor
Supply voltage, V = 300 Volt (a) increases (b) decreases
Energy density of a parallel plate capacitor, (c) becomes infinite (d) remains unchanged
2
E = 1 e0V 2 Ans : Delhi 2013
2 d
When a sheet of conducting metal of negligible thickness
(300) 2
= 1 # (8.854 # 10-12) # is introduced between the plates of a capacitor, the
2 (2 # 10-3) 2 capacitance of the capacitor remains unchanged.
= 0.1 J-m-3 Since the sheet of aluminium foil of negligible
where, e 0 = Absolute electric permittivity of free thickness is a sheet of the conducting metal, therefore
the capacitance of the capacitor remains unchanged.
space equal to 8.854 # 10-12 C2-N-1- m-2
29. A parallel plate capacitor with oil between the plates
26. When two charged capacitors having capacitance and (dielectric constant of oil K = 2 ) has a capacitance C .
potential C1 , V1 and C2 , V2 respectively, are joined If the oil is removed, then capacitance of the capacitor
with the help of a wire, the common potential will be becomes
(a) C1 + C2 (b) C1 V1 + C2 V2 (a) 2 C (b) 2C
C1 + C2
+ 2 2
C (d) C
C
(c) 1 1V C V
2 2
(d) 1 V 12 + C22V 2
C (c)
2
V1 + V2 V1 + V 2 2
Ans : Foreign 2011, OD 2007 Ans : Foreign 2001
Capacitance of first capacitor = C1 Dielectric constant of oil, K =2

Potential of first capacitor = V1 and Capacitance with oil = C
Capacitance of second capacitor = C2 Capacitance of the capacitor with oil,
C = KC0 = 2C0
and Potential of second capacitor = V2
When two charged capacitors are joined with the help C0 = C
2
of a wire, then the common potential,
where, C0 = Capacitance of the capacitor after oil is
V = C1 V1 + C2 V2 removed.
C1 + C2
Thus (b) is correct option. Thus (d) is correct option.
27. Two capacitors of capacitances 3 mF and 6 mF are 30. If a copper plate of thickness b is inserted a parallel
charged to a potential of 12 V each. They are now plate capacitor, then its new capacity will be (where
connected to each other, with the positive plate of d = Distance between plates)
each joined to the negative plate of the other. The (a) e 0 A (b) e 0 A
d+b d-b
potential difference across each capacitor will be
e0A
(a) 6 V (b) 4 V (c) (d) 2e 0 A
2d - b 2d - b
(c) 3 V (d) Zero Ans : SQP 2011
Ans : OD 2002
Thickness of copper plate = b
Capacitance of first capacitor, C1 = 3 mF
and Distance between the plates = d
Capacitance of second capacitor, C2 = 6 mF As the copper plate is a conducting slab, therefore
Potential difference, V = 12 Volt capacity of the capacitor with copper plate,
When the capacitors are connected to each other with e A e A
C = 0 = 0
the positive plate of each joined to the negative plate d-t d-b
31. If an uncharged capacitor is charged by connecting it Ans : Delhi 2004
to a battery, then the amount of energy lost as heat is Potential difference across a parallel plate capacitor,
qd
(a) QV (b) QV 2 V = ?1
e 0 kA k
(c) 1 QV (d) 1 QV 2 Therefore as the dielectric plate is taken out, this
2 2
potential difference increases.
Charge given to the capacitor by a battery, And it becomes constant when the dielectric plate is
completely removed.
Q = CV
Therefore the graph of potential difference V across
and work done by the battery, the plates and length of the dielectric plate L will be
W = QV as shown in option (b).
Energy stored in the capacitor, Thus (b) is correct option.
U = 1 CV 2 33. A spherical drop of capacitance 1 mF is broken into

2 eight drops of equal radius. The capacitance of each
= 1 VC $ V small drop is
2
(a) 1 mF (b) 1 mF
2 4
= 1 QV
2 1
(c) mF (d) 1 mF
Therefore, 8 16
Energy lost as heat = Work done - Energy stored Ans : SQP 2013
Ul = QV - 1 QV Capacitance of big drop, C1 = 1 mF

2
Number of small drops, n =8
1
= QV
2 Since volume of big drop remains the same after it is
broken into eight small drops,
where, Q = Charge,
Therefore, 4 pR 3 = 8 4 pr 3
V = Potential 3 #3
and C = Capacity of the capacitor R = 2r

Thus (c) is correct option. where, R = Radius of big drop
32. A dielectric plate is inserted between plates of a and r = Radius of small drop
parallel plate capacitor, to fill the space between the Capacitance of the spherical drop,
plates. The capacitor is charged and later disconnected
C = 4pe 0 r
from the battery. Now the dielectric plate is slowly
withdrawn from the capacitor. The graph of potential C \r
difference V across the plates and the length of the C1 = R = 2r = 2
dielectric plate L with drawn is Therefore,
C2 r r
or C2 = C1 = 1 mF
2 2
where, C2 = Capacitor of each small drop
34. The capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor of
radius 15 cm is
(a) 1.7 # 10-11 F (b) 3.4 # 10-11 F
(c) 5.1 # 10-11 F (d) 6.8 # 10-11 F
Ans : OD 2007
Radius of spherical conductor,

r = 15 cm = 0.15 m
Capacitance of an isolated spherical conductor,
C = 4pe 0 r
= 1 Reason : 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
# 0.15 CP C1 C2 C3
9 # 109
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
= 1.7 # 10-11 F
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
where, 1 = 9 109 N-m-2-C-2
4pe 0 # (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but
Thus (a) is correct option. Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion.
(c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
35. The earth is a spherical conductor of radius
6.4 # 106 m . Its capacitance is (d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
(a) 7.11 # 10 4 F (b) 7.11 # 10-4 F Ans :
5
(c) 7.11 # 10 F (d) 7.11 # 10 F -5 If three capacitors are joined in parallel then their
equivalent capacitor will be less than the least value
Ans : Delhi 2003, Comp 2017
of capacitor so
6
Radius of earth, r = 6.4 # 10 m C P > CS
Capacitance of earth as spherical conductor,
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 is incorrect.
C = 4pe 0 r CP C1 C2 C3
1 6 Thus (c) is correct option.
= # (6.4 # 10 )
9 # 109 38. Assertion : A parallel plate capacitor is connected
= 7.11 # 10-4 F across battery through a key. A dielectric slab of
1 = 9 109 N-m-2-C-2 dielectric constant K is introduced between the
where, #
4pe 0 plates. The energy which is stored becomes K times.
Thus (b) is correct option. Reason : The surface density of charge on the plate
remains constant or unchanged.
ASSERTION AND REASON Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but
36. Assertion : If the distance between parallel plates of Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion.
a capacitor is halved and dielectric constant is three (c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
times, then the capacitance becomes 6 times.
(d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
Reason : Capacity of the capacitor does not depend
upon the nature of the material. Ans :
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and In the given cases, V = V0 (remains constant).
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion. Energy stored in the capacitor U = 1 CV 2
2
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but When a dielectric slab of dielectric constant K is
Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion. introduced between the plates of the condenser, then
(c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. C l $ KC
(d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. So energy stored will become K times.
Ans : Since Q = CV , So Q will become K times
Capacity of capacitor is directly proportional to Hence Surface charge density
dielectric constant and inversely proportional to KQ
s' = = Ks 0
distance. So, the net effect of making distance halved A
and making dielectric constant three times will be Thus (c) is correct option.
capacity becoming six times. 39. Assertion : The total charge stored in a capacitor is
As nature of the material (dielectric constant) is a zero.
factor influencing the capacity, therefore, Reason is
Reason : The field just outside the capacitor is s .
incorrect. e0
(s is the charge density).
37. Assertion : If three capacitors of capacitances Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
C1 < C2 < C3 are connected in parallel then their
equivalent capacitance CP > CS .
Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion.
(c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. 42. Assertion : Charges are given to plates of two plane
(d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. parallel plate capacitors C1 and C2 (such thatC2 = 2C1 )
as shown in figure. Then the key K is pressed to
Ans : complete the circuit. Finally the net charge on upper
Charge stored on the two plates are + Q and plate and net charge the circuit. Finally the net
- Q & Q + (- Q) = 0 and hence Assertion is correct. charge on upper plate and net charge on lower plate
The field however, outside the plates is zero. of capacitor C1 is positive.
Reason : In a parallel plate capacitor both plates

always carry equal and opposite charge.
Draw a Gaussian surface ABCD as shown. The field
Ev is uniform on faces AD and BC
# Ev $ ds = 0 yields Ev = 0 (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but
Thus (c) is correct option. Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion.
40. Assertion : Two equipotential surfaces cannot cut (c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
each other. (d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
Reason : Two equipotential surfaces are parallel to
Ans :
each other.
Charge distribution on each surfaces makes both
capacitor of same potential difference hence charge
will not flow.
(d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
Ans :
Two equipotential surfaces are not necessarily parallel 43. A hollow metal sphere of radius 5 cm is charged such
to each other. that potential on its surface is 10 V. What is the
Thus (c) is correct option. potential at the centre of the sphere ?
41. Assertion : Electric potential and electric potential Ans : Comp 2021
energy are different quantities. The electric potential at every point inside the charged
Reason : For a system of positive test charge and point spherical shell is same and equal to the electric
charge electric potential energy = electric potential. potential on its surface. The electric potential at the
centre of sphere is 10 V.
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion. 44. Can two equipotential surfaces intersect each other ?
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Justify your answer.
Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion. Ans : OD 2021
No, two equipotential surfaces cannot intersect each
other because :
(d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. (i) Two normals can be drawn at intersecting point
Ans : on two surfaces which gives two directions of E
Potential and potential energy are different quantities at the same point which is impossible.
and cannot be equated. (ii) Also two values of potential at the same point is
Thus (c) is correct option. not possible.
45. Draw equipotential surfaces due to a single point 50. Give two factors which affect capacitance of a
charge. conductor.
Ans : Delhi 2020 Ans : OD 2012
Equipotential surfaces due to a single point charge are 1. Material of conductor.

concentric sphere having charge at the centre. 2. Cross-section area of conductor.
51. How much work is done in moving a 500 mC charge
between two points on an equipotential surface?
Ans : Delhi 2011
For equipotential surface each point is at the same

potential, so
Vfinal = Vinitial
So, W = q (Vfinal - Vinitial) = 0
52. Define the dielectric constant of a medium. What is
its unit ?
Ans : Delhi 2017
When a dielectric slab is introduced between the plates

of charged capacitor or in the region of electric field,
46. Why there is no work done in moving a charge from an electric field EP induces inside the dielectric due to
one point to another on an equipotential surface ? induced charge on dielectric in a direction opposite to
Ans : Foreign 2015 the direction of applied external electric field. Hence,
On an equipotential surface, the potential remains net electric field inside the dielectric gets reduced to
constant and thus potential difference (TV) is zero. E0 - EP , where E0 is external electric field. The ratio
of applied external electric field and reduced electric
The work done on a charge q is given as
field is known as dielectric constant K of dielectric
W = qTV medium, i.e.,
Now, as TV = 0 K =
E0
E 0 - EP
So, the work done in moving a charge from one point
to another on an equipotential surface is zero. It is dimensionless quantity.
53. Figure shows the field lines due to a negative point
47. In a certain 0.5 cm3 of space, electric potential is
charge. Give the sign of the potential energy difference
found to be 7 V throughout. What is the electric field
of a small negative charge between the points A and
in this region ?
B.
Ans : OD 2011, Comp 2005
Zero, because electric potential is same throughout as

E = - dV
dr
48. In which situation is there a displacement current but

no conduction current ?
Ans : SQP 2016
During charging or discharging there is a displacement

current but no conduction current between plates of
capacitor. Ans : Delhi 2013
qq
49. Distinguish between a dielectric and a conductor. U = 1 $ 1 2
4pe 0 r
Ans : Comp 2019
Dielectrics are non-conductors and do not have free U ?1

r
electrons at all. While conductor has free electrons
Hence, UA > UB
in its any volume which makes it able to pass the
electricity through it. Therefore, UA - UB is positive.
54. Why is the dielectric constant of conductors taken as 58. What is the function of second plate in s parallel plate
3? capacitor?
Ans : Foreign 2013 Ans : Comp 2010
When the conductors are placed in the external field, A parallel plate capacitor of two large plane parallel
then the induced electric field is equal and opposite to conducting metal plates separated by a small distance.
the external field E0 . The second plate acts as a neighbouring conductor
Hence, Net field, due to which the potential of first plate is reduced,
keeping it same size, due to which the capacitance
E Net = E0 - Em = E0 - E0 = 0 increase.
Since, Dielectric constant, 59. Why are equipotential surfaces perpendicular to field
E E lines?
K = 0 = 0 =3
E net 0 Ans : OD 2017
55. What is the amount of work done in moving a point Electric field should not have any component along
charge Q around a circular arc of radius r at the the equipotential surface otherwise it will cause the
centre of which another point charge q is located? charges on the surface of the conductor to move, i.e.
Ans : Foreign 2014 work is done. But no work is done in moving a charge
We know that, work done W = qV . Since potential on an equipotential surface. Hence, the equipotential
difference between any two point on circumference of surface is perpendicular to field lines.
circle is zero, so work done will be zero. 60. Define Dielectric strength and Relative permittivity.
56. The given graph shows the variation of charge q versus Ans : OD 2021
potential difference V for two capacitors C1 and C2 . Dielectric Strength : The maximum electric field that
Both the capacitors have same plate separation but a dielectric can with stand without breakdown (for its
plate area of C2 is greater than that C1 . Which line ( insulating property) is called its dielectric strength.
A or B ) corresponds to C1 and why ? Relative Permittivity : The ratio of the strength of
the applied electric field to the strength of the reduced
value of the electric field on placing the dielectric
between the two plates is called relative permittivity.
er = e
e0
61. Why do electric lines of force never intersect each
other? Can two equipotential surfaces intersects?
Two electric field lines can never intersect each other

because if they intersect, then two tangents drawn at
that point will represent two directions of field at that
point which is not possible. Two equipotential surface
Ans : Foreign 2019, OD 2003 cannot intersect each other because two different
Line B corresponds to C1 because slope (q/v) of B is equipotential surface have different electric potential,
less than slope of A. so it they intersect then the point of intersection will
have two different potentials at the same point which
57. Why is there no work done in moving a charge from is not possible.
one point to another on an equipotential surface?
62. Why electrostatic potential is constant throughout
Ans : Delhi 2018
the volume of the conductor and has the same value
The potential difference between any two points of
as on its surface?
equipotential surface is zero. We have,
Ans : OD 2019
V1 - V2 = W = 0 Since, electric field intensity inside the conductor is
q
zero. So, electrostatic potential is a constant.
W =0
Therefore, the work done in moving a charge on an But, E = -TV
Tr
equipotential surface is zero.
Since, E = 0 , TV = 0
Hence, V2 - V1 = 0 , "
VA - VB = - # Ev $ dl = 0
V2 = V1
VA = VB = constant
The potential at every point inside the conductor
remains same. 67. A charge q is moved from a point A above a dipole
of dipole moment p to a point B below the dipole in
63. What are the characteristics of electric potential?
equatorial plane without acceleration. Find the work
Ans : Delhi 2018
done in the process.
Characteristics of electric potential
1. Potential is a scalar quantity.
2. Its value at infinity is zero.
3. It depends only on the distance from the source
charge.
4. Potential is positive if q > 0 and negative if q < 0.
64. For any charge configuration, equipotential surface
through a point is a normal to the electric field.
Justify.
Ans : OD 2016 Ans : SQP 2017
No work is done in moving the test charge from one Work done in the process is zero. Because, equatorial
point of an equipotential surface to the other. plane of a dipole is equipotential surface and work
done in moving charge on equipotential surface is zero.
WB - WA = 0 - # E $ dl
W = qWAB = q # 0 = 0
E $ dl = 0
68. Why water has very high dielectric constant?
Hence, E = dl
Ans : Delhi 2009
65. Give the dimensional formula and unit of electric Due to unsymmetrical placement of the atoms of water
potential. molecule, it possess permanent electric dipole moment
Ans : OD 2016 which is about 0.6 # 10-20 Cm . This magnitude
Dimensional formula of electric potential of dipole moment is about 10 times more than the
induced dipole moment acquired by the molecule.
Since, V =W
q0 Hence due to this large value of permanent dipole
[ML2 T - 2] moment, the dielectric constant of water molecules is
= very high.
[AT]
= [M 1 L2 T - 3 A-1]
Units of V
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
If W = 1 J , q0 = 1 C , then V = 1 volt . So potential at
a point in an electric field is said to be 1 V if 1 J work 69. A point charge Q is placed at point O as shown in the
is done in bringing 1 C charge from infinity to that figure. Is the potential difference (VA - VB) positive,
point. negative or zero if Q is
And 1 V = 1 JC-1 1. Positive, 2. Negative
66. Why is the potential inside a hollow spherical charged
conductor constant and has the same value as on its
surface?
Ans : Delhi 2015 Ans : Delhi 2020
Electric field intensity is zero inside the hollow Let the distance of points A and B from charge Q be
spherical charged conductor. So, no work is done in rA and rB respectively.
moving a test charge inside the conductor and on its Hence, Potential difference between points A and B ,
surface. Therefore, there is no potential difference Q 1
-1
4pe 0 :rA rB D
between any two points inside or on the surface of VA - VB =
the conductor.
As rA = OA , rB = OB
and rA < rB , 1 > 1 In the region of strong electric fields, equipotential

rA rB surfaces are close together. The reverse is also true.
Therefore, : 1 - 1 D has positive value. This follows from,
rA rB
(VA - VB) depends on the nature of charge Q , E = - dV
dr
1. (VA - VB) is positive when Q > 0as . i.e. dr = - dV
E
2. (VA - VB) is negative when Q < 0 .
or dr ? 1
70. The figure shows the field lines of a positive charge. Is E
the work done by the field in moving a small positive
charge from Q to P positive or negative? 73. Define conductors and insulators. Why conductors
were called non-electrics and insulators were called
dielectrics?
Ans : OD 2017
Conductors and Insulators : A substance, which allows

an electric current to flow through itself, is called a
conductor. It has free electrons inside itself. Examples
are metals, human body, earth etc.
A substance, which does not allow an electric current
to flow through itself, is called an insulator. It does
Ans : Comp 2020 not have free electrons inside itself. Examples are
Work done by charge is given by, ebonite, glass, quartz, rubber, plastic etc.
W = q (potential at Q - potential at P ) Non-electric and Dielectric : When a conductor was
where, q = small positive charge rubbed, electric charge produced on it was conducted
away through body to earth. As no charge was found
The electric potential at a point distant r due to the
present of the rubbed conductor, it was supposed to
field created by a positive charge Q is given by,
have no charge. Hence it was called non-electric.
q
V = 1 $ On the other hand, charge stays in an insulator when
4pe 0 r
it is rubbed. It was supposed to have charge. Hence is
Since, rp < rQ was called dielectric.
Vp > VQ 74. Discuss the cause of increase in capacitance of a
So, work done will be negative. parallel plate capacitor when
71. How can a positively charged body be at zero or 1. A conducting slab is introduced
negative potential? 2. A dielectric slab is introduced.
Ans : SQP 2013, Foreign 2002 Ans : Foreign 2016
If a positively charged body B is moved gradually In a conducting slab, large scale movement of free
towards a small positively charged body A, at a charges reduces the field in the interior of the
particular distance, the negative charge induced on A conductor slab to zero. This decreases the potential
due to B will become equal to positive charge initially difference between the plates resulting in increase in
present on body A. Hence the body A will be at zero the capacitance.
potential. If body B is further moved towards A, a In a dielectric slab, the applied field polarizes the
negative charge will be induced on body A. Hence dielectric on account of small scale alignment of
body A will be positive charged but at negative dipoles. The field inside the dielectric decreases,
potential. So a positively charged body can be at zero decreasing thereby the potential difference between
or negative potential. the plates. Thus the capacitance of the capacitors is
increased.
72. What is the importance of equipotential surfaces?
Ans : Delhi 2010 75. Two copper spheres of radii r1 and r2 having charges
The drawings of equipotential surface give us a visual q1 and q2 are connected by means of a wire. What is
picture of both the magnitude as well as direction of the electric conditions that no charge flows between
electric field intensity in region of space. them?
Ans : Delhi 2019

Ev = Ev0 - Evp
In figure (as shown below), we have two copper
spheres A and B of radii r1 and r2 having charges q1 Hence, Ev < Ev0
and q2 respectively.
q
Potential of A, V1 = 1 1
4pe 0 r1
q
Potential of B , V2 = 1 2
4pe 0 r2
78. Show that the capacitance of an insulated spherical

conductor is directly proportional to the radius of the
On connecting these two spheres by a wire, the charge spherical conductor.
will flow from a body at higher potential to the body Ans : OD 2014
at low potential, till the potential of both spheres Consider an isolated spherical conductor of radius r
becomes equal. having charge + q , which reside at its surface only.
So the electrical condition that no charge flows The charge behaves as if it is concentrated at its
between them is that when, centre O . If V is the potential at the surface of the
Potential of sphere A = Potential of sphere B spherical conductor, then
q
1 q1 = 1 q2 V = 1 ...(1)
4pe 0 r1 4pe 0 r2 4pe 0 r
q1 r2 = q2 r1 Hence, capacitance of the spherical conductor is given
This is the condition when flow of charge will stop. by,
q q $ 4pe 0 r
76. Show that the potential is constant within and at the C = = = 4pe 0 r
V q
surface of a charged conductor.
or C ?r
Since the electric field is equal to negative of potential

gradient,
i.e. E = - dV
dx
Inside the conductor, E =0
or V = constant
Hence the potential within and at the surface of
a charged conductor is constant i.e. surface of a
conductor is an equipotential surface.
77. Why does the electric field inside a dielectric decrease
when it is placed in an external electric field? 79. Show that the capacitance of spherical capacitor is
Ans : Comp 2016 more than that of a spherical conductor.
When a dielectric is placed inside an electric field Ev0 Ans : OD 2019
, it gets polarised as shown in the figure and electric The capacitance of a spherical conductor of radius a
field Evp due to polarisation is produced inside the is given by,
dielectric in a direction opposite to the electric field C = 4pe 0 a ...(1)
Ev0 .
The capacitance of a spherical capacitor of inner
Hence, resultant electric field between the plates is, radius a and outer radius b is given by,
C = 4pe 0 b ab l ...(2) 82. How does electric potential vary from point to point
b-a due to a thin charged spherical shell? Draw a graph
Dividing equation (2) by (1), we get showing variation of potential with distance.
Cl = 4pe ab 1 Ans :
0b
b - a l # 4pe 0 a
SQP 2008
C For a uniformly charged spherical shell, the electric
= b field outside the shell is as if the entire charge is
b-a concentrated at the shell is given by
Since, b >1 q
b-c V = 1 $ (r $ R)
4pe 0 r
Cl > 1
Hence,
C where q is the total charge on the shell and R is its
radius.
or Cl > C
As the electric field inside the shell is zero.
80. Write the working principle of a parallel plate
Hence, E = - dV = 0
capacitor. On what factors, the capacitance of a dr
parallel plate capacitor depends? V = constant
Ans : SQP 2008
Therefore, the potential inside the shell is constant
When an uncharged, earthed conductor is brought (as no work is done in moving a charge inside the
near to a charged conductor, then the potential of later shell), and hence, it equals to its value at the surface,
decreases and its charge holding capacity increases. which is
The capacitance depends on : q
1. Geometrical configuration (shape, size and V = 1 $
4pe 0 R
separation) of the system of two conductors.
2. Nature of the dielectric separating two conductors.
81. Two point charges 3 mC and - 3 mC are placed at
points A and B , 5 cm apart.
(i) Draw the equipotential surfaces of the system.
(ii) Why do equipotential surfaces get close to each
other near the point charge ?
Ans : SQP 2010, OD 2015
(i) Equipotential surfaces
A graph showing the variation of potential with

distance is given above.
83. A charge Q is given to three capacitors C1, C2 and C3
connected in parallel. Determine the charge on each.
Ans : Delhi 2013
In parallel combination of capacitors, the total charge,

Q = Q1 + Q2 + Q3
(ii) Equipotential surfaces get closer to each other As potential difference across each capacitor is same,
near the point charges as strong electric field is therefore
produced there.
Since, Ceq = C1 + C2 + C3
E = -TV Q
Tr Hence, P.D. = V =
C1 + C2 + C3
and E ?- 1
Tr Q Q Q
= 1= 2= 3
For a given equipotential surface, small Tr C1 C2 C3
represents strong electric field and vice-versa. Hence,
Charge on C1 , Q1 = C1 Q Clearly, as E decreases, the distance between the

C1 + C2 + C3 equipotential surfaces goes on increasing as shown in
Charge on C2 , Q2 = C2 Q the above figure.
C1 + C2 + C3
86. Two point charges q1 and q2 are located at r1 and r2
C3
Charge on C3 , Q3 = Q , respectively in an external electric field E . Obtain
C1 + C2 + C3
the expression for the total work done in assembling
84. Can we create an electric field in which all the this configuration.
lines of force are parallel but their density increases Ans : Delhi 2018
continuously in a direction perpendicular to the lines
Work done in bringing the charge q1 from infinity to
of force?
position r1
Ans : Foreign 2015
W1 = q1 V (r1) ...(1)
We cannot create such an electric field. Electric field
is a conservative field, i.e. work done along a closed Work done in bringing charge q2 to the position r2
path in the field will be zero. In the field, that we are qq
W2 = q2 V (r2) + 1 2 ...(2)
assuming, work done will not be equal to zero. 4pe 0 r12
Work done along the paths CB and AD is zero. Work Hence, total work done in assembling the two charges.
done along the path BA is more than that of along W = W1 + W2
the path DC . Hence, net work done along the whole
From equations (1) and (2), we get
closed path is not zero.
q1 q2
W = q1 V (r1) + q2 V (r2) +
4pe 0 r12
87. What is polarization of charge? Which the help of
a diagram show why the electric field between the
plates of capacitor reduces on introducing a dielectric
slab. Define the dielectric constant on the basis of
these fields.
Ans : Foreign 2011
The induced dipole moment developed per unit

volume in a dielectric slab on placing it inside the
electric field is called polarisation.
85. 1. Draw equipotential surfaces due to a point Q > 0 .
2. Are these surfaces equidistant from each other? If
not, explain why.
The equipotential surfaces due to a charge Q are as

shown below :
1. The equipotential surfaces are spherical concentric
spheres.
2. The equipotential surfaces are not equidistant.
Since, E = - dV
dr
dr = - dV
E
Let Ev0 be the uniform external electric field. When a
dielectric slab is placed in uniform electric field, then
the molecules get polarised, due to which - s p (charge
density due to polarisation) will appear near the
positive plate and + s p will appear in the dielectric
near the negative plate.
Therefore, due to polarization of molecules, electric
field will appear will appear in the opposite direction,
and the net electric field inside the dielectric will be
Ev = Ev0 - Evp < Ev0 (ii) Electric potential is more at point C as

dV = - E dr , i.e., the electric potential decreases
So, the dielectric constant is defined as the ratio of
in the direction of the electric field.
the electric field in vacuum to the electric field in
medium. 90. Determine the potential difference across the plates of
the capacitor C1 of the network shown in the figure.
88. Find the P.E. associated with a charge q if it were
[Assume E2 > E1 ].
present at the point P with respect to the ‘set up’ of
two charged spheres, arranged as shown. Here O is
the mid-point of the line O1 O2 .
Ans : Foreign 2012
Let E2 > E1
Therefore, right plate of C1 has charge + q and left
Ans : Delhi 2013 plate of C1 has charge - q . On the same basis, left
We have r1 = O1 P = r2 + (2a + b) 2 plate of C2 has charge + q and right plate of C2 has
charge - q .
r2 = O2 P = r2 + (a + 2b) 2
In closed circuit, potential difference dV = 0
1 Q1 + Q2
4pe 0 ; r1 r2 E
V = q q
+ E1 + - E2 = 0
C1 C2
P.E. of charge, q at P = qV 1 1
Q1 Q2 or q c C + C m = E2 - E1
q
=[r2 + (2a + b) 2] 1/2 + [r2 + (a + 2b) 2] 1/2 G
1 2
=
4pe 0 C2 + C1
q c C C m = E2 - E1
89. A test charge q is moved without acceleration from A 1 2
to C along the path from A to B and then from B to (E - E1) C1 C2

q = 2
C in electric field E as shown in the figure. C1 + C2
(i) Calculate the potential difference between A to C . Hence, potential difference across left and right plates
(ii) At which point (of the two) is the electric potential of C1 is
more and why ? q (E - E1) C2
V = = 2
C1 C1 + C2
91. A slab of material of dielectric constant K has the
same area as that of the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor but has the thickness d/2, where d is the
separation between the plates. Find out the expression
for its capacitance when the slab is inserted between
the plates of the capacitor.
Ans : Comp 2017
Initially when there is vacuum between the two plates,

the capacitance of the two-parallel plates is,
e A
C0 = 0
Ans : OD 2017, SQP 2001
d
where A is the area of parallel plates.
(i) dV = - E dr
Suppose that the capacitor is connected to a battery,
= - E (6 - 2) = - 4E an electric field E0 is produced.
Now if we insert the dielectric slab of thickness t = d/2 [Let charge on plate, when dq charge is transferred
, the electric field reduces to E . is ql]
Now the gap between plates is divided in two parts, The total work done in transferring charge Q is
for distance t there is electric field E and for the given by
remaining distance (d - t) the electric field is E0 . Q ql
dq = 1 # qldq
Q
W = #
If V be the potential difference between the plates of 0 C C 0
the capacitor, then (ql) 2 Q Q2
= 1; E =
V = Et + E0 (d - t) C 2 0 2C
This work is stored as electrostatic potential
E d
V = Ed + 0 energy U in the capacitor.
2 2
d (CV) 2
d
= (E + E0) b since t = 2 l U =
Q2
= [since Q = CV ]
2 2C 2C
E0
V = d b K + E0 l U = 1 CV 2
2
2
E The energy stored per unit volume of space in a
=
dE0
(K + 1) b As, E0 = K l capacitor is called energy density.
2K
q 1 CV 2
Now, E0 = s = e AV 2
e0 e0A u = 2 =1 02
A .d 2 d A
q
V = d $ (K + 1)
2K e 0 A Energy density, u = 1 e 0 E 2
2
q 2Ke 0 A Total energy stored in series combination or
C = =
V d (K + 1) parallel combination of capacitors is equal to the
sum of energies stored in individual capacitor.
92. (i) Obtain the expression for the energy stored per
unit volume in a charged parallel plate capacitor. i.e., U = U1 + U2 + U3 + ...
(ii) The electric field inside a parallel plate capacitor (ii) Due to conservative nature of electric force, the
is E . Find the amount of work done in moving a work done in moving a charge in a close path in a
charge q over a closed rectangular loop abcda . uniform electric field is zero.
93. Two closely spaced equipotential surfaces A and

B with potentials V and V + dV ,(where dV is the
change in V ) are kept dl distance apart as shown in
the figure. Deduce the relation between the electric
field and the potential gradient between them. Write
the two important conclusions concerning the relation
between the electric field and electric potential.
Ans : Delhi 2007, Foreign 2009

(i) The energy of a charged capacitor is measured by
the total work done in charging the capacitor to a
given potential.
Let us assume that initially both the plates are
uncharged. Now, we have to repeatedly remove
small positive charges from one plate and transfer
them to other plate.
Ans : OD 2014
Now, when an additional small charge (dq) is
Work done in moving a unit positive charge along
transferred from one plate to another, the small
work done is given by distance dl ,
ql El dl = VA - VB
dW = V ldq = dq
C = V - (V + dV) = - dV
E = - dV LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

dl
(i) Electric field is in the direction in which the
potential decreases steepest. 96. (i) Derive the expression for the capacitance of a
parallel plate capacitor having plate area A and
(ii) Magnitude of electric field is given by the
change in the magnitude of potential per unit plate separation d .
displacement normal to the equipotential surface (ii) Two charged spherical conductors of radii R1
at the point. and R2 when connected by a conducting plate
respectively. Find the ratio of their surface charge
94. What is electrostatic shielding ? How is this property densities in terms of their radii.
used in actual practice ? Is the potential in the cavity Ans : Comp 2022
of a charged conductor zero ? (i) Expression for the capacitance of a parallel plate
Ans : OD 2016 capacitor
Whatever be the charge and field configuration Parallel plate capacitor consists of two thin conducting
outside, any cavity in a conductor remains shielded plates each of area A held parallel to each other at
from outside electric influence. The field inside a suitable distance d . One of the plates is insulated
a conductor is zero. This is known as electrostatic and other is earthed. There is a vacuum between the
shielding. plates.
(i) Sensitive instruments are shielded from outside Suppose, the plate X is given a charge of + q
electrical influences by enclosing them in a hollow coulomb. By induction, - q coulomb of charge is
conductor. produced on the inner surface of the plate Y and + q
(ii) During lightning it is safest to sit inside a car, coulomb on the outer surface Since, the plate Y is
rather than near a tree. The metallic body of connected to the earth, the + q charge on the outer
a car becomes an electrostatic shielding from surface flows to the earth. Thus, the plates X and Y
lightening. have equal and opposite charges.
Potential inside the cavity is not zero. Potential is Suppose the surface density of charge on each
constant. plate is s. We know that the intensity of electric
95. An infinitely large thin plane sheet has a uniform field at a point between two plane parallel sheets of
surface charge density + s . Obtain the expression for equal and opposite charges is s/e 0 , where e 0 is the
the amount of work done in bringing a point charge permittivity of free space.
q , from infinity to a point distant r , in front of the The intensity of electric field between the plates
charged plane sheet. will be given by E = es . The charge on each plate is q
0

and the area of each plate is A. Thus,
Let P be a point at distance r from the sheet. q
s =
A
The required work done to bring point charge q from
infinity to P is q
and E = ...(1)
e0A
W = q $ (VP - V3) ...(1) Now, let the potential difference between the two
r
Now, VP - V3 = - # Ev $ dr
v plates be V volt. Then, the electric field between the
3 plates is given by
= - # E $ dr = - # c s m $ dr
r r
2e 0 E =V
3 3 d
- s dr = - s $ [r] r
r
2e 0 #3
or V = Ed
2e 0 3
Substituting the value of E from Equation (1), we get

[Since, field in front of an infinity large plane sheet of
qd
charge is uniform and is given by s .] V =
e0A
2e 0
s Capacitance of the capacitor is
- (r - 3) = 3
2e 0 q q e A
C = = = 0
VP - V3 = 3 V qd/e 0 A d
From equations (1), W =3 It is clear from this formula that in order to obtain
high capacitance,
(a) A should be large, i.e., the plates of large area New electric field,
should be taken. V/K
(b) d should be small, i.e., the plates should be kept El = V l = c d m
d
closer to each other. V
(ii) Ratio of their surface charge densities =bd l 1 = E
K K
Surface charge density is given by On introduction of dielectric medium new electric
s =
q field El becomes 1 times of its original value.
K
4pR2
After connecting both the conductors, their potentials (c) Energy stored initially,
will become equal. q2
U =
V1 = V2 2C
Energy stored later,
Kq1 Kq2
= q2
R1 R2 Ul = [Since, C l = KC ]
[Since for spherical conductors] 2 (KC)
where, K = dielectric constant of medium
V = 1 q
4pe 0 R q2
Ul = 1 d n
Kq K 2C
V =
R = 1 (U)
K
q1
= R1
q2 R2 = 1 #U
2
K
s 1 = q1 /4pR 1 = q1 b R2 l2 = R2 The energy stored in the capacitor decreases and
s2 q2 /4pR 22 q2 R1 R1
becomes 1 times of original energy.
K
97. A parallel plate capacitor is charged by a battery to a
potential. The battery is disconnected and a dielectric
slab is inserted to completely fill the space between
the plates.
How will
(a) its capacitance
(b) electric field between the plates and 98. (i) Deduce the expression for the energy stored in a
(c) energy stored in the capacitor be affected ? Justify charged capacitor.
your answer giving necessary mathematical
(ii) Show that the effective capacitances C of a series
expression for each case.
combination of three capacitors C1, C2 and C3 is
Ans : Comp 2019, OD 2004 C1 C2 C3
given by C = .
On introduction of dielectric slab in a isolated charged C1 C2 + C2 C3 + C3 C1
capacitor. Ans : Foreign 2005
(a) The capacitance (Cl) becomes Ks times of (i) Expression for the energy stored in a charged
original capacitor as capacitor
e A We have q = CV
C = 0
d
V = q/C
K e0A
and Cl = q
d dW = Vdq = dq
(b) The total charge on the capacitor remains C
conserved on introduction of dielectric slab. Also, where, q = instantaneous charge,
the capacitance of capacitor increases to K times
C = instantaneous capacitance and
of original values.
CV = C lV l V = instantaneous voltage
Total work done in storing charge from 0 to q ,
CV = (KC) V l
q 2
Vl = V W = # Cq dq = 2qC
K 0
(ii) In series combination of capacitors, same charge

lie on each capacitor for any value of capacitances.
or
A parallel plate capacitor (A) of capacitance C is
charged by a battery to voltage V. The battery is
disconnected and an uncharged capacitor (B) of
capacitance 2 C is connected across A. Find the ratio
of
(i) final charges on A and B.
Also, potential difference across the combination is
(ii) total electrostatic energy stored in A and B finally
equal to the algebraic sum of potential differences
and that stored in A initially.
across each capacitor.
Ans : OD 2023
i.e., V = V1 + V2 + V3
Let C be the capacitance of each capacitor.
where, V1,V2,V3 s and V are the potential With switch S closed, the two capacitor are in parallel.
differences across C1, C2, C3 and equivalent
capacitor, respectively. Hence, Equivalent capacitance is 2C .
1
Hence, q = C1 V1 Hence,Energy stored = 2 (2C) V2
q U1 = CV 2 ...(1)
V1 =
C1
q
Similarly, V2 =
C2
q
and, k V3 =
C3
Total potential difference,
q q q
V = + +
C1 C2 C3
V = 1 + 1 + 1 Now, when switch is opened and then free space of
q C1 C2 C3 capacitors are filled with dielectric, the capacitance
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 of each capacitor will be KC . For capacitor B , the
C C1 C2 C3 charge will remain as before and for A, the potential
V 1 difference will remain same.
Since, = s , where C is equivalent capacitance of
q C Charge on each capacitor in the previous case will be
combination CV .
or 1 = C2 C3 + C3 C1 + C1 C2 Energy stored in capacitor A in circuit case is
C C1 C2 C3
C1 C2 C3 UA = 1 (KC) V 2 = 1 KCV 2
C = 2 2
C1 C2 + C2 C3 + C3 C1
and that in capacitor B , is
Q2 (CV) 2
99. Two identical parallel plate capacitors A and B are UB = = = 1 CV 2
2KC 2KC 2K
connected to a battery of V volts with the switch S
closed. The switch is now opened and the free space Total energy stored, U 2 = UA + UB
between the plates of the capacitors is filled with a U2 = 1 KCV 2 + 1 CV 2 sd
dielectric of dielectric constant K . Find the ratio of 2 2K
the total electrostatic energy stored in both capacitors 1
U2 = 1 bK + K l CV 2
before and after the introduction of the dielectric. 2
K2+1
U2 = b 2K l CV 2 ...(2)

U1 = CV 2 Formula of electrostatic potential energy,
U2
c K + 1 m CV 2
2
qq
2K UE = k 1 2
r
U1 = 2K Now, total P.E. = RE. AB + PE. Bc + PE. Ac
U2 K2+1
4 # (- 4) (- 4) # 2 (4) # (2)
k =; + + E # 10
-12
2 2 2
100. State the significance of negative value of electrostatic
potential energy of a system of charges. = k :- 16 + - 8 + 8 D # 10-12
2 2 2
There charges are placed at the corners ‘of an
= - 8 k # 10-12
equilateral triangle ABC of side 2.0 m as shown in
figure. Calculate the electric potential energy of the = - 8 # 9 # 109 # 10-12
system of three charges. = - 72 # 10-3
= - 7.2 # 10-2 J
101. A slab of material of dielectric constant K has the

same area as that of the plates of a parallel plate
capacitor but has the thickness d/2, where d is the
separation between the plates. Find out the expression
for its capacitance when the slab is inserted between
the plates of the capacitor.
Ans : Delhi 2021
Initially when there is vacuum between the two plates,
the capacitance of the two-parallel plates is,
e A
C0 = 0
d
Ans : Comp 2023, OD 2011
where, A is the area of parallel plates.
The expression for electric potential due to a point
Suppose that the capacitor is connected to a battery,
charge is,
an electric field E0 is produced.
q Now, if we insert the dielectric slab of thickness
V =k
r
t = d/2 , the electric field reduces to E .
The electric potential is a scalar quantity. Since,
Now, the gap between plates is divided in two parts,
both the charges are positive, therefore, the electric
for distance t there is electric field E and for the
potential at any point is the sum of the electric
remaining distance (d - t) the electric field is E0 .
potentials of both the charges, which is a positive
quantity. Thus, the electric potential along the line If V be the potential difference between the plates of
joining of two equal positive charges cannot be zero. the capacitor, then
A negative value of electrostatic potential energy V = Et + E0 (d - t)
means that work must be done against the electric E d
= Ed + 0
field in moving the charges apart. 2 2
= d (E + E0) d
ba t = 2 l
2
E Q e A e A
= d b 0 + E0 l C = = 0 = 0 $ d
2 K V (d - t) d d-t
dE E0
= 0 (K + 1) b As, E = K l or C = b d l $ C0
2K d-t
q Clearly, C > C0 . Thus the introduction of a conducting
E0 = s =
e0 e0A slab of thickness t in a parallel plate capacitor
q increases its capacitance by a factor of d -d t .
V = d $ (K + 1)
2K e 0 A
103. 1. Define capacitance of a capacitor.
q 2Ke 0 A 2. Derive expression for stored energy between plates
C = =
V d (K + 1) of parallel plate capacitor. Show that energy-
density between plates of the capacitor can be
102. Find an expression for capacity of a parallel plate
expressed as 1/2 e 0 E 2 , when E = Electric field
capacitor with compound dielectric. between plates.
Ans : Comp 2016
or
Consider a parallel plate capacitor of plate area A and 1. Define capacitance and gives its SI units.
plate separation d . If the space between the plates is 2. Prove that the total electrostatic energy stored
vacuum, its capacitance is given by, in a parallel plate capacitor is 12 CV 2 . Hence
e A derive the expression for the energy density of the
C0 = 0
d electric field at its base.
Suppose initially the charge on the capacitor plates are Ans : OD 2020
! Q. Then the uniform electric field set up between 1. Capacitance : The capacitance of capacitor may
the capacitor plates is, be defined as the charge required to be supplied
Q to either of the conductors of the capacitor so as
E0 = s s =
e0 Ae 0 to increase the potential difference between them
where s is the surface charge density. The potential by unit amount.
difference between the capacitor plates will be, Capacitance,
Qd Charge on either plate (Q)
V0 = E0 d = C =
Ae 0 Potential difference between the two plates (V )
When a conducting slab of thickness t < d is placed SI unit of capacitance is farad (F ).
between the capacitor plates, free electrons flow inside 2. Expression for the Energy Stored in a Capacitor
it so as to reduce the field to zero inside the slab, : Consider a capacitor of capacitance C . Initially,
as shown in Figure. Charges - Q and + Q appear its two plates are uncharged. Suppose the positive
on the upper and lower faces of the slab. Now the charge is transferred from plate 2 to plate 1 bit by
electric field exists only in the vacuum region between bit. In this process, external work has to be done
the plates of the capacitor on the either side of the because at any stage plate 1 is at higher potential
slab, i.e. the field exists only in thickness d - ts , than the plate 2. Suppose at any instant the plates
therefore, potential difference between the plates of 1 and 2 have charges Ql and - Ql respectively, as
the capacitor is, shown in Figure a. Then the potential difference
between the two plates will be
V = E0 (d - t)
Ql
Q Vl =
= (d - t) C
Ae 0
Hence, Capacitance of the capacitor in the presence of

conducting slab becomes,
(a) (b)
Suppose now a small additional charged dQl be plane parallel conducting plates, separated by a small
transferred from plate 2 to plate 1. The work done distance.
will be, Let, A = area of each plate,
Ql
dW = V l$dQl = $ dQl d = distance between the two plates
C
The total work done in transferring a charge Q from !s = uniform surface charge densities on
plate 2 to plate 1 (Figure b) will be, the two plates
Q Ql
W = # dW = # $ dQl ! Q = !sA
0 C
= total charge on each plate
Ql2 Q Q2
= ; E = 1$
2C 0 2 C
This work done is stored as electrical potential energy
U of the capacitor.
Q2
U = 1$ = 1$CV 2
2 C 2
1
= QV ( Since, Q = CV )
2
Energy Density between Plates of Capacitor
Capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is given by,
e A Parallel plate capacitor
C = 0 ...(1)
d
If s is the surface charge density on the capacitor In the outer regions above the upper plate and below
plates, then electric field between the capacitor plates the lower plate, the electric field due to the two
will be, charged plates cancel out. The net field is zero.
E = s E = s - s =0
e0 2e 0 2e 0
s = e0E In the inner region between the two capacitor plates,
Charge on either plate of capacitor is, the electric fields due to the two charged plates add
up. The net field is
Q = sA = e 0 EA ...(2)
E = s + s = s
Hence, Energy stored in the capacitor is, 2e 0 2e 0 e0
Q2 (e EA) 2 The direction of the electric field is form the positive to
U = = 0 eA
2C 2$ d 0 the negative plate and the field is uniform throughout.
For plates with finite area, the field lines bend at the
[From Eq. (1) and (2)]
edges. This effect is called fringing of the field. But
1
= e 0 E 2 Ad
2 for large plates separated by small distance (A >> d2)
, the field is almost uniform in the regions far from the
But Ad = volume of the capacitor between its two
edges. For a uniform electric field,
plates. Therefore, the energy stored per unit volume
P.D. between the plates
or the energy density of the electric field is given by,
= Electric field # distance between the plates
u = U = 1 e0E 2
Ad 2
or V = Ed = sd
e0
104. Derive an expression for the capacitance of a parallel
Capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor is
plate capacitor. If a compound dielectric medium is
Q e A
introduced between the plates of the capacitor, how C = = sA or C = 0
V sd/e 0 d
will the capacitance of the capacitor change?
Ans : OD 2015, Comp 2002 Capacitance of a Parallel Plate Capacitor with a
Capacitance of Parallel Plate Capacitor Dielectric Slab
The simplest and the most widely used capacitor is The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitance of
the parallel plate capacitor. It consists of two large plate area A and plate separation d with vacuum
between its plates is given by,
e0A Ans : SQP 2009

C0 =
d Let an electric dipole consist of two equal and unlike
Suppose initially the charges on the capacitor plates point charges - q at A and + q at B , separated by a
are ! Q. Then the uniform electric field set up small distance AB = 2a , with centre at O . The dipole
between the capacitor plates is, moment,
Q
E0 = s =
"
p = q # 2a
e0 Ae 0
Let us take the origin at the centre of the dipole. We
When, a dielectric slab of thickness t < d is placed
have to calculate electric potential at any point P .
between the plates, the field E0 polarises the dielectric.
$ "
This induces charge - QP on the upper surface and where, OP = r
and +BOP = q
+ Q p on the lower surface of the dielectric. These

induced charges set up a field E p inside the dielectric
"
in the opposite direction of E0 . The induced field is
given by,
s
Ep = p = P
e0 e0
Q
:s P = A = P, Polarisation densityD Let the distance of P from charge - q at A be r1 , i.e.,
The net field inside the dielectric is, AP = r1
E E0 and distance of P from charge + q at B be r2 , i.e.,
E = E0 - E p = 0
k ;Since, E0 - E p = k E BP = r2 .
where k is the dielectric constant of the slab. So Electrostatic potential at P due to - q charge at A,
between the capacitor plates, the field E exists over -q
V1 = ...(1)
a distance t and field E0 exists over the remaining 4pe 0 r1
distance (d - t). Hence the potential difference Electrostatic potential at P due to q charge at A,
between the capacitor plates is, q
V2 = ...(2)
V = E0 (d - t) + Et 4pe 0 r2
Therefore, Potential at P due to the dipole,
E0 E0
= E0 (d - t) +
k
t :Since, E = k D V = V2 + V1
= E0 bd - t + t l From equation (1) and (2), we get
k
q 1 1
4pe 0 :r2 r1 D
Q V = - ...(3)
d-t+ t l
e0Ab
=
k
Now, by geometry,
The capacitance of the capacitor on introduction of
dielectric slab becomes, r 12 = r2 + a2 + 2ar cos (180c - q)
Q e0A = r2 + a2 - 2ar cos q
C = =
V d - t + kt We may rewrite, r 22 = r2 + a2 + 2ar cos (180c - q)
105. Find the electric potential and then electric field = r2 + a2 - 2ar cos q
due to an electric dipole by differential relationship 2
between field and potential. We may rewrite, r 12 = r2 c1 + a2 + 2a cos q m

r r
2
where, OK = r
If a << r , a is small, a2 can be neglected.
r r
+BOK = q
Hence, r 12 = r2 b1 + 2a cos q l The dipole moment p can be resolved into two
r
rectangular components:
r1 = r b1 + 2a cos q l
1/2
r (p cos q) along A1 B1 and (p sin q) along A2 B2 = A1 B1 .

1 = 1 1 + 2a cos q 1/2 Field intensity at K on the axial line of A1 B1 ,
r1 rb r l " 2p cos q
E1 =
1 = 1 1 - 2a cos q -1/2 4pe 0 r3
rb l
Similarly,
r2 r $
Putting these values in (3), we get Let it be represented by KL along OK .
q 1 Field intensity at K on equatorial line of A2 B2 ,
1 - 2a cos q l
-1/2
V = ;
4pe 0 r b r " p sin q
E2 =
4pe 0 r3
- 1 b1 + 2a cos q l E
-1/2
r r $ $
Let it be represented by KM z B2 A2 and = KL .
Using Binomial theorem and retaining terms upto the $
Complete the rectangle KLNM . Join KN .
first order in a/r , we get $
q According to Parallelogram law, KN represents re-
1 + a cos q - a1 - a cos q kC
4pe 0 r 9
V =
r r sultant intensity Ê h at K due to the short dipole.
"
q
1 + a cos q - 1 + a cos qC
4pe 0 r 9
= As, KN = KL2 + KM2
r r
q 2a cos q p cos q Hence,
"
E = E 12 + E 22
= # =
4pe 0 r2 4pe 0 r2
2p cos q 2 p sin q 2
As
""
p cos q = p.r
= c 2pe r3 m + c 4pe r3 m
0 0
where, rt = is unit vector along the position vector p

= 4 cos2 q + sin2 q
$ " 4pe 0 r3
OP = r
" p
Hence, Electrostatic potential at P due to a short E = 3 cos2 q + (cos2 q + sin2 q)
4pe 0 r3
dipole (a << r) is,
2
E = P 3 cos q3 + 1
"
"
p.rt i.e., ...(1)
V = 4pe 0 r
4pe 0 r2 Let, +LKN = a
Electric Field Intensity at any Point due to a Short
Electric Dipole In TKLN , tan a = LN = KM
KL KL
In figure (as shown below), AB represents a short
p sin q 4pe 0 r3
" $
electric dipole of moment p along AB . O is the centre = . = 1 tan q
4pe 0 r3 2p cos q 2
of dipole. We have to calculate electric field intensity
" Hence, a can be calculated.
E at any point K ,
106. Show that the potential energy of a dipole making
angle q with the direction of the field is given by
u (q) = - pv $ Ev . Hence, find out the amount of work
done in rotating it form the position of unstable
equilibrium to the stable equilibrium.
Ans : OD 2017, Comp 2012
As charges + q and - q traverse equal distance under

equal an opposite forces; therefore, not work done
in bringing the dipole in the region of electric field
perpendicular to field-direction will be zero, i.e.,
W1 = 0 .
from infinity to the point P without acceleration.

Let A be an intermediate point on this path where
OA = x . The electrostatic force on a unit positive
charge at A is given by,
q 1
F = 1 $ #2 [along OA]
4pe 0 x
Small work done in moving the charge through a
distance dx from A to B is given by,
dW = F $ dx = Fdx cos 180c
= - Fdx [Since, cos 180c = - 1]
Now, the dipole is rotated and brought to orientation = - Fdx

making an angle q with the field direction (i.e., Total work done in moving a unit positive charge from
q 0 = 90c and q 1 = qc). Therefore, work done 3 to the point P is given by,
W2 = pE (cos q 0 - cos q 1) W =
r
#3 - Fdx
= pE (cos 90c - cos q) r 1 $ q dx
= - pE cos q
= #3 - 4pe 0 x2
Hence, Total wore done in bringing the electric q r -2
4pe 0 #3
=- x dx
dipole from infinity, i.e., electric potential energy of
electric dipole. Thus, work done by external torque in q -1 r 1
4pe 0 : x D3 :since # x dx = - x D
-2
=-
rotating a dipole in uniform electric field is stored as
the potential energy of the system. q 1 q
- 1 =
4pe 0 :r 3D
=-
U = W1 + W2 4pe 0 r
= 0 - pE cos q From the definition of electric potential, this work is

equal to the potential at point P .
= - pE cos q
q
V =
In vector from, U = - pv $ Ev 4pe 0 r
For rotating dipole from position of unstable
equilibrium (q 0 = 180c) to the stable equilibrium
(q = 0c) .
Hence, Wreq = pE (cos 180c - cos 0c)
= pE (- 1 - 1) = - 2pE
107. Find out the expression electrostatic potential due to 108. What do you mean by polar molecules? What happens
a point charge? to them when electric field is applied?
Ans : OD 2019 Ans : Foreign 2012
Let Ps be the point at a distance r from the origin A polar molecule is one in which the centre of gravity
O at which the electric potential due to charge + q of the positive charge (i.e. protons) does not coincide
is required. with the centre of gravity of the negative charges
(i.e. electrons). Due to finite separation between
the positive and negative charge, polar molecules
are permanent electric dipoles and have permanent
electric dipole moments e.g. HCl, NH 3 , H 2 O , CO 2
are polar molecules. In the absence of electric field,
the dipole moment of these polar molecules point in
The electric potential at a point P is the amount of random direction and arrange themselves in closed
work done in carrying a unit positive charge from 3 chains [Figure (a)] and net dipole moment is zero.
to P . As, work done is independent of the path, we
choose a convenient path along the radial direction
109. Two uniformly large parallel thin plates having charge

densities + s and - s are kept in the X - Z plane at
a distance d apart. Sketch and equipotential surface
due to electric field between the plates. If a particle of
mass m and charge - q remains stationary between
the plates, what is the magnitude and direction of
this field ?
Ans : Comp 2013, OD 2011
The equipotential surface is at a distance d/2 from

either plate in X - Z plane. For a particle of charge
(- q) at rest between the plates, then
(a)
Effect of Applied Electric Field on Polar Molecules
An applied electric field merely aligns the polar
molecules parallel to itself. Because the molecules
(i) weight mg acts vertically downward
are in constant thermal agitation, the alignment is
(ii) electric force qEs acts vertically upwards.
not complete as shown in Figure (b). However, the
alignment increases as the applied electric field is So, mg = qE
increased or as the temperature is decreased Figure mg
(c). The dipole moment may also be increased by the E = ,
q
applied electric field. vertically downward, i.e. along (-) Y -axis.
110. Find the ratio of the potential difference that must

be applied across the parallel and series combination
of two capacitors C1 and C2 with their capacitances
in the ratio 1 : 2 so that the energy stored in the two
cases becomes the same.
Ans : OD 2019
As we know that, US = 1 CS V S2
2
1
UP = CP V P2
2
Also, C1
= 1 (given)
C2 2
(b) C2 = 2C1
Vseries = C equivalent parallel
Vparallel C equivalent series
C1 + C2
= C1 C2
C1 + C2
= C1 + C2
C1 C2
= 3C1 2 = 3
2C 1 2
111. Draw schematically equipotential surfaces

corresponding to
(c)
1. A constant electric field in Z -direction.

2. A field that uniformly increases in magnitude but
remains in a constant (say Z ) direction.
3. A single positive charge at the origin.
4. A uniform grid consisting of long equally spaced
parallel charged wires in a plane.
Ans : Delhi 2013
Equipotential surface is a surface having the same

potential at each of its points. In the given cases the
equipotential surface are
1. The planes parallel to XY plane. For some 4. A periodically varying shape near the grid which
potential difference, the planes are equidistant. gradually attains the shape of planes parallel to
grid at far distance.
112. Explain, using suitable diagram, the difference in the

behaviour of a
1. Conductor
2. Dielectric in the presence of external electric field.
Define the terms polarisation of a dielectric and
write its relation with susceptibility.
Ans : Foreign 2017
1. When a capacitor is placed in an external electric
2. The planes are parallel to XY plane, but for the field, the free charges present inside the conductor
same potential difference, the separation between redistribute themselves in such a manner that
the planes decreases. the electric field due to induced charges opposes
the external field within the conductor. This
happens until a static situation is achieved, i.e.
When the two fields cancel each other and the net
electrostatic field in the conductor becomes zero.
2. In contrast to conductors, dielectrics are non-

conducting substances, i.e. they have no charge
carriers. Thus, in a dielectric, free movement of
charges in not possible. It turns out that the
external field induces dipole moment by stretching
3. Concentric spheres centred at the origin. molecular of the dielectric. The collective effect of
all the molecular dipole moments is the net charge
on the surface of he dielectric which produces a surface. This would imply that work would have
field that opposes the external field. However, to be done to move a charge on the surface which
the opposing field is so induced, that does not is contradictory to the definition of equipotential
exactly cancel the external field. It only reduces surface.
it. The extent of the effect depends on the nature Mathematically
of dielectric. Work done to move a charge dq , on a surface, can
expressed as
v)
dW = dq (Ev $ dr
But dW = 0 on an equipotential surface
Hence, v
Ev = dr
Equipotential surfaces for a charges -q
Both polar and non-polar dielectrics develop net

dipole moment in the presence of an external
field. The dipole moment per unit volume is
called polarisation and is denoted by P for linear
isotropic dielectrics.
p = cE
Where c is constant of proportionality and is
called electric susceptibility of the electric slab.
113. (a) A capacitor of capacitance C is charged fully by
connecting it to a battery of emf E . It is then
disconnected from the battery. If the separation
between the plates of the capacitor is now doubled, 114. (i) Explain using suitable diagrams, the difference in
how will the following change ? the behaviour of a
(i) charge stored by the capacitor. (a) conductor and
(ii) field strength between the plates. (b) dielectric in the presence of external
(iii) energy stored by the capacitor. electric field. Define the terms polarisation
(b) Explain why, for any configuration, the of a dielectric and write its relation with
equipotential surface through a point is normal to susceptibility.
the electric field at the point. (ii) A thin metallic spherical shell of radius R carries
Draw a sketch of equipotential surfaces due to a single Q
a charge Q on its surface. A point charge is
2
charge (- q), depicting the electric field lines due to placed at its centre C and an other charge + 2Q
the charge. is placed outside the shell at a distance x from the
Ans : Delhi 2016, Comp 2003 centre as shown in the figure. Find (a) the force
(a) (i) Charge remains same, as after disconnecting on the charge at the centre of shell and at the
point A, (b) the electric flux through the shell.
capacitor no transfer of charge take place.
q
(ii) Electric field, E = s = remain same, as
e0 e0A
there is no change in charge.
q2 q2 q2 d
(iii) Energy stored = = =
2C e0A 2e 0 A
2b d l
Energy will be doubled as separation between the
plates (d) is doubled.
(b) The work done in moving a charge from one point
to another on an equipotential surface is zero. If Ans : Delhi 2014
the field is not normal to an equipotential surface, (i) When a capacitor is placed in an external electric
it would have a non zero component along the field, the free charges present inside the conductor
redistribute themselves in such a manner that the Ans : Foreign 2015, OD 2001
electric field due to induced charges opposes the (i)

external field within the conductor. This happens
until a static-situation is achieved, i.e., when
the two fields cancels each other and the net
electrostatic field in the conductor becomes zero.
In contrast to conductors, dielectrics are non-
conducting substances, i.e., they have no charge
carriers. Thus, in a dielectric, free movement
of charges is not possible. It turns out that the
external field induces dipole moment by stretching
molecules of the dielectric. The collective effect
of all the molecular dipole moments is the net
charge on the surface of the dielectric which
In order to calculate the energy stored in this
produces a field that opposes the external field.
charge configuration, suppose the conductors 1
However, the opposing field is so induced does not
and 2 are initially uncharged. Let positive charge
exactly cancel the external field. It only reduces
be transferred from conductor 2 to conductor 1 in
it. The extent of the effect depends on the nature
very small instalments of dq each till conductor
of dielectric.
1 get charge + Q . By charge conservation,
Both polar and non-polar dielectric develop net conductor 2 would get charge - Q .
dipole moment in the presence of an external
At every stage of charging, conductor 1 is at higher
field. The dipole moment per unit volume is
potential than conductor 2. Therefore, work is
called polarisation and is denoted by P for linear
done externally in transferring each instalment of
isotropic dielectrics.
charge.
P = cE Hence, Potential difference between conductor 1
(ii) (a) At point C , inside the shell. q
and 2 is
The electric field inside a spherical shell is C
q
zero. Thus, the force experienced by charge Hence, Potential of condenser =
C
at the centre C will also be zero. Small amount of work done in giving an additional
FC = qE (E inside the shell = 0) q
charge dq to the condenser is dW = # dq
C
FC = 0 Hence, Total work done in giving a charge Q to
At point A, the condenser,
1 3Q/2 q2 q = Q
FA = 2Q c
4pe 0 x2 m = 1 ;2E
q=Q q
W = #q = 0 C C q=0
3Q2 Q 2
F =
4pe 0 x2
, away from shell W = 1
C 2
(b) Electric flux through the shell As, electrostatic force is conservative, this work is
f = 1 x magnitude of the charge enclosed by stored in the form of potential energy (U ) of the
e0 condenser.
the shell. 2
Q
Q Q U =W=1
f = 1 # = 2C
e0 2 2e 0
Q = CV
115. (i) Derive the expression for the energy stored (CV ) 2
in parallel plate capacitor. Hence, obtain the U =1 = 1 CV 2

2 C 2
expression for the energy density of the electric
CV = Q
field.
(ii) A fully charged parallel plate capacitor is U = 1 QV
2
connected across an uncharged identical capacitor.
2
Q
Show that the energy stored in the combination is U =1 = 1 CV 2 = 1 QV
less than stored initially in the single capacitor. 2C 2 2
V1 = V
Energy density (U ) is defined as the total energy 2
per unit volume of the condenser. Total energy stored on both the capacitor
Total energy (U) U2 = 1 CV 12 + 1 CV 12
i.e., u = 2 2
Volume (V)
1 CV 2 V 2 V 2
U2 = 1 C b 1 l + 1 C b 2 l
= 2 2 2
Ad 2
e 0A
U2 = 2CV = 1 CV 2 ...(2)
Using, C = 8 4
d
and V = Ed
U2 < U1
e0A E 2d 2
We get, U = 1 b d lc Ad m It means that energy stored in the combination
2
is less than that stored initially in the single
= 1 e0E 2 capacitor.
2
Hence, E is the strength of electric field in the 116. Draw a plot showing the variation of (i) electric field
space between the plates of the capacitor. (E ) and (ii) electric potential (V ) with distance r due
to a point charge Q .
(ii) Initial condition :
If we consider a charge capacitor, then its charge Ans : Delhi 2009
would be given q = CV . For point charge Q ,

Q
Electric potential, V = or V ? 1
4pe 0 r r
Q
and electric field, E = or E ? 12
4pe 0 r2 r
Thus, electric potential shows an inverse relationship
and energy stored in it is given by while electric field shows an inverse square relationship
U1 = 1 CV 2 ...(1) with r .
2 So, their corresponding plots would be
When this charged capacitor is connected to
uncharged capacitor,
Let the common potential be V1 , the charge

flow from first capacitor to the other capacitor
unless both the capacitor attained the common
potential.
Q1 = CV1
and Q2 = CV2
Applying conservation of charge,
Q = Q1 + Q2
CV = CV1 + CV2
V = V1 + V2
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS r = 20 cm = 0.2 m

1 3 # 10-9 # 1 # 10-9
4pe 0 :
Evaluate the capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor, W =
117. 0.2
having parallel plates of area 6 cm2 placed at a -9 -9
separation of 2 mm. Consider air between plates as + 3 # 10 # 1 # 10 D

0.2
a dielectric medium. If the capacitor is connected to 1 15 10-18 + 15 10-18
4pe 0 6 # @
200 V power supply. What will be the charge on each = #
plate? = 9 # 109 # 30 # 10-18
Ans : Delhi 2018
= 2.7 # 10-7 J
Area of Plate, A = 6 cm2 = 6 # 10-4 m2
119. Obtain the equivalent capacitance of the network in
Distance between plates, d = 2 mm = 2 # 10-3 m
figure.
We know that,
For a 300 V supply, determine the charge and voltage
Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor,
across each capacitor.
e A
C = 0
d
-12 -4
= 8.85 # 10 #-63 # 10
2 # 10
= 2.655 # 10-12 F
Charge, Q = CV
= 2.655 # 10-12 # 200
= 5.31 # 10-10 C
= 0.531 # 10-9 C
= 0.531 nC Ans : OD 2011
Given, C1 = C 4 = 100 pF
118. The side of an equilateral triangle is 20 cm. Two equal
point chargers (+) 3 nC are placed at its two corners. C2 = C3 = 200 pF
What will be the amount of work done in bringing a The capacitors C2 and C3 are connected is series.
(+) 1 nC test charge from infinity to third corner of Their equivalent capacitance.
the triangle.
CC
Cl = 2 3
Ans : OD 2020, Foreign 2006 C2 + C3
According to the question, = 200 # 200 = 100 pF
200 + 200
The combination of C2 and C3 (i.e., Cl) is connected
in parallel with C1 , therefore, equivalent capacitance
of C1 and Cl.
Cll = C1 + C l
= 100 + 100 = 200 mF
The capacitance Cll is in series with C 4 , hence
equivalent capacitance between A and B
C = C C4
ll
The amount of work done in bringing a test charge C ll + C 4
= + 1 nC from infinity is given by,
= 200 # 100
qq qq 200 + 100
W = 1 9 1 3 + 2 3C
4pe 0 r r
= 200 pF = 66.7 pF
3
Here, q1 = 3 nC = 3 # 10-9 C
Total charge, Q = CV
q2 = 3 nC = 3 # 10-9 C
200
= b 3 # 10 F l # (300 V)
-12
q3 = 1 nC = 1 # 10-9 C
= 2 # 10-8 coulomb In the above circuit C1 and C2 are connected in series

As C 4 is connected in series with battery, charge on combination Now equivalent capacitance is give by,
C 4 is 1 = 1 + 1
C l C1 C2
Q4 = 2 # 10-8 C
1 = 1+1
Potential difference across C 4 is Cl C C
Q
V4 = 4 Cl = C
C4 2
-8 Circuit can be made as follows :
= 2 # 10 -12C = 200 V
100 # 10 F
As C2 and C3 have resultant capacitance Cl equal
to C1 = 100 pF, so the charge Q is equally divided
among two branches; charge on C1 is
Q = 2 # 10-8
Q1 = 2
2
= 1 # 10-8 C = 10-8 C
Charge in branch C2 and C3 is also 1 # 10-8 C . As
charge in series remains same, so charge on C2 and C3
are equal to 1 # 10-8 C . In the circuit C3 and C 4 are connected in series
combination and C/2 is in the parallel combination
Q2 = Q3 = 10-8 C with C3 and C 4 .
Potential difference across,
Now, Cll = C + C # C
Q1 2 C+C
C1 = V1 =
C1
= C +C = C
10-8 2 2
= = 100 V
100 # 10-12 Now, circuit can be made as follows :
Q
C2 = 2
C2
= 10-8 = 50 V
200 # 10-12
Q3 = 10-8 = 50 V
C3 =
C3 200 # 10-12 Ceq = C + C # C
C+C
120. Find equivalent capacitance between A and B . C
= C+ = 3C
2 2
121. A metallic sphere of radius 9 cm has been given a
charge of 4 # 10-6 C . Calculate energy of charged
conductor.
Ans : OD 2012
Radius of metallic sphere,

rs = 9 cm
= 9 # 10-2 m
Charge on sphere, q = 4 # 10-6 C
Now, Energy of charged conductor is given by,
Energy, E = 1 qv
2
q
Potential, V = 1
4pe 0 r
CLASS 12

CLASS 10

q Two charges q and - 3q are placed on X -axis at a

E = 1q #b 1 # l
123.
So,
2 4pe 0 r separation d . Where should a third charge 2q be
1 = 9 109 N-m2 placed such that it will not experience any force ?
4pe 0 #
C2 Also calculate potential energy of the system.
-6
Ans :
E = 1 # 4 # 10-6 # 9 # 109 # 4 # 10-2
Foreign 2016
2 9 # 10 According to the question,
= 0.8 J
122. In the given figure, find the capacitance resistance
between P and Q . If C1 , C3 , C 4 and C5 are each of
4 mF and C2 = 10 mF . The forces need to be balanced so that the force that
2q experiences is cancelled out. So assuming on the
line joining q and - 3q , - 2q is x distance from q .
k (q) (2q) (3q) (2q)
= 4
x 2 4 pe 0 (x + d) 2
1 = 3
x2 (x + d) 2
x2 + d 2 + 2xd = 3x2
2x2 - 2xd - d 2 = 0
2
x = - b ! b - 4ac
Ans : Comp 2019, OD 2001 2a
The equivalent circuit of given circuit is drawer below, 4d 2 + 8d 2
= 2d !
2#2
x = 2d ! 2 3 - d
2#2
d (1 ! 3 )
=
2
Potential energy of the system is given by,
qq qq qq
V = 1 b 1 2 + 2 3 + 3 1l
4pe 0 r12 r23 r31
1 2q 3 3d2 - 6q
2
= >
4pe 0 ` 1 + 3 j d
- H
d ` jd
3+ 3
2 2
The above circuit is formed a balanced Wheatstone 1 q

2
4 - 3 - 12
4pe 0 d c 1 + 3 1 3 + 3 m
=
bridge. Because,
C1 = C 4 2
1 q 4 -3- 4 3 o
4pe 0 d e 1 + 3 1
C5 C3 =
3 +1
Hence, C2 is ineffective.
2
1 q 4-3 3 -3-4 3
4pe 0 a e o
In the circuit C1 and C5 in series combination. =
C C 3 +1
Hence, CPCQ = 1 # 5
C1 + C5 2
1 q 1-7 3 3 -1
4pe 0 d e 3 + 1 # o
=
3 -1
= 4 # 4 = 2 mF
4+4 2
1 q 3 - 21 - 1 + 7 3
4pe 0 d c m
C C =
Similarly, CPOQ = 3# 4 2
C3 + C 4 2
1 q 8 3 - 22
4pe 0 d c m
=
= 4 # 4 = 2 mF 2
4+4 2
q
=- 1
4pe 0 d ^
CPCQ and CPOQ are arranged in parallel combination. 11 - 4 3 h
Hence, Ceq = CPCQ + CPOQ 124. Net capacitance of three identical capacitors in
= 2 + 2 = 4 mF series is 1 mF. What will be their net capacitance if
connected in parallel? Find the ratio of energy stored
in the two configurations if they are both connected = 1.5 # 10-3 C

to the same source.
126. A network of four capacitors each of 12 mF capacitance
is connected a 500 Volt supply as shown in the figure.
Let each capacitor have a capacitance C . Then in Determine equivalent capacitance of the network.
series, we have,
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 = 1mF
CS C1 C2 C3 C
CS = 3mF
Hence, in parallel, we have
CP = C1 + C2 + C3
= 3 + 3 + 3 = 9mF
ES
1
CS V 2 CS
= 12 2 = =1
EP 2 C P V C P 9
Ans : SQP 2012
125. A network of four capacitors, each of capacitance 15mF , The equivalent circuit is shown in figure.
is connected across a battery of 100 V , as shown in
C1 = C2 = C3 = C 4 = 12 mF
the figure. Find the net capacitance and the charge
on the capacitor C 4 . C1 , C2 and C3 are in series, so their equivalent
capacitance is,
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
Cl 12 12 12
= 3
12
Cl = 12 = 4 mF
3
Now Cl and C 4 are parallel,so equivalent capacitance
is,
C = Cl + C4
Ans : OD 2019 = 4 + 12 = 16 mF
In the given network, C1 , C2 and C3 are connected in
127. A parallel plate capacitor of capacitance C is charged
series, the net capacitance of this series is,
to a potential V . It is then connected to another
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 uncharged capacitor having the same capacitance.
C l C1 C2 C3
Find out the ratio of the energy stored in the combined
As, C1 = C2 = C3 = C 4 = 15mF system to that stored initially in the single capacitor.
Hence, 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 Ans : Delhi 2014
Cl 15 15 15 The charge on the capacitor q = CV and initial
= 3 = 1 energy stored in the capacitor.
15 15 2
q
Hence, Cl = 15mF U1 = 1 = 1 CV 2
2C 2
Now, Cl and C 4 are connected in parallel. So total If another uncharged capacitor is connected in series
capacitance of combination then the same amount of the charge will transfer as
= Cl + C4 shown in figure.
= 5 + 15 = 20mF
For capacitor C 4 , the net charge is Q (say), then
Q
= 100 V
C4
Q = C 4 # 100
= 15 # 10-6 # 100
Keeping charge constant, final voltage Vl = 2 V and Ans : OD 2008
capacitance of combined system = CS . Energy stored in a capacitor,

q2
Uf = 1 + 1
q2
=
q2 E = 1 CV 2
2C 2C C 2
q2 q2 In parallel, 0.25 = 1 (C1 + C2) (100) 2 ...(1)

U f :Ui = : 2 :1 2
C 2C
In series, 0.045 = c C1 C2 m (100) 2
1 ...(2)
Alternately, U f :Ui = 1 CS $ V l2 : 1 CV 2 2 C1 + C2
2 2
From equation (1),
= 1 # C # (2V ) 2 : 1 CV 2 C1 + C2 = 0.25 # 2 # 10-4
2 2 2
2
= CV 2 : CV = 2 :1 C1 + C2 = 5 # 10-5 ...(3)
2
From equation (2),
128. Net capacitance of three identical capacitors in series C1 C2 = 0.45 2 10-4 ...(4)
C1 + C2 # #
is 1 mF. What will be their net capacitance if connected
in parallel ? C1 C2 = 0.09 10-4 = 9 10-6
C1 + C2 # #
Find the ratio of energy stored in the two configurations
if they are both connected to the same source. From equation (4),
-5
Ans : Foreign 2010, OD 2008 C1 C2 = 2 # 0.045 #4 5 # 10
10
Let the capacitance of each capacitor is C mF . Then
for series, = 4.5 # 10-10
1 = 1+1+1 C1 - C2 = (C1 + C2) 2 - 4C1 C2
CS C C C
C1 - C2 = 2.64 # 10-5 ...(5)
Given, C S = 1 mF
Solving equation (3) and (5),
So, 1 = 3
1 C C1 = 38.2 mF
C = 3 mF C2 = 11.8 mF
Now all three capacitors are arranged in parallel, net In parallel, Q1 = C1 V = 38.2 # 10-6 # 100
capacitance in parallel,
= 38.2 # 10-4 C
CP = C + C + C
and Q2 = C2 V = 11.8 # 10-6 # 100
= 3 + 3 + 3 = 9 mF
= 11.8 # 10-4 C
Now, energy stored in series combination,
130. In the given circuit in the steady state, obtain the
ES s = 1 CS V 2 expression for:
2
(V = Potential of source) 1. The potential drop
2. The charge
and energy stored in parallel combination,
3. The energy stored in the capacitor, C .
EP = 1 CP V 2
2
ES
1
CS V 2 CS
Ratio, = 12 2 = =1
EP 2 C P V C P 9
Hence, Required ratio is 1 : 9.
129. Two capacitors of unknown capacitances C1 and

C2 are connected first in series and then in parallel
across a battery of 100 V. If the energy stored in the
two combination is 0.045 J and 0.25 J respectively, Ans : Delhi 2016
determine the value of C1 and C2 . Also calculate the 1. In steady state, current in the circuit ACDFA,
charge on each capacitor in parallel combination. I = 2V - V = V
2R + R 3R
Potential at point E , assuming VE = 0 Q = C (V + 120)

VE = 2V - 2IR = 2 (180 + 120) = 600 mC
= 2V - 2R # V = 4V 132. Determine the potential difference across the plates of
3R 3
the capacitor C1 of the network shown in the figure.
Potential difference,
[Assume E2 > E1 ].
VBE = VE - V
= 4V - V = V
3 3
Hence, potential drop across the capacitor is V3 .
2. Charge on the capacitor q = C ^V3 h = 13 CV .
3. Energy stored in the capacitor,
U = 1 C bV l = 1 CV 2
3
2 3 18
131. A capacitor of unknown capacitance is connected Ans : Comp 2013
across a battery of V volts. The charge stored in Let, E2 > E1
it is 360 mC . When potential across the capacitor is
Therefore, right plate of C1 has charge + q and left
reduced by 120 V, the charge stored in it becomes
plate of C1 has charge - q . On the same basis, left
120 mC .
plate of C2 has charge + q and right plate of C2 has
Calculate:
charge - q .
(i) The potential V and the unknown capacitance C .
In closed circuit, potential difference dV = 0 .
(ii) What will be the charge stored in the capacitor, if
q q
the voltage applied had increased by 120 V? + E1 + - E2 = 0
C1 C2
q b 1 + 1 l = E2 - E1
C1 C2
q c C2 + C1 m = E2 - E1
C1 C2
(i) The potential V and the unknown capacitance C . (E2 - E1) C1 C2
q =
If unknown capacitor of capacitance C is connected to C1 + C2
a battery of V bolts, Hence, potential difference across left and right plate
Q = CV of C1 is
q (E - E1) C2
CV = 360 mC ...(1) V = = 2
C1 C1 + C2
Reducing the potential/voltage by 120 V.
133. Net capacitance of three identical capacitors in
So, Ql = C (V - 120) series is 1 mF. What will be their net capacitance if
C (V - 120) = 120 mC ...(2) connected in parallel? Find the ratio of energy stored
in the two configurations if they are both connected
Solving equation (1) and (2)
to the same source.
360 mC 120 mC
= Ans : Delhi 2017
V V - 120
Let C be the capacitance of each capacitor, then in
V = 180 Volt
series,
Unknown capacitance from equation (1), 1 = 1+1+1 = 3
Q = CV CS C C C C
360 mC = C # 180 V C = 3CS = 3 # 1 mF = 3 mF
360 mC When these capacitors are connected in parallel, net
C = =2 capacitance,
180 V
C = 2 mF CP = 3C = 3 # 3 = 9 mF
(ii) Charge stored in the capacitor When these two combinations are connected to same
Charge on the capacitor, if voltage is increased by source the potential difference across each combination
120 V. is same.
Ratio of energy stored, Ans : Foreign 2016
Area of each plate,

US
1
CS V 2 CS
= 12 2 = A = 6 # 10-3 m2
UP 2 C P V C P
1 mF Distance between plates,

= =1
9 mF 9 d = 3 mm = 3 # 103 m
US :UP = 1 : 9 1. Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is given by,
Calculate the potential difference and the energy e A
134. C = 0
stored in the capacitor C2 in the circuit shown in d
the figure. Given potential at A is 90 V, C1 = 20 mF , e 0 = 8.85 # 10-12
C2 = 30 mF , C3 = 15 mF . -12 -3
C = 8.85 # 10 #-63 # 10
3 # 10
C = 1.77 # 10-11 F
2. Charge on parallel plate capacitor is given by
Ans : Comp 2007, OD 2016
Q = CV
Capacitors C1 , C2 and C3 are in series. So its net
capacitance is, Given, V = 100 Volt
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 Now, Q = 17.7 # 10-12 # 100
CS C1 C2 C3
Q = 1 # 10-10 C ...(1)
= 1 + 1 + 1 3. Given,
20 30 15
K =6
CS = 20 mF
3
Now, Cl = KC
Net charge on the capacitors C1 , C2 and C3 remain
same. Ql = KQ [From equation (1)]
q = CS (VA - VE ) = 6 # 1.77 # 10-10
= 20 mF # (90 - 0) = 10.62 # 10-10 C
3
= 600 mC 136. Net capacitance of three identical capacitors in series
is 1 mF. What will be their net capacitance if connected
The potential difference across C2 due to charge in parallel ?
600 mC is, Find the ratio of energy stored in the two configurations
q if they are both connected to the same source.
V2 =
C2
Ans : OD 2007
= 600 = 20 Volt Let the capacitance of each capacitor is C mF . Then
30
for series,
Energy stored in the capacitor C2
2
1 = 1+1+1
q
U2 = 1 or 1 C2 V 22 CS C C C
2 C2 2
Given, C S = 1 mF
1
= # 30 mF # (20) 2
2 So, 1 = 3
-3 1 C
= 6000 mJ = 6 # 10 J
C = 3 mF
135. In a parallel plate capacitor with air between the
Now all three capacitors are arranged in parallel, net
plates, each plate has an area of 6 # 10-3 m2 and the
capacitance in parallel,
separation between the plate is 3 mm.
1. Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor. CP = C + C + C
2. If this capacitor is connected to 100 V supply, = 3 + 3 + 3 = 9 mF
what would bet he change on each plate? Now, energy stored in series combination,
3. How would charge on the plates be affected if a 3 mm
thick mica sheet of K = 6 is inserted between the ES = 1 CS V 2 (V = potential of
2
plates while the voltage supply remains connected? source)
and energy stored in parallel combination,

EP = 1 CP V 2
2
ES
1
CS V 2 CS
Ratio, = 12 2 = =1
EP 2 C P V C P 9
Required ratio = 1 : 9
137. Calculate the equivalent capacitance between point

A and B in the circuit below. If a battery of 10 V
is connected across A and B , calculate the charge
drawn from the battery by the circuit.
Equivalent capacitance between A and B is,

CAB = C12 + C34 = 20 + 10 = 10 mF
3 3
Ans : Delhi 2013, Comp 2010 Hence, charge drawn from battery,
Since, C1 = C3 Q = CV
C2 C4
This is the condition of balance so there will be no = 10 # 10 mC
current across PR ( 50 mF capacitor). = 100 mC = 10-4 C
138. In the following arrangement of capacitors, the energy
stored in 6 mF capacitor is E . Find the value of the
following.
Now, C1 and C2 are in series,

1. Energy stored in 12 mF capacitor.
C12 = C1 C2 2. Energy stored in 3 mF capacitor.
C1 + C2
3. Total energy drawn from the battery.
= 10 # 20 = 200 = 20 mF Ans :
10 + 20 30 3 OD 2012
Since, C3 and C 4 are in series, Given that energy stored in 6 mF capacitor.

C3 C 4 1. Let V be the voltage across 6 mF is E .
C34 =
C3 + C 4 Also 6 mF and 12 mF capacitors are in parallel.
Therefore,
= 5 # 10 = 50 = 10 mF
5 + 10 15 3 Voltage across 12 mF = Voltage across 6 mF capacitor
E = 1 CV 2 = 1 # 6 # V 2 Thus, Q = 2ql + ql = 3ql

2 2
Q
E (Energy stored in 12 mF ) So, ql = = 60 nC = 20 nC
V = 3 3
3
2
and q = 2ql = 40 nC
= 1 # 12 b E l = 2E Thus, final energy,
2 3
2. Since charge remains constant in series. Sum of q2 ql2
Uf = +
charge on 6 mF capacitor and 12 mF capacitor 2C 2C l
is equal to charge on 3 mF capacitor (Using Q (40 # 10-9) 2 1 (20 # 10-9) 2
= CV ). =1# + #
2 200 # 10-12 2 100 # 10-12
Charge on 3 mF capacitor, -6 -6
= 4 # 10 + 2 # 10
Q2 (18V) 2
E = = = 6 # 10-6 J
2C 2#3
2 Difference in energy = Final energy - Initial energy
= 18 # 18 c E m = 18 E
6 3 = U f - Ui
3. Total energy drawn from battery
= 6 # 10-6 - 9 # 10-6
= E + 2E + 18E = 21E
= - 3 # 10-6
139. A capacitor of 200 pF is charged by a 300 V battery.
Thus, difference in energy is - 3 # 10-6 J .
The battery is then disconnected and the charged
capacitor is connected to another uncharged capacitor 140. A network of four capacitors, each of capacitance
of 100 pF. Calculate the difference between the final 15 mF is connected across a battery of 100 V, as
energy stored in the combined system and the initial shown in the figure. Find the net capacitance and the
energy stored in the single capacitor. charge on the capacitor C 4 .
Ans : OD 2018, Comp 2012
We have C = 200 pF = 200 # 10-12 F

V = 300 Volt
The energy (initially) stored by the capacitor is,
Ui = 1 CV 2
2
1
= # 200 # 10-12 # 300 # 300
2
= 9 # 10-6 J
The charge on the capacitor when charge through
300V battery is,
Q = CV
= 200 # 10-12 # 300 Ans : OD 2006
In the given network, C1, C2 and C3 are connected in

= 6 # 10-8 C series, the net capacitance of this series is
When two capacitor are connected, they have their 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
positive plates and negative plates at the same C l C1 C2 C3
potential. Let V be the common potential difference. As, C1 = C2 = C3 = C 4 = 15 mF
By charge conservation, charge would distribute but
total charge would remain constant. Hence, 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
Cl 15 15 15
Thus, Q = q + ql
= 3 = 1
q ql 15 15
=
C Cl Hence, Cl = 5 mF
q ql Now Cl and C 4 are connected in parallel, so
=
200 100
total capacitance of combination = C l + C 4
q = 2qlsd = 5 + 15 = 20 mF
For capacitor C 4 , the net charge is Q (say), then Ans : Delhi 2017
Q Given, C1 = C2 = 600 pF
= 100 V
C4 = 600 # 10-12 F
or Q = C 4 # 100
V = 200 Volt
= 15 # 10-6 # 100
TU = ?
= 1.5 # 10-3 C Using the relation
141. A network of four capacitors each of 12 mF capacitance C1 C2 (V1 - V2) 2
is connected a 500 V supply as shown in the figure. TU = , we get
2 (C1 + C2)
Determine equivalent capacitance of the network. 600 # 600 # 10-24 (200 - 0) 2
TU =
2 (600 + 600) # 10-12
= 6 # 10-6 J
144. A capacitor of unknown capacitance is connected
across a battery of V volts. The charge stored in
it is 360 mC . When potential across the capacitor is
reduced by 120 V, the charge stored in it becomes
120 mC . Calculate :
(i) The potential V and the unknown capacitance C
.
(ii) What will be the charge stored in the capacitor, if
the voltage applied had increased by 120 V ?
Ans : Delhi 2013
The equivalent circuit is shown in figure.
C1 = C2 = C3 = C 4 = 12 mF
C1, C2 and C3 S are in series, so their equivalent
capacitance is
(i) If unknown capacitor of capacitance C is
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3
12 12 12 12 connected to a battery of V volts,
Cl
Q = CV
Cl = 12 = 4 mF
3
CV = 360 mC ...(1)
Now Cl and C 4 are parallel, so equivalent capacitance
On reducing the potential/voltage by 120 Volt
is
So, Ql = C (V - 120)
C = Cl + C4
C (V - 120) = 120 mC ...(2)
C = 4 + 12 = 16 mF
On solving equation (1) and (2),
142. A 12 pF capacitor is connected to a 50 V battery. How
360 mC 120 mC
much electrostatic energy is stored in the capacitor ? =
V V - 120
Ans : OD 2013
V = 180 V
Given, C = 12 pF = 12 # 10-12 F
Unknown capacitance from equation (1),
and V = 50 V , U = ? Q = CV
Using the relation,U = 1 CV 2 360 mC = C # 180 V
2
1 360 mC
= # 12 # 10-12 # (50) 2 C = =2
2 180 V
= 1.5 # 10-8 J C = 2 mF
(ii) Charge on the capacitor, if voltage is increased by
143. A 600 pF capacitor is charged by a 200 V supply. It
120 Volt,
is then disconnected from the supply and is connected
to another uncharged 600 pF capacitor. How much Q = C (V + 120) = 2 (180 + 120)
electrostatics energy is lost in the process ? = 600 mC
A 4 mF capacitor is charged by a 200 V supply. It is C1 C2

0.045 = 1 c C + C m (100) 2
145.
In series, ...(2)
then disconnected from the supply and is connected 2 1 2
to another uncharged 2 mF capacitor. How much From (1), C1 + C2 = 0.25 # 2 # 10-4

electrostatic energy of the first capacitor is lost in the
form of heat and electromagnetic radiation ? C1 + C2 = 5 # 10-5 ...(3)
From (2), C1 C2 = 0.45 2 10-4 ...(4)

Ans : Foreign 2015
C1 + C2 # #
We have C1 = 4 mF = 4 # 10-6 C1 C2 = 0.09 10-4 = 9 10-6
C1 + C2 # #
V1 = 200 Volt
-5
C2 = 2 mF = 2 # 10-6 F From (4), C1 + C2 = 2 # 0.045 #4 5 # 10
10
Initial energy of first capacitor,
= 4.5 # 10-10
U1 = 1 C1 V 12
2 C1 + C2 = (C1 + C2) 2 - 4C1 C2
= 1 # (4 # 10-6) # (200) 2 C1 + C2 = 2.64 # 10-5 ...(5)
2
Solving (3) and (5),
= 8 # 10-2 J
C1 = 38.2 mF
When another uncharged capacitor C2 = 2 mF , is
connected across capacitor C1 then common potential C2 = 11.8 mF
difference In parallel, Q1 = C1 V = 38.2 # 10-6 # 100
q + q2
V = 1 = C1 V1 + 0 = 38.2 # 10-4 C
C1 + C2 C1 + C2
-6 Q2 = C2 V = 11.8 # 10-6 # 100
= 4 # 10 # 200
(4 + 2) # 10-6 = 11.8 # 10-4 C
= 400 volt A parallel plate capacitor of capacitance C is charged
3 147.
Final electrostatic energy, to a potential V . It is then connected to another

uncharged capacitor having the same capacitance.
U2 = 1 (C1 + C2) V 2 Find out the ratio of the energy stored in the combined
2
2 system to that stored initially in the single capacitor.
= 1 # (4 # 2) # 10-6 # b 400 l Ans :
2 3 OD 2009, SQP 2013
16 The charge on the capacitor q = CV and initial

= 10-2 J
3 # energy stored in the capacitor
= 5.33 # 10-2 J q 2
Ui = 1 = 1 CV 2 ...(1)
2C 2
Energy loss, TU = U1 - U2
If another uncharged capacitor is connected in series
= 8 # 10-2 - 5.33 # 10-2 then the same amount of the charge will transfer as
= 2.67 # 10-2 J shown in figure.
146. Two capacitor of unknown capacitances C1 and C2

are connected first in series and then in parallel
across a battery of 100 V. If the energy stored in the
two combinations is 0.045 J and 0.25 J respectively,
determine the value of C1 and C2 . Also calculate the
charge on each capacitor in parallel combination.
Ans : Comp 2005
Keeping charge constant, final voltage V l = 2V and
Energy stored in a capacitor,
capacitance of combined system = CS
E = 1 CV 2 q2 q2 q2
2 Uf = 1 + 1 = ...(2)
2C 2C C
In parallel, 0.25 = 1 (C1 + C2) (100) 2 ...(1)
2 q2 q2
U f :Ui = : = 2 :1
C 2C
Alternately, Ans : SQP 2010
Capacitors C1 , C2 and C3 are in series. So, its net

U f :Ui = 1 CS $ V l2 : 1 CV 2 capacitance is
2 2
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
= 1 # C # (2V) 2 : 1 CV 2 CS C1 C2 C3
2 2 2
2
= CV 2 : CV = 2 : 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
2 20 30 15
148. In a parallel plate capacitor with air between the CS = 20 mF
3
plates, each plate has an area of 6 # 10-3 m2 and the
Net charge on the capacitors, C1 , C2 and C3 remain
separation between the plate is 3 mm.
same.
(i) Calculate the capacitance of the capacitor.
(ii) If this capacitor is connected to 100 V supply, q = CS (VA - VE )
what would be the change on each plate ? = 20 mF # (90 - 0) = 600 mC
(ii) How would charge on the plates be affected if a 3 3
mm thick mica sheet of K = 6 is inserted between The potential difference across C2 due to charge
the plates while the voltage supply remains 600 mC is
connected ? q
V2 = = 600 = 20 V
Ans : Foreign 2008 C2 30
Given, Energy stored in the capacitor C2 ,
q2 1
b or 2 C2 V 2 l
area of each plate, A = 6 # 10-3 m2 U2 = 1
2
2 C2
Distance between plates,
= 1 # 30 mF # (20) 2 = 6000 mJ
d = 3 mm = 3 # 10-3 m 2
(i) Capacitance of parallel plate capacitor is given by = 6 # 10-3 J
e A
C = 0 Three capacitors each of capacitance 9 pF are
d 150.
-12 -3 connected in series :
C = 8.85 # 10 #-63 # 10 (i) What is the total capacitance of the combination ?
3 # 10
C = 1.77 # 10-11 F (ii) What is the potential difference across each
capacitor if the combination is connected to 120 V
(ii) Charge on parallel plate capacitor is given by supply ?
Q = CV Ans : OD 2015
Given, V = 100 Volt (i) Given, C1 = C2 = C3 = 9 pF

Now, Q = 1.77 # 10 -12
# 100 When capacitors are connected in series, the
equivalent capacitance CS is given by
Q = 1.77 # 10-10 C ...(1)
1 = 1 + 1 + 1
(iii) Given, K = 6 CS C1 C2 C3
Now, Cl = KC
=1+1+1 =3=1
9 9 9 9 3
Ql = KQ [From Equation (1)]
(ii) In series charge on each capacitor remains the
Ql = 6 # 1.77 # 10-10 same, so charge on each capacitor.
Ql = 10.62 # 10-10 C q = CS V
149. Calculate the potential difference and the energy = (3 # 10-12 F) # (120 V)
stored in the capacitor C2 in the circuit shown in = 3.6 # 10-10 coulomb
the figure. Given potential at A is 90 V, C1 = 20 mF ,
Potential difference across each capacitor,
C2 = 30 mF , C3 = 15 mF .
q
V =
C1
-10
= 3.6 # 10-12 = 40 V
9 # 10
151. The two plates of a parallel plate capacitor are 5 mm (ii) In parallel, the potential difference across each
apart. A slab of a dielectric, of thickness 4 mm is capacitor remains the same, i.e., V = 100 Volt .
introduced between the plates with its faces parallel Charge on C1 = 2 pF is
to them. The distance between the plates is adjusted q1 = C1 V = 2 # 10-12 # 100
so that the capacitance of the capacitor becomes equal
to its original value. If the new distance between the = 2 # 10-10 C
plates equals 8 mm, what is the dielectric constant of Charge on C2 = 3 pF is
the dielectric used ? q2 = C2 V = 3 # 10-12 # 100
Ans : OD 2006, Comp 2014
= 3 # 10-10 C
Let original capacitance C0 = e 0 A Charge on C3 = 4 pF is
d
Here, d = 5 mm = 5 # 10-3 m q3 = C3 V = 4 # 10-12 # 100
So, e 0 A = 5 # 10-3 C0 = 4 # 10-10 C
Now, d = 8 mm = 8 # 10-3 m 153. Net capacitance of three identical capacitors in

t = 4 mm = 4 # 10 -3 series is 1 mF. What will be their net capacitance if
connected in parallel ? Find the ratio of energy stored
and C = C0 in the two configurations if they are both connected
e0A to the same source.
So, C =
d - t b1 - 1 l Ans : OD 2015
K
Let each capacitor have a capacitance C . Then in
where K = dielectric constant
series, we have
5 # 10-3 # C0 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 3 = 1 mF
Hence, C0 =
d - t :1 - 1 D CS C1 C2 C3 C
K
or C = 3 mF
1
or d - t b1 - K l = 5 # 10-3 Hence, in parallel, we have
CP = C1 + C2 + C3
8 # 10-3 - 5 # 10-3 = t b1 - 1 l
K
= 3 + 3 + 3 = 9 mF
t b1 - 1 l S = 3 # 10-3 1
CS V 2 CS
K ES
= 12 2 = =1
-3 EP C V C 9
b1 - 1 l = 3 # 10-3 s 2 P P
K 4 # 10
1 154. Calculate the equivalent capacitance between points
1- = 0.75
K A and B in the circuit below. If a battery of 10 V
1 = 0.25 is connected across A and B , calculate the charge
K drawn from the battery by the circuit.
K =4
So, dielectric constant = 4
152. Three capacitors of capacitance 2 pF, 3 pF and 4 pF

are connected in parallel
(i) What is the total capacitance of the combination ?
(ii) Determine the charge on each capacitor if the
combination is connected to (a) 100 V supply.
Ans : OD 2014
Given, C1 = 2 pF , C2 = 3 pF , C3 = 4 pF
(i) Total capacitance when connected in parallel,
CP = C1 + C2 + C3
= 2 + 3 + 4 = 9 pF
C1 = C3
C2 C4
This is the condition of balance so there will be no
current across PR ( 50 mF capacitor)
Hence, charge drawn from battery, Q = CV

= 10 # 10 mC
= 100 mC = 10-4 C
155. Three capacitors each of capacitance 9 pF are Net
capacitance of three identical capacitors in series is
1 mF. What will be their net capacitance if connected
in parallel ?
Find the ratio of energy stored in the two configurations
if they are both connected to the same source.
Ans : Foreign 2018
Let C be the capacitance of each capacitor, then in

Now, C1 and C2 are in series, series,
C12 = C1 C2 1 = 1+1+1 = 3
C1 + C2 CS C C C C
= 10 # 20 = 200 = 20 mF or C = 3CS = 3 # 1 mF = 3 mF
10 + 20 30 3
C3 and C 4 are in series, When these capacitors are connected in parallel, net
capacitance,
C3 C 4
C34 = CP = 3C = 3 # 3 = 9 mF
C3 + C 4
= 5 # 10 = 50 = 10 mF When these two combinations are connected to same
5 + 10 15 3 source the potential difference across each combination
is same.
Ratio of energy stored,
1C V2
US S C 1 mF 1
= 2 = S = =
UP 1 C V 2 CP 9 mF 9
P
2
US :UP = 1 : 9
156. In the following arrangement of capacitors, the energy
stored in 6 mF capacitor is E . Find the value of the
following :
Equivalent capacitance between A and B is

CAB = C12 + C34
= 20 + 10 = 10 mF
3 3
(i) Energy stored in 12 mF capacitor. e0A

C = ...(2)
(ii) Energy stored in 3 mF capacitor. 0.012
(iii) Total energy drawn from the battery. e0A
Again, C1 =
(d - 0.01 + 0.002)
Ans : Comp 2017
2C = e0A
Given, that energy stored in 6 mF capacitor ...(3)
3 (d - 0.01 + 0.002)
(i) Let V be the voltage across 6 mF is E .
Now dividing equation (3) by equation (2), we get
Also, 6 mF and 12 mF capacitors are in parallel.
Therefore, voltage across 12 mF 2C e0A 0.012
3 = # e A
= Voltage across 6 mF capacitor C (d - 0.01 + 0.002) 0
2 (d - 0.01 + 0.002) = 3 # 0.012

E = 1 CV 2 = 1 # 6 # V 2
2 2 2d - 0.02 + 0.004 = 0.036
V = E
3 2d = 0.036 + 0.02 + 0.004
Energy stored in 12 mF 2d = 0.052
2
E d = 0.026 m
= 1 # 12 # b 3 l = 2E
2
(ii) Since charge remains constant in series. Sum of 158. The capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor is 10 mF .
charge on 6 mF capacitor and 12 mF capacitor is When distance between its plates is 8 cm. If distance
equal to charge on 3 mF capacitor. between the plates is reduced to 4 cm, find out the
Using Q = CV , new value capacitance of capacitor ?
Charge on 3 mF capacitor, Ans : OD 2011
Q = (6 + 12) # V = 18 # V Initial capacitance,C1 = 10 mF

Energy stored in 3 mF capacitor, Initial distance between plates,
Q 2
(18) 2
d1 = 8 cm = 0.08 m
E = =
2C 2#3 and final distance between plates,
E 2
= 18 # 18 a 3k
d2 = 4 cm = 0.04 m
6
We know that Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor,
= 18E
e A
(iii) Total energy drawn from battery C = 0 ?1
d d
= E + 2E + 18E = 21E Therefore, C1 d
= 2
C2 d1
157. A parallel plate capacitor has its two plates kept
0.02 m apart. A dielectric slab of thickness 0.01 m is or C2 = d1 # C1
d2
introduced between the plates with its faces parallel
to them. The distance between the plates is readjusted = 0.08 # 10 = 20 mF
0.04
to make the capacity of the capacitor (2/3) rd of its
where C2 is final capacitance of parallel plate capacitor
original value. Given that the dielectric constant of
the slab equals 5, find the new distance between the
159. What is the equivalent capacity between A and B in
plates.
the given figure ?
Ans : OD 2014, Comp 2011
Given, d = 0.02 m , t = 0.01 m , K = 5
C1 = C
5
e0A
Using the relation,C = ...(1)
t
bd - t + K l
e0A
C =
0.01
b 0.02 - 0.01 + 5 l
Ans : Foreign 2009

Further reduced diagram,
Now all there are in series so equivalent capacitance

In the circuit C1 and C2 are arranged in series across A and B would be,
combination Hence, Equivalent capacitance, 1 =1+1+1
Ceq 4 4 4
Cl = C1 # C2
C1 + C2
Ceq = 4 mF
3
= 6#6
6+6
Two capacitors C1 = 2 mF and C2 = 4 mF are connected
= 36 = 3 mF
161.
12 in series and a potential difference (p.d.) of 1200 V is
Now Cl and C3 are arranged in parallel combination. applied across it. What will be potential difference
Hence, equivalent capacitance between A and B , across 2 mF ?
Ceq = C l + C3 Ans : Delhi 2018
Given, C 1 = 2mF = 2 # 10-6 F

= 3 + 6 = 9 mF
C 2 = 4mF = 4 # 10-6 F
160. What is the equivalent capacity between points A and
Potential difference, V = 1200 Volts
B ?
According to the question, capacitors are connected in
series combination as shown in the figure,
Equivalent capacitance,
1 = 1 + 1
Ceq C1 C2
Ans : OD 2012, Comp 2008 = 1+ 1 = 2+1
2 4 4
We can reduce the circuit as,
Ceq = 4 mF = 4 # 10-6 F
3 3
We know that,
Q
Capacitance, C =
V
where, C = Ceq = 4 # 10-6 F
3
Hence, Q = Ceq V
= 4 # 10-6 # 1200
3
= 1600 # 10-6 C
Equivalent capacitance across point C ,
The Potential difference across 2 mF capacitor is given
4 # 4 = 2 mF by,
4+4
-6
Q
Now 2 mF and 2 mF are in parallel. V = = 1600 # 10
C 2 # 10 -6
So, equivalent capacitance,
= 800 Volt
2 + 2 = 4 mF
162. A network of four capacitors of capacity equal Therefore, work done,

to C1 = C , C2 = 2C , C3 = 3C and C 4 = 4C are
W = 1 CV 2
connected to a battery as shown in the figure. What 2
is the ratio of the charges on C2 and C 4 ?
= 1 # (100 # 10-6) # (8 # 10-14) 2
2
= 32 # 10-32 J
164. In a capacitor of capacitor 12 mF , the distance between

the plates is 3 mm. If a dielectric slab of width 2
mm and dielectric constant 2 is inserted between the
plates, What will be the new capacitance of capacitor?
Ans : SQP 2008
Initial capacitance of capacitor,

Ans : SQP 2005 C1 = 12 mF = 12 # 10-6 F
Capacitances, C1 = C , C2 = 2C Distance between plates, d = 3 mm
C3 = 3C , C 4 = 4C Width of dielectric slab, t = 2 mm
And voltage of battery = V . Dielectric constant, K =2
Since capacitors C1 , C2 and C3 are in series combination Initial capacitance of the capacitor without dielectric
, therefore their effective capacitance CS is, slab,
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 e A e A
C1 = 0 = 0
CS C1 C2 C3 d 3
and final capacitance of the capacitor with dielectric
= 1+ 1 + 1
C 2 C 3C slab,
= 6 + 3 + 2 = 11 C2 =
e0A
6C 6C ^d - t + K h
t
or CS = 6C =
e0A e A
= 0
11 3 - 2 + 22 2
As C1 , C2 and C3 are in series, therefore charge on e0A
each capacitor is same. Therefore, C2 = 2
= 3 = 1.5
C1 e0A
3
2
Therefore charge on C2 capacitor,
C2 = 12 # 1.5 = 18 mF
q = CSV = 6CV ...(1)
11
165. Consider a parallel plate capacitor of capacity 10 mF
Similarly, charge on C 4 capacitor, with air filled in the gap between the plates. Now
ql = C 4V = 4CV ...(2) one-half of the space between the plates is filled with
Dividing equation (1) by (2), a dielectric of dielectric constant K = 4 as shown in
the figure. How much capacitance of capacitor will be
q 6CV/11
= = 6 = 3 changed ?
ql 4CV 44 22
163. What is the work done in placing a charge of
8 # 10-18 C on a capacitor of capacity of capacity
100 mF ?
Charge, q = 8 # 10-18 C
and capacity of capacitor,
C = 100 mF = 100 # 10-6 F Ans : OD 2013
Potential developed due to the charge, Initial capacity of the capacitor when filled with air,
q -18 C = 10 mF
V = = 8 # 10 -6
C 100 # 10 and dielectric constant dielectric,
-14
= 8 # 10 V K =4
Capacity of the capacitor with half of the space filled

with air,
C1 = C = 10 = 5 mF
2 2
And capacity of the capacitor with half of the space
filled with dielectric constant,
C2 = KC1
= 4 # 5 = 20 mF
Therefore, total capacity of the capacitor,
C = C1 + C2 Ans : Delhi 2012
= 5 + 20 = 25 mF Dielectric constant of first material = K1

166. The capacitance of parallel plate capacitor becomes 4
3
Dielectric constant of second material = K2
times its original value if a dielectric slab of thickness Capacity of the first capacitor,
t = d2 is inserted between the plates (where d is K1 e 0 ^ A2 h
separation between the plates). What is the dielectric C1 =
d
constant of the slab ?
K1 e 0 A
Ans : Foreign 2010, Comp 2001 =
2d
Capacitance of the capacitor with dielectric slab, Similarly, capacity of the second capacitor,
C2 = 4 C1 w e KA
C2 = 0 2
3 2d
where, C1 = capacitance without dielectric slab.
Since, the two capacitors are connected in a parallel
and thickness of dielectric slab, combination,
Therefore their net capacity of the capacitor,
t =d
2
C = C1 + C2
where, d = separation between the plates.
e 0 K1 A e 0 K2 A
Initial capacitance of the capacitor without dielectric = +
2d 2d
slab,
Ae 0 (K1 + K2)
e A =
C1 = 0 2d
d
and capacitance of the capacitor with dielectric slab 168. Two charges 2 mC and - 2 mC are placed at points A
of thickness d2 , and B , 5 cm apart. Depict an equipotential surface of
e0A the system.
C2 sa =
^d - t + Kt h Ans : Foreign 2013
4 e0A = e0A Given, qA = 2 mC = 2 # 10-6 C

3 d ^d - 2 + 2K h
d d
qB = - 2 mC = - 2 # 10-6 C
4 = 1
3d d
2 + 2dK
4 = 2K
3 K+1
4K + 4 = 6K
and r = 5 cm
2K = 4
Potential, V = 2 # 10-6 + - 2 # 10-6
-2
K =2 4pe 0 x # 10 4pe 0 (5 - x) # 10-2
where, K = Dielectric constant of the slab 2 # 10-6 2 # 10-6
-2 =
4pe 0 x # 10 4pe 0 (5 - x) # 10-2
167. Two materials of dielectric constant K1 and K2 are
[sinceV = 0]
filled between two parallel plates of a capacitor as
shown in figure. Find out the net capacity of the x = 5-x
capacitor?
x = 2.5
169. In the given circuit in the steady state, obtain the Ans : OD 2019
expression for (a) the potential drop (b) the charge Area of parallel plate capacitor = A
and (c) the energy stored in the capacitor, C . Plate separation = d
Capacitance = C
and Different dielectric constants = K1, K2 and K3
Capacitance of a capacitor,
e AK
C = 0
d
Therefore capacitance of first half potion,
e 0 ^ A2 h K1 e AK1
C1 = = 0
^2h d
d
Similarly, capacitance of second half portion,
(a) In steady state, current in the circuit ACDFA
e 0 ^ A2 h K2 e AK2
I = 2V - V C2 = = 0
^2h d
d
2R + R
and capacitance of third complete portion,
= V
3R e AK 2e AK3
C3 = 0 d 3 = 0
Potential at point E , assuming VE = 0 ^2h d
VE = 2V - 2IR The capacitances C1 and C2 are in parallel combination.

Therefore their equivalent capacitance,
= 2V - 2R # V = 4V
3R 3 Ceq = C1 + C2
Potential difference, e 0 AK1 e 0 AK2
= +
VBE = VE - V d d
e0A
= (K1 + K2)
= 4V - V = V d
3 3
Now, the equivalent capacitance Ceq and C3 are in
Hence, potential drop across the capacitor is V .
3 a series combination. Therefore relation for their
(b) Charge on the capacitor q resultant capacitance C is,
= C bV l = 1 CV 1 = 1 + 1
3 3
C Ceq C3
(c) Energy stored in the capacitor
d = d + d
2
U = 1 C bV l = 1 CV 2 e 0 AK e 0 A (K1 + K2) 2e 0 AK3
2 3 18 d = d ; 1 + 1
170. A parallel plate capacitor of area A, plate separation e 0 AK e 0 A (K1 + K2) 2K3 E
d and capacitance C is filled with three different 1 = 1 + 1
dielectric materials having dielectric constants K1, K2 K K1 + K2 2K3
and K3 as shown in the figure. If a single dielectric
171. What will be the capacity of a capacitor formed by
material is to be used to have the same capacitance
a compound dielectric placed between the plates of a
C in this capacitor, what is the value of dielectric
parallel plate capacitor as shown in figure ? (Area of
constant K ?
plate = A )
Ans : OD 2017
Potential difference across each capacitor
Given, Area of plates = A = 400 Volt
Width of first dielectric = d1 Number of capacitors in series
Width of second dielectric = d2 n = 1000 = 2.5 - 3

400
Width of third dielectric = d3 Capacitance of capacitors in series,
Dielectric constant of first medium = K1 CS = 1 = 2
3
Dielectric constant second medium = K2 m =6
Dielectric constant of third medium = K3 Hence total number of capacitance required
Capacity of parallel plate capacitor with a compound = m # n = 6 # 3 = 18
dielectric, Total 6 row of capacitor in parallel with three
e A capacitors in each row.
C = 0
/ b dk l (ii) Yes, Because two conductors of the same volume
may have different shapes and hence difference
e0A capacitances.
=
d
c 1 + d2 + 3 m
d
K1 K2 K3 (iii) Dielectric materials are poor conductors of
electricity because they do not have any loosely
bound or free electrons that may drift through
the material. Electrons are required to support
CASE BASED QUESTIONS the flow of an electric current.
173. Dielectric with polar molecules also develops a net
172. Shikhaj was working on a project for science exhibition. dipole moment in an external field, but for a different
He considered a capacitance of 2 mF having a capacity reason. In the absence of any external field, the
of operating under 1 kV potential. When he reached different permanent dipoles are oriented randomly
to shop, he found that the shopkeeper is having a due to thermal agitation; so the total dipole moment
capacitors of 1 mF of 400 V rating. Shikhaj calculated is zero. When an external field is applied, the
minimum number of capacitance of 1 mF each so he individual dipole moments tend to align with the field.
could arrange to form a capacitor of 2 mF . When summed overall the molecules, there is then a
(i) What are the calculations done by Shikhaj ? net dipole moment in the direction of the external
(ii) Can there be a potential difference between two field, i.e., the dielectric is polarised. The extent of
conductors of the same volume carrying equal polarisation depends on the relative strength of two
positive charge? factors. The dipole potential energy in the external
(iii) Is a dielectric a conductor? field tending to align the dipoles mutually opposite
with the field and thermal energy tending to disrupt
the alignment. There may be, in addition, the ‘induced
dipole moment’ effect as for non-polar molecules, but
generally the alignment effect is more important for
polar molecules. Thus in either case, whether polar or
non-polar, a dielectric develops a net dipole moment in
the presence of an external field. The dipole moment
per unit volume is called polarization.
Ans :
(i) Total potential difference across each row
= 1000 Volt
The fan’s speed goes up. To increase the fan speed,

you need to increase the capacitor value.
(iii) They control the voltage across the fan is
controlled by a capacitor, the voltage across
the fan determines the fan speed. Capacitive
regulators are energy efficient with linear speed
control, quiet operation without humming noises
and highly reliable than electronic type regulator.
175. The potential at any observation point P of a static
(i) What do you mean by dielectric polarization?
electric field is defined as the work done by the external
(ii) Calculate the polarisation vector of the material
agent (or negative of work done by electrostatic field)
which has 100 dipoles per unit volume in a volume
in slowly bringing a unit positive point charge from
of 2 units?
infinity to the observation point. Figure shows the
(iii) In which type of molecule positive and negative
potential variation along the line of charges. Two-
charges coincide with each other ?
point charges Q1 and Q2 lie along a line at a distance
Ans :
from each other.
(i) Dielectric polarization is the term given to
describe the behaviour of a material when an
external electric field is applied to it. It occurs
when a dipole moment is formed in an insulting
material because of an externally applied electric
field.
(ii) 50
(iii) Non polar, A molecule in which the centre of
mass of positive and negative charges collide with (i) At which of the points 1, 2 and 3 is the electric
each other is called a non-polar molecule. They field is zero?
normally have zero dipole moment. They have (ii) What is the nature of charge Q1 and Q2 ?
symmetrical shapes.
(iii) Which of the two charges Q1 and Q2 is greater in
174. In Akash’s classroom the fan above the teacher was magnitude?
running very slowly. Due to which his teacher was Ans :
sweating and was restless and tired. All his classmates (i) 3
wanted to rectify this. They called for an electrician
(ii) Positive and negative
who came and changed the capacitor only after which
(iii) Q1
the fan started running fast.
176. A dielectric slab is a substance which does not allow
the flow of charges through it but permits them to
exert electrostatic forces on one another. When a
dielectric slab is placed between the plates, the field
E0 polarises the dielectric. This induces charge - QP
on the upper surface and + QP on the lower surface
of the dielectric. These induced charges set up a field
EP inside the dielectric in the opposite direction of E0
as shown.
(i) What energy is stored in the capacitor and where?

(ii) Does capacitor affect fan speed?
(iii) How does a capacitor control fan speed?
Ans :
(i) Electrical energy in the dielectric of the capacitor.
(ii) When you increase the capacitance, the fan motor’s
voltage goes up, but the capacitor’s goes down.
(i) In a parallel plate capacitor, the capacitance

increases from 4μF to 80μF on introducing a
dielectric medium between the plates. What is the
dielectric constant of the medium?
(ii) A parallel plate capacitor with air between the
plates has a capacitance of 8 pF. The separation
between the plates is now reduced half and the
space between them is filled with a medium of
dielectric constant 5. Calculate the value of
capacitance of the capacitor in second case?
(iii) A parallel plate capacitor of capacitance 1 pF
has separation between the plates is d . When the
distance of separation becomes 2d and wax of
dielectric constant x is inserted in it the capacitance
becomes 2 pF. What is the value of x ?
Ans :
(i) 20, (ii) 80 μF, (iii) 4
***********
Page 118 Current Electricity Chap 3
CHAPTER 3
Current Electricity
SUMMARY V = IR
where, R = resistance of conductor
1. ELECTRIC CURRENT 4. FLOW OF ELECTRIC CHARGES IN METALLIC CONDUCTORS

It is defined as the rate of flow of electric charge In case of solid conductor, large number of free
through any cross-section of a conductor, i.e. electrons causes the strong current in them.
dq
I =c m In the case of a liquid conductor, movement of
dt positive and negative charged ions causes the electric
The direct rate of flow of electric charge through current.
any cross-section of a conductor is known as electric
current. 5. RESISTANCE OF A CONDUCTOR
q
I = = ne
t t 6since q = ne@ Mathematically, it is the ratio of potential difference
applied across the ends of conductor to the current
where, n = number of charged particles flowing through it.
constitute the current. R =V
I
2. CURRENT DENSITY SI unit is ohm ^Wh ,
It is the ratio of the current at a point in conductor Resistance can also be written as,
to the area of cross-section of the conductor at the
R = rL
point, i.e. A
J = I where, L = length of the conductor
A
A = area of cross-section
3. OHM’S LAW
and r = constant, known as resistivity of the
At constant temperature, the potential difference V
material
across the ends of a given metallic wire (conductor)
in an circuit (electric) is directly proportional to the It depends upon nature of the material.
current flowing through it.
6. EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON RESISTANCE
V ?I
For metals, resistance increases with rise in
The variation of current w.r.t. applied potential
temperature. For insulators and semiconductors,
difference is shown with the help of given graph.
resistance decreases with rise in temperature. For
alloy, temperature coefficient of resistance is small.
Temperature coefficient of resistance is given by,
a = R2 - R1
R1 ^t2 - t1h
7. DRIFT VELOCITY
It is defined as the average velocity with which the
free electrons move towards the positive end of a
Chap 3 Current Electricity Page 119
conductor under the influence of an external electric resistivity of conductor.

field applied. Electrical Conductivity is a property of the
vd = eE t material it sell white electrical Conductivity is a
m property of a particulars electrical component the
where, t = relaxation time unit of conductance of semen and it is the reciprocal
of the ohm. the unit of conduct unity are sometimes
E = electric field
given as ohms/ meter.
m = mass
and e = charge on electron
***********
8. RELATION BETWEEN DRIFT VELOCITY AND ELECTRIC
FIELD
It is given by,
I = neAvd
where, n = number density of free electrons
e = electronic charge
A = cross-sectional area
and vd = drift velocity of an electron
The ratio of drift velocity of electron and the applied
electric field is known as mobility.
qt
m = vd =
E m
Hence, SI unit is 6m2 s-1 V-1@ .
8.1 Relationship between Resistivity and Relaxation Time
r = m2
ne t
where, t = relaxation time
Specific resistance or resistivity r depends on the
material of conductor, not on the length and cross-
sectional area A, i.e. geometry of conductor.
8.2 Effect of Temperature on Resistivity

For metals, resistivity increases with increase in
temperature.
For alloys, resistivity is very large but has a weak
dependence on temperature.
9. CLASSIFICATION OF MATERIALS IN TERMS OF

CONDUCTIVITY
For insulators, electrical conductivity is very small
or nil. For conductors, electrical conductivity is very
high. For semiconductors, electrical conductivity lies
in between that of insulators and conductors.
10. CONDUCTANCE AND CONDUCTIVITY

Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance of
conductor. Conductivity is the reciprocal of the
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS 4. Beams of electrons and protons move parallel to each

other in the same direction. They
(a) attract each other.
1. A current of 0.8 A flows in a conductor of 40 W for 1
minute. The heat produced in the conductor will be (b) repel each other.
(a) 1445 J (b) 1536 J (c) neither attract nor repel.
(c) 1569 J (d) 1640 J (d) force of attraction or repulsion depends upon
speed of beams.
Ans : OD 2023
Ans : OD 2022
Time = 1 min = 60 sec The flow of positive charge is taken as the direction of
Current, I = 0.8 A current. So, here the currents are in opposite direction,
so they will repel each other.
Resistance, R = 40 W
Heat produced I2 Rt = ^0.8h2 # 40 # 60
5. Which element is used in electric heater?
= 1536 J (a) Copper (b) Platinum
Thus (b) is correct option. (c) Tungsten (d) Nichrome
2. A cell of emf E is connected across an external Ans : Foreign 2017
resistance R. When current I is drawn from the cell,
Nichrome is used in electric heater because of the
the potential difference across the electrodes of the
following reasons :
cell drops to V. The internal resistance ‘r’ of the cell is
1. Its melting point is high.
(a) b E - V l R (b) b E - V l 2. Its resistivity is large.
E R
3. It is not easily oxidised by the oxygen of the air
(c) b E - V l R (d) b E - V l R when heated.
I V
Ans : Delhi 2021 Thus (d) is correct option.
From ohm’s law, let the current in the circuit, 6. Kilowatt-hour (kWh) is the unit of.
(a) energy (b) power
i =V
R
(c) torque (d) force
PD. across the cell, E = V + it
Ans : OD 2015, Comp 2010
r = E-V The bigger unit of electric energy is kilowatt hour.
i
1 kW = 1000 W
= E-V
V/R
1 kWh = 3.6 # 106 J
= b E - V lR Thus (a) is correct option.
V
Thus (d) is correct option. 7. To increase sensitivity of a potentiometer, its
3. Pieces of copper and silicon are initially at room (a) area should be increased
temperature. Both are heated to temperature T. The (b) current should be decreased
conductivity of
(c) current should be increased
(a) both increases
(d) length should be increased
(b) both decreases
Ans : SQP 2009
(c) copper increases and silicon decreases
The sensitivity of potentiometer can be increased by
(d) copper decreases and silicon increases reducing the potential gradient. This can be done in
Ans : SQP 2023 two way-
Copper is a conductor and hence its conductivity 1. The sensitivity can be increased by increasing the
decreases with increase in temperature. Silicon is a length of the potentiometer wire.
semiconductor and hence its conductivity increases 2. For a potentiometer wire of fixed length, the
with increase in temperature. potential gradient can be decreased by reducing
Thus (d) is correct option. the current in the circuit with the help of rheostat.
8. The net charge on a current carrying conductor is Ans : OD 2011
(a) zero (b) constant The NIOSH states under dry conditions. The
resistance offered by the human body may be as high
(c) varying (d) negative as 10,000 ohms.
Ans : OD 2003 Thus (b) is correct option.
Number of protons in a current carrying conductor at
13. Electron-volt (eV) is the measure of
any instant is equal to the number of free electrons.
(a) charge (b) potential difference
Therefore, the net charge on a current carrying
conductor is zero. (c) current (d) energy
Thus (a) is correct option. Ans : Foreign 2016, OD 2015
Electron-volt (eV) is a unit of energy equal to
9. A steady current flows in a metallic conductor of non-
approximately 1.602 # 10-19 J . By definition it is the
uniform cross-section. Which of the following quantity
amount of energy gained by the charge of a single
is constant along the conductor?
electron moved across an electric potential difference
(a) current (b) drift speed
of one volt.
(c) current density (d) none of these Thus (d) is correct option.
Ans : Foreign 2015
14. Dimension of electromotive force (e.m.f.) is.
Current remains constant through a conductor of non- (a) ML2 T-2 (b) ML2 T-2 I-1
uniform cross-section, because of the steady state.
(c) MLT-2 (d) ML2 T-3 I-1
In this case, the charge entering at one section is equal
to the charge leaving at any other section. Ans : Delhi 2002
Thus (a) is correct option. We know that,

Work done (W )
10. The resistance of an incandescent lamp is Electromotive force (emf) = ...(1)
Charge (Q )
(a) greater when switched ON
Since, Work = force # displacement
(b) smaller when switched ON
Hence, Q = [M1 L1 T-2] # [L]
(c) greater when switched OFF
(d) same whether it is switched OFF or ON = [M1 L2 T-2]
Ans : SQP 2004 Charge, Q = It = [IT]

Resistance of an incandescent lamp depends upon From equation (1),
the nature of the material used, its dimensions and [M1 L2 T-2]
physical conditions. Therefore it does not effect e.m.f. = = [M1 L2 T-3 I-1]
[IT]
whether the lamp is switched OFF or ON. In other Thus (d) is correct option.
words, the resistance remains the same whether the
bulb is switched off or on. 15. Potential difference between two electrodes of a
galvanic cell in an open circuit, is known as
(a) current
11. Wheatstone’s bridge is used in measuring
(b) impedance
(a) High resistance
(c) voltage
(b) Low resistance
(d) electromotive force
(c) Both high and low resistance
Ans : OD 2003
(d) Potential difference In an open circuit, no current is drawn from the cell.
Ans : OD 2017 And the potential difference between two electrodes
Wheatstone bridge can be used for the measurement of a galvanic cell, in an open circuit, is known as
of low resistances only. electromotive force of the cell.
Thus (b) is correct option. Thus (d) is correct option.
12. The electrical resistance of a healthy man is 16. If voltage across a lamp increases by 2%, then increase
(a) 50, 000 W (b) 10, 000 W in its power will be
(a) 1% (b) 2%
(c) 1, 000 W (d) 10 W
(c) 3% (d) 4%
Ans : Delhi 2016

(a) Vd ? E (b) Vd ? E
Increase in voltage = 2% 2
(c) Vd ? E (d) Vd = constant
Power of lamp,
Ans : SQP 2001
2
P = V ? V2 The relation between drift velocity Vd and electric
R "
Therefore, if voltage increases by 2%, then increase in field (E) is given by,
"
its power will be 4%.
V = eEt
"
Thus (d) is correct option. m

17. Which of the following is a non-ohmic resistor? where, t = relaxation time
(a) copper (b) aluminium m = mass of electron
(c) diode-valve (d) none of these e = charge on electron
Ans : Foreign 2008
"
V = eEt
"
Hence,
A diode-valve is a non-ohmic resistor, because the m
relation between voltage and resulting current is not " "
Vd ? E
linear.
21. A current of 10 ampere flows in a wire for 10 sec.
18. The power of electric circuit is
If potential difference across the wire is 15 volt, the
(a) VR (b) V 2 R
work done will be
2
(c) V (d) V 2 RI (a) 150 (b) 75 J
R
Ans : OD 2015
(c) 1500 J (d) 750 J
Ans : OD 2012, SQP 2004
Electric power, P =W
t Current, I = 10 ampere
Here, W = VIt Time, t = 10 sec
P = VIt Potential difference, V = 15 volt
t
We know that,
P = VI ...(1)
V =W
According to the ohm’s law q
V = IR Hence, W = Vq = VIt [Since, q = It]
I =V ...(2) = 15 # 10 # 10 = 1500 J
R
From equation (1), we get
2 22. If the resistivity of an alloy is rland that of its
P = V #V = V constituent metal is r , then
R R
Thus (c) is correct option. (a) rl < r (b) rl > r
19. The algebraic sum of all currents meeting at a point (c) rl = r (d) none of these
in an electrical circuit is Ans : OD 2003
(a) zero (b) infinite Resistivity of alloy = rl
(c) positive (d) negative and Resistivity of its constituent metal = r
Ans : OD 2016, 2015 Resistivity of a metal increases, when it is converted
According to the Kirchhoff’s first law “In an electric into an alloy. Therefore,
circuit, the algebraic sum of current at any junction
rl > r
is zero or the sum of currents entering a junction is
equal to the sum of currents leaving that junction. Thus (b) is correct option.
Thus (a) is correct option. 23. If a current of 300 mA is flowing in a conductor, then
20. The drift velocity Vd and applied electric field E of a the number of electrons passed through the conductor
conductor are related as in 4 min is (Charge on an electron = 1.6 # 10-19 C )
(a) 4.5 # 1020 (b) 9.0 # 1020 (a) 120 W (b) 240 W
(c) 4.5 # 10 18
(d) 9.0 # 10 18
(c) 360 W (d) 480 W
Ans : SQP 2017 Ans : Foreign 2002
Current, I = 300 mA = 0.3 A Power of lamp, P = 40 W

Time, t = 4 min = 240 s Current, I =1A
3
And charge on an electron,
We know that resistance of lamp,
e = 1.6 # 10-19 C
R = P2 = 40
^3h
1 2
Charge passing through a conductor, I
q = I#t = 360 W
= 0.3 # 240 = 72 C Thus (c) is correct option.
Therefore no. of electrons passed through the 27. Absorbed electrical energy is
conductor, (a) Proportional to the potential difference
q 72 (b) Inversely proportional to the potential difference
n = =
e 1.6 # 10-19
(c) Proportional to the square of the potential
20
= 4.5 # 10 difference
Thus (a) is correct option. (d) None of these
24. An energy source will supply a constant current into Ans : OD 2017
the load, if its internal resistance is Electrical power (P) in a circuit is the rate at which
(a) zero energy is absorbed or produced with in a circuit.
(b) equal to load resistance Electrical power (P) is given by
2
(c) very large than load resistance P =V
R
(d) non-zero but less than load resistance
Here, V = Potential difference
Ans : OD 2009
We know that current in the circuit, R = Resistance
I = E Hence, P ? V2
R+r
Therefore an energy source will supply a constant
If the length of a conductor is halved, then its
current equal to E into the load if its internal
28.
R conductance will be
resistance r is zero. (a) halved (b) doubled
Thus (a) is correct option. (c) quadrupled (d) unchanged
25. The internal resistance of a cell is the actual resistance Ans : Foreign 2013
of
Initial length, l1 = l
(a) electrodes of the cell
(b) vessel of the cell Final length, l2 = l
2
(c) material used in the cell We know that conductance of the conductor,
(d) electrolyte used in the cell
s =A ?1
Ans : Delhi 2012, Comp 2010 rl l
Resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell, when s l l / 2
Therefore, 1
= 2 = =1
electric current flows from negative terminal to s2 l1 l 2
positive terminal through it is known as internal s 2 = 2s 1
resistance of the cell. And it is denoted by r .
Thus conductance of conductor will be doubled.
26. What is the resistance of a 40 W lamp which is lighted
29. The current flowing through a lamp, marked as 60 W
as full brilliance by a current of 1 A? and 240 V is
3
(a) 0.25 A (b) 1 A (c) resistance will be halved and specific resistance
(c) 2.5 A (d) 5 A will be doubled.
Ans : SQP 2009

(d) resistance will be halved and specific resistance
will remain unchanged.
Power of lamp, P = 60 W
Voltage of lamp, V = 240 Volt
Initial resistance, R1 = R
We know that current flowing through the lamp,
Final length of wire, l2 = 2l1
I = P = 60 = 0.25 A Final radius of wire, r2 = 2r1
V 240
Thus (a) is correct option. Resistance of the wire of iron,
30. The voltage V and current I graphs for a conductor R = r l = r l 2 ? l2
A pr r
at two different temperatures T1 and T2 are shown in
the figure. The relation between T1 and T2 is Therefore, R 1 l
= 1 #a 2k r 2
R2 l2 r1
Here, l1 = initial length of wire
R2 = final resistance of the wire of iron
r1 = initial radius of wire
= l1 # b 2r1 l
2
2l1 r1
1
= #4 = 2
2
R
R2 = 1 = R
2 2
Specific resistance of a wire depends upon nature
(a) T1 > T2 (b) T1 . T2 of the material of wire and is independent of the
dimensions of the wire. Therefore specific resistance
(c) T1 = T2 (d) T1 < T2 of the wire remain unchanged.
Ans : OD 2008 Thus (d) is correct option.
Ohm’s law that resistance of a conductor, 32. A battery of 12 V and internal resistance 0.5 W is
R =V connected across a variable resistance R . The value
I of R , for which the power delivered is maximum is
From given figure we get that V is the slope of the equal to
I
V - I graph. (a) 0.25 W (b) 0.5 W
V V
Since, bI l >bI l (c) 1.2 W (d) 2.4 W
1 2
Ans : Foreign 2006
Therefore, R1 > R2 ...(1)
Given,
Resistance at a temperature T ,
Voltage of battery, V = 12 Volt
R = R0 (1 + aT )
Internal resistance, r = 0.5 W
or, R ?T ...(2) and variable resistance = R
From equation (1) and (2), we get For maximum power, the value of variable resistance
T1 > T2 is equal to the internal resistance of the battery,
Thus (a) is correct option. i.e., R = r = 0.5 W
31. The electric resistance of a certain wire of iron is R . If Thus (b) is correct option.
its length and radius are both doubled, then its 33. Internal resistance of a cell of e.m.f. 12 V is 0.05 W . It
(a) both resistance and specific resistance will remain is connected to an unknown resistance. Voltage across
unchanged. the cell, when a current of 60 A is drawn from it, is
(b) resistance will be doubled and specific resistance (a) 15 V (b) 12 V
will be halved. (c) 9 V (d) 6 V
Ans : SQP 2011

Resistance of bulb,
E.m.f. of cell, E = 12 Volt 2 ^200h2
R =V = = 400 W
Internal resistance of cell, r = 0.05 W P 100
Therefore, actual power consumption,
Current drawn from the cell, I = 60 A
Voltage across the cell, ^VS h2 ^160h2
P = = = 64 W
R 400
V = E - Ir
= 12 - (60 # 0.05) 36. Two cells of emf e 1 and e 2 , internal resistance r1 and
= 12 - 3 r2 , connected in parallel. The equivalent emf of the
combination is
= 9 Volt
Thus (c) is correct option. (a) e 1 r1 + e 2 r2 (b) e 1 r2 + e 2 r1
r1 + r2 r1 + r2
34. The variation of voltage V and current I in a conductor (c) e 1 # e 2 (d) e 1 + e 2
is given below. The resistance of the conductor is 2
Potential difference between the terminal of first cell,

V = VB - VB = e 1 - I1 r1
1 2
I1 = e 1 - V ...(1)
r1
(a) 1 W (b) 2 W
(c) 3 W (d) 4 W Similarly, I2 = e 2 - V ...(2)
r2
Ans : Foreign 2010 I = I1 + I2
V - I graph for the given conductor is a straight
line. Thus it obeys Ohm’s law. We find from the = e1 - V + e 2 - V
r1 r2
given graph that voltage is 6 V , when current in the
conductor is 3 A. = a e1 + e 2 k - Vb 1 + 1 l
r1 r2 r1 r2
Therefore, resistance of conductor,
I = b e 1 r2 + e 2 r1 l - V b r1 + r2 l
r1 + r2 r1 r2
R =V = 6 = 2W
I 3
V b r1 + r2 l = e 1 r2 + e 2 r1 - I
Thus (b) is correct option. r1 r2 r1 r2
35. A 100 W, 200 V bulb is connected to a 160 volts V = 1 2 + e 2 r1 - I r1 r2

e r ...(1)
r1 + r2 r1 + r2
supply. The actual power consumption would be
Now V = Eeq - Ireq ...(2)
(a) 64 W (b) 80 W
After comparing equation. (1) and (2), we get
(c) 100 W (d) 125 W
Ans : Eeq = e 1 r2 + e 2 r1
OD 2011 r1 + r2
Power of bulb, P = 100 W Thus (b) is correct option.
Voltage of bulb, V = 200 Volt 37. Which of the following set up can be used to verify
the Ohm’s law?
Supply voltage, VS = 160 Volt
Ans :
Voltmeter is a galvanometer with high resistance. It
measures potential drop across any part of an electrical
circuit. It is connected in parallel so that it does not
draw any current itself (due to high resistance) and
does not affect net resistance of the circuit.
39. Assertion : An electric bulb becomes dim, when the

electric heater in parallel circuit is switched on.
Reason : Dimness decreases after sometime.
Ans :
The electric power of a heater is more than that of a
bulb. As P ? 1 , the resistance of heater is less than
R
that of the electric bulb. When a heater connected
in parallel to the bulb is switched on, it draws more
Ans : Foreign 2013 current due to its lesser resistance, consequently, the
We know that Ohm’s law gives the resistance offered current through the bulb decreases and so it becomes
by a conductor by measuring steady current I flowing dim.
through the conductor and voltage drop across the When the heater coil becomes sufficient hot, its
ends of the conductor. resistance becomes more and hence it draws a little
We also know that ammeter is always connected in lesser current. Consequently the current through the
series with the cell to measure current flowing through electric bulb recovers.
the conductor and voltmeter is always connected in Thus (b) is correct option.
parallel to the cell to measure voltage drop across the
conductor. Therefore, option (a) is used to verify the 40. Assertion : Ohm’s law is applicable for all conducting
Ohm’s law. elements.
Thus (a) is correct option. Reason : Ohm’s law is a fundamental law.

38. Assertion : Voltmeter is connected in parallel with (d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
the circuit.
Ans :
Reason : Resistance of a voltmeter is very large.
A conducting device obeys ohm’s law when the
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and resistance of device is independent of the magnitude
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion. and polarity of the applied potential difference which
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but happens in metallic conductors. Reason is false as
Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion. ohm’s law is not true for non-ohmic conductors such
(c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. as junction diodes etc.
41. Assertion : In a simple battery circuit, the point of the 44. Assertion : Kirchhoff’s junction rule follows from
lowest potential is negative terminal of the battery. conservation of charge.
Reason : The current flows towards the point of the Reason : Kirchhoff’s loop rule follows from conservation
higher potential, as it does in such a circuit from the of momentum.
negative to the positive terminal. (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion. (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion.
Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion. (c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
Ans :
Ans : Kirchhoff’s loop rule follows from conservation of
Positive terminal of a battery is point of highest energy.
potential and current flows from highest to lowest Thus (c) is correct option.
potential i.e. from positive to negative potential.
45. Assertion : When current through a bulb decreases by
0.5%, the glow of bulb decreases by 1%.
42. Assertion : Long distance power transmission is done Reason : Glow (Power) which is directly proportional
at high voltage. to square of current.
Reason : At high voltage supply power losses are less. (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion. (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but
Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion. (c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. (d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
(d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. Ans :
Ans : Glow = Power (P) = I 2 R
Power loss = i 2 R = b P l R
2
dP = 2 dI
V Hence,
P bI l
[P = Transmitted power]
= 2 # 0.5 = 1%
43. Assertion : In a simple battery circuit, the point of 46. Assertion : Free electrons always keep on moving in
the lowest potential is positive terminal of the battery. a conductor even then no magnetic force act on them
Reason : The current flows towards the point of the in magnetic field unless a current is passed through it.
higher potential, as it does in such a circuit from the Reason : The average velocity of free electron is zero.
negative to the positive terminal. (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
Ans :
Ans : In the absence of the electric current, the free electrons
Positive terminal of the battery is point of highest in a conductor are in a state of random motion, like
potential and current flows from highest to lowest molecule in a gas. Their average velocity is zero. i.e.
potential i.e. from positive to negative potential. they do not have any net velocity in a direction.
Thus (d) is correct option. As a result, there is no net magnetic force on the
free electrons in the magnetic field. On passing the 49. Assertion : Bending a wire does not effect electrical
current, the free electrons acquire drift velocity in a resistance.
definite direction, hence magnetic force acts on them, Reason : Resistance of wire is proportional of
unless the field has no perpendicular component. resistivity of material.
Thus (a) is correct option. (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
47. Assertion : The electric bulbs glows immediately
when switch is on. (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but
Reason : The drift velocity of electrons in a metallic Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion.
wire is very high. (c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and (d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion. Ans :
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Resistance wire R = Ar l , where r is resistivity of
Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion. material which does not depend on the geometry
(c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. of wire. Since when wire is bent resistivity, length
(d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. and area of cross-section do not change, therefore
resistance of wire also remain same.
Ans :
In a conductor there are large number of free electrons.
When we close the circuit, the electric field is
established instantly with the speed of electromagnetic
wave which cause electron drift at every portion of
the circuit. Due to which the current is set up in the
entire circuit instantly. The current which is set up 50. The charging current for a capacitor is 0.25 A. What
does not wait for the electrons flow from one end of is the displacement current across its plates?
the conductor to the another end. It is due to this Ans : Delhi 2019
reason, the electric bulb glows immediately when The displacement current is equal to the charging
switch is on. current. So, displacement current is 0.25 A.
51. Two wires one of copper and other of manganin
48. Assertion : The current density Jv at any point in have same resistance and equal length. Which wire is
ohmic resistor is in direction of electric field Ev at the thicker and why?
point. Ans : OD 2014
Reason : A point charge when released from rest in rl

Manganin wire is thicker because R = . As r
a region having only electrostatic field always moves A
increases, R also increases.
along electric lines of force.
52. Define the term ‘relaxation time’ in a conductor
Ans : Foreign 2016, Comp 2004
The average time between successive collisions of
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but electrons in a conductor is known as relaxation time.
53. Write the expression for the drift velocity of charge
(c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. carriers in a conductor of length L across which a
(d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. potential difference V is applied.
Ans : Ans : SQP 2017
From relation Jv = sEv , the current density Jv at any Drift velocity, vd = eV t

point in ohmic resistor is in direction of electric field mL
Ev at that point. In space having non-uniform electric 54. How does the random motion of free electrons in a
field, charges released from rest may not move along conductor get affected when a potential difference is
ELOF. Hence Assertion is correct while Reason is applied across the ends?
incorrect. Ans : Foreign 2019
Thus (c) is correct option. They start drifting in the same direction.
55. A resistance R is connected across a cell of emf E and Cr3+ ions occupy random locations relative to each
internal resistance r . A potentiometer now measures other. An electron, therefore, passes through a very
the potential difference between the terminals of the random medium and is very frequently deflected.
cell as V . Write the expression for r in terms of E , So there is a small relaxation time and hence large
V and R . resistivity. In general, alloys have more resistivity
Ans : OD 2011 than that of their constituent metals.
E
r = b - I lR 61. Define potential gradient. Give its units.
V Ans : OD 2015
56. Nichrome and Copper wires of same length and same The potential drop unit length of the potentiometer
radius are connected in series. Current/ is passed wire is known as potential gradient. It is given by
through them. Which wire gets heated up more?
Justify your answer. k =V
l
Ans : Delhi 2017
SI unit of potential gradient = Vm-1
Nichrome, since its resistance is high.
Practical unit of potential gradient = V cm-1
57. The emf of a cell is always greater than its terminal
voltage. Why? Give reason. 62. Why is internal resistance of a secondary cell low?
Ans : Comp 2018, SQP 2007
Ans : Delhi 2009
The emf of a cell is greater than its terminal voltage The secondary cell with provide higher value of
because there is some potential drop across the cell maximum current so the value of internal resistance
due to its small internal resistance. of secondary cell is lower than primary cell.
58. Define electric current. 63. A cell of emf E and internal resistance r draws a
current I . Write the relation between terminal voltage
Ans : Foreign 2015
V in terms of E , I and r .
The flow of electric charges through a conductor
constitutes electric current. Quantitatively, electric Ans : SQP 2009
current across an area held perpendicular to the

direction of flow of charge is defined as the amount of
charge across that area per unit time.
For a steady flow of charge,
Q
I = The terminal voltage V 1 E , so V = E - Ir
t
If the rate of flow of charge varies with time, 64. Define the current sensitivity of a galvanometer.
TQ dQ Write its SI unit.
Then, I = lim = Ans :
Tt " 0 Tt dt Foreign 2017
59. What is electromotive force? Ratio of deflection produced in the galvanometer

and the current flowing through it is called current
Ans : OD 2017
sensitivity.
The emf of a source may be defined as the work done
by the source in taking a unit positive charge from Current sensitivity, Si = q
I
its lower potential terminal to the higher potential
SI unit of current sensitivity Si is division/ampere or
terminal. Or, it is the energy supplied by the source in
radian/ampere.
taking a unit positive charge once round the complete
circuit. It is equal to the terminal p.d. measured in 65. Plot a graph showing variation of current versus
open circuit. voltage for the material GaAs.
Ans : OD 2020
e.m.f. = Work done
Ch arg e The variation of electric current with applied voltage
W for GaAs is as shown.
or e =
q
60. Alloys of metals have greater resistivity than their
constituent metals. Why?
Ans : Foreign 2006
In an alloy, like nichrome (Ni – Cr alloy), Ni2+ and

Ans : Comp 2021
66. The plot at the variation of potential difference across

a combination of three identical cells in series versus
current is shown below. What is the emf and internal
resistance of each cell?
Eeq.
I =
R + req.
Given, internal resistance, r = 0
E
I = eq.
R
68. A 10 V battery of negligible internal assistance is

connected across a 200 V battery and a resistance
of 38 W as shown in the figure. Find the value of the
current circuit.
Ans : Foreign 2018
For a circuit
V = Eeq - Ireq ...(1)
From graph, when I = OA , when V = 6V and when
I = IA , then V = OV . Putting V = 6V and I = OA
in eq. (1)
6 = Eeq - 0 $ req
Eeq = 6V
Since, the positive terminal of the batteries are
And when, I = IA connected together, so the equivalent emf of the
and V = OV batteries
O = 6 - I $ req E = 200 - 10 = 190 Volt
Hence, the current in circuit,
req = 6 W
I = E = 190 = 5A
R 38
67. Two identical cells, each of emf E , having negligible
69. Define conductivity of a material. Give its SI unit.
internal resistance, are connected in parallel with each
other access an external resistance R . What is the Ans : SQP 2010
current through this resistance? The reciprocal of the resistivity of a material is called
its conductivity and is denoted by s . Thus,
Conductivity = 1 74. What do you mean by sensitivity of a Wheatstone

Resistivity bridge? On what factors does it depend?
or s =1 Ans : SQP 2017
r
A Wheatstone bridge is said to be sensitive if it shows
The SI unit of conductivity is ohm-1 m-1 or ohm m-1 a large deflection in the galvanometer for a small
or Sm-1 . change of resistance in the resistance arm.
The sensitivity of the Wheatstone bridge depends on
70. Does the emf represent a force of potential energy two factors:
or work done per unit charge or potential difference?
1. Relative magnitudes of the resistances in the four
Does emf have electrostatic origin? arms of the bridge. The bridge is most sensitive
Ans : Delhi 2020 when all the four resistances are of the same
The term emf is a misnomer. Literally, emf means order.
the force that pushes the electrons in a circuit. Since 2. Relative positions of battery and galvanometer.
emf does not have simple electrostatic origin, so the
75. Define mobility of a charge carrier. What is its relation
concept of potential is not strictly applicable. It has
with relaxation time?
the nature of work done per unit charge and that of
force. Ans : Delhi 2011
It is defined as how fast electron moves from one place

71. Define the term conductivity of a conductor. On what to another.
factors does it depends? It is also defined as drift velocity per unit electric
Ans : Delhi 2017 field. The SI unit of mobility is m2 /V - sec and it is
Conductivity of a conductor is defined as the current denoted as m .
flowing per unit area per unit electric field applied. vd
It denotes as s . So, conductivity ^sh = EJ . It depends m =
E
upon number density, i.e., nature of material and also
relaxation time, i.e., temperature. = eEt = et
mE m
72. Write the expression for the resistivity of the conductor m ?t
and explain each term of the expression. 76. Define electrical conductivity of a conductor and give
Ans : Delhi 2011, OD 2009 its SI unit.
The resistances of conductor is directly proportional Ans : SQP 2007
to the length l of the conductor and inversely The reciprocal of resistivity ^ r h of a material is called
proportional to the area of the cross-section, A of the its electrical conductivity ^sh , i.e.,
conductor i.e.,
s =1
R ? l r
A
rl 77. A wire of resistivity r is stretched to double its length.
R = What will be its new resistivity?
A
RA Ans : Delhi 2014
r =
l Resistivity of wire is given by,
where, r = resistivity of conductor r = RA ...(1)
l
R = resistance of conductor
Specific resistance or resistivity of the conductor
73. What are the advantage of a Wheatstone bridge depends upon the nature of the material and
method of measuring resistance over other methods? temperature of the conductor. So its remains same.
Ans : Comp 2010 78. Why alloys like constantan or manganin are used for
1. It is a null method, hence the result is free from making standard resistors?
the effect of extra resistances (cell resistances) of Ans : OD 2017
the circuit. Use of alloys like constantan or manganin in making
2. Being null method, it is easier to detect a small standard resistance coils. This is because of the
change in deflection than to read a deflection following reasons :
directly. 1. These alloys have high value of resistivity.
2. They have very small temperature coefficient. So Ans : OD 2023
their resistance does not change appreciably even Current density is the amount of current travelling
for several degrees rise of temperature. per unit cross-section area is known as current density
3. They are least affected by atmospheric conditions and expressed in ampere per square meter.
like air, moisture, etc. Relaxation time is the time gap between two successive
4. Their contact potential with copper is small. electron collisions in a conductor. The relationship
between the relaxation time (t) and drift velocity ^vd h
79. What is the advantage of using thick metallic strips to
is given below
join wires in a potentiometer?
Ans : OD 2019 vd = - e b Et l
m
The metal strips have low resistance and need not be Derivation : Using ohm’s law, we have
counted in the potentiometer length l of the null point.
One measures only their lengths along the straight V = IR
segments (of length 1 metre each). This is easily done V =R
with the help of centimetre rulings or meter ruler and I
leads, to accurate measurements. Drift velocity is given by,
80. Graph showing the variation of current versus voltage vd = eE t

m
to a material GaAs is shown in the figure. Identify
But, electric field, E = V
the region of l
vd = eV t
ml
Also, we have I = neAvd
I = Ane b eV t l
ml
2
= b Ane t l V
ml
i.e. V = ml = R
I Ane2 t
Comparing this equation with
R =r1
A
We can deduce an expression for resistivity r which
(i) negative resistance.
is given by
(ii) where Ohm’s law is obeyed ?
Ans : Delhi 2020 r = m2e
he t
(i) In region DE , material GaAs (Gailium Arsenide) where, h is the number density of charge carriers and
others negative resistance, because slope t is the relaxation time.
3V 1 0 .
3I 82. Define the term resistance. Give physical explanation
(ii) The region BC , approximately passes through of the opposition by a conductor to the flow of current
the origin, (or current also increases with the through it.
increase of voltage). Hence, it follows Ohm’s law Ans : SQP 2015, Comp 2002
and in this region 3 V 2 0 . Resistance of a conductor is the property by virtue
3I
of which it opposes the flow of current through it.
Collisions are the basic cause of resistance. When a
potential difference is applied across a conductor,
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS its free electrons get accelerated. On their way, they
frequently collide with the positive metal ions i.e.,
81. Define current density and relaxation time. Derive an their motion is opposed and this opposition to the flow
expression for resistivity of a conductor in terms of of electrons is called resistance. Larger the number of
number density of charge carriers in the conductor collisions per second, smaller is the relaxation time t ,
and relaxation time. and larger will be the resistivity (r = m/ne2 t).
83. Give some important points of differences between 85. Define current density. Is it a scalar or vector quantity?
electromotive force and potential difference. Give its SI unit.
Ans : Comp 2021 Ans : Delhi 2016
Differences between electromotive force and potential It is the amount of charge flowing per second per
difference are as follows: unit area normal to the flow of charge. It is a vector
quantity having the same direction as that of the
Electromotive Force Potential Difference motion of the positive charge.
1. It is the work done by It is the amount of For normal flow of charge,
a source in taking a work done in taking a q/t
unit charge once round unit charge form one j = = I
A A
the complete circuit. point of a circuit to " "
another. In general, I = jA cos q = j $ A
2. It is equal to the Potential difference SI unit of current density = Am-2 .
maximum potential may exist between any
86. What are the factors on which resistance of a
difference between two points of a closed
conductor depends? Give the corresponding relation.
the two terminals of a circuit.
source when it is in an Ans : OD 2020
open circuit. At a constant temperature, the resistance of a

conductor depends on the following factors:
3. It exists even when the It exists only when the
circuit is not closed. circuit is closed. 1. Length : The resistance R of a conductor is
directly proportional to its length i.e., R ? l .
4. It is a cause. When emf It is an effect. 2. Area of cross-section : The resistance R of a
is applied in a circuit, uniform conductor is inversely proportional to its
potential difference is area of cross-section A, i.e., R ? A1 .
caused.
3. Nature of the material : The resistance of a
5. It is equal to the Every circuit conductor also depends on the nature of its
sum of potential component has its own material.
differences across all potential difference Combining the above factors, we get,
the components of a across its ends.
circuit including the R ?l
A
p.d. required to send
current through the R =rl
A
cell itself.
Where r is the constant of proportionality called
6. It is larger than the It is always less than resistivity or specific resistance of the material of
p.d. across any circuit the emf. the conductor. It depends on the nature of the
element. material of the conductor and on the physical
conditions like temperature and pressure but it is
84. How can we classify solids on the basis of their independent of its size or shape.
resistivity values?
87. Define mobility of a charge carrier. Express it in terms
Ans : Delhi 2018
of relaxation time. Give its SI and practical units.
On the basis of their resistivity values, solids can be
classified into following three categories :
The mobility of a charge carrier is the magnitude of
1. Conductors : Metals have low resistivities in the
range of 10-8 Wm to 10-6 Wm . These are known as the drift velocity acquired per limit electric field. It is
good conductors of electricity. given by
2. Insulators : These are the substances which have m = vd
large resistivities, more than 10 4 Wm . Insulators E
like glass and rubber have resistivities in the qEt
As drift velocity, vd =
range 1014 to 1016 Wm . m
3. Semiconductors : These are the substances Hence, m = vd = q t
having resistivities between those of conductors E m
and insulators i.e., between 10-6 Wm to 10 4 Wm . For an electron, m e = et e
Germanium and silicon are typical semiconductors. me
For a hole, m h = et h an electric current through a circuit.

mh 2
Electric power, P = W = VI = I2 R = V
SI unit of mobility = m2 V-1 S-1 or ms-1 N-1 C t R
Practical unit of mobility = cm2 V-1 s-1 SI unit of power is watt :
The power of an appliance is one watt if one ampere
88. What is internal resistance of a cell? On what factors
of current flows through it on applying a potential
does it depend?
difference of 1 volt across it.
Ans : OD 2016
1 joule
The resistance offered by the electrolyte of a cell to 1 watt =
1 second
the flow of current between its electrodes is called
1 joule 1 coulomb
internal resistance of the cell. =
1 coulomb # 1 second
Factors on which internal resistance of a cell depends :
= 1volt # 1 ampere
1. Nature of the electrolyte.
2. It is directly proportional to the concentration of 1 W = 1Js-1 = 1 VA
the electrolyte. 1 kilowatt (kW) = 1000 W
3. It is directly proportional to the distance between Electric Energy :
the two electrodes.
It is the total work done in maintaining an electric
4. It varies inversely as the common area of the current in an electric circuit for a given time.
electrodes immersed in the electrolyte.
5. It increases with the decrease in temperature of Electric energy = Electric power # time
the electrolyte. W = Pt = VI t joule = I2 Rt joule
89. Express Ohm’s law in vector form. Units of Electric Energy:
Ans : OD 2019 The commercial unit of electric energy is kilowatt-
hour (kWh) or Board of Trade (B.O.T.) unit. It is the
Vector form of Ohm’s Law : If E is the magnitude
electric energy consumed by an appliance of power
of electric field in a conductor of length l , then the
1000 watt in one hour.
potential difference across its end is,
1 kWh = 1000 Wh
V = El
Also from Ohm’s law, we can write = 1000 W # 3600 s
Irl = 6 # 106 J
V = IR =
A Another unit of electric energy is watt hour.
Hence, El = I rl 1 watt hour = 1 W # 1 H
A
E = jr = 3.6 # 103 J
"
As the direction of current density j is same as that 91. Why is the use of a potentiometer preferred over that
" of a voltmeter for measurement of emf of a cell?
of electric field E , we can write the above equation as,
" "
or
E = rj
In what respect is the potentiometer better than a
"
j = sE
"
moving coil voltmeter in comparing the emfs of two
cells.
The above equation is the vector form of Ohm’s law.
It is equivalent to the scalar form, Ans : OD 2013, Comp 2002
Potentiometer is a null method device. No current

V = RI
is draw from the cell at null point, thus there is no
90. Define the terms electric energy and electric power. potential drop due to the internal resistance of the
Give their units. cell. So it measures the p.d. in an open circuit. But
Ans : Delhi 2010 voltmeter requires a small current for its operation. So
Electric Power : voltmeter measures the p.d. in a closed circuit which
is less than the actual emf of the cell.
It is the rate at which an electric appliance converts
energy into other forms of energy. Or, it is the rate at 92. Three resistances R1 , R2 and R3 are connected in
which work is done by a source of emf in maintaining series. Find their equivalent resistance.
Ans : SQP 2013

94. What do you mean by heating effect of current?
Explain its cause.
Ans : Delhi 2019
The phenomenon of the production of heat in a
resistor by the flow of an electric current through it is
called heating effect of current or joule heating.
Cause of heating effect of current : When a potential
difference is applied across the ends of a conductor,
its free electrons get accelerated in the opposite
direction of the applied field. But the speed of the
Figure shows three resistances R1 , R2 and R3 electrons does not increase beyond a constant drift
connected in series. When a potential difference V is speed. This is because during the course of their
applied across the combination, the same current I motion, the electrons collide frequently with the
flows through each resistance. positive metal ions. The kinetic energy gained by
By Ohm’s law, the potential drops across the three the electrons during the intervals of free acceleration
resistances are, between collisions is transferred to the metal ions at
the time of collision. The metal ions begin to vibrate
V1 = IR1 about their mean positions more and more violently.
V2 = IR2 The average kinetic energy of the ions increases. This
increases the temperature of the conductor. Thus the
V3 = IR3
conductor gets heated due to the flow of current.
If Rs is the equivalent resistance of the series
95. Using theory of drift velocity, express Ohm’s law.
combination then we must have,
V = IRs
When a potential difference V is applied across a
But, V = V1 + V2 + V3 conductor of length l , the drift velocity in terms of
V is given by
IRs = IR1 + IR2 + IR3
Rs = R1 + R2 + R3 vd = eEt = eVt bE = l l
V
m ml
Thus when a number of resistances are connected in If the area of cross-section of the conductor is A
series, their equivalent resistance is equal to the sum and the number of electrons per unit volume or the
of the individual resistances. electron density of the conductor is n , then the current
93. What do you mean by the sensitivity of a through the conductor will be
potentiometer? How can we increase the sensitivity of I = enAvd = enA $ eVt
a potentiometer? ml
Ans : Foreign 2015 or, V = 2 ml
I ne tA
A potentiometer is sensitive if :
At a fixed temperature, the quantities m, l, n, e, t and
1. It is capable of measuring very small potential
A, all have constant values for a given conductor.
differences.
Therefore,
2. It is shows a significant change in balancing length
for a small change in the potential difference being V = a constant, R
I
measured.
This proves Ohm’s law for a conductor.
The sensitivity of a potentiometer depends on
the potential gradient along its wire. Smaller the 96. Plot a graph showing the variation of resistance of a
potential gradient, greater will be the sensitivity of conducting wire as a function of its radius, keeping
the potentiometer. the length of the wire and its temperature as constant.
The sensitivity of a potentiometer can be increased Ans : Foreign 2015
by reducing the potential gradient. This can be done Resistance of a conductor of length l and radius r is
in two ways : given by
1. By increasing the length of the potentiometer wire. R =r l2
2. By reducing the current in the circuit with the pr
help of a rheostat. Hence, R ? 2 1
r
V = E - ir
-1 -1
SI unit of conductivity is mho - m (or siemen ). and V = iR
97. Sketch a graph showing the variation of resistivity of Required graph is as shown in figure (b)
carbon with temperature.
or
Plot a graph showing temperature dependence of
resistivity for a typical semiconductor. How is this
behaviour explained?
Ans : Comp 2008
The resistivity of a typical semiconductor (carbon)

decreases with increase a temperature. The graph is
shown in figure.
When circuit is open (i.e., i = 0),

then E =V
99. Explain the variation of conductivity with temperature
for (i) a metallic conductor and (ii) ionic conductors.
Ans : OD 2019, SQP 2004
(i) Conductivity of a metallic conductor
2
s = 1 = ne t
P m
In semiconductor the number density of free electrons with raise of temperature, the collision of electrons
n increases with increase in temperature T and with fixed lattice ions/atoms increases so that
consequently the relaxation period decreases. But relaxation time ^t h decreases. Consequently,
the effect of increase in h has higher impact than the conductivity of metals decreases with rise of
decrease of t . So, resistivity decreases with increase temperature.
in temperature.
98. A cell of emf 'E ' and internal resistance 'r ' is
connected across a variable resistor 'R ' Plot a graph
showing the variation of terminal potential 'V ' with
resistance R .
Predict from the graph the condition under which 'V '
becomes equal to 'E ' .
Ans : Comp 2009
From figure (a)

(ii) Conductivity of ionic conductor increases with Where rT is the resistivity at a temperature T and rO
increase of temperature because with increase is the same at a reference temperature TO $ a is called
of temperature, the ionic bonds break releasing the temperature co-efficient of resistivity.
positive and negative ions which are charge Relation (1) implies that a graph of rT plotted
carriers in ionic conductors. against T would be a straight line. At temperatures
100. Define the term current density of a metallic much lower than 0cC, the graph, however, deviates
conductor. Deduce the relation connecting current considerably from a straight line.
density (J) and the conductivity s of the conductor,
when an electric field E , is applied to it.
Ans : SQP 2010
Current density at a point in a conductor is defined
as the amount of current flowing per unit area of the
conductor around that point provided the area is held
in a direction normal to the current,
J = I
A
Current density is a vector quantity. Its direction is
the direction of motion of positive charge. The unit of
current density is ampere/metre2 or 6Am-2@ .
Relation between J , s and E
I = nAevd = nA $ e b eE t l Resistivity r 1 of metallic conductor as a function of
m temperature.
2
= nAe te 102. State Kirchhoff’s rules of current distribution in an
m
electrical network.
I = ne2 tE or
A m
State Kirchhoff’s rules. Explain briefly how these
J = I E ;since J = A and r = ne2 t E
I m
rules are justified.
r
Hence, I = sE <since s = 1r F Junction rule in an electric circuit, the algebraic sum
of currents in any junction is zero.
101. Define resistivity of a conductor. Plot a graph
At any junction, the sum of the currents entering the
showing the variation of resistivity with temperature
junction is equal to the sum of currents leaving the
for a metallic conductor. How does one explain such a
junction.
behaviour, using the mathematical expression of the
resistivity of a material. SI = 0
Ans : SQP 2006 Justification : This rule is based on the law of
conservation of charge.
We know that, R =rl
A Loop rule : The algebraic sum of charges in potential
If l = 1, A = 1 around any closed loop involving resistors and cells in
the loop must be zero.
r =R
S3V = 0
Thus, resistivity of a material is numerically equal to
the resistance of the conductor having unit length and Justification : This rule is based on the law of
unit cross-sectional area. conservation of energy.
The resistivity of a material is found to the dependent 103. (i) Derive an expression for drift velocity of free
on the temperature. Different materials do not exhibit electrons.
the same dependence on temperature. Over a limited (ii) How does drift velocity of electrons in a metallic
range of temperatures that is not too large, the conductor vary with increase in temperature?
resistivity of a metallic conductor is approximately Explain.
given by, Ans : Foreign 2016
rT = rO 61 + a ^T - TO h@ ...(1) (i) When a potential difference is applied across a
conductor, an electric field is produced and free Though the free electrons in the conductor experience
electrons are acted upon an electric force (Fe). Due " "
a force F = - eE and thus, have an acceleration a
"
to this, electrons accelerate and keep colliding "
= - e E , the drift with constant velocity vd in the

"
with each other and acquire a constant (average)
m
velocity vd called drift velocity.
direction opposite to E .
Electric force on electron Fe = - eE Current I in the conductor can be written in terms of
If m is the mass of electron, then its acceleration drift velocity of electrons as
"
I = ne2 Avd ...(1)
a = F = - eE
m m
where vd = eE $ t ...(2)
Now, v = u + at m
Here, t is called the relaxation time. It is the average
Here, u = 0 t = t (relaxation time),
time interval between two successive collisions of
" "
v = vd electrons with an atom or an ion.
" From equations (1) and (2),
vd = 0 - eE t
"
2
m I = ne AE $ t
m
" e
vd = - Et "
2
m I = ne AV.t
mI
(ii) When temperature increases, the collisions of
electrons occur more frequently, so relaxation V = mI = R (from Ohm’s law)
I ne2 At
time decreases and hence, drift velocity decreases.
104. Define the term ‘resistivity’ and write its S.I. unit. R = m2 I
ne t A
Derive the expression for the resistivity of a conductor
in terms of number density of free electrons and R =rI , where r = mI2
A ne t
relaxation time. Here, r is called the specific resistance or the resistivity
or of the material of conductor.
Define relaxation time of the free electrons drifting 105. n -identical cells, each of emf e , internal resistance r
in a conductor. How is it related to the drift velocity connected in series are charged by a DC source of emf
of free electrons? Use this relation to deduce the el, using a resistance R .
expression for the electrical resistivity of the material. (i) Draw the circuit arrangement.
Ans : Comp 2012
(ii) Deduce expressions for (a) the charging current
The resistivity of the material of a conductor is defined and (b) the potential difference across the
as the resistance of the unit length and unit area of combination of cells.
cross section of the conductor. Its S.I. unit is W $ m . Ans : SQP 2008, Comp 2016
Consider a conductor of length I and of uniform cross (i) The circuit arrangement is shown in figure :
sectional area A. Let there be n free electrons per
unit volume of the conductor. Let us apply a potential
difference V across the ends of conductor along its
length, then E = V
I
(ii) Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to the circuit

abcda
- ne - I (nr) - IR + el = 0
I = el - ne
R + nr
(a) Charging current, Applying Kirchhoff’s II law to loop ACDA,

I = el - ne ...(1) - e 1 + I1 r - (I2 + I3 - I1) R 4 + (I3 - I2) R2 = 0
R + nr
(b) Potential difference across the combination V is I1 (r + R2) - (R2 + R 4) I2 - I3 R 4 = 0 ...(2)
given by In loop BEDB ,
- V - IR + el = 0 I3 r - e 2 + (I2 + I3 - I1) R 4 + (I2 + I3) R3 = 0
V = el - IR
- I1 R 4 + I2 (R3 + R 4) + I3 (r + R3 + R 4) = e 2 ...(3)
(el - ne)
V = el - Equations (1), (2) and (3) are required equations.
R + nr
el^R + nr h - el + ne 107. How is a galvanometer converted into a voltmeter and
V = an ammeter? Draw the relevant diagrams and find
R + nr
the resistance of the arrangement in each case. Take
el^R + nr - 1h + ne
V = resistance of galvanometer as G .
R + nr
106. Use Kirchhoff’s rules to write the three equations that
A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by
may be used to obtain the values of three unknown
connecting a high resistance R in series with it.
currents in the branches (shown) of the given circuit.
A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by
connecting a small resistance (called shunt) in parallel
with it.
Resistance of voltmeter, RV = G + R
Ans : OD 2012
The distribution of current is shown in given figure.

Resistance of Ammeter, RA = Grs
G + rs
Applying Kirchhoff’s II law in loop ABCA

- I2 R1 - (I2 + I3) R3 - I1 r + e 1 = 0 108. V - I graph for two identical conductors of different
materials A and B is shown in the figure. Which one
I1 r + I2 (R1 + R3) + I3 R3 = e 1 ...(1)
of the two has higher resistivity?
Q
Unknown resistances, S =
$R
P
Knowing the ratio of resistances P and Q the
resistance R, we can determine the unknown resistance
S . That is why the arms containing the resistances P
and Q are called ratio arms, the arm AD containing
R standard arm and the arm CD containing S the
unknown arm.
110. Define the terms drift velocity and relaxation time.
Establish the relation between drift velocity of
electrons and electric field applied to the conductor.
Ans : Delhi 2011
or
The resistivity of material B is higher.
Derive an expression for the drift velocity of free
Reason : If the same amount of the current flows through
electrons in a conductor in terms of relaxation time.
them, then VB 2 VA and from Ohm’s law RB 2 RA .
Hence, the resistivity of the material B is higher. Ans : OD 2019, Foreign 2011
In the absence of any electric field, the free electrons

of a metal are in a state of continuous random
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS motion. At room temperature, their random velocities
correspond to 105 ms-1 . The average random velocity
109. What is Wheatstone bridge? Explain its use in detail. of free electrons is zero.
Ans : Comp 2013
" " "
u = u1 + u2 + ..... + uN = 0
"
Wheatstone bridge is an arrangement of four resistances N

used to determine one of these resistances quickly and Thus, there is no net flow of charge in any direction.
accurately in terms of the remaining three resistances. "
A Wheatstone bridge consists of four resistances In the presence of an external field E , each electron
" "
P , Q , R and S ; connected to form the arms of a experiences a force - eE in the opposite direction of E
quadrilateral ABCD . A battery of emf e is connected (since an electron has negative charge) and undergoes
"
between points A and C and a sensitive galvanometer an acceleration a given by
between B and D , as shown in Figure. "
a = Force = - eE
"
Let S be the resistance to be measured. The resistance Mass m
R is so adjusted that there is no deflection in the
where m is the mass of an electron. As the electrons
galvanometer. The bridge is said to balanced when the
accelerate, they frequently collide with the positive
potential difference across the galvanometer is zero so
metal ions or other electrons of the metal. Between
that there is no current through the galvanometer. In
two successive collisions, an electron gains a velocity
the balanced condition of the bridge,
component (in addition to its random velocity) in a
P =R "
Q S direction opposite to E . However, the gain in velocity
lasts for a short time and is lost in the next collision.
The average time that elapses between two successive
collisions of an electron is called relaxation time. It is
given by
t = t1 + t2 + ... + tN
N
During the relaxation time t , an electron gains an
average velocity given by
" "
vd = 0 + a t [since v = u + at]
"
vd = - eE t
"
m
"
The parameter vd is called drift velocity of electrons.
It may be defined as the average velocity gained by the
free electrons of a conductor in the opposite direction 112. Two cells of emf e 1 and e 2 having internal resistances
of the externally applied electric field. r1 and r2 respectively are connected in parallel as
111. Three resistances R1 , R2 and R3 are connected in shown. Deduce the expressions for the equivalent emf
parallel. Find the equivalent resistance of the parallel and equivalent internal resistance of a cell which can
combination. replace the combination between the point B1 and B2 .
Ans : Foreign 2018
Ans : OD 2009, Comp 2012
Resistances in Parallel Consider a parallel combination of the cells I1 and I2

are the currents leaving the positive electrodes of the
Figure shows three resistances R1 , R2 and R3 connected cells. At point B1, I1 and I2 flow in whereas current I
in parallel between points A and B . Let V be the flows out. Therefore, we have
potential difference applied across the combination. I = I1 + I2 ...(1)
Let I1 , I2 and I3 be the currents through the resistances Let V ^B1h and V ^B2h be the potentials at B1 and B2
R1 , R2 and R3 respectively. Then the current in the respectively.
main circuit must be,
Then, considering the first cell, the potential difference
I = I1 + I2 + I3 across its terminals is V ^B1h - V ^B2h Hence, from
Since all the resistances have been connected between equation V = E - Ir we have
the same two points A and B , therefore, potential V = V ^B1h - V ^B2h
drop V is same across each of them. By Ohm’s law,
= B1 - I1 r1 ...(2)
the currents through the individual resistances will
be, Points B1 and B2 are connected exactly similarly to
the second cell. Hence, considering the second cell, we
I1 = V also have
R1
I2 = V V = V ^B1h - V ^B2h
R2
= E2 - I2 r2 ...(3)
I3 = V Combining equations (1), (2) and (3), we have
R3
If R p is the equivalent resistance of the parallel I = E1 - V + E2 - V
combination, then we must have, r1 r2
I =V = b E1 + E2 l - V b 1 + 1 l ...(4)
Rp r1 r2 r1 r2
But, I = I1 + I2 + I3 Solving for (5), we have
V =V +V +V V = E1 r2 - E2 r1 - I r1 r2 ...(5)
r1 + r2 r1 + r2
Rp R1 R2 R3
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 If we want to replace the combination by a single cell,
Rp R1 R2 R3 between B1 and B2 , of emf Eeq and internal resistance
Thus when a number of resistances are connected in req , we would have
parallel, the reciprocal of the equivalent resistance of V = Eeq - Ireq ...(6)
the parallel combination is equal to the sum of the
from eqs, (5) and (6) we have
reciprocals of the individual resistances.
Eeq - Ireq = E1 r2 + E2 r1 - I r1 r2 It is given by, r = m2

r1 + r2 r1 + r2 ne t
Hence, we have Effect of Temperature on Resistivity
1. Metallic Conductor : In metals, the number of free
Eeq = E1 r2 + E2 r1
r1 + r2 electron is fixed. As the temperature increases, the
amplitude of vibration of the atoms increases. The
and req = r1 r2 ...(7)
r1 + r2 collisions of electrons with these atoms become
113. Define temperature coefficient of resistivity (a). more frequent. The relaxation time t decreases.
Distinguish between metals, semiconductor and alloys Hence the resistivity of a metallic conductor
on the basis of their a values. increases with the increase of temperature.
Ans : OD 2021 2. Semiconductor : In case of semiconductors,
the relaxation time t does not change with
The temperature coefficient of resistivity may be
temperature but the number density of free
defined as the increase in resistivity per unit resistivity
electrons increases exponentially with the increase
per degree rise in temperature. It is given by
in temperature. Consequently, the conductivity
r - r0 dr
a = = 1 $ increases or resistivity decreases exponentially
r 0 (T - T0) r 0 dT with the increase in temperature.
Thus the resistivity r at any temperature T will be, 3. Ionic Conductor : An ionic conductor has both
r = r 0 [1 + a (T - T0)] ...(1) positive and negative ions as the charge carriers.
where r 0 is the resistivity at a lower reference As the temperature increases, the electrostatic
attraction between cations and anions decreases,
temperature T0 (usually 20c C ).
the ions are more free to move and so the
As, R =rl conductivity increases or resistivity decreases.
A
4. Electrolyte : As the temperature increases, the
i.e., R ?r inter-ionic attractions (solute-solute, solvent-
Hence, equation (1) can be written in terms of solute and solvent-solvent type) decrease and
resistance as also the viscous forces decrease, the ions move
Rt = R0 (1 + at) more freely. Hence conductivity increases or the
resistivity decreases as the temperature of an
where, Rt = the resistance at tc C electrolytic solution increases.
R0 = the resistance at 0c C 115. Define terminal potential difference of a cell. When a
and t = the rise in temperature battery of emf e and internal resistance r is connected
to a resistance R, a current I flows through it. Derive
The unit of a is cC-1 . the relation between e, I , r and R .
1. For metals, a is positive i.e., resistance of metals Ans : SQP 2013, OD 2001
increase with the increase in temperature.
For definition of internal resistance, refer, answer to
2. For semiconductors (Ge, Si) and insulators, a is
the above question.
negative i.e., their resistance decreases with the
increase in temperature. Terminal Potential Difference
3. For alloys like constantan and manganin, the The potential drop across the terminals of a cell when
temperature coefficient of resistance a is very a current is being drawn from it is called its terminal
small. So they are used for making standard potential difference (V).
resistors. Relation between r , e and V
114. What do you understand by the resistivity of a Consider a cell of emf e and internal resistance r
conductor? Discuss its temperature dependence for a connected to an external resistance R , as shown in
1. Metallic conductor figure. Suppose a constant current I flows through
this circuit. By definition of emf,
2. Semiconductor
3. Ionic conductor e = Work done by the cell in carrying a unit charge
4. Electrolyte. along the closed circuit
Ans : Delhi 2020
= Work done in carrying a unit charge from A
Resistivity of a material is the resistance of a conductor
of that material, having unit length and unit area of to B against external resistance R + Work done
cross-section.
in carrying a unit charge from B to A Let VA , VB and VC be the potential at points A, B

and C respectively. The potential differences across
against internal resistance r
the terminals of the two cells will be,
e = V + Vl
VAB = VA - VB = e1 - Ir1
By Ohm’s law,
and VBC = VB - VC = e2 - Ir2
V = IR
Thus the potential difference between the terminals A
and Vl = Ir and C of the series combination is,
e =IR + Ir = I (R + r) VAC = VA - VC
Hence the current in the circuit is, = (VA - VB) + (VB - VC )
I = e = (e1 - Ir1) + (e2 - Ir2)
R+r
The terminal p.d. of the cell is given by, VAC = (e1 + e2) - I (r1 + r2)
V =IR = eR If we wish to replace the series combination by a single

R+r cell of emf eeq and internal resistance req then,
Also, V = e - V l = e - Ir VAC = eeq - Ireq
or terminal p.d. = emf - potential drop across Comparing the last two equations, we get
the internal resistance. eeq = e1 + e2
Again, from the above equation, we get, and req = r1 + r2
r =e-V =e-V For a series combination of n cells,
I V /R
eeq = e1 + e2 + e3 + ..... + en
= be - V l
V req = r1 + r2 + r3 + ..... + rn
R = a e - 1k R 117. 1. Derive an expression for the current density in
V
116. Two cells of different emfs and internal resistances terms of the drift speed of electrons.
are connected in series. Find expressions for the or
equivalent emf and equivalent internal resistance of Establish a relation between current and drift
the combination. velocity.
Ans : OD 2018 2. Derive Ohm’s law on the basis of the theory of
As shown in figure, suppose two cells of emfs e1 and electron drift.
e2 and internal resistances r1 and r2 are connected in 3. Derive an expression for the resistivity of a
series between points A and C . Let I be the current conductor in terms of number density of free
flowing through the series combination. electrons and relaxation time.
Ans : OD 2017
1. Relation between Electric Current and Drift
Velocity : Suppose a potential difference V is
applied across a conductor of length l and of
uniform cross-section A. The electric field E set
up inside the conductor is given by
E =V
l
"
Under the influence of field E , the free electrons
"
begin to drift in the opposite direction E with an
average drift velocity vd .
Let the number of electrons per unit volume or
electron density = n
A Series Combination of two Cells is Equivalent to a Charge on an electron = e
Single Cell of emf eeq and internal resistance req
Number of electrons in length l of the conductor
= n # volume of the conductor = nAl
Total charge contained in length l of the conductor 118. Two cells of emfs e1 and e2 , and internal resistances r1
is q = enAl and r2 are connected in parallel between the points A
All the electrons which enter the conductor at the and B . Deduce the expressions for
right end will pass through the conductor at the 1. the equivalent emf of the combination.
left end in time, 2. the equivalent resistance of the combination.
t = distance = l 3. the potential difference between the points A and
velocity vd B.
q
Hence, Current, I = = enAl Ans : Delhi 2019, Comp 2005
t l/vd
As shown in figure, suppose two cells of emfs e1 and
I = enAvd e2 and internal resistances r1 and r2 are connected in
The equation relates the current I with the drift parallel between two points. Suppose the currents I1
velocity vd . and I2 from the positive terminals of the two cells
The current density j is given by, flow towards the junction B1 and current I flows out.
Since as much charge flows in as flows out, we have
j = I = envd
A I = I1 + I2
2. Deduction of Ohm’s law : If m is the mass of an
electron and t is the relaxation time, then drift
velocity,
vd = eEt = eVt ;since E = V E

m ml l
Hence, Current, I = enAvd = enA $ eVt
ml
V = ml
I ne2 tA
At a fixed temperature, the quantities m , l , n
, e , t and A, all have constant value for a given
conductor.
Therefore, V = a constant R
I
This proves Ohm’s law for a conductor and here
R = ml
ne2 tA
is the resistance of the conductor. A parallel Combination of two Cells is Equivalent to
3. Resistivity in Terms of Electron Density and a Single Cell of emf eeq and Internal Resistance req
Relaxation Time : The resistance R of a conductor
of length l , area of cross-section A and resistivity As the two cells are connected in parallel between the
r is given by, same two points B1 and B2 , the potential difference V
across both cells must be same.
R =rl The potential difference between the terminals of first
A
cell is,
But, R = ml
ne2 tA V = VB - VB = e1 - I1 r1
1 2
where, t is the relaxation time. Comparing the

above two equations, we get Hence, I1 = e1 - V
r1
r = m2 The potential difference between the terminals of e2
ne t is,
Obviously, r is independent of the dimensions of
the conductor but depends on its two parameters : V = VB - VB = e2 - I2 r2
1 2
(a) Number of free electrons per unit volume or Hence, I2 = e2 - V

r2
electron density of the conductor.
(b) The relaxation time t , the average time between Hence, I = I1 + I2
two successive collisions of an electron.
= e1 - V + e2 - V
r1 r2
= a e1 + e2 k - V b 1 + 1 l As the charge q moves through a decrease of potential

r1 r2 r1 r2 of magnitude V , its potential energy decreases by the
V b r1 + r2 l = e1 r2 + e2 r1 - I amount,
r1 r2 r1 r2
U = Final P. E at B - Initial P.E. at A
V = e1 r2 + e2 r1 - I r1 r2 = qVB - qVA = - q (VA - VB)
r1 + r2 r1 + r2
If we wish to replace the parallel combination by a = - qV < 0
single cell of emf eeq and internal resistance req , then
If the charges move through the conductor without
V = eeq - Ireq suffering collisions, their kinetic energy would change.
Comparing the last two equations, we get By conservation of energy, the change in kinetic
energy must be,
eeq = e1 r2 + e2 r1
r1 + r2 K = - U = qV
and req = 1 r2
r
= It # V = VIt > 0
r1 + r2
We can express the above results in a simpler way as Thus, in case charges were moving freely through the
follows: conductor under the action of the electric field, their
eeq kinetic energy would increase as they move. But on
= e1 + e2 the average, the electrons move with a steady drift
req r1 r2
velocity. This is because of the collisions of electrons
and 1 =1+1
req r1 r2 with ions and atoms during the course of their motion.
The kinetic energy gained by the electrons is shared
For a parallel combination of n cells, we can write,
with he metal ions. These ions vibrate more vigorously
eeq
= e1 + e2 + ..... + en and the conductor gets heated up. The amount of
req r1 r2 rn energy dissipated as heat in conductor in time t is,
and 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ..... + 1
req req r1 r2 rn H = VIt joule
2
119. Obtain an expression for the heat developed in a = I2 Rt joule = V t joule
R
resistor by the passage of an electric current through
2
it. Hence state Joule’s law of heating. = VIt cal = I Rt cal
1.18 4.18
Ans : Foreign 2016
2
Consider a conductor AB of resistance R , shown = V t cal
4.18R
in figure. A source of emf maintains a potential
The above equations are known as joule’s law of
difference V between its ends A and B and sends a
heating. According to this law, the heat produced in
steady current I from A to B .
a resistor is,
Clearly, VA > VB and the potential difference across
1. Directly proportional to the square of current for
AB is,
a given R.
V = VA - VB > 0 2. Directly proportional to the resistance R for a
The amount of charge that flows from A to B in time given I .
t is, 3. Inversely proportional to the resistance R for a
given, V .
q = It 4. Directly proportional to the time t for which the
current flows through the resistor.
120. Define Kirchhoffs laws of electrical circuit. Derive an
expression for a balanced. Wheatstone’s bridge using
Kirchhoffs law.
Ans : Delhi 2019
Kirchoff ’s Laws of Electrical Circuit

This law states that the algebraic sum of the currents
meeting at a point in an electrical circuit is always
Heat Produced in a Resistor zero. It is also known as junction rule.
CLASS 12

CLASS 10

a current.
2. Two heating elements of resistances R1 and R2
when operated at a constant supply of voltage V
, consume powers P1 and P2 , respectively. Deduce
the expressions for the power of their combination
when they are in turn, connected in
(a) Series and
(b) Parallel across their same voltage supply.
Second Law (Kirchhoff ’s voltage rule) Ans : OD 2017, SQP 2013
This law states that the algebraic sum of changes in 1. It is defined as the rate of electrical energy
potential around any closed loop involving resistors supplied per unit time to maintain flow of electric
and cells in the loop is zero. It means that in any current through a conductor.
closed part of an electrical circuit, the algebraic sum of 2
the emfs is equal to the algebraic sum of the products Mathematically, P = VI = I2 R = V

R
of the resistances and currents flowing through them. Where, 1 watt = 1volt # 1 ampere = 1 ampere-
It is also known as loop rule. volt.
Balanced Condition of Wheatstone Bridge Power of an electric circuit is said to be one
In figure, four resistances P , Q , R and S connected watt, if one ampere current flows in it against
in the four arms of a parallelogram ABCD . Between a potential difference of one volt. The bigger
B and D there is a sensitive galvanometer and cell is units of electrical power are kilowatt (kW) and
connected between A and C. K1 and K2 are two keys. megawatt (MW).
By pressing the key K1 , a current i is allowed to flow Where 1 kW = 1000 W and MW = 106 W .
from the cell. At the point A, the current i is divided Commercial unit of electrical power is horse power
into two parts. (HP)
One part i1 flows in the arm AB and the other part i2 Where, 1 HP = 746 W.
flows in the arm AD . The resistances P , Q , R and S 2. To deduce the expression for the power of the
are so adjusted that on pressing the key K2 there is no combination, first find the equivalent resistance
deflection in the galvanometer G . That is, there is no of the combination in the given conditions.
current in the diagonal BD . Thus, the same current 2 2
i1 will flow in the arm BC as in the arm AB and the Since, P1 = V & R1 = V
R1 P1
same i2 will flow in the arm DC as in the arm AD . 2 2
and P2 = V 2 & R2 = V
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law for the closed loop R P2
BADB , we have (a) In series combination,
- i1 P + i2 R = 0 2 2
Rs = R1 + R2 = V + V
P1 P2
Pi1 = Ri2 ....(1)
Similarly, for the closed loop CBDC , we have Rs = V2 c 1 + 1 m = V2 c P1 + P2 m
P1 P2 P1 P2
i1 Q + i2 S = 0 Now, let the power of heating element in series
Qi1 = Si2 ....(2) combination be Ps .
Dividing Eq. (1) and by Eq. (2), we have Hence, Ps = V2
R1 + R2
i1 P = i2 R
i1 Q i2 S = V2 = P1 P2 ...(1)
P 1 + P2 P1 + P2
P =R V c
2
m
or P1 P2
Q S
(b) In parallel combination
It is clear from this formula that if the ratio of the
resistance P and Q and resistance R are known, then 1 = 1 + 1
Rp R1 R2
the unknown resistance S can be calculated. This is
why, the arms AB and BC are called ratio arms, arm = 12 + 12 = P12 + P22
V V V V
AD known arm and arm CD unknown arm. P1 P2
1. Obtain the formula for the power loss (i.e. power
^ 1
1 = 1 P +P
2h
121.
dissipated) in a conductor of resistance R carrying Rp V2
Now, power consumption in parallel combination. Let V = Potential difference between A and B .
2
Pp = V = V2 d 1 n Then, for cell e 1 , V = e 1 - I1 r1
Rp Rp
I1 = e 1 - V
r1
Pp = V2 ; 12 ^P1 + P2hE
V Similarly, for cell e 2 ,
Hence, Pp = P1 + P2 ...(2)
I2 = e 2 - V
r2
122. (i) Plot a graph showing variation of voltage Vs the
Substituting these values in equation (1)
current drawn from the cell. How can one get
information from this plot about the emf of the I = e1 - V + e 2 - V
r1 r2
cell and its internal resistance?
(ii) Two cells of emf is E1 and E2 internal resistance or I = b e1 + e 2 l - Vb 1 + 1 l
r1 r 2 r1 r2
r1 and r2 are connected in parallel. Obtain the
Hence, V is given by,
expression for the emf and internal resistance
of a single equivalent cell that can replace this V = b e 1 r2 + e 2 r1 l - I a r1 r2 k ...(2)
r1 + r2 r1 + r2
combination?
Comparing the above equation with the equivalent
Ans : SQP 2016, OD 2010
circuit of emf 'eeq ' and internal resistance 'req '
(i)
V = eeq - Ireq ...(3)
(i) Therefore, eeq = e 1 r2 + e 2 r1
r1 + r2
(ii) req = r1 r2
r1 + r2
123. What are ohmic and non-ohmic conductors/resistors?

State the conditions under which Ohm’s law is not
obeyed. Give one example of each type.
Ans : Delhi 2019
Ohmic Conductors : The conductors which obey
Ohm’s law are called ohmic conductors. For these
conductors, V - I graph is a straight line passing
through the origin. For example, a metallic conductor
At, I = 0, V = e
for small currents is an ohmic conductor, as shown in
When, V = 0 , I = I0 , r = e the V -I graph of Figure.
I0 Non-ohmic Conductors : The conductors which do not
The intercept on y -axis gives the emf of the cell. The obey Ohm’s law are called non-ohmic conductors. The
slope of graph gives the internal resistance. non-ohmic situations may be of the following types :
(ii) I = I1 + I2 ...(1) 1. V -I relationship is non-linear. When a large current
flows through a metallic conductor, it gets heated
up and its resistance increases. The V -I graph
becomes non-linear i.e., the conductor becomes non-
ohmic at higher currents, as shown in Figure.
V -I Graph for Metallic Conductor

2. The straight line V -I graph does not pass

through the origin. The V -I graph for a water
voltmeter is a straight line but not passing
through the origin, as shown in Figure. So the
electrolyte (water acidified with dil. H 2 SO 4 ) is a
non-ohmic conductor.
V -I Graph for GaAs
124. (i) Define the term drift velocity.

(ii) On the basis of electron drift, derive an expression
for resistivity of an conductor in terms of number
density of free electrons and relaxation time.
On what factors does resistivity of a conductor
depend?
V -I Graph for a Water Voltmeter
(iii) Why alloys like constantan and manganin are
3. V -I relationship depends on the sign of V for used for making standard resistors?
the same absolute value of V . I is the current for Ans : Delhi 2010, Comp 2007
a certain V , then reversing the direction of V (i) The average velocity acquired by the free
keeping its magnitude fixed, does not produce a electrons of a conductor in a direction opposite to
current of same magnitude as I in the opposite the externally applied electric field is called drift
direction, as shown in the V -I graph for a velocity.
junction diode in Figure.
Drift velocity, vd = - eEt
m
where, e = charge on electron
E = external electric field
r = relaxation time
m = mass of electron
(ii) The relation between current and drift velocity is,
I = - neAvd ...(1)
Where, e is the charge on electron (e = 1.6 # 10-19 C)
vd = - eEt
m
V -I Graph for a Junction Diode I = - neA a - et E k
m
4. V -I relationship is non-unique. Figure shows 2
I = ne t AE ...(2)
the V -I graph for the semiconductor GaAs. It m
exhibits non-linear behaviour i.e., there is more Electric field at each point of wire,
than one value of V for the same current I .
E =V ...(3)
I
Now from (3),
2
I = ne tA $ V
m I
V = m $I
I ne2 t A
R = m2 $ I ...(4) r = V
ne t A nevd l
rI r = 5 W-m
We know, R = 8 # 1028 # 1.6 # 10-19 # 2.5 # 10-4 # 0.1
A
= 1.56 # 10-5 W - m
r = m2
ne t
. 1.6 # 10-5 W - m
So, we can say that resistivity of a conductor
is inversely proportional to number density of 127. What is the value of i in the given circuit?
electrons and relaxation time.
(iii) This is because constantan and manganin
show very weak dependence of resistivity on
temperature.
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
125. A current is passed through two coils connected in Ans : OD 2017, Comp 2006
series. The potential difference across the first coil is Apply the KCL at junction A, we get
3 V and that of the second coil is 4.5 V . If the first
coil has a resistance of 2 W , what is the resistance of Si = 0
second coil? 7+5+2-3-i = 0
Ans : OD 2020 14 - 3 - i = 0
Potential difference across first coil, i = 11 A
V1 = 3 Volt 128. When two resistors are connected in series and
Potential difference across second coil, parallel, then their equivalent resistances are 16 W
V2 = 4.5 Volt and 3 W respectively. Find out the resistance of each
resistor.
And resistance of first coil,
Ans : Comp 2019
R1 = 2 W
Equivalent resistance in series,
Current across the coils in series,
Rs = 16 W
I = V1 = 3 = 1.5 A Equivalent resistance in parallel,
R1 2
Therefore resistance of second coil, Rp = 3 W
R2 = V2 = 4.5 = 3 W Let two resistors are R1 and R2 respectively. According

I 1.5 to the question, when resistor are connected in series
126. When 5 V potential difference is applied across a combination than.
wire of length 0.1 m, the drift speed of electron is Equivalent resistance,
2.5 # 10-4 m/s. If the electron density in the wire is
Rs = R1 + R2
8 # 1028 m-3 , calculate the resistivity of the material
of wire. 16 = R1 + R2
Ans : Foreign 2015
R1 + R2 = 16 ...(1)
We know,
Similarly in parallel combination,
I = neAvd
R p = R1 # R2
R1 + R2
I =V
R From equation (1),
and R =rl 3 = R1 R2
A 16
So, V = neAv R1 R2 = 48
d
R
V = RA R2 = 48 ...(2)
nevd l l R1
Substitute the value of R2 in equation (1), we get Al = A

2
R1 + 48 = 16
R1 rll r (2l) rl
Now, Rl = = A = 4b l
2
R 1 + 48 = 16 R1 Al 2
A
R 12 - 16R1 + 48 = 0 = 4R (From Eq. 1)
R 12 - 12R1 - 4R1 + 48 = 0 = 4 # 16 = 64 W
R1 (R1 - 12) - 4 (R1 - 12) = 0 131.
(R1 - 4) (R1 - 12) = 0

R1 = 4 or 12 W
From equation (1),
R2 = 12 or 4 W
129. At room temperature, copper has free electron density
of 8.4 # 1028 m-3 . What will be drift velocity of
electron in a copper conductor of cross-sectional area
of 10-6 m2 and carrying a current of 5.4 A ?
Ans : Comp 2020
(a) Using Kirchhoff’s rules, calculate the current in

Electron density, n = 8.4 # 1028 m-3
the arm AC of the given circuit.
Cross-sectional area of conductor, (b) On what principle does the meter bridge work?
A = 10-6 m2 Why are the metal strips used in the bridge?
Current, I = 5.4 A Ans : Foreign 2013, Comp 2017
(a) For the mesh ERCAE ,
Drift velocity of free electrons in a copper conductor,
- 30I1 + 40 - 40 (I1 + I2) = 0
Vd = I
neA or - 7I1 - 4I2 = 4
(where, e = Charge on an electron equal to
or 7I1 + 4I2 = 4 ...(1)
1.6 # 10-19 C)
5.4 For the mesh ACDBA,
=
(8.4 # 1028) # (1.6 # 10-19) # 10-6 40 (I1 + I2) - 40 + 20I2 - 80 = 0
= 5.4 or 40I1 + 60I2 - 120 = 0
8.4 # 1.6 # 103
= 0.4 # 10-3 m-s-1 or 2I2 + 3I2 = 6 ...(2)
= 0.4 mm-s-1
130. A wire of resistance 16 W is elongated to double its
length. Find the new resistance.
Ans : Delhi 2016
Resistance of wire, R = 16 W
rl
Now R = ...(1)
A
When wire is elongated to double its length. Its
volume remains constant.
Volume of wire before elongation Solving eqs. (1) and (2), we get
= Volume of wire after elongation I1 = - 12 A
13
Al = Alll
I2 = 34 A
Here, ll = 2l 13
Current through arm,
Al = Al (2l)
AC = I1 + I2 = 22 A
13
132. Four 12 W resistance are connected in parallel. Three 134. An electric bulb is rated 100 W for 220 V A.C. supply
such combinations are connected in series. What will of 50 Hz. Calculate
be the total resistance? 1. The resistance of the bulb.
Ans : Comp 2018 2. The r.m.s. current through the bulb.
Four 12 W resistance are connected in the parallel Ans : Delhi 2020, SQP 2011
combination as shown in figure. Power, P = 100 W
Frequency, n = 50 Hz
1. We know that,
P = I2 R
Since, I =V
R
2
Hence, P = V = 220 # 220 = 484 W
R 100
Now, 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
RP R1 R2 R3 R 4 2. We know that,
V
= 1 + 1 + 1 + 1 Vrms = 0
12 12 12 12 2
RP = 12 = 3 W V0 = Vrms # 2
4
Three such combination are connected in series as = 220 2 = 311.12
shown in the figure, I0 V0
Now, I rms = =
2 R 2
= 311.12 = 0.45 A
484 # 2
135. Two cells of emfs 1.5 V and 2.0 V having internal
resistance 0.2 W and 0.3 W respectively are connected
RS = R P 1 + R P 2 + R P 3
in parallel. Calculate the emf and internal resistance
= 3+3+3 of the equivalent cell.
= 9W Ans : SQP 2012
Given, E1 = 1.5 Volt , r1 = 0.2 W , E2 = 2.0 Volt

133. An electron moves in a circular orbit of radius
5.3 # 10-11 m with a speed of 2.2 # 106 m-s-1 . What r2 = 0.3 W
is the equivalent current in the orbit ? emf of equivalent cell,
Ans : OD 2021
E1 + E2
Radius of circular orbit, r = 5.3 # 10-11 m E = r1 r2
1+1
and speed of electron, v = 2.2 # 106 m-s-1 r1 r2
Time-taken by an electron to complete one round
= E1 r2 + E2 r1
along the circular orbit, r1 + r2
t = Circumference = c 1.5 # 0.3 + 2 # 0.2 m
Speed 0.2 + 0.3
2 p r
=
u = 0.45 + 0.40 = 1.7 Volt
0.5
Equivalent current in the orbit, Internal resistance of equivalent cell,
I = e = 2epr = e # u 1 = 1 + 1 = r1 r2
t v 2pr r r1 r2 r1 + r2
where, e is charge on an electron equal to 1.6 # 10-19 C = c 0.2 # 0.3 m W
-19 6
0.2 + 0.3
(1.6 # 10 ) # (2.2 # 10 )
=
2 # 3.14 # (5.3 # 10-11) = 0.06 W = 0.12 W
0.5
= 1.1 # 10-3 A
136. Find equivalent capacity between A and B . 137. Use Kirchhoff’s laws to determine the value of current
I1 in the given electrical circuit.
Ans : OD 2020
From Kirchhoff’s first law at junction C ,

I3 = I1 + I2 ...(1)
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law in mesh CDFEC ,
40I3 - 40 + 20I1 = 0
20 ^2I3 + I1h = 40
I1 + 2I3 = 2 ...(2)
Ans : Delhi 2012
Applying Kirchhoff’s second law to mesh ABFEA,

In EGHF three capacitor of 3mF are connected in 80 - 20I2 + 20I1 = 0
series combination, Equivalent capacitance of this
20 Î1 - I2h = - 80
branch is given by,
1 =1+1+1 I2 - I1 = 4 ...(3)
Cl 3 3 3 Substituting value of I3 from eq. (1) in eq. (2), we get
Cl = 3 = 1 mF I1 + 2 Î1 + I2h = 2
3
3I1 + 2I2 = 2 ...(4)
Cl and 2 mF capacitor are connected in parallel
combination. Multiplying equation (3) by 2, we get
Now, equivalent capacitance of EGHF , 2I2 - 2I1 = 8 ...(5)
CEGHFE = 2 + 1 Subtracting eq. (4) from eq. (5), we get
5I1 = - 6
= 3 mF
Similarly equivalent capacitance of CEFDC , I1 = - 6 A = - 1.2 A
5
CCEFDC = 3 mF Note: Negative sign shows that current is in opposite
Now,circuit becomes = 3 mF direction.
138. Calculate the value of the current drawn from a 5 V

battery in the circuit as shown:
1 =1+1+1
CAB 3 3 3
CAB = 3/3 = 1 mF
Ans : Foreign 2013
The equivalent Wheatstone bridge for the given

combination is shown in figure.
The resistance of arm ACD ,
RS = 10 + 20 = 30 W
1
Also, the resistance of arm ABD ,

RS = 5 + 10 = 15 W
2
Since, the condition P = R is satisfied, it is a

Q S
balanced bridge.
At F , applying junction rule,
I3 = I1 + I2 ...(1)
In mesh ABCFA,
+ 2 + 4I1 - 3I2 - 1 = 0
4I1 - 3I2 = 1 ...(2)
In mesh FCDEF ,
+ 1 + 3I2 + 2I3 - 4 = 0
3I2 + 2I3 = 3 ...(3)
On solving Eq. (1), (2), (3), we get
I1 = 2 A
13
I2 = 7 A
13
No current flows along arm BC .
I3 = 9 A
Equivalent resistance, 13
R R
Req. = S # S = 30 # 15
1 2
RS + RS
1 2
30 + 15
= 30 # 15 = 10 W
45
Current draw from the source,
I = V = 5 = 1 A = 0.5 A
Req. 10 2 140. The network PQRS shown in the circuit diagram, has
the batteries of 4 V and 5 V and negligible internal
139. Using Kirchhoff’s Law, write the expression for the
resistance. A milliammeter of 20 W resistance is
currents I1, I2 and I3 in the circuit diagram shown.
connected between P and R. Calculate the reading in
the milliammeter.
Ans : Comp 2015, OD 2003
For given circuit,

Let us redraw circuit as shown

Their effective resistance R p will be given by,

1 = 1 + 1 + 1
Rp R2 R3 R 4
1 =1+1+ 1
Rp 5 5 10
or 1 = 2+2+1
Rp 10
= 5 =1
10 2
Rp = 2 W
Total resistance of circuit,
Using Kirchhoff’s voltage law in closed loop DABCD
R = R1 + R p = 4 + 2 = 6 W
(I1 + I2) R3 + I1 R1 - E1 = 0 ...(1)
Current, I = 6 = 1A
In closed a loop ABFEA 6
Potential drop across,
(I1 + I2) R3 + I2 R2 - E2 = 0 ...(2)
R1 = I1 R1 = 1 # 4 = 4 Volt
Multiplying eg. (1) by ^R2 + R3h and eq. (2) by R3
Potential drop across all other resistances,
and subtracting, we get
= 6 - 4 = 2 Volt
I1 = 1 2 + 1 3 - 2 3
ER ER ER
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R1 R3 Current through R2 and R3 ,
5 # 60 + 5 # 20 - 4 # 20
=
200 # 60 + 60 # 20 + 200 # 20 I2 = I3 = 2 A
5
= 300 + 100 - 80 Current through R 4 ,
12000 + 1200 + 4000
I4 = 2 = 1 A
= 320 A 10 5
17200
142. Using Kirchhoff’s rule in the given circuit, determine
Similarly, I2 = E2 R1 + E2 R3 - E1 R3 (i) the voltage drop across the unknown resistor R
R1 R2 + R2 R3 + R1 R3
and (ii) the current I in the arm EF .
= 4 # 200 + 4 # 20 - 5 # 20
200 # 60 + 60 # 20 + 200 # 20
= 800 + 80 - 100 = 780 A
17200 1700
Hence, total current in mA = I1 + I2
= 320 + 780 = 1100
17200 17200 17200
= 11 A = 64 mA
172
141. In the circuit shown, R1 = 4 W , R2 = R3 = 5 W
, R 4 = 10 W and E = 6 V. Work out the equivalent Ans : OD 2014
resistance of the circuit and the current in each resistor. Taking upper portion as mesh using Kirchhoff’s
second law
SIR = SE
Ans : Delhi 2019

Here, R2 , R3 and R 4 are connected in parallel.
1#2-I#3 = 3-5 Potential at, X1 = - R2 I - (- 20)

2 - 3I = - 2 = - 2 # 4 + 20
3
3I = 4
= 52 = 17.3 Volt
3
I =4A
3 144. Figure shows two circuits each having a galvanometer
so, total current through R , and a battery of 3 V. When the galvanometers in each
arrangement do not show any deflection, obtain the
I = 1+ 4 = 7 A
3 3 ratio R1 .
Hence, Voltage drop across R ; R2
V = IR = 7 R Volt.
3
143. Determine the potentials at the points X1 and X2 in

the circuit.
Ans : SQP 2014, Comp 2011
The circuit diagram given in the question is,
Effective emf. of the given circuit,

Eeff = E1 - E2 = 20 - 4 = 16 Volt
We know that,
Ans : SQP 2009
Electric current in the circuit is given by,
For balanced Wheatstone bridge, if no current flows
I = E through the galvanometer.
Req
In the circuit, R1 , R2 and R3 are connected in series 4 =6
R1 9
combination,
Hence, Req = R1 + R2 + R3 R1 = 4 # 9 = 6 W
6
= 6 + 2 + 4 = 12 W For another current,
6 = R2
Now, I = 16 = 4 A 12 8
12 3
Using the KVL, R2 = 6 # 8 = 4W
12
Potential at, X2 = R3 # I
Hence, R 1
= =3
6
= 6 # 4 = 8 Volt R2 4 2
3
145. Why is a potentiometer preferred over a voltmeter by or R = R1 R2 = 7 # 7 = 3.5 W

determining the emf of a cell? Two cells of emf E and R1 + R2 7+7
E2 are connected together in two ways shown below :
The balance points in a given potentiometer

experiment to these two combinations of cells are
found to be at 351.0 cm and 70.2 cm respectively.
Calculate the ratio of the emfs of the two cells.
A potentiometer does not draw any current from

the cell whose emf is to be determined, whereas a Let rl be the total internal resistance of the two cells,
voltmeter always drawn some current. Therefore, emf then
measured by voltmeter is slightly less than actual
value of emf of the cell. rl = b E - V l R
V
From the given data, 1 . 5 - 1.4 3.5 = 0.25 W
=b
1.4 l
For type of combination of cells
As the two cells of internal resistance r each have
been connected in parallel, so
E1 + E2 = K $ I1 ...(1)
1 =1+1
and for type of combination of cells rl r r
1 =2
0.25 r
E1 + E2 = K $ I2 ...(2)
r = 0.25 # 2 = 0.5 W
Here, I1 = 351 cm, I2 = 70.2 cm
147. A battery of emf 12 V and internal resistance 2 W is
E1 + E2 = I1 connected to a 4 W resistor as shown in the figure.
E1 - E2 I2
E1 + E2 = 351
E1 - E2 70.2
E1 + E2 = 5
E1 - E2
E1 + E2 = 5E1 - 5E2
4E1 = 6E2
E1 = 3
E2 2
146. Two identical cells of emf 1.5 V each joined in parallel
supply energy to an external circuit consisting of two
resistances of 7 W each joined in parallel. A very high (i) Show that a voltmeter when placed across the
resistance voltmeter reads the terminal voltage of cells cell and across the resistor in turn gives the same
to be 1.4 V. Calculate the internal resistance of each reading.
cell. (ii) To record the voltage and the current in the
Ans : Foreign 2016
circuit why is voltmeter placed in parallel and
ammeter in series in the circuit?
Given, E = 1.5 Volt,
Ans : Foreign 2016
V = 1.4 Volt. (i) Case I : When voltmeter is placed across the cell
Resistance of external circuit = Equivalent resistance effective resistance of the circuit.
of two resistances of 7 W connected in parallel Req = (2 + 4) W = 6 W

I = 12 A = 2 A
6 Given network is as follows :
Terminal potential differences across the cell (i) As R3 and R 4 are in parallel, so
1 = 1 + 1 = 1+2 = 3 W
V = E - Ir R34 30 15 30 30
V = 12 - 2 (2) = 8 Volt or R34 = 10 W
Case II : When voltmeter is placed parallel across Now R2 and R34 are in parallel, so
the resistor
1 = 1 + 1 = 2+3 = 5
Voltage across resistance R234 15 10 30 30
= current through resistance # resistance R234 = 6 W
= 2 # 4 = 8 Volt Finally, R1 and R234 are in series, so
Hence, the voltmeter gives the same reading in Req = R1 + R234 = 4 + 6 = 10 W
the two cases.
(ii) Hence, current in circuit,
I1 = E = 10V = 1 W
Req 10W
For closed loop ACB , applying KVL,
15I2 - 30L 4 = 0
I2 = 2I 4 ...(1)
For closed loop GABF , applying KVL,
4I1 + 15I2 = 10
4 # 1 + 15I2 = 10
I2 = 6 = 0.4 A ...(2)
(ii) In series, current in the circuit remains same. In 15
parallel, potential in the circuit remains same. Using (i) and (ii), I 4 = 0.2 A
Now at point A, applying KCL,
148. In the circuit shown, R1 = 4 W , R2 = R3 = 15 W ,
I1 = I2 + I3 + I 4
R 4 = 30 W and E = 10 V. Calculate the equivalent
resistance of the circuit and the current in each I3 = I1 - I2 - I 4
resistor.
= 1 - 0.4 - 0.2 = 0.4 A
so, I1 = IA , I2 = 0.4 A,
I3 = 0.4 A, I 4 = 0.2 A
149. Using Kirchhoff’s rules determine the value of

unknown resistance R in the circuit so that no current
flows through 4 W resistance. Also find the potential
difference between A and D .
Ans : OD 2015, Comp 2008

Ans : SQP 2008
According to Kirchhoff’s junction rule at E or B
I3 = I2 + I1
Apply Kirchhoff’s law in loop ABCFA :

I + I + 4I1 = 9 - 6
Since, I2 = 0 in the arm BE as given in the question.
2I + 4I1 = 3 ...(1)
I3 = I1
As there is no current flowing through the 4 W
Using loop rule in loop AFEBA
resistance,
+ 6V - 2I3 + 1V - 3I3 - I2 R1 + 3V = 0
I1 = 0
2I3 + 3I3 + I2 R1 = 10 Volt
2I = 3
Since, I2 = 0 ,
I = 1.5 A
Thus, the current through resistance R is 1.5 A. As so SI3 = 10 Volt
there is no current through branch CF , thus equivalent I3 = 2 A
circuit will be The potential difference between A and D , along the
branch AFCD of the closed circuit
VA - 2I3 + 1V - 3I3 - VD = 0
VA - VD = 2I3 - 1V + I3
= 2#2-1+3#2
= 9 Volt
151. Calculate the value of the resistance R in the circuit
shown in the figure so that the current in the circuit is
0.2 A. What would be the potential difference between
By applying Kirchhoff’s loop law, we get points B and E ?
1.5 + 1.5 + R (1.5) 9 - 3
R = 2W
Potential difference between A and D = 9 - 3 = 6 Volt.
150. Use Kirchhoff’s rules to determine the potential
difference between the points A and D when no
current flows in the arm BE of the electric network
shown in the figure.
Ans : OD 2013
153. Calculate the value of the resistance R in the circuit
(i) The effective resistance between B and E . as BC shown in the figure so that the current in the circuit is
and CD are in series and BD , BCD and BED are 0.2 A. What would be the potential difference between
in parallel. points A and B ?
So, 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
RBE 15 10 30
= 2+3+1
30
or RBE = 5 W
(ii) Using Kirchhoff’s law in loop.
02 # 5 + 0.2R + 15 # 0.2 = 8 - 3
or 1 + 0.2R + 3 = 5
or 0.2R = 1
or R = 5W Ans : OD 2010
(iii) VBE = 5 (0.2) = 1 Volt For BCD , equivalent resistance

R1 = 5 + 5 = 10 W
152. (a) The potential difference applied across a given
resistor is altered so that heat produced per Across BA, equivalent resistance R2
second increase by a factor of 9. By what factor 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
does the applied potential difference change? R2 10 30 15
(b) In the figure shown, an ammeter A and a resistor
of 4 W are connected to the terminals of the = 3+1+2 = 6 = 1
30 30 5
source. The emf of the source is 12 V having an
R2 = 5 W
internal resistance of 2 W . Calculate the voltmeter
and ammeter readings. Potential difference
VBA = I # R2 = 0.2 # 5
VBA = 1 Volt
VAB = - 1 Volt
154. (i) Calculate the equivalent resistance of the given

electrical network between points A and B .
(ii) Also find the current through CD and ACE , if a
10 V DC source is connected between A and B
and the value of R is assumed as 2 W .
Ans : OD 2017, Comp 2014

(a) Heat increase 9 factor, so current increased by 3
factor, so potential increased by 3 factor.
2
also, H =V t
R
H ? V2
H increased by factor, so V increased by factor 3.
(b) I = V = 12 = 2 A
R 6
Ans : Delhi 2014
V = E - ir = 12 - 2 # 2
(i) We redraw the circuit as
= 12 - 4 = 8 Volt.
= 2800 Cal
156. A cell of e.m.f. 1.5 V is connected with an ammeter of
resistance 0.05 W . If the current in the circuit is 2.0 A,
what is the internal resistance of the cell ?
E.m.f. of cell, E = 1.5 Volt

Resistance of ammeter,
R = 0.05 W
Current in circuit, I = 2.0 A
Now I = E
R+r
The network is a balanced Wheatstone’s bridge
where, r = internal resistance of cell
and hence, resistance of branch CD is neglected.
Hence, Resistance of branch RCE = R + R = 2R Hence, I = E
R+r
and Resistance of branch FDE = R + R = 2R .
Hence, Equivalent resistance between A and B 2.0 = 1.5
0.05 + r
Req = 2R # 2R = R 2.0 (0.05 + r) = 1.5
2R + 2R
(ii) If R = 2W then Req = 2 W 0.1 + 2r = 1.5
Hence, No current flows through CD in balanced 2r = 1.4
condition of bridge.
r = 0.7 W
Current in arm, ARCEB = V = 10
2R 2#2 157. A wire 50 cm long and 1 mm2 in cross-section carries
= 2.5 A. a current of 4 A when connected to a 2 V battery.
155. A current flows in a wire of resistance 5 W having What is the specific resistivity of the wire?
potential difference 7 volt for 20 minutes. How much Ans : SQP 2013
heat produced in the wire?
Length of wire, l = 50 cm = 0.5 m
Ans : Delhi 2020
Resistance of wire, Cross-sectional area of wire
R = 5W A = 1 mm2 = 10-6 m2
Potential difference across the wire, Current in wire, I =4A

V = 7 volts Voltage of battery,V = 2 Volt
Time, t = 20 min = 20 # 60 sec Resistance of the wire
Heat produced in wire, R = V = 2 = 0.5 W
I 4
2
H = I Rt
Resistance of the wire,
Since, V = IR
R = r# l
A
Hence, I =V
R
or, r = #A
R
2 l
= bV l Rt = V # t
2
R R -6
= 0.5 # 10 = 1 # 10-6 W-m
2
(7) # 20 # 60 0.5
=
5 where, r = Specific resistivity of the wire
= 7 # 7 # 20 # 60 158. A uniform copper wire having mass of 2.4 # 10-3 kg
5
carries a current of 1 A and has a potential difference
= 58800 = 11760 J of 1.8 V across its ends. If density and resistivity of
5
copper are 9.6 # 103 kg -m-3 and 1.8 # 10-8 W-m
= 11760 Cal (1Cal = 4.2 J) respectively, What is the length of copper wire?
4.2
Ans : Foreign 2016, SQP2007 Ans : Delhi 2017

-3
Mass of wire, m = 2.4 # 10 kg Resistance of each resistor, R = 1W
Current in wire, I = 1A Voltage of battery, V = 12 Volt
Potential difference, V = 1.8 Volt Internal resistance of battery, r = 0.4 W
Density of copper, d = 9.6 # 103 kg -m-3 Since both the resistance are connected in a series
and its resistivity, r = 1.8 # 10-8 W-m combination, therefore total external resistance,
Volume of wire, Rl = 1 + 1 = 2 W
Al = m Thus total resistance of the circuit,
d
-3
R = Rl + r
= 2.4 # 10 3 = 2 + 0.4 = 2.4 W
9.6 # 10
= 0.25 # 10-6 ...(1) And current flowing through the circuit,
Resistance of the wire, I = V = 12 = 5 A
R 2.4
R = r# l =V 161. Two resistances 2 W and 8 W are connected in parallel.
A I
Similarly, two other resistances of 6 W and 9 W are
l =V
A Ir connected in parallel. If both the combination are
connected in series, what is the effective resistance of
where, l = Length of wire
the system?
= 1.8 = 108 ...(2) Ans : Delhi 2012
1 # (1.8 # 10-8)
Multiplying equation (1) and (2), First resistance, R1 = 2 W
l 2 = 0.25 # 102 = 25 Second resistance, R2 = 8 W

Third resistance, R3 = 6 W
l = 5m
Fourth resistance, R4 = 9 W
159. A platinum wire has a resistance of 10 W at 0c C Effective resistance of parallel combination of 2 W and
and 20 W at 273c C . What is value of temperature 8 W resistances,
coefficient of resistance of platinum?
R = R1 # R2 = 2 # 8 = 16 = 1.6 W
Ans : Comp 2018 R1 + R2 2+8 10
Resistance of wire at 0c C , R0 = 10 W Similarly, effective resistance of parallel combination
of 6 W and 9 W resistances,
Initial temperature, T1 = 0c C
R R
Rl = 3 # 4 = 6 # 9 = 54 = 3.6 W
Resistance of wire at 273c C , R273 = 20 W R3 + R 4 6+9 15
Now effective resistance of the resistances R and Rl
Final temperature, T2 = 273c C
are in series combination,
Resistance of wire at 273c C ,
Reff = R + Rl
R273 = R0 [1 + a (T2 + T1)]
= 1.6 + 3.6 = 5.2 W
20 = 10 [1 + a (273 - 0)]
162. The resistance of series combination of two equal
= 10 + 2730a resistances is S . When they are joined in parallel, the
or, a = 20 - 10 total resistance is P . If S = nP , What is the possible
2730 value of n ?
= 10 = 0.0037c C-1 Ans : Foreign 2015
2730
First resistance, R1 = R
where, a = Temperature coefficient of resistance of
platinum Second resistance, R2 = R
Equivalent resistance of two resistances, when they
160. A series combination of two resistors 1 W each is are joined in series = S and equivalent resistance of
connected to a 12 V battery of internal resistance two resistances, when they are joined in parallel = P .
0.4 W . what is the value of current flowing through it?
and S = nP
Equivalent resistance of two resistances when they are it is bent in the from of a circle, then it will behave
joined in series, as a combination of two wires each of resistance 2R
S = R1 + R2 = R + R = 2R connected in parallel combination between A and B .
Therefore effective resistance between the ends A and
Similarly, equivalent resistance of two resistances
B of the circle,
when they are joined in parallel,
RAB = 2R # 2R = R
P = R1 # R2 = R # R = R 2R + 2R
R1 + R2 R+R 2
Since, S = nP 165. What is the equivalent resistance between points A
and B in the shown circuit?
Therefore, 2R = n # R
2
or n =4
163. A uniform wire of resistance R and length L is cut
into four equal parts, each of length L4 , which are
then connected in parallel combination. What will be
Ans : Delhi 2015
effective resistance of the combination?
Ans : SQP 2009
Resistances, R1 = R
Resistance of single wire, R1 = R R2 = 2R

Length of single wire, l1 = L and R3 = 2R
In the given circuit that all the three resistances are in
Length of each part, l2 = L
4 parallel combination. Therefore relation for equivalent
Resistance of the wire, resistance between A and B is,
R = r# l \ l 1 = 1 + 1 + 1
A RAB R1 R2 R3
R1 = l1 = L = 4
Therefore,
R2 l2 L = 1+ 1 + 1 = 2
R 2R 2R R
4
RAB = R
or, R2 = R1 = R 2
4 4
166. What is the effective resistance between A and B in
Relation for the effective resistance of the parallel
the circuit?
combination is,
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + 1
Reff fR R R Rp
4 4 4 4
= b 4 + 4 + 4 + 4 l = 16
R R R R R
Reff = R
16
164. A wire of resistance 4R is bent in the form of a circle
as shown in the figure. What is the effective resistance
between the opposite ends A and B of the circle? Ans : Comp 2011
Resistance between A and D as well as D and C are

in series combination.
Therefore their equivalent resistance,
R1 = 3 + 3 = 6 W
Now the resistances R1 and 6 W (between A and C )
are in parallel combination. Therefore their equivalent
Ans : Foreign 2017, OD 2012 resistance,
Resistance of wire = 4R R2 = R1 # 6 = 6 # 6 = 3 W
R1 + 6 6+6
As the wire has a resistance of 4R , therefore when
Now the resistances R2 and 3 W (between C and B ) For an infinite number of resistances, if the resistance
are in series combination. Therefore their equivalent between A and B is R , then resistance between C
resistance, and D will also be equal to R .
R3 = R2 + 3 = 3 + 3 = 6 W Thus the resistances R and R2 are in parallel
combination.
Again the resistance R3 and 3 W (between A and B )
are in parallel combination. Therefore equivalent Therefore their equivalent resistance,
resistance between A and B , Req = R # R2 = R # 2 = 2R
R + R2 R+2 R+2
R 3
RAB = 3 # = 6 # 3 = 2 W Now resistances Req and R1 are in series combination.
R3 + 3 6+3
167. Two copper wires are of the same length. One wire is Therefore their equivalent resistance,
twice as thick as the other. What is the resistances of R = R1 + Req
the two wires are in the ratio ?
= 1 + 2R
Ans : OD 2010 R+2
Length of each wire = l = R + 2 + 2R = 3R + 2
R+2 R+2
Thickness of first wire, r1 = r
R (R + 2) = 3R + 2
Thickness of second wire, r2 = 2r
R2 + 2R = 3R + 2
Resistance of the wire,
R2 - R - 2 = 0
R = r# l
A (R - 2) (R + 1) = 0
= r # l 2 ? 12 R = 2 W and = - 1 W
pr r
R r Hence, R = 2W
= a 2k
1 2
Therefore,
R2 r1 (Neglecting negative value)
= b 2r l = 4
2
r 1 169. A bulb of 220 volt and 300 watt is connected across 110
168. A circuit with an infinite number of resistance is volt circuit. What is the percentage reduction in power?
shown below. What is resultant resistance between A Ans : Delhi 2019
and B , when R1 = 1 W and R2 = 2 W ? Voltage of bulb, V = 220 Volt
Power of bulb, P = 300 W
Supply voltage, VS = 110 Volt
Resistance of bulb,
2 (220) 2
R =V = = 484 W
P 300 3
Power of the bulb,
Ans : ^VS h2 (110) 2

Delhi 2013, SQP 2009 Pl = = = 75 W
R 484/3
Resistances, R1 = 1W Therefore percentage reduction is power,
and R2 = 2 W
Pm = P - Pl = 300 - 75 = 75%
Since, the given circuit has infinite number of P 300
resistances, therefore the given circuit can be reduced 170. What is the value of current I in the circuit shown
as shown in the figure in figure?
Ans : OD 2018
Potential difference between C and A,
Resistances, R1 = R2 = R3 = R 4 = 2 W VC - VA = I1 R1 = 1 # 2 = 2 Volt ...(1)
Voltage, V = 3 Volt Similarly, potential difference between C and B ,
We know that the resistances R2 , R3 and R 4 are in VC - VB = I2 R2 = 1 # 3 = 3 Volt ...(2)
series combination.
Subtracting equation (1) from (2),
VC - VB - (VC - VA) = 3 - 2
Rl = R2 + R3 + R 4
VA - VB = 1 Volt
= 2+2+2 = 6W
172. In a Wheatstone’s bridge, all the four arms have equal
Now, Rl is in parallel combination with the resistance resistance R . If resistance of the galvanometer arm
R1 . is also R , What is the equivalent resistance of the
Therefore equivalent resistance of the circuit, combination?
R = R1 # R
l Ans : Foreign 2013
R1 + Rl
Resistances in four arms,
= 2 # 6 = 12 = 1.5 W R1 = R2 = R3 = R 4 = R
2+6 8
Thus current in the circuit, and resistance of galvanometer,
I =V = 3 = 2A G =R
R 1.5
In a Wheatstone bridge, the resistance of galvanometer
171. A current of 2 A flows in a system as shown in the is ineffective.
figure. What is the potential difference between A
Now resistances in upper arms are in a series
and B (VA - VB) ?
combination. Therefore, their equivalent resistance,
RU = R1 + R2 = R + R = 2R
Similarly, equivalent resistance of lower arms,
RL = R3 + R 4 = R + R = 2R
Now the equivalent resistance RU and RL are in
parallel combination. Therefore, equivalent resistance
of the combination,
R R
Req = U # L = 2R # 2R = R
RU + RL 2R + 2R
173. A 100 W bulb B1 and two 60 W bulbs B2 and B3 , are
Ans : SQP 2010, Foreign 2005
connected to a 250 V source as shown in the figure.
Resistances, R1 = 2 W Now W1 , W2 and W3 are the output powers of the
R2 = 3 W bulbs B1 , B2 and B3 respectively.
What is the relation between the output powers of
R3 = 3 W
bulbs?
and R4 = 2 W
Here resistances 2 W and 3 W (in the upper) arm are
RU = 2 + 3 = 5 W
Similarly, equivalent resistance of the lower arm,
RL = 3 + 2 = 5 W
Since the equivalent resistance of both arms are equal,
therefore current flowing through the upper and lower
arms will also be equal, Ans : Comp 2006
i.e., I1 = I2 = 2 = 1 A Power of bulb B1 , P1 = 100 W

2
Power of bulb B2 , P2 = 60 W
Power of bulb B3 , P3 = 60 W E.m.f. of second cell, E2 = 2 Volt

Source voltage, V = 250 Volt E.m.f. of third cell, E3 = 1 Volt
Output power of bulb, B1 = W1 And resistances, R = r1 = r2 = r3 = 1 W
Output power of bulb, B2 = W2 Kirchhoff’s first law, at junction P we get
Output power of bulb, B3 = W3 I1 = I2 + I3 ..(1)
Resistance of bulb B1 , From the Kirchhoff’s second law that in the closed
2 (250) 2 circuit PQDCP ,
R1 = V = = 625 W
P1 100 I2 r2 + E2 - E1 + I1 r1 = 0
Similarly, resistance of bulb B2 , (I2 # 1) + 2 - 3 + (I1 # 1) = 0
(250) 2
2
R2 = V = = 1042 W I1 + I2 = 1
P2 60
and resistance of bulb B3 , (I2 + I3) + I2 = 1
2 (250) 2 2I2 + I3 = 1 ...(2)
R3 = V = = 1042 W
P3 60 Similarly, in the closed circuit PQFGP ,
As the resistance R1 and R2 are connected in series. I2 r2 + E2 - E3 - I3 r3 = 0
Therefore, output power of bulb B1 ,
(I2 # 1) + 2 - 1 - (I3 # 1) = 0
W1 = V2
# R1 I2 - I3 = - 1 ...(3)
(R1 + R2)
Now, adding equations (2) and (3),
(250) 2
= # 625 3I2 = 0
(625 + 1042) 2
= 14.1 W I2 = 0
Similarly, output power of bulb B2 , Again from equation (3),
V2 0 - I3 = - 1
W2 = # R2
(R1 + R2) 2 I3 = 1 A
(250) 2 and from equation (1), I1 = 0 + 1 = 1 A
= # 1042
(625 + 1042) 2
= 23.4 W Since, no current flows through r2 and R , therefore
potential difference between A and B is equal to the
and output power of bulb B3 , potential difference between P and Q (i.e., e.m.f. of
2
W3 = V 2 # R3 cell E2 ).Thus potential difference between A and B ,
R3 VAB = E2 = 2 Volt
(250) 2
= # 1042 = 60 W 175. In the given circuit, when the resistance between points
(1042) 2
B and D is zero. What is the value of the resistance X ?
Therefore, W1 < W2 < W3
174. In the circuit shown below, cell E1 has e.m.f. of 3 V,
cell E2 has e.m.f. of 2 V, cell E3 has e.m.f. of 1 V
and R = r1 = r2 = r3 = 1 W . What is the potential
difference between points A and B ?
E.m.f. of first cell, E1 = 3 Volt

Ans : Delhi 2014

Resistances 24 W and 8 W are in parallel combination
Resistance between B and D , Therefore their equivalent resistance,
RBD = 0
Rl = 24 # 8 = 6 W
24 + 8
Resistances between A and B are in series combination.
Similarly, the resistances 20 W , 30 W and 60 W are
Therefore, their equivalent resistance,
in parallel combination Therefore relation for their
RAB = 15 + 6 = 21 W equivalent resistance is,
Now, the resistances between A and D are 15 W 1 = 1 + 1 + 1 = 1
Rll 20 30 60 10
in series with 6 W and 6 W in parallel combination.
Therefore, their equivalent resistance, or, Rll = 10 W
RAD = 15 + 6 # 6 = 15 + 36 = 18 W Now the resistances 3 W , Rll, Rl and 1 W are connected

6+6 12
Similarly, equivalent resistance between D and C ,
Therefore effective resistance between X and Y ,
RDC = 4 + 4 # 4 = 4 + 16 = 6 W RXY = 3 + Rl + Rll + 1
4+4 8
and equivalent resistance between B and C , = 3 + 6 + 10 + 1 = 20 W
Current in the circuit,
RBC = 3 + X # 8
X+8
I = V = 48 = 8 A
Rl 6
= 11X + 24 W
X+8
Therefore potential difference across X and Y ,
Ss the resistance between BD is zero. Therefore, it is VXY = I # RXY
a balanced Wheatstone Bridge,
= 8 # 20 = 160 Volt
Hence, RAB = RBC
RAD RDC 177. What is the equivalent resistance between A and B
11X + 24
21 = X+8
in the given figure?
18 6
7X + 56 = 11X + 24
4X = 32
X = 8W
176. The potential difference across 8 W resistance is 48 V
as shown in the figure. What is the value of potential
difference across X and Y terminal ?
Resistances, R1 = 3 W , R2 = 4 W , R3 = 6 W
and R 4 = 8 W , R5 = 7 W
In the given circuit,
R1 = R2 = 1
R3 R4 2
Thus it is a case of balanced Wheatstone bridge, in
which 7 W resistance is ineffective.
Now resistances in the upper arms are in series
combination. Therefore, their equivalent resistance,
RU = R1 + R2 = 3 + 4 = 7 W
Potential difference across 8 W resistor, Similarly, equivalent resistance of the lower arms,
V = 48 Volt RL = R3 + R 4 = 6 + 8 = 14 W
Now equivalent resistances RU and RL are in parallel Kirchhoff’s second law we get,
combination. Ir1 - E1 + Ir2 + E2 = 0
Therefore equivalent resistance between A and B ,
(I # 2) - 18 + (I # 1) + 12 = 0
R R
RAB = U # L 3I = 6
RU + RL
I = 2A
= 7 # 14 = 14 W
7 + 14 3 Therefore, voltage drop across r1 ,
178. A 6V battery is connected to the terminals of a 3 m V1 = Ir1 = 2 # 2 = 4 Volt
long wire of uniform thickness and of resistance 100 W
Thus reading of voltmeter,
. What is the potential difference between two points
on the wire, separated by a distance of 50 cm? V = E1 - V1
Ans : Comp 2013 = 18 - 4 = 14 Volt
Voltage of battery, V = 6 Volt
Length of wire, L = 3m
Resistance of wire, R = 100 W
Length of small part of wire,
l = 50 cm = 0.5 m 180. Most of the times we connect remote speakers to
play music in another room along with the built-in-
Resistance of small part of wire, speakers. These speakers are connected in parallel
Rl = R # l with the music system.
L
= 100 # 0.5 = 50 W
3 3
and current flowing through the wire,
I =V = 6 = 3 A
R 100 50
Therefore, potential difference between two points on
the wire,
Vl = IRl = 3 # 50 = 1 Volt
50 3
179. Two batteries, one of e.m.f. 18 V and internal
resistance 2 W and other of e.m.f. 12 volt and internal
resistance 1 W are connected as shown in figure. What
is the reading of voltmeter?
At the instant represented in the picture, the voltage

across the speakers is 6.00 V. The resistance of the
main speaker is 8 W and the remote speaker has
resistance 4 W
Ans : OD 2013
E.m.f. of first battery, E1 = 18 Volt

Internal resistance of first battery, r1 = 2 W (i) What is equivalent resistance of the speakers?
(ii) What is the total current supplied by music
E.m.f. of second battery, E2 = 12 Volt system?
Internal resistance of second battery, r2 = 1 W (ii) What is the power dissipated in the 4 ohm
resistance?
Reading of voltmeter = V
Ans : l = 10-2 m
(i) 8/3 ohm.
(3.7 # 10-7 # 10-2)
(ii) 2.25 A =
1 # 10-2
(ii) 9 W
= 3.7 # 10-7 W
181. Electron move more easily through some conductors
(ii) The specific resistance does not depend upon l
than others when potential difference is applied. The
and A depends upon nature of material. Hence,
opposition of a conductor to current is called its
the specific resistance of both wire remains same.
resistance. Collisions are the basic cause of opposition.
When potential difference is applied across the ends of (ii) R2 = 12 # A1
R1 11 # A2
a conductor,its free electrons get accelerated. On their
when stretch volume remains constant hence
way, they frequently collide with positive metal ions,
i.e., their motion is opposed and this opposition to l1 A1 = l2 # A2
the flow of electron is called resistance. The number A1 = l2
of collisions that the electrons make with atoms/ A2 l1
ions depends on the arrangement of atoms or ions A1 = 2
in the conductor. A long wire offers more resistance A2 1
than short wire because there will be more collisions. R2 = l2 A
A thick wire offers less resistance than a thin wire Hence, c m# 1
R1 l1 A2
because in a thick wire more area of cross section = 2#2 = 4
is available for the flow of electrons. The resistance
of metal increases when their temperature increases. 182. Electric fuse is a protective device used in series with
Certain alloys such as constantan and manganin show an electric circuit or an electric appliance to save it
very small changes of resistance with temperature and from damage due to overheating produced by strong
are used to make standard resistors. The resistance current in the circuit or application. Fuse wire is
of semiconductor and insulator decreases as their generally made from an alloy of lead and tin which has
temperature increases. high resistance and low melting point. It is connected
in series in an electric installation. If a circuit gets
accidentally short-circuited, a large current flows,
then fuse wire melts every which causes a break in the
circuit. The power through fuse (Fl) is equal to heat
energy lost per unit area per unit time (h) (neglecting
heat loses from ends of the wire).
rI
P = I2 R = h # 2prl ;R = pr2 E
Where r and I are the length and radius of fuse wire,
respectively.
A battery is described by its e.m.f. (E) and internal
resistance (r). Efficiency of a battery (h) is defined as
(i) The dimensions of a block are 1 cm # 1 cm # 100 cm the ratio of the output power to the input power.
. If the specific resistance of the material is Output power
h = 100%
3.7 # 10-7 ohm . What is the resistance between Input power #
two opposite rectangular base?
(ii) Two wire of the same material have lengths l and
2l and areas of cross section 4 A and A respectively.
What is the ratio of their specific resistance?
(ii) A wire of resistance R is stretched to twice of its
original length. What is the new resistance of wire?
Ans :
(i) As we know that,
rl E , input power = EI
where, R = But, I =
A R+r
P = 3.7 # 10-7 ohm Output power = EI - I2 r
Then,
2
h = b EI - I r l # 100 b1 - Ir l # 100 (i) Calculate the efficiency of electric kettle A and
EI E B ?
1 - b E la r k # 100 (ii) What is the ratio of efficiency consumed charges
R+r E for one time boiling of tea in kettle A to that in
h = b R l # 100 kettle B ?
R+r
(ii) What is the relation between the resistance of
We know that output power of a source is maximum electric kettle A and B ?
when the external resistance is equal to internal Ans :
resistance, i.e., R = r .
(i) 83.34%, 62.5%
(i) Two fuse wires of same potential material are
(ii) 3 : 4
having length ratio 1 : 2 and ratio 4 : 1. What is
the ratio of their current rating ? (ii) RA = RB
(ii) Efficiency of a battery when delivering maximum 184. An ammeter and a voltmeter are connected in series
power is to a battery with an emf of 10V. When a certain
Ans : resistance is connected in parallel with the voltmeter,
(i) 8 : 1 the reading of the voltmeter decreases three times,
(ii) 40% whereas the reading of the ammeter increases two
times.
183. Ram and Shyam purchased two electric tea kettles, A
and B of same size, same thickness and same volume
of 0.4 litre. They studied the specification of kettles
as under
Kettle A :
Specific heat capacity = 1680 J/kgK
Mass = 200 g
Cost = ` 400
Kettle B :
Specific heat capacity = 2450 J/kgK
Mass = 400 g
Cost = ` 400
When kettle A is switched on with constant potential
source, the tea begins to boil in 6 min. When kettle B
is switched on with the same source separately, then
tea begins to boil in 8 min. The efficiency of kettle is
defined as
Energy used for liquid heating
Total energy sup plied
They made discussion on specification and efficiency
of kettles and subsequently prepared a list of questions
to draw the conclusions. Some of them are as under
(Assume specific heat of tea liquid as 4200 J/kgK and
density 1000 kg/m3 .) (i) Find the voltmeter reading after the connection of
the resistance.
(ii) If the resistance of the ammeter is 2 ohm. What
is the resistance of the voltmeter?
Ans :
(i) 2 Volt
(ii) 3 ohm.
185. In the circuit given in the figure, both batteries are
ideal, e.m.f. E , of battery I has a fixed valve, but
e.m.f. E , of battery 2 can be varied between 1.0 V
and 10.0 V. The graph gives the currents through
the two batteries as a function of E2 , but are not

marked as which plot corresponds to which battery.
But for both plots, current is assumed to be negative
when the direction of the current through the battery
is opposite to the direction of that battery’s e.m.f.
(direction of e.m.f. is from negative to positive).
(i) What is the value of EMF of cell 1?

(ii) What is the value of resistance R1?
(ii) Calculate the value of resistance R2?
Ans :
(i) 4 Volt
(ii) 10 ohm
(ii) 10 ohm
***********
Page 172 Moving Charge and Magnetism Chap 4
CHAPTER 4
Moving Charge and Magnetism
SUMMARY Magnetic field at the centre of semi-circular current

carrying conductor.
m I
B = 0
1. BIOT-SAVART LAW 4r
$
Magnetic field at the centre of an arc of circular
It states that the magnetic field strength dB produced current carrying conductor which subtends an angle
to a current element (of current I and length dl ) at q at the centre.
a point having position vector rv relative to current m
element is, B = 0 $ Iq
4p r
m v rv Magnetic field at any point lies on the axis of circular
dB = 0 I dl #
$
4p r3 current carrying conductor.

m 0 Ia2
B =
2 (r2 + a2) 3/2
2. AMPERE’S CIRCUITAL LAW
It states that the line integral of magnetic field Bv
along a closed path is equal to m 0 times the current
(I) passing through the closed path.
$
# Bv $ dl = m0I
3. MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A CURRENT CARRYING

-7
SOLENOID
where, m 0 = 4p # 10 Wb/A-meter
At the axis of a long solenoid, carrying a current I ,
permeability of free space.
B = m 0 nI
The magnitude of magnetic field is,
m q where, n = number of turns per unit length
dB = 0 Idl sin
4p r2 Magnetic field at one end of solenoid,
$
where, q is the angle between current element I dl m nI
B end = 0
and position vector rv as shown in the figure. The 2
$
direction of magnetic field dB is perpendicular to the The polarity of any end is determined by using
$ Ampere’s right hand rule.
plane containing I dl and rv .
Magnetic field at the centre of a circular current 4. MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A TOROID (CIRCULAR SOLENOID)
carrying conductor/coil.
Magnetic field within the turns of toroid,
m I
B = 0 m NI
2r B = 0 = nm 0 I
2p r
where, r is the radius of a circular loop.
For N turns of coil, where, n = N and r is average radius
2pr
m NI Magnetic field outside the toroid is zero.
B = 0
2r
Potential Energy of a Current Loop in a Magnetic I = total current in circuit

Field
S = resistance of the shunt (low resistance)
When a current loop of magnetic moment M is placed
A galvanometer can be converted into voltmeter by
in a magnetic field, then potential energy of magnetic
connecting a very high resistance R in series with
dipole is,
galvanometer which is given by
U =- M v $ Bv = - MB cos q
R =V -G
1. When q = 0 , U = - MB (minimum or stable Ig
equilibrium position).
2. When q = p , U = + MB (maximum or unstable
equilibrium position).
3. When q = p , potential energy is zero.
2
9. MOVING COIL GALVANOMETER

Is a device used to detect the current in electrical
circuit. It is based on the principle that a current
carrying loop placed in a uniform magnetic field
experiences torque. The current sensitivity and voltage where,
sensitivity and voltage sensitivity of galvanometer Ig = current through the galvanometer
depends on number of turns of coil magnetic field B ,
G = resistance of galvanometer and
area A of the coil and torsion constant k of the spring
or suspension wire. V = potential difference across the terminal A and B
Current sensitivity, Is = q = NBA

I k
Its SI unit is rad/A or div/A.
***********
Voltage sensitivity, Vs = q = q
V IR
I
= s = NBA
R kR
Its SI unit is rad/V or div/V .
Torque or moment of galvanometer,
G = q = NBA
I k
A galvanometer can be converted into an ammeter by
connecting a very low resistance (shunt S ) in parallel
with galvanometer whose value is given by,
I G
S = g
I - Ig
where, G = resistance of galvanometer

Ig = current through galvanometer
7. A circular coil of radius r carries a current I. The 10. The dimensional formula for 1 e 0 E 2 is identical to
magnetic field at its center is B . At what distance 2
that of
from the centre, on the axis of the coil, the magnetic 2
field will be B/8 (a) B (b) 1 B2 m 0
2m 0 2
(a) 2 R (b) 2R 2
m0
(c) (d) 1 Bm 20
(c) 3R (d) 3R 2B 2
Ans : Foreign 2011
Ans : SQP 2009
Magnetic field at distance x from the centre, Dimension of 1 e 0 E 2 is given by,

2
magnetic field at center (B) 1 e E 2 = Energy
Baxis =
8 2 0 Volume
Baxis = B [ML2 T - 2]
8 = = [ML-1 T - 2]
[L3]
m 0 NiR2 m Ni 2
2 2 3/2
= 0
8 # 2R Dimension of B is given by,
2 (R + x ) 2m 0
8R3 = (R2 + x2) 3/2 [MT - 2 A-1] 2
=
[MLT - 2 A-2]
This is possible only when x = ! 3 R .
8Since, B = I1 Il B
4prF
F
qV sin q , m0 =
Hence, 3 R distance from the centre magnetic field
is equal to magnetic field at centre. = [M 1 L- 1 T - 2]
Thus (c) is correct option. Thus (a) is correct option.
8. When a charged particle moves perpendicular to a 11. Dimension of magnetic field is

magnetic field, then (a) I-1 ML0 T-2 (b) I0 MLT-2
(a) speed of the particle is changed (c) IMLT-1 (d) IM-1 L-1 T-2
(b) speed of the particle remains unchanged Ans : OD 2008, Delhi 2015
(c) direction of the particle remains unchanged We have F = qvB sin q

(d) acceleration of the particle remains unchanged B = F
qv sin q
Ans : OD 2011
sin q is a dimensionless quantity
When a charged particle moves perpendicular to a
6M L T @
1 1 -2
magnetic field, then the particle moves in a circular = [Since, q = IT]
path with a uniform speed. [IT] [LT-1]
As a result of this, the particle experiences a = 6ML0 T-2 I-1@
centripetal force, but the speed of the particle remains
unchanged.
Thus (b) is correct option. 12. If a current i ampere flows in a long straight thin
walled tube, then magnetic induction at any point
9. A charged particle is released from rest in a region of inside the tube is
steady and uniform electric and magnetic fields, which (a) zero (b) infinite
are parallel to each other. The particle will move in a m
(c) 2i Tesla (d) 0 $ 2i Tesla
(a) circle (b) helix r 4p r
Ans : SQP 2002
(c) cycloid (d) straight line
Current in the long straight thin walled tube = i .
Ans : Delhi 2017
Current flows only on the surface of a long straight
When a charged particle is released from rest in a
thin walled tube. Therefore, magnetic induction at
region of steady and uniform electric and magnetic
any point inside the tube is zero.
fields, which are parallel to each other, then charged
particle will move along the electric field in a straight
line, because magnetic field has no effect on it. 13. Magnetic field due to a long straight conductor of
Thus (d) is correct option. length l , carrying current I , at a point, distance d
from it is given by
Magnetic field due to current-carrying long straight Radius of second coil, r2 = 30 cm = 0.3 m
wire at the point, and no. of turns in each coil = n
m
B = 0 #I ?1 Resistance of coil,
2p r r
R = 2prn # r
Therefore, B1 = r2 = 20 = 4
B2 r1 5 where, r = resistance per unit length
B
B2 = 1 = B Therefore, current in coil,
4 4
where, B2 = magnetic field at second point I =V = V
R 2prn r
Thus (b) is correct option. Magnetic induction at the centre of a current-carrying
circular coil,
18. A current passing through a circular coil of two turns
produces a magnetic field of 8 T at its centre. The coil m nI
B = 0
is then rewound, so as to have four turns and current 2r
m n
is passed through it is doubled. Now magnetic field at = 0 # V
the centre of the coil will be 2r 2prn r
(a) 64 T (b) 32 T m0 V
= # r
4p r 2
(c) 16 T (d) 8 T
Since, both the coils are connected in parallel,
Ans : Delhi 2015 therefore potential difference V across both the coils
Initial number of turns, n1 = 2 is same and resistance per unit length of the wires will
also be same, because they are made of similar wires.
Initial magnetic field at centre, B1 = 8 T
Thus, B ? 12
Final no. of turns in coil, n2 = 4 r
Final current in the coil, I2 = 2I1 Therefore, B 1
= a r2 k = b 0.3 l = 4
2 2
B2 r1 0.15 1
(where, I1 is the initial current)
B1 : B2 = 4 : 1
Since, circumference of two coil is equal to
circumference of four turn coil,
20. A particle of mass m and charge q moves with a
Therefore, 2 # 2pr1 = 4 # 2pr2
constant velocity u along the positive x -direction. It
r1 = 2r2 enters a region containing a uniform magnetic field
Magnetic field at the centre of a current-carrying B directed along the negative z -direction, extending
circular coil, from x = a to x = b . The minimum value of u
m nI required, so that the particle can just enter the region
B = 0 ? nI of x > b is
2r r
B1 = n1 I1 r2 qbB qaB
Therefore, (a) (b)
B2 n2 # I2 # r1 m m
q (b - a) B q (b + a) B
= 2 # I1 # r2 = 1 (c)
m
(d)
2m
4 2I1 2r2 8
B2 = 8B1 = 8 # 8 = 64 T Ans : SQP 2002, Foreign 2011
Where, B2 = final magnetic field at centre of coil Mass of particle = m

Thus (a) is correct option. Charge on particle = q
19. Two circular coils of radii 15 cm and 30 cm are made Velocity of particle = u
of similar wires and have same number of turns. If ...(directed along positive x -direction)
they are connected in parallel, then ratio of their
magnetic inductions at the centre of the coils is Uniform magnetic field = B
(a) 1 : 2 (b) 2 : 1 ...(directed along negative z -direction,
(c) 1 : 4 (d) 4 : 1 extending from x = a to x = b )
Ans : OD 2004 When a charged particle enters in a uniform magnetic
Radius of first coil, r1 = 15 cm = 0.15 m field, directed vertically upwards, then the particle
m0i Numbers of turns in coil = n

Since, B =
2R
Area of coil = A
i = 2BR ...(2) and angle between normal to the surface of coil and
m0
magnetic field = q .
A = pR2 (for circular loop) ...(3)
Torque experienced by the coil,
Substituting the value of Eq. (3) and (2) in Eq. (1),
t = nIAB sin q
we get,
M = 2BR # A
m0 27. The radius of a circular path in which an electron
will move, when subjected to a perpendicular uniform
= 2BR # A = 2BRA # A
m0 m0 A magnetic field (B), is
(a) me (b) mB
3/2
= 2BRA 2 [From Eq. (3)] B e
m 0 pR
3/2 (c) Be (d) mu
= 2BA mu Be
m0 p Ans : Delhi 2009
Thus (d) is correct option. Centrifugal force on the electron,
25. A proton moving with a velocity 2.5 # 107 ms-1 , enters F1 = m w2 r
a magnetic field of intensity 2.5 T at an angle 30c with 2
= ma u k r = m u
2
the magnetic field. The force on the proton is r r
(a) 3 # 10-12 N (b) 5 # 10-12 N And magnetic force on the moving charge in the
(c) 6 # 10-12 N (d) 9 # 10-12 N magnetic field,
Ans : OD 2011 F2 = Beu
Velocity of proton, 7
u = 2.5 # 10 ms -1 Equating these two forces,
Intensity of magnetic field, B = 2.5 T m u2 = Beu

r
and angle between magnetic field and direction of
motion of proton, r = mu
Be
q = 30c where, e = charge on electron
Force acting on the charged particle in magnetic field,
and r = Radius of circular path
F = q uB sin q
where, q = charge of proton equal to 1.6 # 10-19 C 28. A charged particle of mass m and charge q travels on
= (1.6 # 10-19) # (2.5 # 107) a circular path of radius r that is perpendicular to
the magnetic field B. The time-taken by the particle
# 2.5 # sin 30c
to complete one revolution is
-12
= (10 # 10 ) # 0.5 2pqB
(a) 2pm (b)
-12 qB m
= 5 # 10 N
2pmq 2pq2 B
Thus (b) is correct option. (c) (d)
B m
26. A current-carrying coil is placed in a uniform magnetic Ans : OD 2007, Comp 2002
field of induction B . The current in the coil is I , it Mass of particle = m
has n turns and A is the face area of coil and normal
to the surface makes an angle q with B . The torque Charge on particle = q
experienced by the coil is Radius of circular path = r
(a) nIAB q (b) nIAB cos q and, Magnetic field = B
(c) nIAB sin q (d) nIAB tan q Magnetic force on the charged particle in magnetic
field,
Ans : SQP 2014
F1 = Bq u
Magnetic field induction = B
and centrifugal force on the charged particle moving
Current in coil = I
in circular path,
Since, when current in both the conductors flows in Magnetic field induction at the end of the solenoid on
the same direction, therefore force between them will its axis,
be attractive. m nI
B = 0
Thus (a) is correct option. 2
33. A current-carrying loop is placed in a uniform magnetic (4p # 10-7) # 800 # 1.6
=
field. The torque acting on it does not depend upon 2
(a) area of loop = 8.038 # 10-4 . 8 # 10-4 T
(b) shape of loop (where m 0 = Absolute permeability of free space equal
to 4p # 10-7 Wb - A-1 - m-1 )
(c) no. of turns in loop
(d) strength of current and magnetic field
36. A circular loop of area 0.01 m2 carrying a current
Ans : Foreign 2017
of 10 A , is held perpendicular to a magnetic field of
Torque acting on a current-carrying loop in a uniform
intensity 0.1 T. The torque acting on the loop is
magnetic field,
(a) zero (b) 0.01 N-m
t = nIAB sin q
(c) 0.1 N-m (d) 0.8 N-m
Therefore, torque does not depend on the shape of
loop. Ans : OD 2010, SQP 2005
2
(where I = current, A = area of loop, B = magnetic field, Area of circular loop, A = 0.01 m
n = no. of turns in loop and q = Angle between Current in the loop, I = 10 A
magnetic field and normal to the surface of coil) Angle between the magnetic field and normal to the
Thus (b) is correct option. surface of coil,
34. On connecting a battery to the two corners of a q = 0c
diagonal of a square conductor frame of side a , the
Magnetic field, B = 0.1 T
magnitude of magnetic field at the centre will be
m Torque acting on the loop,
(a) zero (b) 0
pa t = IAB sin q
m0 2m 0
(c) (d) = 10 # 0.01 # 0.1 # sin 0c
2p a pa
Ans : OD 2005 =0
When a battery is connected two corners of a diagonal Thus (a) is correct option.
of a square conductor frame, then the conductor frame
can be taken as two sets of parallel wires carrying
currents in the same direction. Magnetic field at the ASSERTION AND REASON
centre due to two parallel wires carrying currents in
the same direction will be equal in magnitude, but
37. Assertion : To convert a galvanometer into an ammeter
opposite in directions.
a small resistance is connected in parallel with it.
Therefore, magnitude of the magnetic field at the
Reason : The small resistance increases the combined
centre will be zero.
resistance of the combination.
35. A long solenoid has 800 turns per meter length of Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
solenoid. A current of 1.6 A flows through it. The (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but
magnetic field induction at the end of the solenoid on Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion.
its axis is
(a) 4 # 10-4 T (b) 8 # 10-4 T
(c) 16 # 10-4 T (d) 32 # 10-4 T
Ans :
Ans : Delhi 2013
An ammeter should have a low resistance which we
Number of turns per metre length,
get when we connect low resistance in parallel with
n = 800 galvanometer.
Current in solenoid, I = 1.6 A Thus (c) is correct option.

Ans :
Reversing the direction of the current reverses the
direction of the magnetic field. However, it has no
effect on the magnetic field energy density, which is
proportional to the square of the magnitude of the
magnetic field.
46. Is the steady electric current the only source of
43. Assertion : A charge, whether stationary or in motion magnetic field? Justify your answer.
produces a magnetic field around it.
Ans : OD 2020
Reason : Moving charges produce only electric field in
Yes, the net magnetic force acting on a wire carrying
the surrounding space.
a steady (constant) electric current I in an external
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and magnetic field B and is given by
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion. F = IdlB
47. State Ampere’s circuit law.
Ans : Delhi 2016
It states that the line integral of the magnetic field Bv
around any closed circuit is equal to m 0 times the total
Ans : current I passing through this closed circuit.
A charge, whether stationary or in motion, produces
an electric field around it. If it is in motion, then # Bv $ dlv = m0I
in addition to the electric field, it also produces a 48. Write the expression, in a vector form, for the Lorentz
magnetic field, because moving charges produces
magnetic force Fv due to a charge moving with velocity
magnetic field in the surrounding space.
vv in a magnetic field Bv . What is the direction of the
Thus (d) is correct option. magnetic force ?
Force, v v
F = q (vv # B)
Obviously, the force on charged particle is perpendicular
44. Using the concept of force between two infinitely to both velocity vv and magnetic field Bv .
long parallel current carrying conductors define one 49. Must every magnetic field configuration have a north
ampere of current. pole and a south pole? Explain with example.
Ans : Delhi 2020
Ans : Foreign 2011
One ampere is that value of current which flows through Ans :
two straight, parallel infinitely long current carrying
No, because the concept of magnetic poles is fictitious;
conductors placed in air or vacuum at a distance
the fundamental quantity in magnetism is magnetic
of 1 m and they experience a force of attractive or
moment. Therefore, a toroid (endless solenoid) and a
repulsive nature of magnitude 2 # 10-7 N/m on their
straight conductor do not have north and south poles.
unit length.
50. What will be the path of a charged particle moving
45. Draw the magnetic field lines due to a current carrying
along the direction of a uniform magnetic field ?
loop.
Ans : OD 2019
Ans : Comp 2021
The path of particle will remain unchanged (since
Magnetic field lines due to a current carrying loop are
magnetic force Fm = qvB sin q = 0 ).
given by
to its coil. So, the galvanometer gives full scale SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
deflection.
2. In converting a galvanometer into an ammeter, 62. Write an expression for the maximum kinetic energy
a very small suitable resistance is connected in acquired by charged particles accelerated by a
parallel in parallel to its coil. The remaining cyclotron.
pair of the current i.e., (I - Ig) flows through the Ans : OD 2018
resistance.
The ions will attain maximum velocity near the
Here, I = Circuit current periphery of the dees. If v0 is the maximum velocity
and Ig = Current through galvanometer acquired by the ions and r0 is the radius of the dees,
then
59. Write any two important points of similarities
mv 02
between Coulomb’s law for the electrostatic field and = qv0 B
r0
Biot-Savart’s law for the electrostatic field and Biot- qBr0
Savart’s law for the magnetic field. v0 =
m
Ans : Delhi 2020 The maximum kinetic energy of the ions will be,
Similarities of electrostatic field and magnetic field: qBr0 2
K0 = 1 mv 02 = 1 m b
1. Follows the principle of superposition. 2 2 m l
2. Depends inversely on the square of distance from q2 B2 r 02
source to the point of interest. K0 =
2m
60. Two particles A and B of masses m and 2m have 63. Give some points of similarities and differences
charges q and 2q respectively. They are moving with between Biot-Savart law for the magnetic field and
velocities v1 and v2 respectively. in the same direction, Coulomb’s law for the electrostatic field.
enters the same magnetic field B acting normally to Ans : Delhi 2021
their direction of motion. If the two forces FA and FB According to Coulomb’s law, the electric field
acting on them are in the ratio of 1 : 2, find the ratio produced by a charged element is,
of their velocities.
dq
Ans : dE = 1 2
Comp 2019, OD 2011 4pe 0 r
Ratio of forces acting on the two particles,
According to Biot-Savart law, the magnetic field
FA = qv1 B sin 90c produced by a current element I dl is,
FB (2q) v2 B sin 90c
m q
dB = 0 I dl sin
= 1 = v1 4p r2
2 2v2
v1 = 1 On comparing the above two equations, we can note
v2 the following points:
v1 : v2 = 1: 1 Points of Similarity
1. Both fields depend inversely on the square of the
61. A magnetic field that varies in magnitude from point distance from the source.
to point but has a constant direction (east to west)
2. Both are long range fields.
is set up in a chamber. A charged particle enters the
3. The principle of superposition is applicable to
chamber and travels undeflected along a straight path
both fields.
with constant speed. What can you say about the
direction of initial velocity of the particle? Points of Difference
Ans : SQP 2013
1. The magnetic field is produced by a vector source:
the current element I dl v . The electrostatic field is
Magnetic force on the particle,
produced by a scalar source: the electric charge dg .
Fm = qvB sin q 2. The direction of the electrostatic field is along
The particle will remain undeflected if, the displacement vector joining the source and
sin q = 0 the field point. The direction of the magnetic
field is perpendicular to the plane containing the
q = 0c or 180c displacement vector rv and the current element
v.
I dl
Therefore, the initial velocity of the particle should
be parallel or anti-parallel to the magnetic field (i.e., 3. In Bio-Savart law, the magnitude of the magnetic
either east to west or west to east). field is proportional to the sine of the angle between
67. State the factors on which the force acting on a

charge moving in a magnetic field depends. Write the
expression for this force. When is this force minimum
and maximum?
Ans : OD 2019
As shown in figure, suppose a charge q moves with

velocity vv in a magnetic field Bv at angle q .
m 0 ITl sin q
TB = 4p
R2
where q is angle between current element AB and the
line joining the element to centre O .
Here, q = 90c
m 0 Idl
Hence, TB = 4p 2
R
Resultant magnetic field,
B = # TB
m 0 Idl m0 I
= # 4pR2
=
4pR2
# dl
For Semicircle, # dl = pR
Magnetic Lorentz Force
m0 I m0$I
= # pR =
Form experiments, it is found that the charge q 4pR2 mR
experiences a force Fv such that, 69. Show that a tangent galvanometer measures that
1. The force is proportional to the magnitude of the current with maximum accuracy which produces 45c
magnetic field, i.e., F ? B deflection.
2. The force if proportional to the charge q , i.e., Ans : Foreign 2013, SQP 2008
F?q For a tangent galvanometer,
3. The force is proportional to the component of the i = k tan q ...(1)
velocity v in the perpendicular direction of the
field B , i.e., F ? v sin q di = k sec2 q
dq
Combining the above factors, we get
d (tan q)
F ? Bqv sin q ;Since, dt
= sec2 q E
F = kqvB sin q di = k sec2 qdq
The unit of magnetic field is so defined that the i i
proportionality constant k becomes unity in the From Eq. (1), we get
above equation. Then di = k sec2 qdq
F = qvB sin q
i k tan q
di = 1 # cos qdq
As the direction of Fv is perpendicular to both vv and i cos2 q sin q
Bv , so we can express Fv as
Fv = q (vv # Bv) ;Since, sec q = 1 , tan q = sin q E
cos q cos q
68. Applying Biot-Savart’s law deduce the expression for di = dq
the magnetic field at the centre of a semicircular loop i cos q sin q
of radius R carrying current I .
di = 2dq
Ans : Delhi 2020 i 2 cos q sin q
Consider a semicircular coil of radius R carrying di = 2dq
sin 2q 6since 2q 2 sin q cos q @
current I in anti-clock wise direction as shown in the =
i
figure according to Biot Savart’s law the magnetic sin 2qdi
field due to current element AB at centre O is, dq = 2i
Applying Ampere’s circuital law for loops L1 and L2 , 75. Write the expression for Lorentz magnetic force on
we get a particle of charge q moving with velocity vv in a
$ magnetic field Bv . Show that no work is done by this
#L Bv $ dl
1
= m 0 IC
force on the charged particle.
Ans :
$
#L Bv $ dl = m0 # 0 = 0 Delhi 2019
2
Magnetic Lorentz force,
This violates the concept of continuity of electric
current. Maxwell introduced the concept of Fvm = q (vv # Bv)
displacement current flowing in space due to varying Fv = vv
electric field such that
Force is perpendicular to displacement made by
df
IC = ID = e 0 E charge particle.
dt
This maintained continuity of current. Hence, W = Fd cos 90c = 0
Hence, Modified Ampere’s circuital law is given by, [since, F and displacement are perpendicular to each
$ other]
# Bv $ dl = m 0 (IC + ID)
W =0
74. Considering the case of a parallel plate capacitor No work is done by magnetic Lorentz force on the
being charged, show how one is required to generalise charge particle.
Ampere’s circuital law to include the term due to
76. How is a moving coil galvanometer converted into
displacement current.
a voltmeter? Explain giving the necessary circuit
Ans : OD 2017, SQP 2010
diagram and the required mathematical relation used.
Ampere’s circuital law conduction current during
Ans : SQP 2009
charging of a capacitor was found inconsistent.
A galvanometer can be converted into a voltmeter by
Therefore, Maxwell modified Ampere’s circuital law
connecting a very high resistance R in series with it.
by introducting displacement current.
Let R is so chosen that current Ig gives full deflection
Ampere’s circuit law # Bv $ dl
v = m 0 I was modified to
in the galvanometer where Ig is the range of
# Bv $ dlv = m 0 (IC + ID) galvanometer.
It is called modified Ampere’s circuital law or Ampere-

Maxwell’s circuital law.
The displacement current arising due to time varying
df
electric field is given by ID = e 0 E
dt
Therefore, modified Ampere’s circuital law may be
expressed as
df
# Bv $ dlv = m 0 IbIC + e 0 dtE l
Let galvanometer G of resistance R , range Ig is to be
The following inferences can be drawn from the above converted into voltmeter of range V (volt). Now,
discussion
V = Ig (G + R)
(i) The conduction and displacement currents are
individually discontinuous, but the currents R+G =V
together possess the property of continuity Ig
through any closed electric circuit. R =V -G
Ig
(ii) The displacement current is precisely equal to
the conduction current when the two present in The appropriate scale need to be graduated to measure
different parts of the circuit. potential difference.
(iii) The displacement current arises due to the rate of 77. Write the expression for the force, Fv acting on a
change of electric flux (or electric field) between charged particle of charge q , moving with a velocity vv
the two plates of the capacitor.
in the presence of both electric field Ev and magnetic
(iv) Just as the conduction current is the displacement
field Bv . Obtain the condition under which the particle
current is also the source of magnetic field.
moves undeflected through the fields.
Chap 4 Moving Charge and Magnetism Page 191
Ans : SQP 2014

79. State the rules to find the direction of force on a
Force Fv acting on a charge q moving with velocity v charge moving in a perpendicular magnetic field.
in the presence of both electric field Ev and magnetic Ans : Delhi 2017, OD 2003
field Bv is Rules for finding the direction of force on a charged
Fv = qEv + q (vv # Bv) particle moving perpendicular to a magnetic field :
1. Fleming’s Left Hand Rule : Stretch the thumb
Consider a region in which magnetic field, electric
and the first two fingers of the left hand mutually
field and velocity of charge particle are perpendicular
perpendicular to each other. If the forefinger
to each other.
points in the direction of the magnetic field,
To move charge particle undeflected the net force acting central finger in the direction of current, then
on the particle must be zero i.e., the electric force must the thumb gives the direction of the force on the
be equal and opposite to the magnetic force. charged particle.
qE = qvB
v =E
B
The direction of electric and magnetic forces are in
opposite direction. Their magnitudes are in such a
way that they cancel out each other to give net force
zero so that the charge particle does not deflect.
78. Define current sensitivity and voltage sensitivity of a
galvanometer. Increasing the current sensitivity may
not necessarily increase the voltage sensitivity of a
galvanometer. Justify.
Ans : Delhi 2012
Current Sensitivity : The current sensitivity of a

galvanometer is defined as the deflection product in
the galvanometer when a unit charge flows through it.
If a current i produces a deflection f in the
galvanometer, then current sensitivity is
f
= NAB ...(1)
i C
Voltage Sensitivity : The voltage sensitivity of a
galvanometer is defined as the deflection produced
in the galvanometer when a unit voltage is applied Fleming’s Left Hand Rule
across its coil. If a voltage V produces a defection f 2. Right Hand (palm) Rule : Open the right hand
in the galvanometer, then voltage sensitivity is and place it so that tips of the fingers point in
f f the direction of the field B v and thumb in the
= ...(2)
V iR direction of velocity v of the positive charge, then
v
To explain that increasing the current sensitivity may the palm faces towards the force F v.
not necessarily increase the voltage sensitivity let
use assume that we double the number of turns i.e.,
N " 2N , then
f f
Current sensitivity, "2 ...(3)
i i
So, current sensitivity doubles. However, the resistance
of the galvanometer is also likely to double, since it is
proportional to the length of the wire. So,
N " 2N and R " 2R
f f
So, voltage sensitivity, "
V V
NAB 1
<As f = b C l R F remains unchanged. Right Hand Palm Rule
82. A long solenoid of length L having N turns carries

a current I. Deduce the expression for the magnetic
field in the interior of the solenoid.
Consider a rectangular path abcd of length L as shown

in figure below. Let us apply Ampere’s circuital law to
this rectangular path, so that, we have
Here, I1 = I , I2 = 3 I , N1 = N2 = N
R1 = R2 = R
The magnetic field induction at the centre O of two
concentric coils inclined at 90c is
B = B 12 + B 22
m NI 2 m NI 2
= c 02R1 1 m + c 02R2 1 m
1 2
b c d a
# Bv $ dL
v
= # Bv $ dL
v + # Bv $ dL
v + # Bv $ dL
v + # Bv $ dL
v m 20 N 2 I 2 m 0 N ( 3 I ) 2
= +
a b c d 4R2 4R2
b m NI m NI
= 0 1+3 = 0
= # Bv $ dL
v + 0 + 0 + 0 = BL ...(1) 2R R
a
84. Write the expression for the generalised for of
c a
Ampere’s circuital law. Discuss its significance and
Since, # Bv $ dL
v = # Bv $ dL
v =0 [since, f = 90c]
describe briefly how the concept of displacement
b d
current is explained through charging/discharging of
d
a capacitor in an electric circuit.
# Bv $ dL
v =0 [since, B = 0 ]
c Ans : OD 2015
But by Ampere’s circuital law, we have The generalised form of Ampere’s circuital law,
modified by Maxwell states that
# Bv $ dL
v = m 0 NI = m 0 (nL) I ...(2)
# Bv $ dlv = m 0 (IC + ID)
From equations (1) and (2), we have df E
BL = m 0 nLI = m 0 b1 + e 0 dt l
or B = m 0 nI While dealing with the charging of a parallel plate

capacitor with varying current. It was found that
But n = N/I , therefore, we have
Ampere’s circuital law is not logically consistent,
B = m 0 NI because # Bv $ dlv has not the same value on the two
L
sides of a plate of charged capacitor. The inconsistency
This gives the value of magnetic field inside a solenoid.
of Ampere’s circuital law was removed by Maxwell
by predicting the presence of displacement current in
83. Two identical coils, each of radius R and number the region between the plates of capacitor, when the
of turns N are lying in perpendicular planes such charge on the capacitor is changing with time. So,
that their centres coincide. Find the magnitude and displacement current is the missing term (which is
direction of the resultant magnetic field at the centre related with the changing electric field which passes
of the coils, if they are carrying currents I and 3 I through the surface between the plates of capacitor).
respectively. In this way, Maxwell pointed out that for consistency
Ans : Comp 2008 of Ampere’s circuital law, there must be displacement
current ID along with the conduction current in the
closed loop as (IC + ID) has the property of continuity.
Hence, force between two parallel current carrying A galvanometer is converted into an ammeter by
conductors on a segment L of conductor B due to A connecting a small resistance (called shunt) in parallel
is given by with it.
m I I Resistance of voltmeter, RV = G + R
F = 0 A B
2pd
87. A galvanometer of resistance G is converted into a

voltmeter to measure upto V volts by connecting a
resistance R1 in series with the coil. If a resistance R2
is connected in series with it, then it can measure upto
V/2 volts. Find the resistance, in terms of R1 and R2 ,
required to be connected to convert it into a voltmeter
that can read upto 2 V. Also find the resistance G of
the galvanometer in terms of R1 and R2 .
Ans : Delhi 2015
Let Ig be the current through galvanometer at full

deflection to measure V volts,
V = Ig (G + R1) ...(1)
Resistance of Ammeter, RA = Grs
According to question G + rs
V = I (G + R ) ...(2)
g 2
2
2 V = Ig (G + R3) ...(3)
To measure for conversion of range dividing equation
(1) by equation (2),
2 = G + R1
G + R2
G = R1 - 2R2
Putting the value of G in equation (1), we have
Ig = V
R1 - 2R2 + R1
Ig = V
2R1 - 2R2
Substituting the value of G and Ig in equation (3),
we have 89. In a certain region of space, electric field Ev and
V magnetic field Bv are perpendicular to each other.
2V = (R - 2R2 + R3)
2R1 - 2R2 1 An electron enters in the region perpendicular to the
4R1 - 4R2 = R1 - 2R2 + R3 directions of both Bv and Ev and moves undeflected.
Find the velocity of the electron.
R3 = 3R1 - 2R2
Ans : SQP 2010
Net force on electron moving in the combined electric

88. How is a galvanometer converted into a voltmeter and
field Ev and magnetic field Bv is
an ammeter ? Draw the relevant diagrams and find
the resistance of the arrangement in each case. Take Fv = - e [Ev + vv # Bv ]
resistance of galvanometer as G . Since electron moves undeflected then Fv = 0
or
Ev + vv # Bv = 0
Briefly explain why and how a galvanometer is
converted into an ammeter. Ev = vv # Bv
Ans : SQP 2023, OD 2016 Ev
vv = v
A galvanometer is converted into a voltmeter by B
connecting a high resistance R in series with it.
# Bv $ dlv = m 0 # Total current through the loop abcd

Now,
b c d a
# Bv $ dlv = # Bv $ dlv + # Bv $ dlv + # Bv $ dlv + # Bv $ dlv
a b c d
c c
Considering a small element dl on current loop. The
But, # Bv $ dlv = # Bdl cos 90c = 0 magnetic field dB due to small current element Idl at
b b
a a centre C .
# Bv $ dlv = # Bdl cos 90c = 0 Using Biot-Savart’s law, we have
d d
m
d dB = 0 $ Idl sin 90c
4p r2
# Bv $ dlv =0
c [since Idl = r , hence q = 90c]
As, B = 0 for points outside the solenoid. m 0 Idl
dB = $
b 4p r2
Hence, # Bv $ dlv = # Bv $ dlv Net magnetic field at C due to semi-circular loop,
a
b b m 0 Idl
B = #
= # Bdl cos 0c = B # dl = Bl semi - circle 4p r
2
a a
m0 I
where, l is length of the side ab of the rectangular =
4p r2 #semi - circledl
loop abcd .
m0 I
Let, number of turns per unit length of the solenoid = $ L
4p r2
= n . Then number of turns in length l of the solenoid
= nl . But, r =L
p
Hence, total current threading the loop abcd = nlI .
m
Hence, Bl = m 0 nlI B = 0 $ IL 2
4p (L/p)
or B = m 0 nI m
= 0 # IL2 # p2
It can be easily shown that the magnetic field at 4p L
the end of the solenoid is just one half of that at its m 0 Ip
=
middle. Thus, 4L
This is the required expression.
B end = 1 m 0 nI
2
93. How will you convert a galvanometer into an ammeter
92. A straight wire of length L is bent into a semi-circular of range 0 - I amperes? What is the effective
loop. Use Biot-Savart’s law to deduce an expression resistance of an ammeter?
for the magnetic field at its centre due to the current Ans : Foreign 2015, SQP 2010
I passing through it. An ordinary galvanometer cannot as such be used
Ans : Foreign 2011 as an ammeter to measure current in a circuit. This
When a straight was is bent into semi-circular loop, is because of two reasons: (1) Galvanometer is a
then there are two parts which can produce the very sensitive device, it gives a full-scale deflection
magnetic field at the centre one is circular part and with a small current of a few mA . (2) For measuring
other is straight part due to which field is zero. currents, the galvanometer has to be connected
Length L is bent into semi-circular loop. in series, and as it has a large resistance, this will
decrease the value of current in the circuit. To
Length of wire = Circumference of semi-equal circular
overcome these difficulties, a small resistance, called
wire shunt resistance, is connected in parallel with the
L = pr galvanometer coil, so that most of the current passes
through the shunt.
r =L ...(1)
p
95. (i) A point charge q moving with speed V enters a Direction of Lorentz magnetic force is negative
uniform magnetic field B that is acting into the along Y -axis.
plane of the paper as shown. What is the path Therefore, direction of Ev is positive along Y -axis.
followed by the charge q and in which plane does
96. Derive a mathematical expression for the force acting
it move ?
on a current carrying straight conductor kept in a
(ii) How does the path followed by the charge get magnetic field. State the rule used to determine the
affected it its velocity has a component parallel to
direction of this force. Under what conditions if this
Bv ? force (1) zero and (2) maximum?
(iii) If an electric field Ev is also applied such that Ans : OD 2019, SQP 2013
the particle continues moving along the original
straight line path, what should be the magnitude As shown in figure, consider a conductor PQ of
and direction of the electric field Ev ? length l , area of cross-section A, carrying current I
along + ve Y -direction. The field Bv acts along + ve
Z -direction. The electrons drift towards left with
velocity vvd . Each electron experiences a magnetic
Lorentz force along + ve X -axis, which is given by,
fv = - e (vvd # Bv)
Ans : SQP 2011

(i) The force experienced by the charge particle is
given by
Fv = q (vv # Bv)
When vv is perpendicular to Bv , the force on the
charge particle acts as the centripetal force and
makes it move along a circular path. Path followed
by charge is anticlockwise in X - Y plane. The
point charge moves in the plane perpendicular to Force on a Current in a Magnetic Field
both vv and Bv . In n is the number of free electrons per unit volume,
(ii) A component of velocity of charge particle is then total number of electrons in the conductor is,
parallel to the direction of the force of the electric
N = n # volume = nAl
field, the force experienced due to that component
will be zero. This is because F = qvB sin 0c = 0 . Total force on the conductor is,
Thus, particle will move in straight line. Fv = Nfv = nAl [- e (vvd # Bv)]
Also, the force experienced by the component
= enA [- lvvd # Bv ]
perpendicular to Bv moves the particle in a circular
path. The combined effect of both the components If I lv represents a current element vector in the
will move the particle in a helical path. direction of current, then vectors lv and vva will have
(iii) Magnetic force on the charge, q opposite directions and we can take,
FvB = q (vv # Bv) - l vvd = vd lv
= q [v (- it) # B (- kt)] Hence, Fv = enAvd (lv # Bv)
Hence, for moving charge, q in its original path Fv = I (lv # Bv) [since enAvd = I ]
FvE + FvB = 0 Magnitude of Force
FvB = qvB (- tj ) The magnitude of the force on the current carrying
conductor is given by
Hence, Ev = vB (- tj )
F = IlB sin q
Taking magnitude both side,
where q is the angle between the direction of the
Ev = q vB = vB magnetic field and the direction of flow of current.
q
v is directed along the length of the wire in the

(dl
direction of current and rv is the vector joining the
centre of current element to the point P )
(b) Field due to current in coil P is
m I
Bv2 = 0 1 $ k
2R
(Assuming current to be anticlockwise as seen
form + ve Z -axis)
and that due to current in coil Q is
m I Magnetic Lines of Force of a Straight Current
Bv2 = 0 2 tj Carrying Conductor
2R
(Assuming current to be anticlockwise as seen
Rules for Finding the Direction of Magnetic Field
form positive X -axis)
Due to Straight Current Carrying Conductor
Hence, net field, Bv = Bv1 + Bv2 Either of the following two rules can be used for this
m 0 I1 m 0 I2
Bv = b 2R l kt + b 2R l it purpose.
1. Right Hand Thumb Rule : If we hold the straight
Since, I1 = 2 A and I2 = 3A conductor in the grip of our right hand in such a way
that the extended thumb points in the direction of
m0 3 m0 t
= a 2R k kt + c mi current, then the direction of the curl of the fingers
2R will give the direction of the magnetic field.
2
m0 2 3 m0
Bv = a k +c m
2R 2R
m0 m
= (1 + 3) = 0 # 2
2R 2R
m
Hence, Bv = 0
R
The field is directed in XZ plane.
Let q be the angle of Bv with positive X -axis.
m0 3 m0
Then, tan q = c 2R m d n
2R
or tan q = 1
3
q = 30c
Thus, Bv is directed in XZ plane making an angle Right Hand Rule for Field Due to a Straight
of 30c with X -axis. Conductor
2. Maxwell’s Cork Screw Rule : If a right-handed
99. Sketch the magnetic lines of force of straight current screw be rotated along the wire so that it advances
carrying conductor. State the rules used to find the in the direction of current, then the direction in
direction of this magnetic field. which the thumb rotates gives the direction of the
Ans : OD 2021 magnetic field.
Magnetic Field Pattern of a Straight Current
Carrying Conductor
The magnetic lines of force of a straight current
carrying conductor are concentric circles with the
wire at the centre and in a plane perpendicular to
the wire. If the current flows upwards, the lines of
force have anticlockwise sense [Figure (a)] and if the
current flows downwards, then the lines of force have
clockwise sense [Figure (b)].
Cork Screw Rule for Field Due to a Straight
Conductor
100. Discuss the motion of a charged particle in a uniform T = 2pr = 2p $ mv = 2pm

magnetic field with initial velocity (1) parallel to the v v qB qB
field, (2) perpendicular to the magnetic field and (3) The frequency of revolution is,
at an arbitrary angle with the field direction. qB
fc = 1 =
Ans : Comp 2021, OD 2013 T 2pm
When a charged particle having charge q and velocity This frequency is independent of v and r and is
vv enters a magnetic field Bv , it experiences a force, called cyclotron frequency.
3. When the Initial Velocity Makes an Arbitrary
Fv = q (vv # Bv)
Angle with the Field Direction : Consider a
The direction of this force is perpendicular to both vv charged particle q entering a uniform magnetic
and Bv . The magnitude of this force is, field Bv with velocity vv inclined at an angle q with
F = qvB sin q the direction of Bv .
Following three cases are possible:
1. When the Initial Velocity is Parallel to the
Magnetic Field : Here q = 0c, so F = qvB sin 0c
= 0 . Thus the parallel magnetic field does not
exert any force on the moving charged particle.
The charged particle will continue to move along
the line of force.
2. When the Initial Velocity is Perpendicular to the
Magnetic Field : Figure shows a magnetic field
Bv directed normally into the plane of paper, so
shown by small crosses. A charge + q is projected
with a speed v in the plane of the paper. The
velocity is perpendicular to the magnetic field. A The Perpendicular Component : v= = v sin q of
force F = qvB acts on the particle perpendicular the initial velocity makes the charge move along a
circular path of radius,
to both vv and Bv . This force continuously deflects
the particle sideways without changing its r = mv= = mv sin q
speed and the particle will move along a circle qB qB
perpendicular to the field. Thus the magnetic The period of revolution is,
force provides the centripetal force. Let r be the T = 2pr = 2p $ mv sin q
radius of the circular path. v= v sin q qB
= 2p m
qB
The Parallel Component : vz = v cos q of the
initial velocity makes it move along the direction
of the magnetic field. Hence the resultant path of
the charged particle will be a helix, with its axis
along the direction of Bv .
Centripetal force,
mv2 = Magnetic force, qvB
r
r = mv
qB
Period of revolution, Helical Motion of a Charged Particle in a Magnetic
Field
The distance moved along the magnetic field in m 0 Idl sin 90c
dB = $
one rotation is called pitch of the helical path. 4p (r2 + a2)
m
Pitch = vz # T = v cos q # 2pm = 0 $ 2Idl 2
qB 4p (r + a )
= 2pmv cos q where, a = radius of circular loop
qB
and r =distance of point P from the centre
101. Explain Biot-Savart law. With its help derive an C along the axis.
expression for the magnetic field at any point on the
According to right hand screw rule, the direction of dB
axis of a current carrying circular loop.
is perpendicular to LP and along PQ , where PQ = LP
Ans : OD 2017
. Similarly, the same magnitude of magnetic field is
According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnitude of obtained due to current element Idl at the bottom and
magnetic field induction (dB) at a point P due to a direction is along PQl, where PQl = MP .
current element depends on the following factors: Now, resolving dB due to current element at L and
1. dB \ I (i.e., magnetic field is directly proportional M . So, dB cos f components balance each other and
to the current flowing through the conductor). net magnetic field is given by,
2. dB \ dl (i.e. magnetic field is directly proportional
to the length of the element.) B = # dB sin f
3. dB \ sin q (i.e., magnetic field is directly m 0 Idl a
= # 4p c r2 + a2 m
$
proportional to the sine of angle between the r2 + a2
length of element and line joining the element to a
point, P ). :Since, In TPCL, sin f = r2 + a2 D
Combining all the above relation dB ? Idlrsin q .
2
m0 Ia
4p (r2 + a2) 3/2 #
This relation is called Biot-Savart’s law. = dl
Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Current
m0 Ia
Carrying Loop # dl =
4p (r2 + a2) 3/2
(2pa)
Let us consider a circular loop of radius a with centre
C . Let the plane of the coil be perpendicular to the m 0 Ia2
or B =
plane of the paper and current I be flowing in the 2 (r2 + a2) 3/2
direction shown. Suppose P is any point on the axis For N turns, the net magnetic field is given by,
of a coil at a distance r from the centre C . m 0 NIa2
B =
2 (r2 + a2) 3/2
102. Using Biot-Savart’s law, derive the expression for the
magnetic field in the vector form at a point on the
axis of a circular current carrying loop.
Ans : Comp 2013
Magnetic field on the axis of a circular current loop.
Now, consider a current element Idl on top L , where

current comes out of paper normally, whereas at bottom
M , current enters into the plane paper normally.
Since, LP = dl
Also, MP = dl
Hence, LP = MP = r2 + a2
I " Current in the loop,
The magnetic field at a point P due to the current
element Idl, according to Biot-Savart’s law is given by, R " Radius of the loop,
X -axis " Axis of the loop, Construction

x " Distance OP The moving coil galvanometer consists of a coil with
many turns free to rotate about a fixed axis, in a
dl " Conducting element of the loop uniform radial magnetic field. There is a cylindrical
According to Biot-Savart’s law, the magnetic field at soft iron core which not only makes the field radial
P is but also increases the strength of the magnetic field.
m 0 I dl # r When a current flows through the coil, a torque acts
dB = on it.
4pr3
r2 = x2 + R2 Working
Suppose the coil PQRS is suspended freely in the
dl # r = r dl magnetic field. Let l be length PQ or RS of the coil,
[since, they are perpendicular] b be breadth QR or SP of the coil, N be number
of turns in the coil and area of each turn of the coil,
m0
dB = $ Idl A = l # b . Let B be strength of the magnetic field
4p (x2 + R2)
in which coil is suspended and I is current passing
dB has two components - dBx and dB1 , dB1 is through the coil in the direction PQRS .
cancelled out and only the x -component remains. Let at any instant, a be the angle, which
dBx = dB cos q normal drawn on the plane of the coil makes with
R the direction of magnetic field. The rectangular coil
cos q = carrying current when placed in the magnetic field
(x2 + R2) 1/2
experiences a torque whose magnitude is given by
m 0 Idl
Hence, dBx = $ 2 R 2 3/2 t = NIBA sin a . Due to deflecting torque, the coil
4p (x - R ) rotates and suspension wire gets twisted. A restoring
Summation of dl over the loop is given by 2pR . torque is set up in the suspension wire.
m 0 IR2 Let q be the twist produced in the phosphor
B = Bx it = it
2 (x2 + R2) 3/2 bronze strip due to rotation of the coil and k be the
103. 1. Explain principle and working of a moving coil restoring torque per unit twist of the phosphor bronze
galvanometer. Derive an expression for current stripe. The,
sensitivity. Total restoring torque produced = kq
2. Compare between moving coil galvanometer and In equilibrium position of the coil,
moving magnet galvanometer. Deflecting torque = Restoring torque
Ans : SQP 2006, OD 2017
NIBA = kq
1. Moving Coil Galvanometer
Principle I = k q = Gq
NBA
Its working is based on the fact that when a current
where, k =G
carrying coil is placed in a magnetic field, it experiences NBA
a torque.
It is known as galvanometer constant.
i.e. q \ I . It means that the deflection produced
is proportional to the current flowing through the
galvanometer.
Current sensitivity
Current sensitivity of the galvanometer is the
deflection per unit current flowing through it.
It is given by, IS = q = NAB
I k
Its unit is rad/A or div/A.
2. Compare between Moving Coil Galvanometer
and Moving Magnet Galvanometer
The difference between moving coil galvanometer and
moving magnet galvanometer
Moving Coil- Moving Magnet (i) For points inside the core of toroid : Consider a
Galvanometer Galvanometer circle of radius r in the region enclosed by turns
of toroid. Now we apply Ampere’s circuital law to
1. The deflection It is also known as this circular path, i.e.,
in moving coil tangent galvanometer.
galvanometer is The current flowing
proportional to through the tangent
the current flowing galvanometer is
through it. directly proportional
to the deflection in
the coil
2. Its sensitivity is high. Its sensitivity is low.
3. A moving coil Moving coil

galvanometer is based galvanometer er is
on the principle of based on the tangent
torque experienced law.
by a current carrying
coil placed in strong
magnetic field. # Bv $ dlv = m0I ...(1)
104. Using Ampere’s circuital law, derive an expression for # Bv $ dlv = # B dl cos 0
the magnetic field along the axis of a toroidal solenoid. = B $ 2pr
or Length of toroid = 2pr
(i) State Ampere’s circuital law. Use this law to
N = Number of turns in toroid = n (2pr)
obtain the expression for the magnetic field inside
an air cored toroid of average radius r , having and current in one-turn = I
n turns per unit length and carrying a steady Current enclosed by circular path = (n 2pr) $ I
current I . Equation (1) gives
(ii) An observer to the left of a solenoid of N turns
B 2pr = m 0 (n 2prI )
each of cross-section area A observes that a steady
current I in it flows in the clockwise direction. B = m 0 nI
Depict the magnetic field lines due to the solenoid (ii) For points in the open space inside the toroid :
specifying its polarity and show that it acts as a No current flows through the Amperian loop, so
bar magnet of magnetic moment m = NIA. I=0
# Bv $ dlv = m 0 I = 0
B inside =0
(iii) For points in the open space exterior to the toroid
: The net current entering the plane of the toroid
is exactly cancelled by the net current leaving the
Ans : SQP 2013, OD 2015
plane of the toroid.
Magnetic field due to a toroidal solenoid : A long
solenoid shaped in the form of closed ring is called a # Bv $ dlv = 0
toroidal solenoid (or endless solenoid). B =0
exterior
Let n be the number of turns per unit length
For observer, current is flowing in clockwise
of toroid and I the current flowing through it. The
direction hence we will see magnetic field lines
current causes the magnetic field inside the turns of
going towards south pole.
the solenoid. The magnetic field inside the turns of the
solenoid. The magnetic lines of force inside the toroid
are in the form of concentric circles. By symmetry the
magnetic field has the same magnitude at each point
of circle and is along the tangent at every point on
the circle.
The solenoid can be regarded as a combination of The direction of magnetic field due to loop (1) will
circular loops placed side by side, each behaving be away from O and that of the magnetic field due to
like a magnet of magnetic moment IA, where I is loop (2) will be towards O as shown.
the current and A area of the loop. The direction of the net magnetic field will be as
These magnets neutralise each other except at the shown below
ends where south and north poles appear.
Magnetic moment of bar magnet = NIA
105. Two very small identical circular loop (1) and

(2) carrying equal current I are placed vertically
(with respect to the plane of the paper) with their The magnitude of the net magnetic field is given by
geometrical axis perpendicular to each other as shown B net = B 12 + B 22
in the figure. Find the magnitude and direction of the m 0 2 2p Ia2
net magnetic field produced at the point O . B net =
4p (a2 + x2) 3/2
106. Draw a labelled diagram of a moving coil galvanometer
and explain its working. What is the function of radial
magnetic field inside the coil ?
Moving Coil Galvanometer Principle : Its working is

based on the fact that when a current carrying coil is
placed in a magnetic field, it experiences a net torque.
Ans : Delhi 2014
The magnetic field at a point due to a circular loop

is given by
m 2
B = 0 $ 22pIa2 3/2
4p (a + r )
where, I = current through the loop
a = radius of the loop
r = distance of O from the centre of the
loop
Since, I, a and r = x are the same for both the loops,
the magnitude of B will be the same and is given by
m 2
B1 = B2 = 0 $ 22pIa2 3/2
4p (a + x )
Voltage sensitivity is the deflection per unit voltage.

f I
Hence, = NAB bV l
V k
= NAB 1 [since, V = IR ]
k R
The uniform radial magnetic field keeps the plane of
the coil always parallel to the direction of the magnetic
field, i.e., the angle between the plane of the coil and
the magnetic field is zero for all the orientations of
the coil.
107. (i) A straight thick long wire of uniform circular
cross-section of radius a is carrying a steady
current I . The current is uniformly distributed
across the cross-section. Use Ampere’s circuital
Working : Suppose, the coil PQRS is suspended freely
law at obtain a relation showing the variation of
in the magnetic field.
the magnetic field (Br ) inside and outside the wire
Let l = length PQ or RS of the coil with distancer, (r # a) and (r > a) of the field
b = breadth QR or SP of the coil point from the center of its cross-section. What
is the magnetic field at the surface of this wire ?
n = number of turns in the coil Plot a graph showing the nature of this variation.
Area of each turns of the coil, A = l # b (ii) Calculate the ratio of magnetic field at a point
Let B = strength of the magnetic field in which coil a/2 above the surface of the wire to that at a
is suspended. point a/2 below its surface. What is the maximum
I = current passing through the coil in the direction value of the field of this wire?
of PQRS . Ans : Foreign 2015, OD 2012
Let at any instant of time, a be the angle which (i) Magnetic field due to a straight thick wire of
normal drawn on the plane of the coil makes with uniform cross-section : Consider an infinitely long
the direction of magnetic field. The rectangular cylindrical wire of radius a , carrying current I .
current carrying coil when placed in the magnetic Suppose that the current is uniformly distributed
field experiences a torque whose magnitude is given over whole cross-section of the wire. The cross-
by t = NIBA sin a . section of wire is circular. Current per unit cross-
sectional area.
Due to this deflecting torque, the coil rotates and
suspended wire gets twisted. A restoring torque is set i = I2 ...(1)
up in the suspension wire. pa
Let q be the twist produced in the phosphor bronze
strip due to rotation of the coil and k be the restoring
torque per unit twist of the phosphor bronze strip.
Then, total restoring torque produced = kq
In equilibrium position of the coil,
Deflecting torque = Restoring torque
NIBA = kq
or I = k q = Gq
NBA
where, k =G
NBA
[constant for a galvanometer]
It is known as galvanometer constant.
Current sensitivity of the galvanometer is the
deflection per unit current.
f
= NAB
I k
Magnetic field at external points (r > a) : We By Ampere’s circuital law,

consider a circular path of radius r (> a) passing
through external point P , concentric with circular
# Bv $ dlv = m 0 # current closed by path
2
cross-section of wire. By symmetry the strength B $ 2pr = m 0 # Ir2
of magnetic field at every point of circular path a
is same and the direction of magnetic field is m Ir
B = 0 2
tangential to path at every point. So line integral 2pa
of magnetic field Bv around the circular path Clearly, magnetic field strength inside the current
carrying wire is directly proportional to distance
# Bv $ dlv = # B $ dl cos 0c = B 2pr of the point from the axis of wire.
Current enclosed by path = Total current on At surface of cylinder r = a , so magnetic field at
circular cross-section of cylinder = I surface of wire
By Ampere’s circuital law m I
Bs = 0 (maximum value)
# Bv $ dlv = m # current enclosed by path 2pa
The variation of magnetic field strength (B) with
B 2pr = m 0 # I
distance (r) from the axis of wire for internal and
m0I external points is shown in figure.
B =
2pr
This expression is same as the magnetic field due
to a long current carrying straight wire.
This shows that for external points the current
flowing in wire may be supposed to be concerned
at the axis of cylinder.
m0I m0I m0I

(ii) B outside = = =
2pr a 3pa
Magnetic Field at Internal Points (r < a) : 2p aa + 2 k
Consider a circular path of radius r (< a), passing
through internal point Q , concentric with circular m 0 Ir m I (a/2) m 0 I
B inside = = 0 =
cross-section of the wire. In this case the assumed 2pa2 2pa2 4pa
circular path encloses only a path of current B outside = 4
carrying circular cross-section of the wire. B inside 3
Current enclosed by path = current per unit cross- Maximum value of magnetic field is at the surface
section # cross section of assumed circular path m I
given by B outside = 0 .
2p a
I
= i # pr 2 = b pa 2 l # pr 2
108. Write using Biot-Savart law, the expression for the
= Ir2
2 v carrying
[using (1)] magnetic field Bv due to an element dl
a current I at a derive the expression for the magnetic
field due to a current carrying loop of radius R at a
point P distance x from its centre along the axis to
the loop.
Ans : OD 2018
According to Biot-Savart’s law, conductor is placed in

air or vacuum,
CLASS 12

CLASS 10

m 0 I dl a
= # 4p c r2 + a2 m
$
r2 + a2
a
:since, In TPCL, sin f = D
r2 + a2
m0 Ia
4p (r2 + a2) 3/2 #
= $ dl
m 0 Idl sin q m
then, dB = = 0 $ 2 Ia 2 3/2 (2pa)
4p r 2 4p (r + a )
In vector form, Biot-Savart’s law can be written as, m 0 Ia2
or B =
r = m 0 Idl # r 2 (r2 + a2) 3/2
dB ? Idl #
r3 4p r3 m 0 NIa2
For N turns, B =
Let us consider a circular loop of radius a with centre 2 (r2 + a2) 3/2
C . Let, the plane of the coil be perpendicular to the The direction is along the axis and away from the
plane of the paper and current I be flowing in the loop.
direction shown in the figure. Suppose P is any point
109. (i) State Ampere’s circuital law expressing it in the
on the axis at a direction r from the centre.
integral form.
(ii) Two long co-axial insulated solenoids S1 and S2
of equal length are wound one over the other as
shown in the figure. A steady current I flows
through the inner solenoid S1 to the other end
B which is connected to the outer solenoid S2
through which the same current I flows in the
opposite direction so, as to come out at end A
. If n1 and n2 are the number of turns per unit
length, find the magnitude and direction of the
net magnetic field at a point
(a) inside on the axis and
Now, consider a current element I dl on top L , where (b) outside the combined system.
current comes out of paper normally whereas at
bottom (M ) enters into the plane paper normally.
Hence, LP = dl
Also, MP = dl
Hence, MP = LP = r2 + a2
The magnetic field at P due to current element I dl .
According to Biot-Savart’s law,
m
dB = 0 $ Idl 2sin 90c
4p (r + a2)
where, a = radius of circular loop
r = Distance of point P from centre along the axis.
The direction of dB is perpendicular to LP and along
PQ, where PQ = LP . Similarly, the same magnitude
of magnetic field is obtained due to current element Ans : Delhi 2012
I dl at bottom and direction is along PQl, where (i) Ampere’s circuital law states that the line integral
PQl = MP . of magnetic field (B) around any closed path in
Now, resolving dB due to current element at L and vacuum is m 0 times the net current (I ) threading
M dB cos f components balance each other and net the area enclosed by the curve.
magnetic field is given by
Mathematically, # Bv $ dlv = m 0 I
B = # dB sin f
Ampere’s law is applicable only for an Amperian XY carrying current from X to Y , lying in the plane
loop as the Gauss’s law is used for Gaussian in the plane of paper.
surface in electrostatics. Let, the closed path be made of large number of small
(ii) According to Ampere’s circuital law, the net elements, where
magnetic field is given by B = m 0 nit.
AB = dl1 , BC = dl2 , CD = dl3
(a) The net magnetic field is given by
Let d q 1, d q 2, d q 3 be the angles subtended by the
B net = B2 - B1 various elements at point O through which conductor
= m 0 n2 I2 - m 0 n1 I1 is passing. Then,
[since, I2 = I1 = I ] d q 1 + d q 2 + d q 3 + ... = 2p
Suppose these small elements AB, BC, CD, ... are
= m 0 I (n2 - n1)
small circular arcs of radii r1, r2, r3, ... respectively.
The direction is form B to A.
(b) As the magnetic field due to S1 is confined Then, d q 1 = dl1
r1
solely inside S1 as the solenoids are assumed dl
to be very long. So, there is no magnetic field d q 2 = dl2 , d q 3 = 33
r2 r
outside S1 due to current in S1, similarly there If Bv1, Bv2, Bv3 are the magnetic field induction at a point
is no field outside S2 . $ $ $
along the small elements dl1, dl2, dl3, ... then from Biot-
Hence, B net = 0 Savart’s law we know that for the conductor of infinite
110. Explain how Biot-Savart law enables one to express length, magnetic field is given by
m
the Ampere’s circuital law in the integral form, viz. B1 = 0 2I
4p r1
# B $ dl = m0I
m
where, I is the total current passing through the surface. B2 = 0 2I
4p r2
Ans : m
When current in the coil is in the anti-clockwise B3 = 0 2I ...
4p r3
direction. In case of each elements, the magnetic field induction
$
Bv and current element vector dl are in the same
direction. Line integral of B around closed path is
$ $ $ $
# Bv $ dl = Bv1 $ dl1 + Bv2 $ dl2 + Bv3 $ dl3 + ...
= B1 (dl1) + B2 (dl2) + B3 (dl3) + ...
m 0 2I m m
= dl + 0 2I dl + 0 2I dl + ...
4p r1 1 4p r2 2 4p r3 3
m 2I dl1 dl2 dl3
= 0 : r + r + r + ...D
4p 1 2 3
m 0 2I
= [dq 1 + dq 2 + dq 3 + ...]
4p
m
= 0 2I # 2p = m 0 I
4p
# B $ dl = m0I
Which is an expression of Ampere’s circuital law.
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
111. An electron of energy 2000 eV describes a circular
path in magnetic field of flux density 0.2 T. What
is the radius of path? Take, e = 1.6 # 10-19 C ,
Consider any arbitrary closed path perpendicular to m = 9 # 10-31 kg .
the plane of paper around a long straight conductor
114. An Infinitely long straight current carrying wire, Hence, T = 2pm

produces a magnetic field B , at a point distant a from eB
-31
it. What must be the radius of a circular loop, so that,
= 2 # 3.14 # 9-.191 # 10
for the same current through, it, the magnetic field at: 1.6 # 10 # 4
1. Its centre is equal to B/2? = 8.9 # 10-12 sec
2. An axial point, distance equal to the radius of the
116. A toroid has a core of inner radius 20 cm and outer
loop is equal to B ?
radius 22 cm around which 4200 turns of a wire are
Ans : Comp 2018
wound. If current in the wire is 10 A , find the then
-7
m I
B = 10 # 2I = 0 magnetic field inside the core of toroid.
a 2pa Ans : OD 2009
1. Bc = B Inner radius, r 1 = 20 cm = 0.2 m

2
-7 Outer radius, r 2 = 22 cm = 0.22 m
= 10 # 2I
a#2 No. of turns, N = 4200
-7
= 10 # 2pl
R Current in toroid, r = r1 + r2
2
R = 2pa
= 0.2 + 0.22 = 0.21 m
m 0 IR2 2
2. Baxis = Therefore, total length of toroid,
2 (x2 + R2) 3/2
m I L = circumference of toroid
B = 0
2pa
= 2pr = 2p # 0.21 = 0.42p
As, x =R
and number of turns per unit length of toroid,
R2 = 1
Hence,
(R + R2) 3/2
2 pa n = N = 4200 = 10000
L 0.42p p
R3 Magnetic field inside the core of toroid,
= 1
2 R2 # 3/2
3/2 pa
B = m 0 nI
2
R = 1
pa = (4p # 10-7) # 10000 # 10
8R3 p
1 = R = 0.04 T
8 pa
(where m 0 = Absolute permeability of free space equal
R = pa to 4p # 10-7 Wb A-1 m-1 )
8
117. The wire shown in the figure carries a current of 10 A.
115. An electron having velocity vv = 2it + 3tj is projected Determine the magnitude of magnetic field induction
"
into a uniform magnetic field B = 4kt. Calculate the at the centre O . (Given the radius of the bent coil is
time period (T ) of motion of the electron. 3 cm.)
Ans : OD 2020, Comp 2002
Velocity, vv = 2it + 3tj

Magnetic field, Bv = 4kt
Time period, T = 2pr ...(1)

v
Since, v = eBr ...(2)
me
After substituting the value of Eq. (2) in Eq. (1), we
get
Now, T = 2pme
eB Ans : Delhi 2019
Here, mass of electron, Given, I = 10 A

me = 9.1 # 10-31 kg r = 3 cm
121. Two wires A and B have the same length equal to 44 m 0 nI

2. B =
cm and carry a current of 10 A each. Wire A is bent 2
into a circle and wire B is bent into a square. -7
= 4p # 10 # 200 # 2.5
1. Obtain the magnitudes of the fields at the centres 2
of the two wires. = 3.14 # 10-4 T
2. Which wire produces a greater magnetic field at
123. A solenoid of length 1.0 m and 3.0 cm diameter has
its centre?
5 layers of windings of 850 turns each and carries a
Ans : Delhi 2016
current of 5 A. What is the magnetic field at the
Current I = 10 A centre of solenoid? Also, calculate the magnetic flux
Length of each wire = 44 cm from a cross-section of the magnetic flux solenoid at
1. Let r be the radius of wire A when it is bent into the centre of solenoid.
a circle. Ans : SQP 2013
2pr = 44 Number of turns, N = 850 # 5

l = 1m
r = 7 m
100
I = 5A
Magnetic field at the center of the circular coil
carrying current is given by, Area of cross-section,
A = pr2 = 22 b 3 # 10-2 l m2
2
m
B = 0 $ 2pI 7 2
4p r
Magnetic field at the center of solenoid,
= 10-7 # 2 # 22 # 10 # 100
7 7 B = m 0 NI/l
-5
= 9 # 10 T = 4p # 10-7 # (850 # 5) # 5/1
When another wire is bent into a square of each
= 2.671 # 10-2 T
side L , then
4L = 44 Hence, Magnetic flux = BA
= 2.671 # 10-2 # 22 # b 3 # 10-2 l

2
L = 11 cm = 0.11 m 7 2
Since, magnetic field induction at a point,
= 1.89 # 10-5 Wb
at perpendicular distance a from the linear
conductor carrying current is given by, 124. A magnetic field of 100 (1 G = 10-4 T ) is required
m I which is uniform in a region of linear dimension about
B = 0 (sin q 1 + sin q 2)
4p a 10 cm and area of cross-section about 10-3 m2 . The
m I maximum current carrying capacity of a given coil of
B = 4 # 0 (sin 45c + sin 45c)
4pa wire is 15 A and the number of turns per unit length
10 1 + 1 that can be wound round a core is at most 1000 turns
(11/100) c 2 2m
= 4 # 10-7 #
m-1 . Suggest some appropriate design particulars of a
= 10.3 # 10-5 T solenoid for the required purpose. Assume the core is
not ferromagnetic.
2. The magnetic field due to a square will be more
than that due to a circle of same perimeter. Ans : Foreign 2010
Magnetic field, B = 100

122. A solenoid of length 50 cm having 100 turns carries
a current of 2.5 A. Find the magnetic field (1) in the G = 100 # 10-4 T
interior of the solenoid, (2) at one end of the solenoid. To design the solenoid, let us find the product of
Ans : OD 2018, Comp 2006 current and number of turns in the solenoid.
Here, I = 2.5 A The magnitude of magnetic field,
B = m 0 nI
n = 100 = 200
0.50 -2
1. B = m 0 nI or nI = 10 # 3.14 # 10-7
4
= 4p # 10-7 # 200 # 2.5 nI = 7961 . 8000
B = 6.28 # 10 T -4 Here, the product of nI is 8000.
be read by the cash dispenser machine. If you will (i) How does a ammeter work?
mishandle such magnetic strip of it, then its stored (ii) How did he convert such galvanometer into
data may become corrupted. ammeter of desired range ? Explain showing by
(i) How do magnetic strips work? calculations.
(ii) A long wire carries a steady current. It is first Ans :
bent into a circular loop and magnetic field at (i) It is not mechanical, or digital. It uses an analog
its centre is found to be B0 . Then the same wire to digital converter (ADC) to measure the voltage
is bent into a circular coil of n turns. Find the across the shunt resistor. The ADC is read by a
magnetic field at the centre point now. microcomputer that performs the calculations to
display the current through the resistor.
(ii) Given, RG = 15 W
Ig = 4 mA = 4 # 10-3 A
I = 6A
For converting galvanometer into ammeter of
given range, We join a small shunt resistance rs in
parallel to the galvanometer.
Ig # RG = (I - Ig) rg
Ans :
(i) This standard tape strip contains three magnetic
tracks that are used to store the card’s code data.
The card is usually presented to the reader by
swiping or inserting it into the reader, which
obtains the card’s code using a magnetic head Ig
that detects the magnetic field generated by its rs = R
I - Ig # G
strip.
= 4 # 10-3
(ii) Let radius of circular loop be R , so the magnetic # 15
6 - (4 # 10-3)
field at the centre,
. 10-2 W = 10 mW
m I
B0 = 0 ...(1) Consider the experimental set up shown in the figure.
2R 129.
This jumping ring experiment is an outstanding
In the second case, radius of the coil be r having
demonstration of some simple laws of Physics. A
n turns, then
conducting non-magnetic ring is placed over the
2pr $ n = 2pR vertical core of a solenoid. When current is passed
r =R through the solenoid, the ring is thrown off.
n
Then, magnetic field at the centre of the coil,
nm 0 I nm 0 I n2 m 0 I
B = = =
2r 2R/n 2R
= n2 B0 [From equation (1)]
2
Thus, B = n B0
128. Deepak needed an ammeter of range 0 to 6 A for
his project work. He went to physics laboratory and
market for it. But it was not available to him. But a
galvanometer of resistance of 15 W and its range of
0 to 4 mA was available in the laboratory, then he
decided to convert such galvanometer into ammeter
of given range.
(i) How is a moving coil galvanometer converted into radial magnetic field. The radial field will always
an ammeter of desired range? be perpendicular to the conductor rotating about
(ii) A moving coil galvanometer of resistance G the axis.
gives a full-scale deflection for a current Ig. It is 133. If velocity has a component along B, this component
converted into an ammeter of range 0- I ampere. remains unchanged as the motion along the magnetic
What should be the value of shunt resistance to field will not be affected by the magnetic field. The
convert it into an ammeter of desired range? motion in a plane perpendicular to magnetic field is a
(iii) Which one will have the greatest resistance – a circular one, thereby producing a helical motion.
micro-ammeter, a milli-ammeter, an ammeter?
(iv) What is the resistance of ammeter?
Ans :
(i) Connecting a shunt resistance in parallel.
IG
(ii). S = -
I Ig
(iii) Micro-ammeter
1 1 1
(iv) R = G + S
A
132. The galvanometer is a device used to detect the

current flowing in a circuit or a small potential
difference applied to it consists of a coil with many
turns, free to rotate about a fixed axis, in a uniform
radial magnetic field formed by using concave pole (i) What is the expression of radius of charged
pieces of a magnet. When a current flow through the particle in the uniform magnetic field ?
coil, a torque acts on it. (ii) An electron, proton, He+ and Li++ are projected
with the same velocity perpendicular to a
uniform magnetic field. Which one will experience
maximum magnetic force?
(iii) What is the work done by the magnetic field on
the charge particle moving perpendicular to a
uniform magnetic field?
(iv) How much distance moved by a charged particle
along the magnetic field in one rotation, when
velocity has a component parallel to magnetic
field?
Ans :
(i) What is the principle of moving coil galvanometer? (i) R = mv

qB
(ii) If the field is radial, what is the angle between (ii) Li++
magnetic moment of galvanometer coil and the (iii) Zero
magnetic field?
(iv) 2pmvcosq
(iii) Why pole pieces are made concave in the moving qB
coil galvanometer?
Ans :
(i) A current-carrying coil when placed in an external
magnetic field experiences magnetic torque. The ***********
angle through which the coil is deflected due to
the effect of the magnetic torque is proportional
to the magnitude of current in the coil.
(ii) 30°
(iii) The pole pieces of the galvanometer are made
concave so that the current-carrying coil and the
magnetic field are always perpendicular to each
other. Concave magnetic pole always produces a
Page 220 Magnetism and Matter Chap 5
CHAPTER 5
Magnetism and Matter
SUMMARY m
Bv = 0 $ 2M
4p r 3
v
This expression is equivalent to that of bar magnet.

1. MAGNETIC FIELD LINES
These are imaginary lines which give pictorial 4. TORQUE OF BAR MAGNET
representation for the magnetic field inside and Torque on a bar magnet in a uniform magnetic field
around the magnet. is,
Properties of electric field lines are given as below:
t = MB sin q = M # B
1. These lines form continuous closed loops.
where, q is the angle between M and B . Its S.I. units
2. The tangent to the field line gives direction of the
is joule per tesla ^JT-1h .
field at that point.
3. Larger the density of the lines, stronger will be
5. POTENTIAL ENERGY OF A MAGNETIC DIPOLE
the magnetic field.
4. These line do not intersect each other. Potential energy of a magnetic dipole in a magnetic
field is given by,
2. MAGNETIC DIPOLE MOMENT OF A CURRENT LOOP AND
U = - MB sin q = - M # B
REVOLVING ELECTRON
where, q is the angle between M and B .
Magnetic dipole moment of a magnet,
M = m # 2l A - m 2 . 6. WORD DONE IN ROTATING THE DIPOLE
Work done in rotating the dipole in a uniform
magnetic field from q 1 to q 2 is given by
W = MB^cos q1 - cos q2h
Where m is a pole strength, 2l is separation between 7. MAGNETIC FIELD DUE TO A BAR MAGNET
poles.
1. At an axial point (end-on-position).
Magnetic dipole moment of a current loop,
M = NIA A-m2
The direction of m is perpendicular of the plane of
loop and given by right hand thumb rule.
Magnetic dipole moment of a revolving electron
= IA = enpr2
where n is frequency, r is radius of orbit.
m v
M = e L A-m2 Bv = 0 $ 2M (Since r >> l )
2me 4p r 3
where L = me vr is angular momentum of revolving The direction of magnetic field is along the
electron. direction of magnetic dipole moment M .
2. At on equatorial point (broadside-on-position)
3. BAR MAGNET AS AN EQUIVALENT SOLENOID
m v
The expression of magnetic field at distance r from Bv = 0 $ M3
4p r
the centre is given by,
Chap 5 Magnetism and Matter Page 221
The direction of magnetic field is parallel to the 10. MAGNETIC INDUCTION

magnetic dipole and opposite to the direction of
It is defined as the number of magnetic lines of
dipole moment.
induction crossing per unit area through the magnetic
substance.
B = m 0 ^H + I h
where, m 0 = permeability of free space
H = magnetising field
I = intensity of magnetisation
11. CLASSIFICATION OF MAGNETIC MATERIALS

Magnetic materials may be classified into three
categories
1. Diamagnetic Substances : These are the
substances in which feeble magnetism is produced
in a direction opposite to the applied magnetic
field. These substances are repelled by a strong
magnet. These substances have small negative
values of susceptibility c and positive low value
of relative permeability m r , i.e.,
- 1 # c < 0 and 0 # m r < 1
8. MAGNETISM AND GAUSS’ LAW The examples of diamagnetic substances are
The net magnetic flux ^j B h through any closed surface bismuth, antimony, copper, lead, water, nitrogen
(at STP) and sodium chloride.
is always zero.
2. Paramagnetic Substances : These are the
i.e., j B = SB $ DS = 0 substances in which feeble magnetism is induced
in the same direction as the applied magnetic field.
9. TERMS RELATED TO MAGNETIC PROPERTIES
These are feebly attracted by a strong magnet.
Terms related to magnetic properties of material are These substances have small positive values of M
given as below: and c and relative permeability m r greater than
1. Intensity of Magnetisation, I : The magnetic 1, i.e.,
dipole moment produced per unit volume field 0 < c < e and 1 < m r < 1 + e
of specimen of magnetic material in magnetising where e is a small positive number. The examples
field is known as intensity of magnetisation. of paramagnetic substances are platinum,
I =M =m aluminium, calcium, manganese, oxygen (at STP)
V A and copper chloride.
where, M = magnetic dipole moment, 3. Ferromagnetic Substances : These are the
substances in which a strong magnetism is
m = pole strength,
produced in the same direction as the applied
v = volume of specimen magnetic field. These are strongly attracted by
and A = cross-section area a magnet. These substances are characterised by
large positive values of M and x and values of m r
2. Magnetic Permeability : It is equal to the ratio of much greater than 1, i.e.,
magnetic induction and magnetising field.
c >> 1, m r >> c
m =B
H
3. Magnetic Susceptibility : It is equal to the ratio of

intensity of magnetisation and magnetising field. ***********
cm = I
H
It has no unit.
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS Ans :

SQP 2017
Magnetic dipole moment of wire is given by,

1. A bar magnet of magnetic moment M is cut into two
parts of equal length. The magnetic moment of either M = m#L ...(1)
part is
(a) M (b) M/2
(c) 2M (d) Zero
Ans : OD 2018
If a bar magnet of magnetic moment M is cut into

two parts as shown in figure,
Now, Circumference of semicircle

= length of the wire
pr = L
r =L ...(2)
p
Magnetic dipole moment of semicircle is given by,
Ml = m # 2r
Ml = m # 2 # L From Eq.(2)
p
Dipole moment, M = m # 2l ...(1)
m
= # 2 L
When bar magnet is cut into two parts of equal p
length. Then,
Ml = m/2 # 2l Ml = 2M From Eq.(1)
Dipole moment, p
= 1 # (m # 2l) Thus (d) is correct option.
2
4. Permeability m of a ferromagnetic substance
From Eq. (1), we get
(a) m >> 1 (b) m = 1
Ml = M
2 (c) m < 1 (d) m = 0
2. Magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity directed The magnetic permeability m of a magnetic substance
from gives the ratio of the magnetic flux density in the
(a) South to North Pole material B to the intensity of external magnetising
(b) North to South Pole field H in which it is placed.
(c) East to West direction Thus, We have
(d) West to East direction m =B

H
Ans : OD 2016 A ferromagnetic substance is strongly magnetised in
Magnetic dipole moment is a vector quantity directed the direction of the external magnetising field. Thus
from South pole to North pole. B is very larger than H. Therefore, its permeability m
Thus (a) is correct option. is enormously greater than one i.e. m >> 1.
3. A wire of magnetic dipole moment M and L is bent Thus (a) is correct option.
into shape of a semicircle of radius r . What will be its 5. S.I. unit of pole strength is
new dipole moments? (a) N (b) N/A - m
(a) M (b) M (c) A - m (d) T
2p
M Ans :
(d) 2M
OD 2017, 2010
(c)
p p
Magnetic dipole moment = Pole strength # Length
Magnetic dipole moment 9. In tan A and tan B positions of a magnet the magnet
Pole strength =
length fields at a distance d are represented by B 1 and B 2
2 respectively, then
= A-m = A-m
m m m
(a) B 1 = 0 $ 22Md2 2 , B2 = 0 $ 2 M 2 3/2
Thus (c) is correct option. 4p (d - l ) 4p (d + l )
6. S.I. unit of magnetic moment is (b) B 1 = B 2 ; d >> 1
(a) JT-2 (b) Am2 (c) B 1 = 2B 2 ; d >> 1
(c) JT (d) Am -1 (d) Both a and c
Ans : OD 2015 Ans : OD 2009
The magnetic moment of a magnetic dipole is defined According to the deflection magnetometer, the
as the product of its pole strength and magnetic magnetic field in tan A and tan B position is given by,
length, 2l i.e., m
B1 = 0 $ 22 Md 2 2 (for tan A position)
M = m # 2l 4p (d - l )
m
SI unit of magnetic moment is ampere- meter2 (Am2). B2 = 0 $ 2 M 2 3/2 (for tan B position)
4p (d + l )
Thus (b) is correct option. If d >> , then,
When the intensity of magnetic field is increased four m
7.
B1 = 0 $ 2m
times, the time period of suspended magnetic needle 4p d3
becomes m
and B2 = 0 $ M3
(a) double (b) half 4p d
B1 = 2
(c) four times (d) one-fourth less
B2
Ans : OD 2002
B1 = 2B2
The time period of suspended magnetic needed is
given by, d >>> 1
I Thus (d) is correct option.
T = 2p
mB 10. Magnetic lines of force
i.e., T ? 1 (a) always intersect.
B
(b) are always closed.
Hence, T1 = B2
T2 B1 (c) do not pass through vacuum.
T1 = 4B1 (d) tend to crowd far way from the poles of a magnet.
T2 B1 Ans : Foreign 2012, Comp 2004
T2 = T1 Outside the magnet, magnetic lines of force travel

2
from north to south-pole, whereas inside the magnet,
The time period of suspended magnetic needed these lines, travel from south to north-pole.
becomes half.
That is why, the magnet lines of force are always
Thus (b) is correct option. closed.
8. The direction of null points are on the equatorial line Thus (b) is correct option.
of a bar magnet, when the north pole of the magnet 11. If a material, placed in a magnetic field is thrown out
is pointing towards of it, then the material is
(a) north (b) south (a) diamagnetic (b) paramagnetic
(c) east (d) west (c) ferromagnetic (d) non-magnetic
Ans : SQP 2016 Ans : Delhi 2006
When the north pole of a bar magnet is pointing Diamagnetic materials are repelled when they are
towards north direction, then magnetic lines of force placed in a magnetic field. That is why, diamagnetic
pass through the magnet. material is thrown out if it.
12. The magnetic lines of force inside a bar magnet 16. If a bar magnet is dropped down in an infinitely
(a) do not exist long vertical copper tube, then the magnet will move
continuously
(b) are from north-pole to south-pole of the magnet
(a) increasing velocity and acceleration.
(c) are from south-pole to north-pole of the magnet
(b) increasing velocity but constant acceleration.
(d) depend upon the area of cross-section of the bar
(c) decreasing velocity and ultimately comes to rest.
magnet
(d) increasing velocity and ultimately acquires a
Ans : SQP 2011
constant terminal velocity.
Magnetic lines of force, due to a bar magnet, from a Ans : Delhi 2001
closed loop and outside the bar magnet, these lines
When a bar magnet is dropped down in an infinitely
from north-pole to south-pole, whereas inside the bar
long vertical copper tube, its velocity continuously
magnet, these lines travel from south-pole to north-
increases due to the gravitational attraction. As a
pole of the magnet.
result of this, the velocity of bar magnet continuously
Thus (c) is correct option. goes on increasing but having constant acceleration
13. The magnetic field at a distance r from a short bar due to free fall under gravity.
magnet is directly proportional to Thus (b) is correct option.
(a) r 2 (b) r-3 17. At which place, the earth’s magnetism becomes
(c) r 2/3
(d) r 4 horizontal?
(a) magnetic pole (b) geographical pole
Ans : OD 2017
Magnetic field due to a short bar magnet at a distance (c) magnetic equator (d) magnetic meridian
r from itself, Ans : Foreign 2010
m M Magnetic field of the earth becomes horizontal at a

B = 0 3 ? r-3
4pr place where angle of magnetic dip is zero.
where, M = Magnetic moment of magnet Since, the angle of magnetic dip at magnetic meridian
is zero, therefore earth’s magnetism becomes
horizontal at that place.
14. At the magnetic poles of the earth, a campus needle Thus (d) is correct option.
will be 18. Metals getting magnetised by orientation of atomic
(a) vertical magnetic moments in external magnetic field are
(b) horizontal called
(a) diamagnetics (b) paramagnetics
(c) inclined at 10° with the vertical
(c) ferromagnetics (d) anti-magnetics
(d) inclined at 45° with the horizontal
Ans : OD 2017, Comp 2011
Ans : Delhi 2004
Those metals which are magnetised by orientation of
Horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field at the
atomic magnetic moments in external magnetic field
magnetic poles of the earth is zero.
are called paramagnetics.
Therefore, a compass needle at this place will be
vertical.
Thus (a) is correct option. 19. Liquid oxygen remains suspended between two poles
of a magnet, because it is
15. Which of the following is an example for diamagnetic (a) diamagnetic (b) paramagnetic
substances?
(c) ferromagnetic (d) anti-ferromagnetic
(a) copper (b) nickel
Ans : Delhi 2012
(c) aluminium (d) iron Liquid oxygen (O 2) is paramagnetic, because each
Ans : OD 2014 oxygen molecule has two unpaired electrons. This is
Copper is an example of diamagnetic substance. And why, it remains suspended between two poles of the
nickel, aluminium, iron are substances. magnet.
Thus (a) is correct option. Thus (b) is correct option.
20. Most of the substance show which of the following 23. The magnetic susceptibility does not depend upon the
magnetic property? temperature in
(a) diamagnetism (b) paramagnetism (a) ferrite substances
(c) ferromagnetism (d) both (b) and (c) (b) ferromagnetic substances
Ans : Foreign 2016 (c) diamagnetic substances
All substances show diamagnetism, as it is universal. (d) paramagnetic substances
Since both the paramagnetism and ferromagnetism in
Ans : SQP 2002
substances have diamagnetism in weak, therefore they
are hard to detect. Susceptibility of diamagnetic substances is constant
and has low negative value (- 10-6 to - 10-7). It does
Thus (a) is correct option. not depend upon the temperature.
21. A diamagnetic material in a magnetic field moves Thus (c) is correct option.
(a) from weaker to stronger parts
24. A frog can be levitated in magnetic field produced by
(b) perpendicular to the field a current in a vertical solenoid placed below the frog.
(c) from stronger to weaker parts This is possible because the body of the frog behaves
(d) in none of the above directions as
(a) paramagnetic (b) diamagnetic
Ans : SQP 2015
Diamagnetic materials are magnetised in the (c) ferromagnetic (d) anti-ferromagnetic

opposite direction of the magnetising field. Therefore Ans : Delhi 2017
diamagnetic material moves from stronger to weaker When diamagnetised materials are placed in a
parts of the magnetic field. magnetic field, they are feebly magnetised in the
Thus (c) is correct option. opposite direction of the magnetising field or repelled.
Since the frog levitated in magnetic field produced by
22. If a diamagnetic substance is brought near north or a current in vertical solenoid placed below the frog
south pole of a bar magnet, then it is due to repulsion, therefore body of the frog behaves
(a) attracted by the poles as diamagnetic.
(b) repelled by the poles Thus (b) is correct option.
(c) attracted by the north pole and repelled by the 25. The domain formation is a necessary feature of
south pole (a) diamagnetism (b) paramagnetism
(d) repelled by the north pole and attracted by the (c) ferromagnetism (d) all of these
south pole
Ans : OD 2008
A ferromagnetic substance is composed of tiny crystals-
When diamagnetic substances are magnetised in the like regions. And within each crystal there are one or
opposite direction of the magnetising field. That is more domains. And in each domain, there is a perfect
why, when a diamagnetic substance is brought near alignment of the elementary moment represented
the north or south pole of a bar magnet, it is repelled by an arrow. That is why domain, there is a perfect
by the poles. alignment of the elementary moment represented
Thus (b) is correct option.A super conductor exhibits by an arrow. That is why, domain formation is a
perfect necessary feature of ferromagnetism.
(a) ferrimagnetism (b) ferromagnetism
26. Substances which are strongly attracted by magnetic
(c) paramagnetism (d) diamagnetism
field i.e., move from weaker to stronger side of the
Ans : Delhi 2015 field are termed as
A substance with permeability less than unity is (a) diamagnetic substances
called diamagnetic. Since the superconductor has
(b) paramagnetic substances
a zero permeability, therefore it exhibits perfect
diamagnetism. (c) ferromagnetic substances
Thus (d) is correct option. (d) non-magnetic substances
Ans : SQP 2003
Ferromagnetic substances are strongly magnetised

in the direction of magnetising field. Therefore
ferromagnetic substances move from weaker to 30. Assertion : Diamagnetic substances exhibit
stronger side of the magnetic field. magnetism.
Thus (c) is correct option. Reason : Diamagnetic materials do not have
permanent magnetic dipole moment.
27. If c m and c m are the susceptibilities of a diamagnetic
1 2
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason
substance at temperatures T1 and T2 respectively, then
(R) is the correct explanation of Assertion (A).
(a) c m = c m
1 2 (b) c m T1 = c m T2 1 2
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are true and Reason

(c) c m T2 = c m T1
1 2 (d) c m T1 = c m
1 2 T2 is NOT the correct explanation of Assertion.
Ans : Delhi 2005 (c) Assertion is true and Reason is false.
Given: (d) Assertion is false and Reason is also false.
Initial susceptibility, T1 = c m 1
Ans :
Final susceptibility, T2 = c m 2 Diamagnetic material exhibits magnetism in reverse
Susceptibility of a diamagnetic substance is direction and due to the absence of unpaired electron
independent of temperature. And it does not obey in diamagnetic material it does not exhibit permanent
Curie’s law. magnetic dipole moment.
Therefore, cm = cm 1 2
Thus (a) is correct option. 31. Assertion : We cannot think of a magnetic field
28. Susceptibility of a magnetic substance is found configuration with three poles.
to depend on temperature and the strength of the Reason : A bar magnet does exert a torque on itself
magnetising field. The material is a due to its own field.
(a) diamagnet (b) ferromagnet (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
(c) paramagnet (d) superconductor
Ans : OD 2011
Ferromagnetism of a substance decreases with the rise
in temperature. Moreover, a ferromagnetic substance (c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
gets strongly magnetised along the direction of the (d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
magnetic field. Therefore the material is ferromagnet. Ans :
Thus (b) is correct option. Magnet field may be formed with the help of three
29. The vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field poles. A bar magnet does not exert a torque on itself
is zero at a place where the angle is dip is due to its own field.
(a) 0° (b) 45° Thus (d) is correct option.
(c) 60° (d) 90° 32. Assertion : Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) is a
Ans : Foreign 2009
useful diagnostic tool for producing images of various
parts of human body.
Given:
Reason : Protons of various tissues of the human body
Vertical component of earth’s magnetic field,
play a role in MRI.
BV = 0
Vertical component of the earth’s magnetic field at a Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
place, (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but
BV = B sin d Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion.
Therefore, If BV = 0 , Then (c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
sin d = 0 (where, d is Angle of dip) (d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
d =0 Ans :
MRI is useful diagnostic tool for producing images
of various parts of human body because it makes use
of magnetic property of spinning proton inside the Ans :

nucleus. The susceptibility of ferromagnetic substance
Thus (a) is correct option. decreases with the rise of temperature in a complicated
manner. After Curies point in the susceptibility of
33. Assertion : Diamagnetic materials can exhibit ferromagnetic substance varies inversely with its
magnetism. absolute temperature. Ferromagnetic substance obeys
Reason : Diamagnetic materials have permanent Curie’s law only above its Curie point.
magnetic dipole moment. Thus (c) is correct option.
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and 36. Assertion : The ferromagnetic substance do not obey
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion. Curie’s law.
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason : At Curie point a ferromagnetic substance
Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion. start behaving as a paramagnetic substance.
(c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
Ans :
Diamagnetic material exhibits magnetism in reverse
direction. R is a wrong statement. Because due to (c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
absence of unpaired electron in diamagnetic material (d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
it does not exhibit permanent magnet dipole moment. Ans :
Thus (c) is correct option. The susceptibility of ferromagnetic substance
34. Assertion : Ferro-magnetic substances become decreases with the rise of temperature in a complicated
paramagnetic above Curse temperature. manner. After Curie point in the susceptibility of
ferromagnetic substance varies inversely with its
Reason : Domains are destroyed at high temperature.
absolute temperature. Ferromagnetic substance obeys
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and Curie’s law only above its Curies point.
37. Assertion : A paramagnetic sample display greater
magnetisation (for the same magnetic field) when
(c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. cooled.
(d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. Reason : The magnetisation does not depend on
Ans : temperature.
Susceptibility of ferro magnets decreases with (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
increase of temperature. At a transition temperature Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
is increased, dipoles acquire kinetic energy and are (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but
disoriented, hence domain internal interaction called Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion.
exchange coupling disappears. (c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
35. Assertion : The ferromagnetic substance do not obey Ans :
Curie’s law. A paramagnetic sample display greater magnetisation
Reason : At Curie point a ferromagnetic substance when cooled, this is because at lower temperature,
start behaving as a paramagnetic substance. the tendency to disrupt the alignment of dipoles (due
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and to magnetising field) decreases on account of reduced
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion. random thermal motion.
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Thus (d) is correct option.
Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion. 38. Assertion : The poles of magnet can not be separated
(c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. by breaking into two pieces.
(d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. Reason : The magnetic moment will be reduced to
half when a magnet is broken into two equal pieces.
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and Ans : OD 2020
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion. Angle of dip (90c) is maximum at magnetic poles.
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but 44. Where on the earth’s surface is the value of vertical
Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion. component of earth’s magnetic field zero?
(c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. Ans : OD 2018
Vertical component of earth’s magnetic field is zero at

magnetic equator.
Ans :
45. Which of the following substances are diamagnetic?
When a magnet is cut into pieces, each piece becomes
Bi, Al, Cu, Ca, and Ni
new magnet.
Ans : Delhi 2019
Ml = ml = M Diamagnetic substances are
2 2
Thus (b) is correct option. (i) Bi,
(ii) Cu.
46. The Susceptibility of a magnetic material is
VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS - 4.2 # 10-6 . Name the type of magnetic material it
represents.
Ans : OD 2019
39. The horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic
Negative susceptibility represents diamagnetic
filed at a place is B and angle of dip is 60c what is
substance.
the value of vertical component of earth’s magnetic
field at equator? 47. The Susceptibility of a magnetic material is 1.9 # 10-5
Ans : OD 2021
. Name the type of magnetic material it represents.
On the equator,the values of both angles of dip (d) Ans : Foreign 2011
and vertical component of earth’s magnetic field is The small and positive Susceptibility of 1.9 # 10-5
zero. So, in the this case, BV = 0. represents paramagnetic substance.
40. A magnetic needle, free to rotate in a vertical plane, 48. The permeability of a magnetic material is 0.9983.
orients itself vertically at a certain place on the Earth. Name the type of magnetic materials it represents.
What are the values of (i) horizontal component of Ans : Comp 2018, OD 2011
Earth’s magnetic field and (ii) angle of dip at this m r 1 1, so magnetic material is diamagnetic
Ans : Comp 2020
49. What are permanent magnets ?
(i) 0c, Ans : SQP 2013
(ii) 90c
Substances that retain their attractive property for
41. A small magnet is pivoted to move freely is the a long period of time at room temperature are called
magnetic meridian. At what place on earth’s surface permanent magnets.
will the magnet be vertical?
50. Why is the core of an electromagnet made of
Ans : Delhi 2020, SQP 2013 ferromagnetic materials?
Magnet will be vertical at magnetic pole of the earth. Ans : OD 2010
42. Relative permeability of a material m r = 0.5. identify Ferromagnetic material has a high retentive. So on
the nature of the magnetic material and write its passing current thorough windings it gains suffice
relation of magnetic susceptibility. magnetism immediately.
Ans : Foreign 2014 51. What is the importance of radial magnetic field in a
The nature of magnetic material is a diamagnetic. moving coil galvanometer?
mr = 1 + cm Ans : Delhi 2014
1. The plane of the coil remains parallel to the
43. Where on the earth’s surface is the value of angle of direction of magnetic field. So, the galvanometer
dip maximum? is linear.
or 2. It is a stronger magnetic field as compared to the
Where on the surface of earth is the angle of dip 90c ? magnetic field produced by the flat pieces of a
field magnet.
52. Magnetic field lines can be entirely confined with the Ans : Delhi 2017
core of toroid, but not within a straight solenoid, why? The nature of the material A is paramagnetic and its
Ans : Foreign 2017
susceptibility c m is positive.
The field lines cannot be entirely confined to the The nature of the material B is diamagnetic and its
two ends of a straight solenoid. If they were so, the susceptibility c m is negative.
magnetic flux through the cross-section at each end
57. What is the basic difference between magnetic and
would have been non-zero; this is denied by Gauss
electric lines of force?
theorem of magnetism. For a toroid, this difficulty
Ans : Delhi 2011, 06
does not arise because it is endless.
The basic difference between magnetic and electric
53. Magnetic field lines show the direction (at every point) lines of force is that whereas magnetic lines of force
along which a small magnetised needle aligns (at the are closed continuous curves, the electric lines of force
point). Do the magnetic field lines also represent the are discontinuous. They start from the positive charge
‘lines of force’ ? and end at the negative charge. On the contrary,
Ans : OD 2012 magnetic lines of force exist even inside the body of
No, the magnetic field lines certainly represent the the magnet and are therefore closed continuous curves.
direction of magnetic field, but not the direction of
58. The relative magnetic permeability of a magnetic
force; this is because force is always perpendicular to
material is 800. Identify the nature of magnetic
magnetic field Bv . Therefore, it is misleading to call material and state its two properties.
magnetic field lines as the lines of force.
Ans : Delhi 2018
54. Why cannot two magnetic lines of forces due to a bar Ferromagnetic substances, as these substances have
magnet cross each other? very high magnetic permeability.
Ans : Comp 2017, OD 2013
Properties :
Because if they cross at any point (say P ), there would 1. High retentivity.
be two tangents at point P and hence two directions 2. High susceptibility.
of magnetic fields at the same point as shown in the
figure, but magnetic field has only one direction. 59. Why does paramagnetic substance move from weaker
to stronger parts of non-uniform magnetic field?
Ans : OD 2018, Comp 2006
The atoms of paramagnetic substances posses

permanent magnetic dipoles and these dipoles are
randomly distributed in the absence of external
magnetic field. But when the paramagnetic substance
is subjected to a non-uniform magnetic field, each
atom experiences a torque tendency to align its
magnetic dipole moment along the direction of
55. The motion of copper plate is damped when it is magnetic field, and thus a paramagnetic substance
allowed to oscillate between the two poles of a magnet. moves from weaker to stronger magnetic field.
What is the cause of this damping?
60. Why does a magnetic dipole possess potential energy,
Ans : Comp 2018
when placed at some inclination with the direction of
As the copper plates oscillate in the magnetic field the field?
between the two plates of the magnet, there is a Ans : Comp 2017
continuous change of magnetic flux linked with the
When a magnetic dipole if placed in a uniform
pendulum. Due to this, eddy currents are set up in
magnetic field, it aligns itself along the direction of
the copper plate which try to oppose the motion of
the magnetic field in equilibrium. If a magnetic dipole
the pendulum according to the Lenz’s law and finally
is displaced from equilibrium position, a restoring
bring it to rest.
torque acts on the dipole which bring it back. So if
56. Out of the two magnetic materials, A has relative a dipole is placed at some inclination with the field,
permeability slightly greater than unity while B has work has to be done against the restoring force. This
less than unity. Identify the nature of the materials work done is stored in the form of potential energy in
A and B . Will their susceptibilities be positive or the magnetic dipole.
negative?
61. A short bar magnet, placed with its axis making an Diamagnetic Substance Paramagnetic Substance
angle q with a uniform magnetic field Bv , experiences
a torque tv . What is the magnetic moment of the In non-uniform magnetic In non-uniform magnetic
magnet? field, the diamagnetic field, paramagnetic
substances are attracted substances move from
Ans : Delhi 2017
towards the weaker weaker to stronger part
The torque tv experienced by a bar magnet placed in field, i.e., they move of the magnetic field
a uniform magnetic field Bv is given by, from stronger to weaker slowly.
v # Bv
tv = M magnetic field.
In magnitude, t = MB sin q Their permeability is less Their permeability is
then one (m < 1). lightly greater than one
M = t (m > 1).
B sin q
64. Write two differences between electromagnet and

permanent magnet.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS Ans : OD 2020, SQP 2009
The difference between electromagnet and permanent

62. A uniform magnetic field gets modified as shown in magnet.
the figure, when two specimens X and Y are placed
Electromagnet Permanent Magnet
in it.
1. It shows temporary It shows permanent
magnetism. It produces magnetism i.e., it
the magnetic field as retain magnetism in it
long as currents flows even when the current
in its coil. is switched off.
2. The polarity of a The polarity of a
electromagnet can be permanent magnet
changed by reversing cannot be changed.
(a) the direction of the
current.
65. How does a circular loop carrying current behaves as

a magnet?
Ans : Foreign 2011
The current round in the face of the coil is in anti-

(b)
clockwise direction, then this behaves like a North
pole, whereas when it viewed from other scale, then
Ans : Comp 2019
current round in it is in clockwise direction necessarily
1. X -is a diamagnetic substance because in these forming South pole of magnet.
substance, the magnetic field lines are farther
than in air.
2. Y -is a ferromagnetic substance because in these
substance the field lines are much closer than in
air.
63. State two characteristic properties distinguishing
behaviour of paramagnetic and diamagnetic materials.
Ans : Comp 2021
The dereference between distinguishing and

paramagnetic Substance are as follows : Hence, current loop have both magnetic poles and
therefore, behaves like a magnetic dipole.
66. Define uniform magnetic field. How is it represented the thermal agitation trying to disrupt the alignment
geometrically? decreases and thus sample displays greater magnetism.
Ans : Foreign 2012 70. What are artificial magnets? Give some of their
A magnetic field is said to be uniform if a unit advantages over natural magnets.
isolated north pole placed at different points in the Ans : OD 2018
field experiences the same force in the same direction. Artificial Magnets
Graphically, a uniform magnetic field is represented Pieces of iron and other magnetic materials can be
by equidistant and mutually parallel lines. made to acquire the properties of natural magnets.
Such magnets are called artificial magnets.
Advantages of Artificial Magnets Over Natural
Magnets
1. They can be made magnetically much stronger
than natural magnets.
2. They can be made of any convenient size and
shape.
3. Their polarity can be reversed whenever desired.
67. 1. How does a diamagnetic material behave when it
is cooled to very low temperature? 71. Derive relation between relative magnetic permeability
2. Why does a paramagnetic sample display greater and magnetic susceptibility.
magnetisation when cooled? Explain. Ans : Delhi 2012, OD 2017
Ans : OD 2014 In SI units, B = m 0 (H + I )

1. For diamagnetic substances, the variation of
Since, I = cm H
susceptibility is very small, i.e., diamagnetic
materials are unaffected by the change in Hence, B = m 0 (H + c m H )
temperature (except bismuth).
B = m 0 H (1 + c m)
2. A paramagnetic sample displays greater tendency
when cooled at lower temperatures, the tendency Also, B = mH
to disrupt the alignment of magnetic dipole Hence, mH = m 0 H (1 + c m)
decreases due to the reduced random thermal
motion of atoms or molecules. m = m 0 (1 + c m)
A magnetic needle suspended freely in uniform m
68. = 1 + cm
m0
magnetic field experiences a torque but no net force.
An iron nail near a bar magnet however experiences a mr = 1 + cm
force of attraction in addition to torque. Why? This is the required relation.
Ans : SQP 2013
72. A magnetic needle is placed on a cork floating on a
When a magnetic needle is suspended freely in still lake in the northern hemisphere. Does this needle
uniform magnetic field, the two poles of the needle together with the cork move towards the north of the
will experience equal and opposite forces hence net lake?
force is zero. On the other hand, when an iron nail is Ans : Delhi 2015
placed near a bar magnet, the magnetic field of bar
Since magnetic needle does not experience any net
magnet is non-uniform and the two poles of the iron
force, so the needle and the cork will not move towards
nail will experience different force.
the north of the lake. But, if the needle is inclined to
69. Why does a paramagnetic sample displays greater the magnetic meridian, a torque will act on the needle
magnetism when cooled? and after a few oscillations, the needle will set itself
Ans : Foreign 2014 along the magnetic meridian.
The paramagnetic material contains atoms possessing 73. An iron bar is heated to 1000c C and then cooled in
permanent magnetic dipole moment. When a a magnetic field free space. Will it retain magnetism?
paramagnetic material is placed in a magnetic field, Ans : SQP 2007
these magnetic dipoles get aligned in the direction
The iron bar will lose its magnetism as the temperature
of magnetic field. The high temperature disrupt this
to which it is heated (i.e. 1000c C ) is much above
alignment. When a paramagnetic material is cooled,
the curie point for iron (i.e. 770c C ). So the iron bar
magnet after heating to 1000c C and then cooled, there is a force of repulsion between them, then both
cannot retain its magnetism. bars must be magnetised.
74. Define magnetic dipole and dipole moment. What are To know which one is magnetised, place the bar A
its units? on the table and bring one of bar B near the two
Ans : SQP 2010
ends and at the middle of bar A. If there is force of
attraction only at the ends of bar A, then bar A is
Magnetic Dipole : An arrangement of two magnetic
magnetised and B not magnetised and if there is force
poles of equal and opposite strength separated by a
of attraction both at the ends as well as at the middle,
finite distance is said to constitute a magnetic dipole.
then bar B is magnetised and A is unmagnetised.
Common examples of magnetic dipoles are compass
needle, a bar magnet, a current loop, an electron 77. Define magnetic field and magnetic intensity (or
revolving in a circular or elliptical path etc. magnetic field at a point). What is the S.I. unit of
magnetic intensity?
Magnetic Dipole Moment : Consider a magnetic
consisting of two poles N and S each having pole Ans : OD 2016
strength m as shown in the figure. The distance Magnetic Field

between two poles is called magnetic length. The space around a magnet or a current carrying
conductor in which the magnetic effect can be felt is
called the magnetic field.
Magnetic Intensity
The strength of magnetic field or magnetic intensity
at a point is the force experienced by a unit north
pole placed at that point. The direction of the field is
Magnetic dipole moment is the product of strength of the direction in which this pole begins to move if free
either pole and the magnetic length. to do so.
i.e., Mv = m (2lv) Thus magnetic intensity is a vector quantity and has
The direction of magnetic dipole moment is from both magnitude and direction.
south to north pole. The S.I. unit of magnetic intensity is tesla or ampere
Unit : In SI the unit of dipole moment is ampere meter.
metre 2 (Am2). If a magnetic pole of strength m units placed at a
75. State four basic properties of magnets. point where the magnetic intensity is Bv then it
experiences a force of mBv .
Ans : SQP 2007
Basic properties of magnets are as follows: 78. Give some important properties of ferromagnetic
1. Attractive Property : A magnet attracts small substances.
pieces of iron, nickel, cobalt, etc. Ans : SQP 2014, Comp 2003
2. Directive Property : A freely suspended magnet Properties of ferromagnetic substances:

aligns itself nearly in the geographic north-south 1. They are strongly attracted by magnets.
direction. 2. As shown in figure, the lines get highly
3. Like Poles Repel and Unlike Poles Attract : This concentrated in ferromagnetic material so that
is a fundamental law of magnetic poles. magnetic induction B >> B0 .
4. Magnetic Poles Exist in Pairs : Isolated magnetic
poles do not exist. If we break a magnet into two
pieces, we get two smaller dipole magnets.
76. Two identical iron bars A and B are given: one of
which definitely known to be magnetised. How would
you ascertain, whether or not both are magnetised. If
only one is magnetised?
Ans : SQP 2008
Since repulsion is the sure test of magnetisation,

because if bar A attracts the other bar B , then both Highly Concentrated Lines of Force in a
may be magnets (i.e. their unlike poles are facing each Ferromagnetic Rod
other) or one bar may be a simple piece of iron, but if
3. When placed in a non-uniform magnetic field, a 81. Distinguish between soft and hard ferromagnetic
ferromagnetic substance tends to move quickly materials. Give examples of each type.
from weaker to the stronger parts of the field. Ans : Delhi 2017
4. When freely suspended, a rod of ferromagnetic Ferromagnetic materials can be divided into two
material quickly aligns itself parallel to the categories:
magnetic field.
1. Soft Ferromagnetic Materials or Soft
5. Their relative permeability is large, of the order of Ferromagnets : These are the ferromagnetic
thousands. materials in which the magnetisation disappears
6. Their susceptibility is large and positive. on the removal of the external magnetising field.
7. Ferromagnet-ism decreases with the increase of They have low retentivity, low coercivity, and
temperature. low hysteresis loss. But they have high relative
79. State Gauss’s law of magnetism. What are its magnetic permeability. They are used as cores of
solenoids and transformers.
important consequences?
Examples: Soft iron, mu metal, stalloy, etc.
Ans : Delhi 2005
2. Hard Ferromagnetic Materials or Hard
Gauss’s Law in Magnetism
Ferromagnets : These are the ferromagnetic
This law states that the net magnetic flux through materials which retain magnetisation even after
any closed surface is zero. Or, the surface integral the removal of the external magnetising field.
of a magnetic field over a closed surface is zero. They have high retentivity, high coercivity and
Mathematically, large hysteresis loss. They are used for making
permanent magnets.
fB = # Bv $ dSv = 0
S Examples: Steel, alnico, lodestone, ticonal, etc.
Consequences of Gauss’s Law 82. Show diagrammatically the behaviour of magnetic
1. Gauss’s law indicates that there are no sources filed lines in the presence of (i) paramagnetic and (ii)
or sinks of magnetic field inside a closed surface. diamagnetic substances, How does now explain this
This implies that isolated magnetic poles (i.e., distinguishing feature?
monopoles) do not exist. or
2. The magnetic poles always exist as unlike pairs of
Draw the magnetic filed lines distinguishing between
equal strengths.
diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials. Give a
3. If a number of magnetic lines of force enter a
simple explanation to account for the difference in the
closed surface, then an equal number of lines of
magnetic behaviour of these materials.
force must leave that surface.
Ans : OD 2014, Comp 2005
80. Distinguish between diamagnetic and ferromagnetic
materials in terms of
(1) Susceptibility and
(2) their behaviour in a non-uniform magnetic filed.
Ans : Foreign 2011
(1) Susceptibility for diamagnetic material : It
independent of magnetic filed and temperature
(exec) for bismuth at low temperature.
Susceptibility for ferromagnetic material : The
Susceptibility of ferromagnetic materials decrease
steadily with increase in temperature. At the
temperature, the ferromagnetic materials become
paramagnetic.
(2) Behaviour in non-uniform magnetic field
Diamagnetic are feebly repelled, whereas
ferromagnet are strongly attracted by non-uniform
filed i.e., diamagnetic move it, the direction of
decreasing filed, whereas ferromagnet feels force
in direction of increasing filed intensity.
A paramagnetic material tends to move from weaker

filed to stronger filed regions of the magnetic field.
So, the number of lines of magnetic field increases
when passing through it.
Magnetic dipole moments are induced in the direction
of magnetic field.
Paramagnetic materials has a small positive
susceptibility.
A diamagnetic material tends to move from stronger Ans : Comp 2010
field to weaker field region of the magnetic field. So,
This happens when magnetic field of bar magnet is
the number of lines of the magnetic field passing
equal and opposite to the magnetic field of coil
through it decreases. " "
Magnetic dipole moments are induced in the opposite Bm = Bc
direction of the applied magnetic field. m0M m 0 Ia2
3 =
Diamagnetic materials has a negative susceptibility in 4pr 2r3
the range (-1 # x 1 O).
I = 2M 2
4pa
83. Explain the following Current is in anti-clockwise sense, an seen from the
(1) Why do magnetic field lines form continuous origin.
closed loops?
85. Three identical specimens of a magnetic materials
(2) Why are the filled lines repelled (expelled) when
nickel, antimony and aluminium are kept in a non-
a diamagnetic material is placed in a external
uniform magnetic field? uniform magnetic filed. Draw the modification in the
field lines in each case. Justify your answer.
Ans : OD 2012
(1) Magnetic lines of force form continuous closed
loops because a magnet is always a dipole and The modifications are shown in the figure.
as a result, the net magnetic flux of a magnet is
always zero.
(2) When a diamagnetic substance is placed in an
external magnetic field, a feeble magnetism is
induced on opposite direction. So, magnetic lines
of force are repelled.
84. A small magnet of magnetic moment M , is placed at

a distance r from the origin O with its axis parallel to
X -axis as shown. A small coil, if one turn is placed on
the X -axis, at the same distance from the origin, with
the axis of the coil coinciding with X -axis. For what
value of current in the coil does a small magnetic It happens because
needle, kept at origin, remains undefiled ? What is (i) nickel is a ferromagnetic substance.
the direction of current in the coil ? (ii) antimony is a diamagnetic substance.
(iii) aluminium is a paramagnetic substance.
A coil of N turns and radius R carries a current f 2

I d q2 = - mBq
86.
Hence,
it is unwound and rewound to make a square coil of dt
side a having same number of turns (N). Keeping d 2
q = - mB q = - w2 q
or
the current I same, find the ratio of the magnetic dt 2 I
moments of the square coil and the circular coil. 2
i.e. angular acceleration d q2 ? angular displacement
Ans : Delhi 2015 dt
q.
The magnetic moment of a current loop is given by Hence, the oscillations of a freely suspended magnetic
the relation M = NIA dipole in a uniform magnetic field are simple harmonic.
For the circular loop Mc = NIpR2 ...(1) The time period of oscillation is given by.
Now, When the coil is unwound and rewound to make T = 2p = 2p I
a square coil, then w mB
88. How are the magnetic moment of two bar magnet
MS = NI a2 = NI (pR/2) 2
compared without measuring their moment of inertia?
= NIp2 R2 /4 ...(2) Ans : Delhi 2021, Foreign 2010
From eqs. (1) and (2), we have Let us consider two magnets whose moment of inertia
are I1 and I2 and magnetic moments are M1 and M2
NIp2 R2 /4
=p
MS
= respectively.
MC NIpR2 4
Sum Position
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS

87. Find time period of a bar magnet oscillating freely in
a uniform magnetic field Bv Net magnetic moment,
Ans : Comp 2021 Ms = M1 + M2
Oscillations of a Freely Suspended Magnet in a Net moment of inertia,
Magnetic Field
Is = I1 + I2
In the position of equilibrium, the magnetic dipole
lies along Bv. When it is slightly rotated from this Time period of oscillation of this pair in earth’s
position and released, it begins to vibrate about the magnetic field BH .
field direction under the restoring torque, Ts = 2p Is
Ms B H
t = - mB sin q
= 2p I1 + I2 ...(1)
The negative sign indicates that the direction of toque (M1 + M2) BH
t is such so as to decrease q .
(M1 + M2) BH
Frequency, vs = 1
2p Is
Difference Position
Net magnetic moment,
For small angular displacement q , sin q . q . Md = M1 - M2

Hence, t = - mBq Net moment of inertia,
If I is the moment of inertia of the magnet, then the Id = I1 + I2
deflecting torque on the magnet is, Id
and Td = 2p
2
Md BH
t = Ia = I d q2
dt I1 + I2
= 2p ...(2)
In the equilibrium condition, (M1 - M2) BH
Deflecting torque = Restoring torque
(M1 + M2) BH m 0 2m
vd = 1 Baxial = v
, along NP ...(1)
and $
4p r3
2p (I1 + I2)
From Eq. (1) and (2), we get Clearly, the magnetic field at any axial point of
Ts = M1 - M2 magnetic dipole is in the same direction as that of its
Td M1 + M2 magnetic dipole moment.
M1 = T d2 + T s2 90. 1. A current loop behaves as a magnetic dipole.
M2 T d2 - T s2 Obtain an expression for the magnetic dipole
2 2 moment of a circular loop. State the rule used to
= v s2 + v d2
v s - vd find the direction of the magnetic dipole moment.
2. Obtain the dimensions and units of magnetic
89. Derive an expression for the magnetic field intensity dipole moment.
at a point on the axis of a bar magnet. What is the Ans : OD 2016, Delhi 2008
direction of the field? 1. Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole : The
Ans : Comp 2020 magnetic field produced at a large distance r
Magnetic field of a bar magnet at an axial point (end- form the centre of a circular loop (or radius a )
on position). Let NS be a bar magnet of length 2l along its axis is given by
m
and of pole strength qm . Suppose the magnetic field B = 0 $ 2IA ...(1)
is to be determined at a point P . Which lies on the 4p r 3
axis of the magnet at a distance r from its centre, as On the other hand, the electric field of an electric
shown in figure. dipole at an axial point lying far away from it is
given by
2p
E = 1 $ 3 ...(2)
4pe 0 r
where p is the electric dipole moment.
On comparing equations (1) and (2), we note that
both B and E have same distance dependence
` r j . Moreover, they have same direction at any
1
Imagine a unit north pole placed at point P . Then 3
from Coulomb’s law of magnetic forces, the force far away point, not just on the axis.
exerted by the N -pole of strength qm on unit north This suggests that a circular current loop behaves
pole will be as a magnetic dipole of magnetic moment,
m qm m = IA
FN = 0 $ v
, along NP
4p (r - l ) 2
In vector notation,
Similarly, the force exerted by S -pole on unit north v
v = IA
m
pole is
m qm This result is valid for planer current loop of any
FS = 0 $ v
, along PS shape. Thus the magnetic dipole moment of any
4p (r - l ) 2
current loop is equal to the product of the current
Therefore, the strength of the magnetic field Bv at
and its loop area. Its direction is defined to be
point P is
normal to the plane of the loop in the sense give
Baxial = Force experienced by a unit north-pole at by right hand thumb rule, as shown in figure.
point P
= FN - FS
m 0 qm 1 1
4p ;(r - l ) 2 (r + l ) 2 E
= -
m q
= 0 m $ 2 4rl 2 2
4p (r - l )
But qm $ 2l = m , is the magnetic dipole moment, so
m
Baxial = 0 $ 22mr2 2
4p (r - l )
For a short bar magnet, l << r , therefore, we have
Current Loop as a Magnetic Dipole
Right Hand Thumb Rule : If we curl the fingers m l = IA = ev $ pr2

of the right hand in the direction of current in 2pr
the loop, then the extended thumb gives the or m l = evr ...(1)
direction of the magnetic moment associated 2
with the loop. According to right hand thumb rule, the direction of
2. Dimensions of Magnetic Dipole Moment : For any the magnetic dipole moment of the revolving electron
current loop, will be perpendicular to the plane of its orbit and in
Magnetic dipole moment = Current # Area of the downward direction.
the loop Also, the angular momentum of the electron due to its
Hence, [m] = [A] [L2] = [AL2] orbital motion is,
SI unit of magnetic dipole moment is Am2 . It is l = me vr ...(2)
defined as the magnetic moment associated with v
The direction of l is normal to the plane of the
one turn loop of area one square metre when a electron orbit and in the upward direction.
current of one ampere flows through it.
Dividing Eq. (1) by (2), we get
91. Explain how does an atom behave as a magnetic evr
ml
dipole. Derive an expression for the magnetic dipole = 2 = e
l me vr 2me
moment of the atom.
The above ratio is a constant called gyromagnetic
or
ratio. Its value is 8.8 # 1010 Ckg-1 . So,
Deduce the expression for the magnetic dipole moment
of an electron orbiting around the central nucleus. ml = e l
2me
Ans : Comp 2018
Magnetic Dipole Moment of a Revolving Electron Vectorially, mvl = - e lv

2me
In hydrogen-like atoms, an electron revolves around The negative sign shows that the direction of lv
the nucleus. Its motion is equivalent to a current loop is opposite to that of mvl . According to Bohr’s
which possesses a magnetic dipole moment = IA . quantisation condition, the angular momentum of an
As shown in figure, consider an electron revolving electron in any permissible orbit is,
anticlockwise around a nucleus in an orbit of radius r
with speed v and time period T . l = nh , (where, n = 1, 2, 3, ...)
2p
Hence, m l = n b eh l
4pme
This equation gives orbital magnetic moment of an
electron revolving in n th orbit.
92. Derive an expression for the magnetic field intensity

at a point on the equatorial line of a bar magnet.
What is the direction of this field?
or
Derive an expression for the magnetic field due to a
magnetic dipole in broad-side on position at a distance
r from its centre. The length of the dipole is 2l and
Orbital Magnetic Moment of a Revolving Electron its magnetic moment is m .
Ch arge
Current, I = =e Magnetic field of a bar magnet at an equatorial point
Time T
(broadside-on position). Consider a bar magnet NS
= e = ev
2pr/v 2pr of length 2l and of pole strength qm . Suppose the
magnetic field is to be determined at a point P lying
Area of the current loop,
on the equatorial line of the magnet NS at a distance
A = pr2 from its centre, as shown in figure.
The orbital magnetic moment of the electron is
axial line of a short magnet is twice of that at the

same distance on its equatorial line.
93. (i) Derive an expression for the torque on a magnetic
dipole placed in a magnetic field and hence define
magnetic dipole moment.
(ii) Write the SI unit of magnetic moment.
(ii) When is the torque on a magnet (a) minimum
and (b) maximum?
Ans : OD 2019
(i) Derive an expression for the torque on a magnetic
dipole
Torque on a magnetic dipole in a uniform magnetic
field. Consider a bar magnet NS of length 2l placed
in a uniform magnetic field Bv . Let qm be the pole
strength of its each pole. Let the magnetic axis of
Magnetic Field of a Bar Magnet at an Equatorial the bar magnet make an angle q with the field Bv , as
Point shown in Figure (a).
Force on N -pole = qm B , along Bv
Imagine a unit north-pole placed at point P . Then
from Coulomb’s law of magnetic forces, the force Force on S -pole = qm B , opposite to Bv
exerted by the N - pole of the magnet on unit north-
pole is,
m q
FN = 0 $ m2 , along NP
v
4p x
Similarly, the force exerted by the S -pole of the
magnet on unit north-pole is
m q
FS = 0 $ m2 , along PS
v
4p x
As the magnitudes of FN and FS are equal, so their
vertical components get cancelled while the horizontal
components add up along PR .
Hence the magnetic field at the equatorial point P is,
B equa = Net force on a unit N -pole placed at
point P
= FN cos q + FS cos q [Here FN = FS ]
= 2FN cos q
m 0 qm 1
= 2$ $ $ The forces on the two poles are equal and opposite.
4p x2 x
They form a couple. Moment of couple or torque is
m
or B equa = 0 $ 2 m 2 3/2 [since x = (r2 + l 2) 1/2 ] given by,
4p (r + l )
t = Force # perpendicular distance
where, m = qm $ 2l is the magnetic dipole moment.
Again for a short magnet, l << r , so we have = qm B # 2l sin q = (qm # 2l ) B sin q
m t = mB sin q ...(1)
B equa = 0 $ m3 , along PR
v ...(2)
4p r where, m = qm # 2l , is the magnetic dipole moment
Clearly, the magnetic field at any equatorial point of of the bar magnet. In vector notation,
a magnetic dipole is in the direction opposite to that v # Bv
tv = m ...(2)
of its magnetic dipole moment.
On comparing Eqs. (1) and (2), we note that the The direction of the torque tv is given by the right
magnetic field at a point at a certain distance on the hand screw rule as indicated in Figure (b).
The effect of the torque tv is to make the magnet align 95. A bar magnet of magnetic moment 5.0 Am2 has poles
itself parallel to the field Bv . 20 cm apart. Calculate the pole strength.
Definition of magnetic dipole moment. If in Eq. (1), Ans : Comp 2016
B =1 Given, m = 5.0 Am2

Then, q = 90c 2l = 20 cm = 0.20 m
Hence, the magnetic dipole moment may be defined As, m = qm # 2l
as the torque acting on a magnetic dipole placed
Hence, Pole strength, qm = m
perpendicular to a uniform magnetic field of unit 2l
strength. = 5.0 = 25 Am
0.20
(ii) SI unit of magnetic moment.
SI unit of magnetic moment. As, 96. What is the magnitude of the equatorial and axial
fields due to a bar magnet of length 5 cm at a distance
m = t of 50 cm form the midpoint? The magnetic moment of
B sin q
the bar magnet is 0.40 Am2 .
SI units of m = 1Nm Ans :
1T $ 1 OD 2018
= NmT-1 or JT-1 or Am2 Given, m = 0.40 Am2

(iii) Torque on a magnet r = 50 cm = 0.50 m
When the magnet lies along the direction of the 2l = 5.0 cm
magnetic field,
Clearly, the magnet is a short magnet (l << r).
q = 0c
m
1. B equa = 0 $ m3
sin q = 0 4p r
-7
t =0 = 10 # 30.4 = 3.2 # 10-7 T
(0.5)
Thus the torque is minimum.
m 0 2m
When the magnet lies perpendicular to the direction 2. Baxial = $
4p r3
of the field,
= 6.4 # 10-7 T
q = 90c
97. A magnetised needle of magnetic moment
sin q = 1 4.8 # 10-2 JT-1 is placed at 30c with the direction
t = mB of uniform magnetic field of magnitude 3 # 10-2 T .
Thus the torque is maximum and t max = mB . What is the torque acting on the needle?
Given, m = 4.8 # 10-2 JT-1

NUMERICAL QUESTIONS q = 30c, B = 3 # 10-2 T
Hence, Torque, t = mB sin q
94. At a certain place, the horizontal component of earth’s
magnetic field is 3 times its vertical component. = 4.8 # 10-2 # 3 # 10-2 # sin 30c
What is the angle of dip at that place? = 7.2 # 10-4 J
Ans : OD 2015
Horizontal components of earth’s magnetic field, 98. A short bar magnet placed with its axis at 30c to a
uniform magnetic field of 0.2 T experiences a torque
BH = 3 # BV of 0.06 Nm .
where BV = Vertical component of earth’s magnetic 1. Calculate the magnetic moment of the magnet.
field 2. Find out what orientation of the magnet
corresponds to its stable equilibrium in the
Relation for the angle of dip d at a place is,
magnetic field.
B BV
tan d = V = = 1 Ans : Foreign 2010
BH 3 # BV 3
1. Given,
d = 30°
B = 0.2 T
q = 30c along z -axis.

t = 0.06 Nm Torque on the current loop of magnetic moment m is,
t = mB sin a
Magnetic moment, m = t = 0.06
B sin q 0.2 sin 30c v and Bv . For stable
where, a is angle between m
= 0.06 = 0.6 Am2 equilibrium torque is zero, so a = 0c. For this Bv
0.2 # 0.5 should be perpendicular to the plane of the coil.
2. The P.E. of a magnetic dipole in a uniform Hence the coil will lie in y -z plane in the condition of
magnetic field is stable equilibrium.
U = - mB cos q
101. An electron in an atom revolves around the nucleus
In stable equilibrium, the P.E. is minimum. So c . Calculate the equivalent
in an orbit of radius 0.5 A
cos q = 1 magnetic moment if the frequency of revolution of the
q = 0c electron is 1010 MHz .
Hence the bar magnet will be in stable equilibrium Ans : Foreign 2011
when its magnetic moment m v is parallel to the The electron revolving around the nucleus in a circular
magnetic field Bv . orbit is equivalent to a current loop.
99. A planar loop of irregular shape encloses an area Its magnetic moment is,
of 7.5 # 10-4 m2 and carries a current of 12 A . The m = IA = en # pr2
sense of flow of current appears to be clockwise to an
Given, e = 1.6 # 10-19 C
observer. What is the magnitude and direction of the
magnetic moment vector associated with the current n = 1010 MHz = 1016 Hz
loop? c = 0.5 # 10-10 m
r = 0.5 A
Ans : OD 2015
Therefore,
Given, A = 7.5 # 10-4 m2
m = 1.6 # 10-19 # 1016 # 3.14 # (0.5 # 10-10) 2
and I = 12 A
= 1.257 # 10-23 Am2
Magnetic moment associated with the loop is,
m = IA 102. The electron in the hydrogen atom is moving with a
speed of 2.3 # 106 ms-1 is an orbit of radius 0.53 A c
= 12 # 7.5 # 10-4 . Calculate the magnetic moment of the revolving
= 9.0 # 10-3 JT-1 electron.
Applying right hand rule, the direction of magnetic Ans : Delhi 2016
moment is along the normal to the plane of the loop Given, v = 2.3 # 106 ms-1
away from the observer. c = 0.53 # 10-10 m
r = 0.53 A
100. A current of 6 A is flowing through a 10 turn circular
coil of radius 7 cm . The coil lies in the x -y plane. e = 1.6 # 10-19 C
What is the magnitude and direction of the magnetic Orbital magnetic moment of the electron,
dipole moment associated with it?
m l = evr
If this coil were to be placed in a uniform external 2
magnetic field directed along the x -axis, in which -19 6 -10
= 1.6 # 10 # 2.3 # 10 # 0.53 # 10
plane would the coil lie, when in equilibrium? (Take 2
p = 22/7 ) = 9.75 # 10-24 Am2
Ans : Delhi 2017
103. A compass needle whose magnetic moment is 60 Am2
Magnetic dipole moment, pointing geographical north at a certain place where
m = NIA = NI # pr2 the horizontal component of earth’s magnetic field is
40 mWb/m2 experiences a torque of 1.2 # 10-3 Nm .
= 10 # 5 # 22 # b 7 l
2
7 100 What is the declination of the place?

= 0.77 Am2 Ans : Foreign 2009, Comp 2002
The direction of magnetic dipole moment is In stable equilibrium, a compass needle points along
perpendicular to the plane of the coil. Hence it is magnetic north and experiences no torque. When
it is turned through declination a , it points along 2

B = 4p I2
geographic north and experiences torque, mT
-6
t = mB sin a = 4 # 9.87 # 7.5 #2 10
6.7 # (0.67)
Hence, sin a = t = 9.8 # 10-5 T
mB
= 1.2 # 10-3 =1 106. A bar magnet of magnetic moment 6.4 A-m 2 is placed
60 # 40 # 10-6 2 in a uniform magnetic field of 0.4 T. What is the
a = 30c torque acting on the magnet, when its axis makes an
angle of 60° with the magnetic field?
104. Obtain the earth’s magnetisation. Assume that the
earth’s field can be approximated by a giant bar Ans : Comp 2007
magnet of magnetic moment 8.0 # 1022 Am2 . The Magnetic moment, M = 6.4 A-m 2
earth’s radius is 6400 km . Magnetic field, B = 0.4 T
Ans : SQP 2005 and angle between bar magnet and magnetic field,
Given, magnetic moment, q = 60°
m = 8.0 # 1022 Am2 Torque acting on the bar magnet in uniform filed,
Radius of the earth, t = M B sin q
R = 6400 km = 6.4 # 106 m
= 6.4 # 0.4 # sin 60°
Magnetisation, M =m = 6.4 # 0.4 # 0.866 = 2.2 N-m
V
= 4m 3 107. A magnet of magnetic moment M is freely suspended
3 pr in a uniform magnetic field of strength B . Calculate
8.0 # 1022 # 3 the work done in rotating the magnet through 60° to
= 90° ?
4 # 3.14 # (6.4 # 106) 3
= 72.9 Am-1 Ans : Comp 2018
Magnetic moment = M
105. In figure, a magnetic needle is free to oscillate in a
uniform magnetic field. The magnetic needle has Strength of magnetic field = B
magnetic moment 6.7 Am2 and moment of inertia Initial angle of rotation = 60°
I = 7.5 # 10-6 kg m2 . It performs 10 complete
Final angle of rotation = 90°
oscillations in 6.70s . What is the magnitude field?
Work done in rotating the magnet in uniform magnetic
field,
W = M B (cos q 1 - cos q 2)
= M B (cos 60° - cos 90°)
= M Bb 1 - 0l = M B
2 2
108. Work done in turning a bar magnet of magnetic
moment M through 90° from the meridian, is n times
the corresponding work done to turn it through an
Ans : OD 2016
angle of 60° . What is the value of n ?
Given, T = 6.70 s = 0.67 s Ans : Delhi 2016, OD 2011
10
Magnetic moment = M
m = 6.7 Am2
Initial angle through which magnet is turned,
I = 7.5 # 10-6 kg m2
q 1 = 90°
As, T = 2p I
mB and final angle through which magnet is turned,
q 2 = 60°
T 2 = 4p 2 I
mB Work done in turning the bar magnet,
The magnitude of the magnetic field is,
W = M B (1 - cos q)
Therefore, W1 = 1 - cos q 1 = 1 - cos 90° distance between the poles

W2 1 - cos q 2 1 - cos 60°
= Diameter of semicircle
= 1-0 = 1 = 2
1 - 0.5 0.5 d2 = 2d1 = 2 # 0.314 = 0.2 m
p 3.14
W1 = 2W2 Magnetic moment of magnet
W1 = 2 (where, n = W1 ) M = Pole strength
W2 W2
# Distance between the poles
109. Two identical magnetic dipoles of magnetic moments
1.0 Am2 each are placed at a separation of 2 m with = m#d
their axes perpendicular to each other. What is the i.e., =M?d
resultant magnetic field at a point mid-way between
Therefore, M1 = d1 = 0.314 = 1.57
the dipoles?
M2 d2 0.2
Ans : Comp 2019
The situation is shown in figure. where M2 = New Magnetic moment of magnet
M2 = M1
1.57
= 0.157 = 0.1 A-m 2
1.57
111. A current of 7.0 A is flowing in a plane circular coil of

radius 1.0 cm having 100 turns. The coil is placed in a
uniform magnetic field of 0.2 Wbm-2 . If the coil is free
to rotate, what orientations would correspond to its
The magnetic fields of the two magnets at the
(1) stable equilibrium and (2) unstable equilibrium?
midpoint P are,
Calculate the potential energy of the coil in these
m -7
B1 = 0 $ 2m = 10 #32 # 1 cases.
4p r 3
1 Ans : SQP 2006, Comp 2015
-7
= 2 # 10 T (in horizontal direction)
Given, N = 100
m
B2 = 0 m3 = 10-7 T (in vertical direction) A = 7.0 A
4p r
Hence, BR = B 12 + B 22 = 5 # 10-7 T r = 1.0 cm = 1.0 # 10-2 m
If the resultant field BR makes angle q with B1 , then B = 0.2 Wbm-2

-7 Magnetic moment associated with the coil is,
tan q = B2 = 10 -7 = 0.5
B1 2 # 10 m = NI A = NI # pr2
Hence, q = 26.57c
= 100 # 7.0 # 22 # (1.0 # 10-2) 2
7
110. The effective length of a magnet is 31.4 cm, and its
pole strength is 0.5 A-m. If it is bent in the form of a = 0.22 Am2
semicircle. What is the new magnetic moment? 1. The stable equilibrium corresponds to mv parallel
Ans : OD 2010 to Bv The potential energy is then minimum.
Initial effective length of magnet or initial distance U min = - mB cos 0c
between the poles,
= - 0.22 # 0.2 # 1
d1 = 31.4 cm = 0.314 m
= - 0.044 J
and pole strength of the magnet, 2. The unstable equilibrium corresponds to m v
m = 0.5 A-m anti-parallel to Bv . The potential energy is then
Initial magnetic moment, maximum.
M1 = m # d1 U max = - mB cos 180c
= 0.5 # 0.314 = 0.157 A-m 2 = - 0.22 # 0.2 # (- 1)
When a magnet is bent to from a semicircle, then = + 0.044 J

112. A short bar magnet placed with its axis at 30c CASE BASED QUESTIONS
experiences a torque of 0.016 Nm in an external field
of 800 G . 113. A physics teacher explain Gauss’s theorem in
1. What is the magnetic moment of the magnet? electrostatics and Gauss’s theorem in magnetism
2. What is the work done by an external force in to his students in a class. He tells them that total
moving it from its most stable to most unstable normal electric flux over a closed surface in vacuum
position? Q
is f e = , where Q is algebraic sum of charges inside
3. What is the work done by the force due to the e0
external magnetic field in the process mentioned the surface. Further, total normal magnetic flux over
in part (2)? a closed surface in vacuum is always zero. The teacher
4. The bar magnet is replaced by a solenoid of emphasises that this is because in magnetism, poles
cross-sectional area 2 # 10-4 m2 and 1000 turns, always exist in unlike pairs of equal strength i,e.,
but the same magnetic moment. Determine the isolated magnetic poles called monopoles not exist.
current flowing through the solenoid.
Ans : OD 2014
1. Given,
q = 30c
B = 800 G = 800 # 10-4 T
t = 0.016 Nm
Magnetic moment, m = t
B sin q
= 0.016
800 # 10-4 # sin 30c
= 0.40 Am2
2. For most stable position, q = 0c and for most Read the above passage and answer the following
unstable position q = 180c. So the required work questions
done by the external force,
(i) What are the implications of Gauss’s theorem in
W = - mB (cos 180c - cos 0c) magnetism in day-to-day life?
= 2 mB (ii) Two magnetic dipoles of moments 5 A - m2
and 3 A - m2 oriented along opposite directions
= 2 # 0.40 # 800 # 10-4 are enclosed in a surface. What is total normal
= 0.064 J magnetic flux over the surface?
3. Here the displacement ant the torque due to the (iii) Two points charges + 4q and-q are enclosed in
magnetic field are in opposition. So the work done a surface in vacuum and third change 5q lies
by the magnetic field due to the external magnetic outside the surface. What is total normal electric
field is flux over the surface?
Ans :
WB = 0.064 J
(i) In day-to-day life, we can visualize North pole of
4. Given, a magnetic dipole as source and South pole of the
A = 2 # 10-4 m2 dipole as sink. When source and sink (of magnetic
flux) having the same strength are enclosed by
N = 1000
a surface, the total normal magnetic flux from
Magnetic moment of solenoid, the surface (i.e., net out come) will be zero.
ms = m = 0.40 Am2 Hence, to archive success in any sphere of life, we
must identify the sinks and plug them properly.
But, ms = NIA
Arrange to have as many sources as possible and
success will yours.
Hence, Current, I = ms
NA (ii) As stated in theorem, total normal magnetic flux
0.40 over the surface would always be zero, it being
=
1000 # 2 # 10-4 zero for every individual magnetic dipole.
= 2A
(iii) fe =
/qinside
=
4q - q
=
3q
e0 e0 e0
The charge 5q outside the surface does not affect
the electric flux.
114. Mr. Rajesh the chief development officer, in southern
railway went on an official tour to attend a seminar
on fast moving trains. He met his friend Ontosaki
in Tokyo after he finished his seminar there. His
friend explained to Rajesh how Japanese people are
concentrating on energy conservation and saving of
fossil fuels using Maglev trains. Mr. Rajesh travelled
from Tokyo to Osaka in Maglev train and found that
sound is less, travelling is smooth and understood in
what way we are lagging behind Japanese in mass
transporting systems. This works on the principle of
Meissner’s effect.
(i) What is Meissner’s effect?
(ii) Write the value of magnetic permeability for
perfect diamagnetism.
Ans :
(i) When a superconductor is cooled in a magnetic
field below its critical temperature the magnetic
field lines are expelled showing diamagnetic
property. This is called Meissner’s effect.
(ii) Diamagnetic materials have magnetic permeability
of less than 1.
***********
Page 246 Electromagnetic Induction Chap 6
CHAPTER 6
Electromagnetic Induction
SUMMARY 6. INDUCED CURRENT IN A CIRCUIT

If induced current is produced in a coil rotated in a
uniform magnetic field, then
1. MAGNETIC FLUX I = I0 sin wt
The total number of magnetic field lines crossing
through any surface normally when it placed in a 7. MOTIONAL EMF AND FARADAY’S LAW
magnetic field is known as the magnetic flux through If e is the induced emf, then according to Faraday’s
that surface. law,
2. FARADAY’S LAW OF EMI e = (- df/dt) = - Blv
Faraday gave two laws of EMI : 8. ENERGY CONSIDERATION

1. First Law : An emf is induced in a circuit when
the magnetic flux linked with circuit charges. Power required to move conductor in a uniform
magnetic field perpendicular is,
2. Second Law : The magnitude of induced emf in a
2 2 2
circuit is equal to the rate of change of magnetic P =Blv
flux through the circuit. R
Here, R = resistance of the circuit through which
3. INDUCED EMF AND CURRENT
current is flowing.
df
Induced emf, e =- N B B = a uniform magnetic field
dt
df l = length of the conductor
Induced current, I = e = -N B
R R dt v = speed
Here, R = resistance of the circuit
9. INDUCTANCE
and N = number of turns
It is the ratio of the flux to the current. It depends
4. LENZ’S LAW on the geometry of the coil and intrinsic material
properties.
According to this law, the polarity of induced emf is
such that it tends to produce a current which oppose 10. SELF-INDUCTANCE
the change in magnetic flux produced it.
It in the property of a coil by virtue of which it opposes
5. FLEMING’S RIGHT HAND RULE any changes in the strength of current flowing through
it by inducing an emf in itself. When current in a coil
If we stretch the thumb, the forefinger, the central
changes, it induces a back emf in the same coil. The
finger of our right hand in such a way that all three
self-induced emf is given by, e = - L dIdt , where L is the
are mutually perpendicular to each other, then if the
self-inductance of the coil. If coil of N turns and area
thumb represents the direction of force, forefinger
A is rotated with v revolution per second in a uniform
represent the direction of magnetic field, then the
magnetic field B , then the induced emf is,
central finger will represent the direction of induced
current. e = e0 sin wt
= NAB w sin wt
(a) currents in the coils (a) Bw2 l (b) = 1 Bwl

2
(b) materials of the wires of the coils
(c) 1 Bwl 2 (d) = 1 Bw3 l
(c) relative position and orientation of the coils 2 8
(d) rates at which the currents are changing in the Ans : SQP 2002
coils Given, Length of rod = l

Ans : SQP 2005 Magnetic field = B
Mutual inductance of the pair of coils depends upon and Angular speed = w
the geometry of the coils, distance between the coils,
Change in magnetic flux linked with the rod when it
relative position and orientation of the coils, no. of
rotates in circular path,
turns in the coils, permeability of the medium in
which the coils wounded and degree of coupling i.e., df = B # A
the extent to which the magnetic flux primary current = B # pl 2
links the secondary.
and time-taken to complete one-revolution,
dt = 2p
15. Which of the following does not obey the phenomenon w
of mutual induction? Therefore, induced E.M.F. in the metallic rod,
(a) dynamo (b) transformer df 2
E = = B # pl = 1 Bwl 2
(c) induction coil (d) electric heater dt 2p 2
w
Phenomenon according to which an opposing E.M.F.
is produced in a coil as a result of change in current 18. A 2 m long solenoid with radius 2 cm and 2000
or magnetic flux linked with a neighbouring coil, is turns has a another solenoid of 1000 turns wound
called mutual induction. closely near its mid-point. The mutual inductance of
Since electric heater is based on heating effect of solenoids is
current, therefore it does not obey the phenomenon (a) 0.8 mH (b) 1.6 mH
of mutual induction. (c) 3.2 mH (d) 6.4 mH
And dynamo, transformer and induction coils are
Ans : Foreign 2003
based on the phenomenon of the mutual induction.
Given,
Length of each solenoid, l = 2m
16. The mutual inductance, when the magnetic flux
Radius of first solenoid, r = 2 cm = 0.02 m
changes by 5 # 10-2 Wb and current change by
0.01 A , is No. of turns in first solenoid, N1 = 2000
(a) 0.2 H (b) 2.5 H No. of turns in second solenoid, N2 = 1000

(c) 5 H (d) 10 H Area of solenoid,
Ans : OD 2004 A = pr2 = p # ^0.02h2
Change in magnetic flux, = 4p # 10-4 m2
df = 5 # 10-2 Wb Therefore, mutual inductance of two solenoids,
Change in current, dI = 0.01 A m NNA
M = 0 1 2
df l
Mutual inductance, M = ^4p #10-7h # 2000 # 1000 # ^4p #10-4h
dI
=
-2 2
= 5 # 10 = 5 H
0.01 = 1.6 # 10-3 H = 1.6 mH
Thus (c) is correct option. Thus (b) is correct option.
17. A metallic rod of length l is placed normal to the 19. The mutual inductance of two coils can be increased by
magnetic field B and revolved in a circular path about
(a) increasing the length of coils
one of the ends with angular speed w . The potential
difference across the ends will be (b) increasing the no. of turns in the coils
38. Define the term magnetic flux. Is it a scalar or vector 40. When is the magnetic flux taken as positive and
quantity? negative?
Ans : OD 2021 Ans : OD 2020, Comp 2007
The magnetic flux through any surface placed in a A normal to a plane can be drawn from either side.
magnetic field is the total number of magnetic lines of If the normal drawn to a plane points out in the
force crossing this surface normally. direction of the field, then q = 0° and the flux is
taken as positive. If the normal points in the opposite
direction of the field, then q = 180° and the flux is
taken as negative.
Magnetic Flux Through a Given Surface Area

As shown in figure, if the magnetic field Bv makes an
angle q with the normal drawn to a surface area A,
then the flux linked with this area is, (a) Positive Flux (b) Negative Flux
f = Normal component of B
41. Give the three possible ways of producing an induced
# Surface area emf in a coil giving an example in each case.
= B cos q # A Ans : SQP 2010
v
f = BA cos q = Bv $ A As f = BA cos q , so the magnetic flux linked with a
v is the direction of loop can be changed and hence induced emf can be
Here the direction of vector A produced by three methods :
the outward drawn normal to the surface. Clearly,
1. By changing the magnetic field B e.g., by moving
magnetic flux is a scalar quantity.
a bar magnet towards or away from a closed coil.
39. Name and define the SI and CGS units of magnetic 2. By changing the area of a closed loop e.g., by
flux. Write the relation between them. moving one arm of a rectangular conductor in a
Ans : Delhi 2020 perpendicular magnetic field.
SI Unit of Magnetic Flux 3. By changing in relative orientation q of the loop
The SI unit of magnetic flux is weber (Wb). One and the magnetic field e.g., by rotating a closed
weber is the flux produced when a uniform magnetic coil about an axis perpendicular to the magnetic
field of one tesla acts normally over an area of 1 m2 . field.
1 weber = 1 tesla # 1 metre 2 42. When a magnet is moved towards a suspended wire
loop as shown in figure then evaluate the direction of
or 1 Wb = 1 Tm 2 induced current in loop. State the law used by your
CGS Unit of Magnetic Flux for this evaluation.
The CGS unit of magnetic flux is Maxwell (Mx). One
maxwell is the flux produced when a uniform magnetic
field of one gauss acts normally over an area of 1 cm2 .
1 maxwell = 1 gauss # 1 cm2
1 Mx = 1 G cm2
Relation between Weber and Maxwell
1 Wb = 1 T # 1 m2
Ans : OD 2019
= 10 4 G # 10 4 cm2 When south pole of magnet moves towards the coil,
1 Wb = 108 maxwell the induced current flows clockwise in the coil when
seen from its right hand side. Lenz’s law evaluate the
53. Figure shows planner loops of different shapes moving = 1.5 (20 - 0)
out of or into a region of magnetic field which is
= 30 Weber
directed normal to the plane of loops downwards.
Determine the direction of induced current in each 55. Starting from the expression for the energy W = 12 LI 2
loop using Lenz’s law. , stored in a solenoid of self-inductance L to build up
the current I , obtain the expression for the magnetic
energy in terms of the magnetic field B , area A and
length l of the solenoid having n number of turns per
unit length. Hence, show that the energy density is
given by B2 /2m 0 .
Ans : OD 2013, Comp 2006
Energy stored in the magnetic field,

m N2 A B2 L2
W = 1 LI2 = 1 0 $ 2 2
2 2 L m0N
m 20 m 0 N2 A m NL
=
2m 0
(AL) 2 ;L = L
,B = 0
L E
Energy density,
Energy
uB =
Volume
2
= B
2m 0 6Hence, B = AL@
Ans : Delhi 2013

(a) In fig. (i) the rectangular loop abcd and in fig. 56. Two concentric circular coils, one of small radius r2
(iii) circular loop are entering the magnetic and the other of large radius r1 , such that r2 11 r1
field, so the flux linked with them increases. The are placed co-axially with canters coinciding. Obtain
direction of induced currents in these coils, will be the mutual inductance of the arrangement.
such as to oppose the increase of magnetic flux,
hence, the magnetic field due to current induced
will be upward, i.e., currents induced will flow
anti-clockwise.
(b) In fig. (ii), the triangular loop abc and in fig.
(iv) the zig-zag shaped loop are emerging from
the magnetic field. Therefore magnetic flux linked
with these loops decreases. The currents induced
in them will tend to increase the magnetic field
in downward direction, so the currents will flow
clockwise.
54. (i) Define mutual inductance. Write its SI unit. Ans : Comp 2015
(ii) A pair of adjacent coils has a mutual inductance Mutual Inductance of two plane coils : Consider
of 1.5 H. If the current in one coil changes from 0 two concentric circular plane coils C1 and C2 placed
to 20 A in 0.5 s, what is the charge of flux linkage
very near to each other. The number of turns in the
with the other coil ?
primary coil is N1 and radius is r1 ; while the number
Ans : SQP 2007
of turns in the secondary coil is N2 and its radius is r2
(i) Mutual inductance of two coils in the magnetic . If I1 is the current in the primary coil, then magnetic
flux linked with the secondary coil when a unit field produced at it centre,
current flows through the primary coil,
m NI
f B1 = 0 1 1
i.e., f 2 = MI1 or M = 2 2r1
I1
If we suppose the magnetic field to be uniform over
SI unit of mutual inductance is Henry (H). the entire plane of secondary coil, then total effective
(ii) Change of flux for small change in current magnetic flux linkage with secondary coil.
df = MdI f 2 = N2 B1 A2
61. (a) How does the mutual inductance of a pair of coils (c) (i) When the relative distance between the coil is
change when increased, the leakage of flux increases which
(i) distance between the coils is increased and reduces the magnetic coupling of the coils.
(ii) number of turns in the coils is increased? So magnetic flux linked with all the turns
(b) A plot of magnetic flux (f) versus current (I), decreases. Therefore, mutual inductance will
is shown in the figure for two inductors A and be decreased.
B . Which of the two has large value of self- (ii) Mutual inductance for a pair of coil is given
inductance? by
(c) How is the mutual inductance of a pair of coils M = K L1 L2
affected when
mN 2 A
(i) separation between the coils is increased? where, L = and L is called self inductance.
I
(ii) the number of turns in each coil is increased?
Therefore, when the number of turns in each
(iii) a thin iron sheet is placed between the two
coil increases, the mutual inductance also
coils, after factors remaining the same?
increases.
Justify your answer in each case.
(iii) When a thin iron sheet is placed between the
two coils, the mutual inductance increases
because
M ? permeability. The permeability of the
medium between coils increases.
62. Define the term self-inductances of a solenoid. Obtain
the expression for the magnetic energy stored in an
inductor of self-inductance L to build up a current I
through it.
Ans : OD 2013, Comp 2005
(i) Self-inductance : Self-inductance is the property
Ans : Foreign 2005
of a coil by virtue of which, the coil opposes any
(a) (i) Mutual inductance decreases. change in the strength of current flowing through
(ii) Mutual inductance increases. it by inducing an emf in itself.
Concept The induced emf is also called back emf. When the
(i) If distance between two coils is increased as shown current in a coil is switched on, the self-induction
in figure. opposes the growth of the current and when the
current is switched off, the self-induction opposes
the decay of the current,
So, self-induction is also called the inertia of
electricity
It causes decrease in magnetic flux linked with the

coil C2 . Hence, induced emf in coil C2 decreases
- df 2
by relation e 2 = . Hence, mutual inductance
dt
decreases.
(ii) Self-inductance of long solenoid : A long solenoid
(ii) From relation M21 = m 0 N1 N2 AI , if number of is one whose length is very large as compared to
turns in one of the coils or both increases, means its area of cross-section.
mutual inductance will increase. The magnetic field (B) at any point inside such a
f solenoid is practically constant and is given by
(b) f = LI = =L
I m NI
f
The slope of I of straight line is equal to self- B = 0 ...(1)
I
inductance L. It is larger for inductor A, therefore where, m 0 = absolute magnetic permeability of free
inductor A has longer value of self inductance L . space,
67. Describe the various experiments performed by Figure shows a coil C1 connected to a galvanometer
Faraday and Henry which ultimately led to the and coil C2 connected to a battery. The steady current
discovery of the phenomenon of electromagnetic in coil C2 produces a steady magnetic field. As the
induction. coil is moved towards C1 , the galvanometer shows a
Ans : OD 2019 deflection. This indicates an induced current flowing
Faraday’s Experiments through C1 . When C2 is moved away from C1 , the
Experiment 1 : Induced emf with a stationary coil direction of current through C1 is reversed.
and moving magnet. Due to the relative motion between coils C1 and C2 ,
the magnetic flux linked with C1 changes and an emf
is induced in it.
Experiment 3 : Induced emf by changing current in
the neighbouring coil.
When the Bar Magnet is Pushed Towards the Coil,

the Pointer in the Galvanometer G Deflects
As shown in figure, take a coil C1 connected to
a galvanometer G . Whenever the N -pole of a bar Induced emf by Change of Current in the
magnet is moved towards or away from the coil, a Neighbouring Coil
current is induced in the coil as is shown by deflection
in the galvanometer. Faster the motion of the Figure shows a coil C1 connected to a galvanometer
magnet, larger is the current induced in the coil. The and another coil C2 connected to a battery through
galvanometer does not show any deflection when the a tapping key K. When the key K is pressed, the
magnet is held stationary. galvanometer shows a momentary deflection. As the
key is kept pressed continuously, the galvanometer
The motion of the magnet towards or away from coil
shows no deflection. When the key is released, a
C1 changes the magnetic flux linked with coil C1 . The
momentary deflection is observed again, but in the
change in the magnetic flux induces an emf in coil C1
opposite direction.
which causes a current to flow through C1 .
When the key K is pressed, the current through C2
Experiment 2 : Induced emf due to the motion of
increases from zero to a maximum value in a short
current carrying coil.
time. The flux through C1 increases. This induces an
emf in C1 . When the key is kept pressed continuously,
the current through C2 becomes constant. There is
no change in flux linked with C1 and hence induced
current becomes zero. When the key is released, the
current through C2 decreases, the flux linked with C1
decreases and hence induced current in C1 flows in the
opposite direction.
68. With the help of a labelled diagram, explain the
principle, construction and working of an ac generator.
Derive the expression for induced emf.
Ans : Comp 2018, Delhi 2012
AC Generator
Current is Induced in Coil C1 due to Motion of It is a device which converts mechanical energy into
Current Carrying Coil C2 alternating form of electrical energy.
primary, then n1 = N1 , and we have W = qvBl

l
Since emf is the work done per unit charge,
M = m 0 n1 N2 A
If an iron core be placed inside the primary, the Hence, e = W = Blv
q
magnitude of M would greatly increase. This equation gives emf induced across the rod.
72. 1. A rod of length l is moved horizontally with a 73. (i) How is magnetic flux linked with the armature
uniform velocity 'V' in a direction perpendicular coil changed in a generation?
to its length through a region in which a uniform (ii) Derive the expression for maximum value of the
magnetic field is acting vertically downward. induced emf and state the rule that gives the
Derive the expression for the emf induced across direction of the induced emf.
the ends of the rod. (iii) Show the variation of the emf generated versus
2. How does one understand this motional emf by time as the armature is rotated with respect to
invoking the Lorentz force acting on the free the direction of the magnetic fields.
charge carriers of the conductor? Explain. Ans : OD 2016, SQP 2012
Ans : OD 2009 The direction of flow of current in resistance R get
1. Suppose a rod of length 'l' moves with velocity changed alternatively after every half cycle.
V inward in the region having uniform magnetic Thus, AC is produced in coil.
field B . Initial magnetic flux enclosed in the Let at any instant coil magnetic flux linked with the
rectangular space is f = B lx . armature coil is G . and q = wt is the angle made by
As the rod moves with velocity, area vector of coil with magnetic field.
v = dx f = NBA cos q
dt
Using Lenz’s law, = NBA cos wt
df df
e =- = - d (Blx) dt
= - NBAw sin wt
dt dt
df
= Bl b- dx l = NBAw sin wt
dt dt
- df
Hence, e = Blv By Paraday’s law of EMI, e =
dt
Induced emf in coil is given by,
e = NBAw sin wt
e = e0 sin wt
where, e0 = NBAw = peak value of induced emf.
The mechanical energy spend in rotating the coil in
magnetic field appears in the form of electrical energy.
2. Suppose any arbitrary charge 'ql in the conductor

of length l moving inward in the field as shown in
figure, the charge q also moves with velocity v in
the magnetic field B .
The Lorentz force on the charge 'ql is F . 74. Derive expression for self inductance of a long air-
F = qvB and its direction is downwards cored solenoid of length l , cross-sectional area A and
So, work done in moving the charge 'ql along the having number of turns N .
conductor of length l . Ans : SQP 2007
W = F.l Self-Inductance of a long air-cored solenoid : Consider

a long air solenoid having n number of turns per unit
has free charges and Lorentz force acting on them This is the energy spent/sec., mechanically in
causes a current to be set up in the conductor. In moving the loop, which is dissipated as Joule’s
the calculations above, e = Blv is the expression heat loss/sec.
for motional emf. P = I 2R
Induced emf by Changing the Area A : Suppose 2 2 2
= b Blv l R = B l v
2
a uniform magnetic field B perpendicular to the
R R
plane of the paper and directed outwards (shown
by dots in fig.) is confined in region PQRS . Let a Thus, mechanical energy needed to move the arm
rectangular loop of wire KLMN be held partially KL is converted into electrical energy (induced
in the magnetic field in the plane of the paper. e.m.f.) and then to thermal energy.
Let KL = l . Suppose x is the portion of the loop (c) The induced emf is produced because component
in the field at any instant t , When the loop is H will be interchanged and higher potential will
moved with a velocity in the plane of the paper, be at East side of wire.
area of the loop associated with the magnetic field
changes. An induced emf is set up in the wire.
This is detected by deflection in the galvanometer NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
G connected in the loop.
79. A rectangular conductor LMNO is placed in a

uniform magnetic field of 0.5 T. The field is directed
perpendicular to the plane of the conductor. When
the arm MN of length of 20 cm is moved towards left
with a velocity of 10 ms-1 , calculate the emf induced
in the arm. Given the resistance of the arm to be 5 W
(assuming that other arms are of negligible resistance)
find the value of the current in the arm.
To calculate the emf induced, suppose in a small

time Ot, the loop is moved out of magnetic field
through a small distance Ox .
Hence, decrease in area of the loop = - lTx
decrease in magnetic flux linked with the loop
df = Bl 3 x
As induced emf, e = dfldt
e = + BlOx Blv
Ot
Ans : OD 2021, SQP 2004
i.e., e = Blv
Induced arm in a moving rod in a magnetic field is
(b) Energy Consideration : If R is resistance of the given by
rectangular loop, which does not change with the
e = - Blv
motion of the loop, then current I in the loop is
Since the rod is moving to the left so
I = e = Blv
R R e = + Blv = 0.5 # 0.2 # 10 = 1v
The magnitude of force on arm KL is
Current in the rod I = e = 1 = 0.2 A
F = BIl R 5
2 2 80. Current in a circuit falls steadily from 2.0 A to 0.0 A
= B b Blv l l = B l v
R R in 10 ms. If an average emf of 200 V in induced, then
Power required to push the loop calculate the self-inductance of the circuit.
P = Fv Ans : OD 2015
2 2 2 2 2 Given, TI = - 2 A
= B l v#v = B l v
R R Tt = 10 # 10-3 s
= ^0 h2 + 2 # 9.8 # 10 = 196 rate of change of current 4 A-s-1 . What is the self-

inductance of the solenoid?
v = 196 = 14 m-s-1
Ans : Comp 2010
Since, horizontal component of the earth’s magnetic
Given,
field is normal to wire and direction of motion of wire,
therefore E.M.F. induced in the wire on striking the Induced E.M.F., E = 20 mV
ground. = 20 # 10-3 Volt
E = BH vl and rate of change of current,
= ^0.32 # 10 h # 14 # 200
-4 dI = 4 A-s-1
dt
= 0.09 Volt
Self-inductance of the coil,
A metal rod makes contact and completes the circuit
L = E
95.
as shown in the figure. The direction of motion of _ dIdt i
rod is perpendicular to the magnetic field of 0.5 T. If -3
the resistance R is 2W , what is the force needed to = 20 # 10
4
move the rod as indicated with a constant velocity of
= 5 # 10-3 H = 5 mH
8 m-s-1 ?
97. When the current in a coil is changed from 10 A in
one direction to 10 A in opposite direction in 0.5 s
, an E.M.F. of 1 V is induced in it. What is the self-
inductance of the coil?
Initial current, I1 = 10 A
Final current, I2 = - 10 A
(Negative sign due to opposite direction);
Time-taken, dt = 0.5 s
Induced E.M.F. in coil, E = 1 Volt
Rate of change of current,
Ans : SQP 2013
dI = I1 - I2
Magnetic field, B = 0.5 T dt dt
Resistance, R = 2W 10 - ^- 10h
= = 40 A-s-1
0.5
Velocity of rod, v = 8 m-s-1 Therefore, self-inductance of the coil,
Length of rod, l = 10 = 0.1 m
L = E
E.M.F. induced in the rod, _ dIdt i
E = Bvl = 1
40
= 0.5 # 8 # 0.1 = 0.025 H = 25 mH
= 0.4 Volt 98. A 100 mH coil carries a current of 10 A. What is the
Therefore, induced current in the rod, magnetic energy stored in the coil?
Ans :
I = E = 0.4 = 0.2 A
SQP 2006
R 2 Inductance of coil, L = 100 mH = 0.1 H
Force acting on the rod in magnetic field,
Current, I = 10 A
F = BIl
Magnetic energy stored in the coil,
= 0.5 # 0.2 # 0.1
u = 1 LI 2
= 0.01 N 2
96. An E.M.F. of 20 mV is induced in a coil, when the = # 0.1 # ^10h2 = 5 J

1
2
Page 282 Alternating Current Chap 7
CHAPTER 7
Alternating Current
SUMMARY Vrms = 7.07% of V0

2V0
Vav = = 0.637
p
1. ALTERNATING CURRENT (AC) Vav = 6.37% of V0
It is the current which varies in both magnitude as
well as direction alternatively and periodically as 4. REACTANCE
shown in the figure. The opposition offered by inductance and capacitance
or both in AC circuit is called reactance. It is denoted
by XC or XL . The opposition due to inductor alone
is called the inductive reactance while that due to
capacitance alone is called the capacitive reactance.
Inductive reactance,
XL = wL = 2pfL (` w = 2pf )
Capacitive reactance,
XC = 1 = 1
wC 2pfC
I = I0 sin wt or I = I0 cos wt 5. POWER
where, I0 = peak value of AC In an AC circuit, both emf and current change
continuously w.r.t. time, so in circuit we have to
2. MEAN AND RMS VALUE OF ALTERNATING CURRENT calculate average power in complete cycle (O(zero) " T)
An electrical device reads root mean square value as, P = Vrms Irms cos f
I where, cos f = power factor
Irms = 0 = 0.707I0
2
Then mean value of alternating current over complete 5.1 Purely Resistive Circuit
cycle is zero.
If a circuit contains pure resistance, then difference
(I mean) full cycle = 0 f = 0 i.e., current and voltage are in the same phase
While for cycle it is, impedance,
2I0 5.2 Purely Inductive Circuit
(I mean) half cycle = = 0.636I0
p
3. ALTERNATING EMF OR VOLTAGE If a circuit contains pure inductance, then f = p2 , i.e.,
current lags behind the applied voltage by an angle p2 .
It is the emf which varies in both magnitude as
If, V = V0 sin wt
well as direction alternatively and periodically. The
instantaneous alternating emf is given by Then, I = I0 sin a wt - p k
2
V = V0 sin wt
In this case inductive reactance, XL = wL .
V = V0 cos wt The inductive reactance increases with the increase of
V0 frequency of AC linearly [Figure (b)].
Vrms = = 0.707
2
Then, If a circuit contains inductance L , capacitance C and

1. Impedance, resistance R , connected in series to an alternating
voltage,
Z = Vrms = R2 + XC2
Irms V = V0 sin wt
2. For the phase angle,
X Then impedance, Z = R2 + (XC - XL) 2
tan f = C = 1
R wCR XC - XL
and phase, f = tan-1
3. If V = V0 sin wt , then R
I = I0 sin (wt + f) Net Voltage, V = V R2 + (VC - VL) 2

4. Power factor,
5.8 Resonant Circuits
cos f = R = R
Z R2 + XC2 In series LCR circuit, when phase f between current
and voltage is zero, the circuit is said to be resonant
5.6 L-C Series AC Circuit circuit.
In an LC circuit, a pure inductor L is connected in In resonant circuit,
series to a pure capacitor C connected to an AC XC = XL
source. 1 = wL
or
1. Impedance, wC
Z = Vrms = XL - XC w = 1
Irms LC
2. Phase difference between voltage and current is Resonant angular frequency,
p
2 . wr = 1
LC
3. Power factor, cos f = 0 .
Linear frequency, fr = w r
5.7 L-C-R Series Circuit 2p
= 1
An LCR series circuit, also known as an RLC circuit,
2p LC
is an electrical circuit that consists of a resistor R ,
capacitor C , and inductor L connected in series. At resonant frequency, f = 0, V = VR .
6. AC GENERATOR
It is a device used to convert mechanical energy into
electrical energy and is based on the phenomenon of
electromagnetic induction. If a coil of N turns, area
A is rotated at frequency f in uniform magnetic field
of induction B , then motional emf in coil (if initially
it is perpendicular to field) is,
e = NBA w sin wt
with w = 2pf
Peak emf, e0 = NBAw
7. TRANSFORMER
A transformer is a device which converts low AC
voltage into high AC voltage and vice-versa. It works
on the principle of mutual induction. If N p and Ns are
the number of turns in primary and secondary coil, Vp
and I p are voltage and current in primary coil, then
voltage Vs and current Is in secondary coil will be,
Vs = c Ns m Vp
Np
(c) I0 = 2I rms (d) I0 = I rms Here, N1 = number of turns in primary coil

2
N2 = number of turns in secondary coil
Ans : Delhi 2017
1 T
We have Irms =
T # I2 dt ...(1)
0 7. Impedance of L -R circuit is
Here, I = I0 sin wt (a) R2 + w2 L2 (b) R + wL
T T
Now, #
0
I2 dt = #
0
I0 sin2 wt dt (c) R + wL (d) R2 + w2 L2
T
1 - cos 2wt dt Ans :
= I 02 # 0 2 Impedance of L -R circuit is given by,
SQP 2015
I 02
t - sin 2wt D
T
2:
= Z = R2 + X L2
2 0
I 02 Here, XL = wL
(t - 0) - 1 sin 4p t E
T
2;
=
2w T 0 Hence, Z = R2 + (wL) 2
2
I
T - 1 (sin 4p - sin 0)D
2:
= 0
= R2 + w2 L2
2p
I 02 T Thus (d) is correct option.
=
2
8. The ratio of peak value and r.m.s value of AC is
(a) 2 (b) 2
1 I 02 T
Irms = 1
T # 2 (c) (d) 1
2 2
I0
Irms = Ans : Delhi 2015, OD 2013
2 1
The rms value of current is 2
times of the peak
I0 = 2 Irms value of current i.e.,
Thus (a) is correct option. I
I rms = 0
2
5. The power factor of L -R circuit is
R I0
(a) R + wL (b) = 2
I rms
R + w2 L2
2
where, I0 = peak value of current

(c) R R2+ w2 L2 (d) wL/R
I rms = rms value of current
Ans : OD 2016
Power factor of L -R circuit is given by,
cos f = R = R 9. The peak voltage of an AC is 440 volt. Its virtual
Z R + X L2
2
voltage is
R (a) 220 V (b) 440 V
= (Since, XL = wL)
R + (wL) 2
2
(c) 220 2 V (d) 440 2 V
= R Ans : OD 2012
R + w2 L2
2
V0
Thus (b) is correct option. We have Vrms =
2
Here, V0 = 440 Volt
6. If N1 and N2 are numbers of turns in primary and
secondary coils of a step-up transformer. Then Hence, Vrms = 440 # 2
(a) N1 2 N2 (b) N2 2 N1 2 2
(c) N1 = N2 (d) N1 = 0 = 220 2 Volt

Ans : Foreign 2016
In Step up transformer, N2 > N1 i.e., the turns ratio 10. An AC source of angular frequency w is connected in
is greater than 1 and therefore e2 > e1 . The output a series LCR circuit. The peak value of current will
voltage is greater than input voltage. be maximum when
(c) AC can not pass through DC ammeter Ans : OD 2003

In a purely resistive AC circuit, the current is in phase
(d) average value of current for a complete cycle is with the e.m.f. (i.e., angle between current and e.m.f.
zero is 0c).
Ans : Foreign 2001
Alternating current can not be measured by DC
ammeter, because average value of the current for 20. The value of current flowing through an inductor of
a complete cycle is zero. That is why, DC ammeter inductance 1 H and having negligible resistance when
records zero reading. connected to an AC source of 200 V and 50 Hz, is
Thus (d) is correct option. (a) 0.64 A (b) 1.64 A
16. In a circuit, the current lags behind the voltage by (c) 2.64 A (d) 3.64 A
a phase difference of p2 radians. The circuit contains Ans : SQP 2004
which of the following? Inductance, L = 1H

(a) only R (b) only L Voltage, V = 200 Volt
(c) only C (d) R and C
Frequency, f = 50 Hz
Ans : SQP 2015
Angular frequency,
In an AC circuit containing only inductance L , the
w = 2pf = 2 # 3.14 # 50
current lags behind the voltage by a phase difference
of p2 radians. = 314 rad-s-1
Thus (b) is correct option. Therefore, reactance of the inductor,
17. In an AC circuit containing only capacitor, the current XL = wL = 314 # 1 = 314 W
(a) leads the voltage by 90c Current flowing through the inductor,
(b) leads the voltage by 180c I = V = 200 = 0.64 A
XL 314
(c) lags behind the voltage by 90c
(d) remains in phase with the voltage
21. Reactance of a capacitor of capacitance C for an
p Hz is 25 W . The
alternating current of frequency 400
In an AC circuit containing only capacitor, the current value of C is
leads the voltage by p2 radians (i.e., 90c).
(a) 25 mF (b) 50 mF
(c) 75 mF (d) 100 mF
18. The value of peak AC in a 220 V mains is
(a) 220 V (b) 110 2 V
Capacitance of capacitor = C
(c) 220 2 V (d) 440 2 V
Frequency of current, f = 400 Hz
Ans : Delhi 2014
p
Reactance of capacitor, XC = 25 W
r.m.s. voltage, Vr.m.s. = 220 Volt
Value of peak voltage of AC, Reactance of the capacitor,
V0 = 2 # Vr.m.s. XC = 1 = 1
wC 2pfC
= 2 # 220 1
C =
2pfXC
= 220 2 Volt
Thus (c) is correct option. = 1
2p # 400
p # 25
19. In a purely resistive AC circuit, the current
= 50 # 10-6
(a) is in phase with the e.m.f.
F = 50 mF
(b) leads the e.m.f. by a difference of p radians phase
p
(c) leads the e.m.f. by a phase difference of 2 radians 22. In an AC circuit, the potential difference across an
p
(d) lags behind the e.m.f. by phase difference of 4 inductance and resistance joined in series are 15 V
radians and 25 V respectively.
Net impedance of the LCR-circuit, This condition is satisfied when,

Z = 2
R + (XL - XC ) 2
R = 1 kW
= 2
(25) + (XL - XL) 2 and C = 10 mF
= 25 W Thus (c) is correct option.
Thus (b) is correct option. 28. In an LCR series AC circuit, the voltage across each
of the components, L , C and R is 50 V. The voltage
27. When an AC source of e.m.f. E = E0 sin (100t) is
across the LC combination will be
connected across a circuit, the phase difference
between the e.m.f. E and the current I in the circuit (a) zero (b) 50 V
is observed to be p4 rad, as shown in the diagram. If (c) 50 2 V (d) 100 V
the circuit consists possibly only of RC or RL or LC in Ans : OD 2007, Foreign 2009
series, then relationship between the two elements is
Voltage across inductor, VL = 50 Volt
Voltage across capacitor, VC = 50 Volt
Voltage across resistance, VR = 50 Volt
Voltage the LC combination
VL - VC = 50 - 50 = 0
29. In an experiment, 200 V AC is applied at the ends of
an LCR-circuit. The circuit consists of an inductive
reactance of 50 W , capacitive reactance of 35 W and
ohmic resistance of 20 W . The impedance of the
(a) R = 1 kW , C = 1 mF (b) R = 1 KW , L = 1 H circuit is
(c) R = 1 KW , C = 10 mF (d) R = 1 KW , L = 10 H (a) 15 W (b) 25 W
Ans : Foreign 2011 (c) 35 W (d) 45 W
Equation for e.m.f., E = E0 sin (100t) Ans : Delhi 2016
and phase difference between e.m.f. and current, Supply voltage, V = 200 Volt
f = p rad = 45c Inductive reactance, XL = 50 W
4
Standard equation of e.m.f. of AC source, Capacitive reactance, XC = 35 W
E = E0 sin (wt) Ohmic resistance, R = 20 W
Comparing the given equation with the standard Impedance of the LCR-circuit,
equation, we get Z = R2 + (XL - XC ) 2
w = 100 rad-s-1 = (202) + (50 - 35) 2
We also know from the given figure that the current = 400 + 225 = 625 = 25 W
leads e.m.f. by,
p rad = 45c
4 30. In an AC circuit, the equation of e.m.f is:
Therefore circuit consists of only RC-circuit, in which E = 4 cos (100t). The amplitude of current in an LR-
the phase difference, circuit of inductance 0.03 H and resistance 4 W is
q = tan-1 b 1 l (a) 4 A (b) 4 A

wCR 7 7
45c = tan-1 b 1 l (c) 0.4 A (d) 0.8 A

wCR
Ans : Foreign 2008
1
b wCR l = tan 45c = 1 Equation of e.m.f., E = 4 cos (100t)
1 = w = 100 Inductance, L = 0.03 H
CR
Resistance, R =4W
CR = 10-2
Potential difference across capacitor, (c) 220 W (d) 330 W

VC = 30 Volt Ans : SQP 2006
and potential difference across resistance, Equation of voltage, V = 220 sin (100 t)
VR = 40 Volt Impedance of circuit, Z = 110 W
Supply voltage in LCR-circuit, and Phase difference between current and voltage,
V = VR2 + (VL - VC ) 2 f = 60c
= (40) 2 + (60 - 30) 2 Standard equation for the voltage is,
V = V0 sin (wt)
= 1600 + 900
Comparing the given equation with the standard
= 2500 = 50 Volt equation, we get
Thus (b) is correct option. V0 = 220 Volt
35. Quality factor of LCR-circuit having resistance R Therefore peak value of current,
and inductance L at resonance angular frequency w
V
is given by I0 = 0 = 220 = 2 A
Z 110
(a) wL (b) R Power in the circuit,
R wL
w P = Vr.m.s. I r.m.s. cos f
L (d) b wL l
1/2 2
(c) b
R l R V0 I
= # 0 # cos f
Ans : Foreign 2008 2 2
Resistance = R and Inductance = L .
= 220 # 2 # cos 60c
and resonance angular frequency = w . 2 2
Applied e.m.f. = IR . = 220 # 0.5 = 110 W
and potential difference developed across the Thus (b) is correct option.
inductance
38. In an AC circuit, equation for the voltage is
= IwL V = 100 sin (100 t) volt and that for current is
Therefore, quality factor, (I) = 100 sin (100t + p/3) mA . The power dissipated
in the circuit is
Q = IwL = wL
IR R (a) 2.5 W (b) 5 W
Thus (a) is correct option. (c) 10 W (d) 20 W
36. For an AC circuit, average power is 60 W. What will Ans : Delhi 2016, OD 2005
be the power factor for the same circuit, if its apparent Equation of voltage,
power is 100 W ?
V = 100 sin (100 t)
(a) 0.6 (b) 1.6
and equation of current,
(c) 2.4 (d) 3.2
I = 100 sin (100t + p/3) mA
Ans : OD 2007
Standard equations of voltage and current are,
Average power = 60 W
V = V0 sin (wt)
and Apparent power = 100 W
and I = I0 sin (wt + f)
Average power
Power factor, cos f = Comparing the given equation with the standards
Apparent power
equations, we get,
= 60 = 0.6
100 V0 = 100 Vott
Thus (a) is correct option. I0 = 100 mA = 0.1 A
37. In an AC circuit, voltage applied is V = 100 sin (100 t)
. If impedance of the circuit is 110 W and phase and f = p = 60c
3
difference between current and voltage is 60c, then We also know that power dissipated in the circuit,
power in the circuit is
P = Vr.m.s. I r.m.s. cos f
(a) 55 W (b) 110 W
Thus (b) is correct option. = 4# N = 2A

2N
44. A step-up transformer operates on a 230 V line
supplies a current of 2 A. The ratio of primary and where, IP = current in primary
secondary winding is 1:25. The current in the primary Relation between voltage and number of turns in
is primary and secondary coil is:
(a) 15 A (b) 50 A VS N
= S
VP NP
(c) 75 A (d) 125 A
Ans : or VP = VS # NP = 20 # 2 N
Foreign 2004, Delhi 2015 NS N
Voltage in primary, VP = 230 Volt = 40 Volt
Current in secondary, IS = 2 A where, VP = input voltage in primary
number of windings in primary, Thus (b) is correct option.
NP = N 46. The best material for the core of a transformer is
number of windings in secondary, (a) soft iron (b) mild steel
NS = 25 N (c) hard steel (d) stainless steel
Relation between currents and number of turns in Ans : Delhi 2016
primary and secondary coil is,
Transformer core is made by placing soft iron strips
I P = NS one above the other. These strips are insulated from
IS NP
each other to reduce eddy current.
N
I P = IS # S Thus (a) is correct option.
NP
= 2 # 25 N = 50 A
N
where, IP = current in primary ASSERTION AND REASON
45. In a transformer, the output current and voltage are 47. Assertion : In series LCR circuit resonance can take
respectively 4 A and 20 V. If ratio of number of turns place.
in primary to secondary is 2 : 1, what is the input Reason : Resonance takes place if inductance and
current and voltage? capacitive resistances are equal and opposite.
(a) 1 A and 20 V (b) 2 A and 40 V (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
(c) 4 A and 80 V (d) 8 A and 160 V Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
Ans : OD 2009 (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but
Output current in secondary, Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion.
IS = 4 A (c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
Output Voltage in secondary, (d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.
VS = 20 Volt Ans :
number of turns in primary, coil In series resonance circuit, current becomes maximum
because total impedance becomes zero. In case of LC
NP = 2 N
circuit,
and number of turns in secondary, coil
Total impedance = wL - 1 = 0
NS = N wC
Relation between currents and number of turns in wL = 1
primary and secondary coil is, wC
I P = NS w2 = 1
IS NP LC
N Thus (a) is correct option.
I P = IS # S
NP
Ans : OD 2021
60. What is the function of a step-up transformer?
Graphs of V and i versus wt for this circuit is shown Ans : SQP 2014
below :
Step-up transformer converts low alternating voltage
into high alternating voltage and high alternating
current into low alternating current. The secondary
coil of step-up transformer has greater number of
turns than the primary (Ns > N p).
61. Mention the two important properties of the material

suitable for making core of a transformer.
Ans : Delhi 2017
Two characteristic properties:

1. Low hysteresis loss
55. What is the function of a step-up transformer? 2. Low coercivity.
Ans : Delhi 2019
62. Define Capacitor reactance. Write its SI units.
Step-up transformer converts low alternating voltage Ans : OD 2010
into high alternating voltage and high alternating
Capacitor reactance is the resistance offered by a
current into low alternating current. The secondary
capacitor, when it is connected to an electric circuit.
coil of step-up transformer has greater number of
It is given by,
turns than the primary (Ns 2 N p).
What is inductive reactance? XC = 1
56. wC
Ans : Comp 2015, Foreign 2009 where, w = angular frequency of the source
The opposing nature of inductor to flow of alternating
C = Capaci tan ce of the capacitor
current is called inductive reactance.
The SI unit of capacitor reactance is ohm (W).
XL = wL
w = average frequency 63. In any AC circuit, is the applied instantaneous voltage
equal to the algebraic sum of the instantaneous
L = self Inductance voltages across the series elements of the circuit? Is
57. Why is core of transformer laminated? the same true for rms voltage?
Ans : Delhi 2018 Ans : Comp 2013
The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents Yes, in any AC circuit, the applied instantaneous
in the iron core and causes heating. The effect is voltage is equal to the algebraic sum of instantaneous
reduced by having a laminated core, because of its voltage across the series elements, because
insulation properly. instantaneous voltages are in the same phase.
This is not true in the case of rms voltages, because
58. Name the energy losses in a transformer. they are usually not in the same phase.
Ans : OD 2013
Energy loss in transformers are :

1. Flux leakage SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS
2. Resistance to the windings
3. Eddy currents
64. What is transformer? What is transformation ratio?
4. Hysteresis.
Ans : Comp 2021
59. What is wattless current? Transformer
Ans : Foreign 2011 It is a device, which is used to increase or decrease the
When pure inductor and/or pure capacitor is alternating voltage.
connected to AC source, the current flows in the The transformers are of the following types
circuit, but with no power loss; the phase difference 1. Step-up transformer
between voltage and current is p2 . Such a current is 2. Step-down transformer
called the wattless current.
Transformation Ratio
CLASS 12

CLASS 10

Explain briefly how does the brightness of the bulb XL = wL = 2pnL

change when (1) number of turns of the inductor where, n is the frequency of AC source.
is reduced (2) a capacitor of reactance XC = XL is
For DC
included in the circuit.
n =0
Ans : Comp 2017
1. When the number of turns in the inductor is Hence, XL = 2p0 $ L = 0
reduced, the self-inductance of the coil decrease; i.e. the inductor offers no resistance to DC.
So, impedance of circuit reduces and current in
For AC
the circuit Î = EZ h increases. Thus, the brightness
of the bulb increases. n is finite
2. When capacitor of reactance XC = XL is Hence, XL ? n
introduced, the net reactance of circuit becomes So larger the value of n , more will be the effective
zero, so impedance of circuit decrease; it becomes resistance offered by the inductor.
Z = R ; So current in circuit increases; hence Hence an inductor is an easy path for DC but a
brightness of bulb increases. Thus, brightness of resistive path for AC.
bulb in both cases increases.
74. Prove that an ideal capacitor in an AC circuit does
71. State the underlying principle of a transformer. How not dissipate power.
is the large scale transmission of electric energy over Ans : OD 2018
long distance done with the use of transformers? Since, average power consumption in an AC circuit is
Ans : Delhi 2014, SQP 2004 given by,
Principle of Transformer Pav = Vrms # Irms # cos f
A transformer is based on the principle of mutual But in pure capacitive circuit, phase difference
induction, i.e., whenever the amount of magnetic flux between voltage and current is,
linked with a coil changes, an emf is included in the
neighbouring coil. f =p
2
Power Transmission
Hence, Pav = Vrms # Irms # cos p
Electric power is transmitted over long distances 2
at high voltage. So step-up transformers are used p
Pav = 0 a since cos 2 = 0k
at power stations to increase the voltage of power
whereas a series of step-down transformers are used Thus, no power is consumed in pure capacitive AC
to decrease the voltage upto 220 V. circuit.
72. State the principle of working of a transformer. Can 75. What do you mean by lag and lead in alternating
a transformer be used to step-used to step-up or step- current?
down a DC voltage? Justify your answer. Ans : SQP 2012
Ans : OD 2019 In a DC supply the e.m.f. and current are always in

Working of a transformer is based on the principle the same phase and there is nothing like ‘lag’ or ‘lead’
of mutual induction. Transformer cannot step-up or but in an AC supply, although the e.m.f. and current
step-down a DC voltage. have the same frequency, yet they may be out of phase
with each other, i.e. the peak value of e.m.f. and peak
Reason : No change in magnetic flux. value of current may not occur at the same time. This
Explanation : When DC voltage source is applied brings in the idea of ‘lag’ and ‘lead’ in an AC circuit.
across a primary coil of a transformer, the current in If the peak value of e.m.f. occurs before the peak value
primary coil remains same, so there is no change in of current, the e.m.f. is used to ‘lead’ the current is
magnetic flux associated with it and hence no voltage said to ‘lag’ behind the e.m.f. by a certain angle of
is induced across the secondary coil. fraction of the time period. The exact value of ‘lag’ or
‘lead’ depends on the nature of circuit.
73. Why an inductor is an easy path for DC and resistive
path for AC? 76. Show that a capacitor is an easy path for AC but a
Ans : Delhi 2009
block for DC (i.e. offers infinite resistance for DC).
The inductor reactance (resistance offered by inductor) Ans : Comp 2007
of an inductor is given by, The capacitive reactance XC (resistance offered by a

capacitor) is given by,
q i.e. inductive reactance is directly proportional to

V = ...(2)
c frequency.
From eqs. (1) and (2), we get The graph between XL and n is as shown in
q Figure (b).
= V0 sin wt
c
q = CV0 sin wt
The instantaneous current,
dq
I = = d (CV0 sin wt)
dt dt
= CV0 d (sin wt)
dt
= CV0 w cos wt
V0
I = I cos wt
wC
82. (i) An alternating voltage V = Vm sin wt applied to
I = I0 sin a wt + p k a series LCR circuit derives a current given by
2
I = I m sin (wt + f). Deduce an expression for the
Hence, the current leads the applied voltage in phase average power dissipated over a cycle.
by p2 .
(ii) For circuit used for transporting electric power,
81. Sketch a graph to show how the reactance of (1) a low power factor implies large power loss in
a capacitor (2) an inductor varies as a function of transmission. Explain.
frequency. Ans : SQP 2011
or (i) Let at any instant, the current and voltage in an
Draw the graphs showing variation of inductive LCR series AC circuit is given by
reactance and capacitive reactance with frequency of I = I0 sin wt
applied AC source.
V = V0 sin (wt + f)
(1) Capacitive reactance, The instantaneous power is given by
P = VI = V0 sin (wt + f) I0 sin wt
XC = 1 = 1
wC 2pnC V0 I0
P = [2 sin wt sin (wt + f)]
2
i.e., XC ? 1
n
P = VI
More the frequency, lesser the XC and vice-versa.
V0 I0
The graph between XC and n is as shown in = [cos f - cos (2wt + f)]...(1)
2
Figure (a).
[Since, 2 sin A sin B = cos (A - B) - cos (A + B)]
Work done for a very small time interval dt is given
by
dW = Pdt
dW = VIdt
Hence, Total work done over T , a complete cycle is
given by
T
W = # VIdt
0
T
(2) Inductive reactance, # VIdt
But, Pav = W = 0
XL = wL T T
Pav = 1 VIdt
T
XL = 2pnL
T 0 #
XL ? n TV I
= 1 #0 0
[cos f - cos (2w + f)] dt
T 0 2
Substituting the value of eqs. (4) and (5) in eq. (3),

R2 + b wL - 1 l
2
Z =
we get, wC
i = im sin a wt + p k Z will be minimum when wL = I , i.e., When

2 wC
the circuit is under resonance.
The phase diagram which shows the current lead the Hence, for this condition Z will be minimum and
voltage in phase by 90c is given below : equal to R .
(ii) Average power dissipated through a series
L - C - R circuit is given by
Pav = Ev Iv cos f
Where, EV = rms value of alternating voltage
IV = value of alternating current
f = phase difference between current and voltage
For wattless current, the power dissipated through the
circuit should be zero.
i.e., cos f = 0
85. A capacitor C , a variable resistor R and a bulb B cos f = cos p

2
are connected in series to the AC mains in the circuit
as shown. The bulb glows with some brightness. How f =p
2
will the glow of the bulb change if (i) a dielectric
Hence, the condition for wattless current is that the
slab is introduced between the plates of the capacitor
phase difference between the current and the circuit is
keeping resistance R to be the same (ii) the resistance
purely inductive or purely capacitive.
R is increased keeping the same capacitance?
87. (i) When an AC source is connected to an ideal
inductor show that the average power supplied by
the source over a complete cycle is zero.
(ii) A lamp is connected in series with an inductor and
an AC source. What happen to the brightness of
the lamp when the key is plugged in and an iron
and rod is inserted inside the inductor ? Explain
Ans : Delhi 2016

(i) As, the dielectric slab is introduced between
the plates of the capacitor, its capacitance will
increase. Hence, the potential drop across the
capacitor will decrease, i.e., V = CQ . As a result,
the potential drop across the bulb will increase as
they are connected in series. Thus its brightness
will increase.
Ans : Delhi 2017
(ii) As the resistance R is increased, the potential
drop across the resistor will increase. As a result, (i) Pav = Iav # eav cos f
the potential drop across the bulb will decrease as
For and ideal inductor, f = p (The phase
they are connected in series. Thus, its brightness 2
will decrease. difference between voltage and current is p )
2
86. In a series L - C - R circuit, obtain the conditions Hence, Pav = Iav # eav cos p
2
under which (i) the impedance of circuit is minimum
Pav = 0
and (ii) wattless current flows in the circuit.
(ii) When an iron rod is inserted, the inductance
Ans : OD 2013
increases due to which current decreases and
(i) The impedance of a series L - C - R circuit is hence the brightness decreases.
given by
Power, P = VI We see that the current amplitude is maximum at the

Substituting the value of V and I from eq. (1) and resonant frequency w . Since im = VRm at resonance,
eq. (2), we get the current amplitude for case R2 is sharper to that
for case R1 .
P = V0 sin wt $ I0 sin (wt - f)
Quality factor or simply the Q -factor of a resonant
So, the instantaneous power is given by
LCR circuit is defined as the ratio of voltage drop
sin (wt - f) = sin wt cos f - cos wt sin f across the capacitor (or inductor) to that of applied
(i) If f = 90c, then no power is dissipated even voltage.
though the current flows through the circuit. L
It is given by Q = 1
Pav = 0 R C
The Q -factor determines the sharpness of the
XL - XC
tan f = b l resonance curves. Less sharp the resonance, less is the
R
selectivity of the circuit while higher is the Q , sharper
wL - w1C
tan f = =3 is the resonance curve and lesser will be the loss in
R
energy of the circuit.
(Since, tan 90c = 3)
92. A series L - C - R circuit is connected to an
(ii) If f = 0c, then maximum power is dissipated in AC source. Using the phaser diagram. Derive the
the circuit. expression for the impedance of the circuit. Plot a
Pav = maximum graph to show the variation of current with frequency
of the source, explaining the nature of its variation.
wL - w1C
tan f = =0 Ans : OD 2017, Foreign 2008
R
Assuming XL 2 XC ,
(Since, tan 0c = 0)
VL 2 VC
XL = XC
Since, Net voltage, V = V R2 + (VL - VC ) 2
91. In a series LCR circuit connected to an AC source
of variable frequency and voltage V = Vm sin wt Where, VL , VC and VR are alternating voltages across
, draw a graph showing the variation of current (i) L ,C and R respectively.
with angular frequency (w) for two different values of
resistance R1 and R2 (R1 2 R2). Write the condition
under which the phenomenon of resonance occurs. For
which value of the resistance out of the two curves, a
sharper resonance is produced? Define Q -factor of the
circuit and give its significance.
Ans : Delhi 2018
Figure shows the variation of im with w in a LCR

series circuit for two values of resistance R1 and
R2 (R1 2 R2).
The condition for resonance in the LCR circuit is

VR = IR , VL = IXL ,
w0 = 1
LC
magnitude in the first half cycle and in the opposite 96. Define alternating current (AC), its peak value and
direction during the next half cycle. its R.M.S. value. Derive relation between then after
Thus current whose magnitude changes with time and evaluating the expression for R.M.S. value.
direction reverses periodically is called alternating Ans : OD 2020
current. Alternating Current
The instantaneous value of AC is given by, If the direction of current changes alternatively
I = I0 sin wt [Figure (a)] ...(1) (periodically) and its magnitude changes continuously
with respect to time, then the current is called
or I = I0 cos wt [Figure (b)] ...(2)
alternating current. It is sinusoidal (i.e. represented by
sine or cosine angles) in nature. Alternating current
can be defined as the current whose magnitude and
direction changes with time and attains the same
magnitude and direction after a definite time interval
It changes continuously between zero and a maximum
value and flows in one direction in the first half cycle
and in the opposite direction in the next half cycle.
The instantaneous value of AC is given by,
I = I0 sin wt :Since, w = 2p = 2pvD
T
where, I0 is the peak value of AC.

Similarly, the e.m.f. whose magnitude changes with
time and direction reverses periodically is called
alternating e.m.f.
The instantaneous alternating e.m.f. is given by, where, I = current at any instant t
E = E0 sin wt ...(3) I0 = maximum/peak value of AC
or E = E0 cos wt ...(4) v = frequency
where, w= 2p
T is angular frequency. and w = angular frequency
Time Period (T ) Roof Mean Square (RMS) Value of AC
Time period is the time taken to complete one cycle. It is defined as that value of alternating current (AC)
Frequency (n) over a complete cycle which would generator same
Frequency is the number of cycles per second. So amount of heat in a given resistor that is generated
frequency, by steady current in the same resistor and in the same
time during a complete cycle.
n = 1
T It is also called virtual value or effective value of AC.
Since, T = 2p It is represented by I rms or I eff or IV . Suppose I is the
w current which flows in the resistor having resistance R
Hence, n = w in time T produces heat H .
2p Instantaneous value of AC,
w = 2pn I = I0 sin wt
Amplitude (I0) If dH is small amount of heat produced in time dt in
Amplitude of alternating current is the peak value of resistor R, then
alternating current and is denoted by I0 .
dH = I 2 Rdt ...(1)
Under what condition is (i) no power dissipated even Instantaneous power dissipation in the circuit.
though the current flows through the circuit. (ii) P = VI = V0 sin wt # I0 sin (wt - f)
maximum power dissipated in the circuit? Show that
V0 I0
power dissipated at resonance is maximum. = 2 sin wt $ sin (wt - f)
2 #
Ans : Delhi 2017
VI
(a) Given, V = Vm sin wt and i = im (wt + f) = 0 0 [cos f - cos (2wt - f)]
2
and instantaneous power, P = Vi [ cos (A - B) - cos (A + B) = 2 sin A sin B ]
= Vm sin wt $ i0 sin (wt + f) Average power loss over one complete cycle.
= Vm im sin wt sin (wt + f) P = 1 Pdt
T
T 0 #
= 1 Vm im 2 sin wt $ sin (wt + f) VI T T
2
2T 0 # 0
#
= 0 0 ; cos fdt - cos (2wt - f) dtE
From trigonometric formula,
T
2 sin A sin B = cos (A - B) - cos (A + B) However, # cos (2wt - f) dt
0
=0
Hence, instantaneous power, V0 I0 T
=
2T #
$ cos f dt
P = 1 Vm im [cos (wt + f - wt) - cos (wt + f + wt)] 0
2 V0 I0
= cos f
2
= 1 Vm im [cos f - cos (2wt + f)]
2 V I
Pav = 0 0 cos f
Average power for complete cycle 2 2
Pav = 1 Vm im [cos f - cos (2wt + f)] ...(1) Pav = Veff $ Ieff cos f
2
Where cos (2wt + f) is the mean value of cos (2wt + f) (i) If phase angle f = 90c (resistance R is used in
over complete cycle. But for a complete cycle, the circuit) then no power dissipated.
cos (2wt + f) = 0 (ii) If phase angle f = 0c or circuit is pure resistive
(or XL = XC ) at resonance then,
Since, Average power,
VI
Max power, P = Veff # Ieff = 0 0
Pav = 1 Vm im cos f 2
2 At resonance, we get
V i XC = XL
= 0 0 cos f
2 2
tan f = 0
Pav = Vrms irms cos f
f = 0c
(b) The power is P = Vrms Irms cos f . If cos f is small,
then current considerably increases when voltage cos f = 1, its maximum value.
is constant. As we know, power loss is I2 R . Hence, Hence, P has its maximum value at resonance
power loss increases.
99. 1. An AC source of voltage V = V0 sin wt is
connected to a series combination of L , C and R
. Use the phasor diagram to obtain expression for
impedance of the circuit and phase angle between
voltage and current. Find the condition when
current will be in phase with the voltage. What is
the circuit in this condition called?
2. In a series LR circuit XL = R ans power factor of
the circuit is P1 . When capacitor with capacitance
C such that XL = XC is put in series, the power
factor becomes P2 . Calculate PP12 .
The voltage V = V0 sin wt is applied across the series Ans : OD 2003, Delhi 2020
LCR circuit. However due to impedance of the circuit
1. Expression for impedance in LCR series
either current lags or leads the voltage by phase
circuit. Suppose resistance R, inductance L
opposite so the current in the circuit is given by
and capacitance C are connected in series and
I = I0 sin (wt - f) an alternating source of voltage V = V0 sin wt is
ratio in terms of voltages. e s = Ns ...(3)

Find the ratio of primary and secondary currents in ep Np
terms of turn ratio in an ideal transformer. If the resistance of primary coil is negligible, the emf
How much current is drawn by the primary of a ( e p ) induced in the primary coil, will be equal to
transformer connected to 220 V supply when it the applied potential difference (VP ) across its ends.
delivers power to a 100 V - 500 W refrigerator? Similarly if the secondary circuit is open, then the
potential difference Vs across its ends will be equal to
the emf ( e s ) induced in it; therefore,
(a) Transformer : Transformer is a device by which
an alternating voltage may be decreased or Vs = e s = Ns = r (say) ...(4)
Vp ep Np
increased. It is based on the principle of mutual-
induction. Where r = Ns is called the transformation ratio. If i p
Np
Construction : It consists of laminated core of and is are the instantaneous currents in primary and
soft iron, on which two coils of insulated copper secondary coils and there is no loss of energy.
wire are separately wound. These coils are kept
For about 100% efficiency,
insulated from each other and from the iron-core,
but are coupled through mutual induction. The Power in primary = power in secondary
number of turns in these coils are different. Out Vp i p = Vs is
of these coils one coil is called primary coil and
other is called the secondary coil. The terminals is = Vp = N p = 1 ...(v)
of primary coils are connected to AC mains and ip Vs Ns r
the terminals of the secondary coil are connected In step-up transformer, Ns 2 N p " r 2 1; So Vs 2 Vp
to external circuit in which alternating current of and is 1 i p
desired voltage is required. Transformers are of i.e., Step up transformer increases the voltage.
two types : In step down transformer, Ns 1 N p " r 1 1; So
(i) Step-up Transformer : It transforms the Vs 1 Vp and is 2 i p
alternating low voltage to alternating high voltage i.e., Step-up down transformer decreases the voltage,
and in this the number of turns in secondary coil but increase the current.
is more than that in primary coil (i.e., Ns 2 NP ).
The core of a transformer is laminated to reduce
(ii) Step-down Transformer : It transforms the the energy losses due to eddy currents, so, that its
alternating high voltage to alternating low voltage efficiency may remain nearly 100%.
and in this the number of turns in secondary coil
In a transformer with 100% efficiency (say), input
is less than that in primary coil (i.e., Ns 1 NP ).
power = output power dVp I p = Vs Is .
Working : When alternating current source
(b) The sources of energy loss in a transformer are
is connected to the ends of primary coil, the
(i) eddy current losses due to iron core, (ii) flux
current changes continuously in the primary coil;
leakage losses, (iii) copper losses due to heating
due to which the magnetic flux linked with the
up of copper wires, (iv) Hysteresis losses due to
secondary coil changes continuously, therefore the
magnetisation and demagnetisation of core.
alternating emf of same frequency is developed
across the secondary. (c) When output voltage increases, the output
current automatically decreases to keep the power
Let NP be the number of turns in primary coil,
same. Thus, there is no violation of conservation
NS the number of turns in secondary coil and
of energy in a step-up transformer.
f the magnetic flux linked with each turn. We
assume that there is no leakage of flux so that We have, i p Vp = is Vs = 550 W
the flux linked with each turn of primary coil and Vp = 220 Volt
secondary coil is the same. According to Faraday’s
laws the emf induced in the primary coil i p = 550 = 5 = 2.5 A
220 2
Tf
e P = - NP ...(1)
Tt
and emf induced in the secondary coil
Tf
e s = - Ns ...(2)
Tt
From eq. (1) and eq. (2)
Phase angle between VR and Veff is

V
cos f = R
Veff
VR
=
V R2 + (VL - VC ) 2
(i) I = I0 sin (wt - f) For VL 2 VC or XL 2 XC
(ii) I = I0 sin (wt + f) For VL 1 VC or XL 1 XC
Variation of the current I as a function of angular
frequency w
103. State the working of AC generator with the help of a
labelled diagram.
The coil of an AC generator having N turns, each of
area A, is rotated with a constant angular velocity
w Deduce the expression for the alternating emf
generated in the coil.
What is the source of energy generation in this device?
Ans : Comp 2019
AC Generator
A dynamo or generator is a device which converts
mechanical energy into electrical energy.
Principle
At resonance, when maximum current flows through It works on the principle of electromagnetic induction.
the circuit. When a coil rotates continuously in a magnetic field,
wr = 1 = 1 the effective area of the coil linked normally with the
L1 C1 L2 C2 magnetic field lines, changes continuously with time.
L1 C1 = L2 C2 This variation of magnetic flux with time results in
L1 = C2 the production of an alternating emf in the coil.
L2 C1 Construction
For fine tuning in the receiver set, combination L1 C1 It consists of the four main parts.
and R1 is better because maximum current flows 1. Field Magnet : It produces the magnetic field. In
through the circuit. the case of a low power dynamo, the magnetic
field is generated by a permanent magnet, while
in the case of large power dynamo, the magnetic
filed is produced by an electromagnet.
2. Armature : It Consists of a large number of turns
of insulated wire in the soft iron drum or ring. It
can revolve an axle between the two poles of the
field magnet. The drum or ring serves the two
purposes: (i) It serves as a support to coils and
(ii) It increases the magnetic filed due to air core
being replaced by an iron core.
3. Slip Rings : The slip rings R1 and R2 are the two
metal rings to which the ends of armature coil
are connected. These rings are fixed to the shaft
From lenz’ law, induced emf.
which rotates the armature coil so that the rings
df
e =- = - B A d cos wt also rotate along with the armature.
dt dt
4. Brushes : There are two flexible metal plates
= B Aw sin wt or carbon rods (B1 and B2) which are fixed and
constantly touch the revolving rings. The output
current in external load RL is taken through these
brushes.
= 200 = 1 107. (a) For a given AC, I = Im sin wt , show that the
200 2 2 average power dissipated in a resistor R over a
f = 45º complete cycle is 12 I m2 R .
(c) Voltage across resistors, (b) A light bulb is rated at 100 W for a 220 V AC
supply. Calculate the resistance of bulb.
VR = I rms R
Ans : Delhi 2021
E0
E rms = & 100 & 50 2 (a) Average power consumed in resistor R over a
2 2 complete cycle.
= 50 2 # 200 E rms
P = 1
T
:I rms = Z D av #
t2 Rdt
T
200 2
# dt 0
= 50 V 0
2
= im R
T
106. The figure shows a series LCR circuit with L = 100 H , T #
0
sin2 wtd ...(1)
C = 40mF R = 60 W connected to a variable frequency 2
= im R
T
240 V source. Calculate 2T # (1 - cos 2wt) dt
0
2
= i m R ; dt -
T T
2T 0 # # cos 2wtdtE ...(2)

0
2 2
= i m R [T - 0] = i m R
2T 2
(b) In case of AC,
2
V2
Pav = V rms = eff
R R
2
R = V rms = 220 # 220 = 484 W
(i) the angular frequency of the source which derives pav 100
the circuit at resonance.
108. A series LCR circuit is connected to an AC source
(ii) the current at the resonating frequency. (200 V, 50 Hz). The voltages across the resistor,
(iii) the rms potential drop across the inductor at capacitor and inductor are respectively 200 V, 250 V
resonance. and 250 V.
Ans : OD 2021 (i) The algebraic sum of the voltage across the three
Given, L = 10 H , C = 40 mF , elements is greater than the voltage of the source.
How is this paradox resolved?
R = 60 W , Vrms = 240 Volt
(ii) Given the value of the resistance of R is 40 W ,
(i) resonating angular frequency, calculate the current in the circuit.
w0 = 1 = 1 Ans : Comp 2020, Delhi 2007
LC 10 # 40 # 10-6 (i) From given parameters VR = 200 V ,VL = 250 V
1 and VC = 250 V
w0 = = 50 rad/s
20 # 10-3
(ii) Current at resonating frequency,
Irms = Vrms = Vrms
Z R
(Since, at resonance, Z = R )
= 240 = 4A
60
(iii) Since inductive reactance, XL = wL
At resonance, Veff should be given as
XL = w 0 L = 50 # 10 = 500 W Veff = VR + VL + VC
Potential drop across to inductor, = 200 V + 250 V + 250 V
Vrms = Irms # XL
= 700 Volt
= 4 # 500 = 2000 Volt However, Veff 2 200 V of the AC source.
Cl = 1 = 1 Power dissipated = (I rms) 2 R = 9 # 100 = 225 W

L # 106 100 # 10-3 # 106 4
= 106 = 1 5 = 10-5 112. An alternating voltage given by V = 280 sin 50pt is
10 10 connected across a pure resistor of 40 W . Find
Cl = 10-5 F (i) the frequency of the source.
= 10 # 10-6 F = 10mF (ii) the r.m.s. current through the resistor.
As, C l 2 C . Hence we have to add an additional Ans : OD 2012, Foreign 2003
capacitor of capacitance 8mF (10mF = 2mF) in parallel Given, V = 280 sin 50pt , R = 40 W
with previous capacitor. Comparing it with standard equation,
110. A power transmission line needs input power at 2300 V V = V0 sin wt
to a step down transformer with its primary windings
having 4000 turns. What should be the number of V0 = 280 Volt
turns in the secondary winding in order to get output w = 50p rad/s
power at 230 V?
(i) As, w = 2pv
Ans : Delhi 2019
Given VP = 2300 Vott , NP = 4000 turns, VS 2pv = 50p

= 230 Vott , NS = ? Frequency of AC, v = 50 = 25 Hz
2
We have,
(ii)
VS N
= S V
VP NP Vrms = 0 = 280 V
2 2
V
NS = S # N P
VP Hence, I rms = Vrms = 280
F 2 # 40
= 230 # 4000
2300 280
I rms = = 4.95 A
= 400 turns 1.414 # 40
111. A circuit is set up by connecting inductance L = 100 mH 113. The power factor of an AC circuit is 0.5. What is the
, resistor R = 100 W and a capacitor of reactance phase difference between voltage and current in the
200 W in series. An alternating emf of 150 2 V , 500 p
circuit?
Hz is applied across this series combination. Calculate Ans : Delhi 2017
the power dissipated in the resistor. cos q = 0.5
Ans : OD 2019
cos q = cos 60c
Here, L = 100 # 10-3 H , R = 100 W
q = 60c
XC = 200 W , Vrms = 150 2 Volt
Phase angle = 60c
V = 500 Hz
p 114. The equation of alternating current is I = 20 sin 200 pt
Inductive reactance, . Find out the frequency, peak value and r.m.s. value
XL = wL of the current.
Ans : SQP 2015
= 2pvL
Given, I = 20 sin 200 pt ...(1)
= 2 # p # 500 # 100 # 10-3
p The standard equation of alternating current is given
= 100 by,
Impedance of circuit, I = I0 sin wt ...(2)
Z = R2 + (XC - XL) 2 where, I0 = Peak value of current
= (100) 2 + (200 - 100) 2 After comparing Eq. (1) with (2), we get
Peak value of current, I0 = 20A
= 20000 = 100 2
w = 200 p
I rms = Vrms = 150 2 3 2pf = 200p (Since, w = 2pf)
Z 100 2 2
= 150 2 = 3 = 1 2
100 2 2 10 2 # 10-6
= 1
Power dissipated = (Irms) 2 R
10 # 10-3
= 9 # 100 = 225 W = 1-2 = 100
4 10
120. The figure shows a series LCR circuit connected to Quality factor is also defined as,
a variable frequency 200 V source with L = 50 mH , Energy stored
Q = 2pf #
C = 80 mF and R = 40 W . Power loss
1. The source frequency which derives the circuit in So, higher the value of Q means the energy loss is
resonance. at lower rate relative to the energy stored, i.e. the
2. The quality factor Q of the circuit. oscillations will die slowly and damping would be less.
122. What is the value of current, flowing through an
inductor of inductance 1 H and having negligible
resistance when connected to an AC source of 200 V
and 50 Hz?
Ans : SQP 2007
Inductance, L = 1H
Frequency, f = 50 Hz
Ans : Comp 2015 Angular frequency,
-3
Given, L = 50 mH = 50 # 10 H w = 2pf = 2 # 3.14 # 50
-6
C = 80 mF = 80 # 10 F = 314 rad-s-1
R = 40 W Therefore, reactance of the inductor,
V = 200 Volt XL = wL = 314 # 1 = 314 W
1. In the LCR , circuit the resonant angular frequency We also know that current flowing through the
is given by, inductor,
w 0 = 2pv I = V = 200 = 0.64 A
XL 314
v = w Reactance of a capacitor of capacitance C for an
2p 123.
p Hz is 25 W . What
alternating current of frequency 400
v = 500 is the value of C ?
2p
250 Ans : Foreign 2006, OD 2009
= = 79.61 . 80 Hz
p 400
Frequency of current, f = Hz
p
2. Quality factor,Q = w 0
L
R Reactance of capacitor, XC = 25 W
-3
= 500 # 50 # 10 = 0.625 Reactance of the capacitor,
40
XC = 1 = 1
121. Calculate the quality factor of a series LCR circuit wC 2pfC
with L = 2.0 H, C = 2 mF and R = 10 W . Mention the Capacitance of capacitor,
significance of quality factor in LCR circuit.
C = 1 = 1
Ans : Delhi 2013 2pfXC 2p # 400
p # 25
Given, L = 2.0 H = 50 # 10 -6
C = 2 mF = 2 # 10-6 F F = 50 mF
R = 10 W 124. In an AC circuit, the equation of e.m.f is:
L E = 4 cos (100t).What is the amplitude of current in
Now, Q -factor = 1
R C an LR-circuit of inductance 0.03 H and resistance ?
129. In a LCR-circuit, the potential difference between the and secondary is,
terminals of the inductance is 60 V, between terminals VP = NP
of the capacitor is 30 V and that between the terminals VS NS
of the resistance is 40 V. What is the supply voltage? NS
VS = VP #
Ans : Comp 2011 NP
Potential difference across inductance, = 6 # 3 N = 9 Volt
2N
VL = 60 Volt
where, VS = voltage across secondary coil
Potential difference across capacitor,
132. A step-up transformer has transformation ratio of 5:3.
VC = 30 Volt What is the voltage in the secondary, if voltage in the
and potential difference across resistance, primary is 60 V?
VR = 40 Volt Ans : OD 2013
Supply voltage in LCR-circuit, No. of turns in secondary, NS = 5 N

2 2
V = V + (VL - VC )
R No. of turns in primary, NP = 3 N
= 2
(40) + (60 - 30) 2
Voltage in primary, VP = 60 Volt
= 1600 + 900 Relation between voltages and number turns in
primary and secondary is,
= 2500 = 50 Volt
VS N
= S
130. In a ideal transformer, voltage and current in VP NP
primary are 200 V and 2 A respectively. If voltage in N
VS = VP # S
the secondary is 2000 V, what is the current in the NP
secondary coil of transformer? = 60 # 5 N = 100 Volt
Ans : SQP 2008
3N
where, VS = voltage in secondary
Voltage in primary, VP = 200 Volt
133. A step-up transformer operates on a 230 V line
Current in primary, IP = 2 A
supplies a current of 2 A. The ratio of primary and
Voltage in secondary, VS = 2000 Volt secondary winding is 1:25. What is the current in the
Relation between currents and voltages in primary primary coil?
and secondary is, Ans : Foreign 2010, Comp 2005
IP = VS Voltage in primary, VP = 230 Volt
IS VP
Current in secondary, IS = 2 A
IS = IP # VP
VS No. of windings in primary,
= 2 # 200 = 0.2 A NP = N
2000
No. of windings in secondary,
where, IS = current in secondary
NS = 25 N
131. The ratio of numbers of turns of primary coil to Relation between currents and no. of turns in primary
secondary coil in a transformer is 2 : 3. If a cell of 6 and secondary is,
V is connected across the primary coil, What is the I P = NS
voltage across the secondary coil? IS NP
Ans : Comp 2018 N
I P = IS # S
No. of turns in primary, NP
NP = 2 N = 2 # 25 N = 50 A
N
No. of turns in secondary coil, where, IP = current in primary
NS = 3 N
134. In a transformer, the output current and voltage are
Supply voltage on primary, respectively 4 A and 20 V. If ratio of no. of turns
VP = 6 Volt in primary to secondary is 2 : 1, what is the input
Relation between voltages and no. of turns in primary current and voltage?
Ans : SQP 2008, OD 2015

(i) Power loss in the form of heating through wires is
given by I2 R .
If the power is transmitted at high voltage then

low current flows through wires and hence there
is less power loss P = VI .
If V increases, I decreases.
(ii) In AC Pav = Ev Iv cos f
Where cos f is power factor and f is the phase
between Ev and Iv .
Smaller value of cos f will result in higher value
(i) On what principle does a metal detector work?
of current which will result in more power loss.
(ii) Why does the detector emit sound when a person Hence, low power factor implies large power loss.
carrying any metallic object walks through it?
139. Rakesh is a student of class x in a school near his
Ans : OD 2015
village. His uncle gifted him a bicycle with a dynamo
(i) Metal detector works on the principle of resonance
fitted in it. He was thrilled to find that while cycling
in AC circuits.
during night, he could light the bulb and see the
(ii) When a person carrying any metallic object
objects on the road clearly. He, however, did not know
walks through the gate of a metal detector, the
how this device works. He asked this question to his
impedance of the circuit changes, resulting in
teacher. The teacher considered it an opportunity and
significant change in current in the circuit that
explained the working of dynamo to the whole class.
causes a sound to be emitted as an alarm.
138. Deepak had a high tension tower erected on his farm
land. He kept complaining to the authorities to remove
it as it was occupying a large portion of his land. His
uncle, who was a teacher, explained to him the need
for erecting these towers for efficient transmission of
power. As Deepak its realised significance, he stopped
complaining, Answer the following questions.
(i) What is the principle of a dynamo?

(ii) Explain the working of dynamo
Ans : OD 2015
(i) It is based on Faraday law of electromagnetic
induction.
(ii) The changing magnetic flux through the coil
(i) Why is it necessary to transport power at high provides the necessarily induced emf across the
voltage? ends of the coil.
(ii) A low power factor implies large power loss. Working The coil (called armature) is mechanically
Explain. rotated in the uniform magnetic field by some
Page 324 Electromagnetic Wave Chap 8
CHAPTER 8
Electromagnetic Wave
SUMMARY The complete spectrum is given in the following table.
Name Wavelength Range Frequency Range

(m) (Hz)
1. DISPLACEMENT CURRENT 1. Gamma rays 3 # 10 - 3 # 10
-13 -10 21 18
10 - 10
Ampere’s circuital law for conduction current during 2. X-rays -10
- 10
-8
3 # 10 - 3 # 10
18 16
10
charging of a capacitor was found inconsistent
3. Ultraviolet -
10 - 4 # 10
8 -7
3 # 10 - 7.5 # 10
therefore Maxwell modified Ampere’s circuital law by
16 14
rays
introducing displacement current. It is given by
4. Visible light -
4 # 10 - 7.5 # 10
7 -7
7.5 # 10 - 4 # 10
14 14
df
Id = e0 E
dt 5. Infrared 7.5 # 10 - 10
7 - -3
4 # 10 - 8 # 10
14 14
light
Modified Ampere’s circuital law is,
6. Microwaves
df 3 # 10 - 10
- -1 11 10
10 - 10
3
#Bv.d lv = m 0 b I + e 0 E l
dt 7. Radio waves 10 - 3 # 10
- 10 4
10 - 10
1 4
where, f E = electric flux

4. ELEMENTARY FACTS ABOUT THE USES OF
2. CHARACTERISTICS OF ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES
1. Speed of electromagnetic wave,
Radio Waves
E
c = 0 = c 1. In radio and TV communication.
B0 m0e0
2. In astronomical field.
2. The speed of electromagnetic waves in a material
Microwaves
medium is given by,
1. In RADAR communication.
v = 1 2. For cooking purpose.
me
3. In analysis of molecular and atomic structure.
= c =c
mr er n Infrared Waves
where, n is the refractive index. 1. In knowing molecular structure.
3. Energy associated with an electromagnetic wave 2. In remote control of TV, VCR, etc.
is, Ultraviolet Rays
2 1. Used in burglar alarm.
U = 1 e 0 E2 + B
2 2m 0 2. To kill germs in water-purifiers.
4. Linear momentum delivered to the surface, p = Uc . X-rays
where, U = total energy transmitted by 1. In medical diagnosis as they pass through the
electromagnetic waves and c = speed of muscles not through the bones.
electromagnetic wave.
2. In detecting faults, cracks, etc., in metal products.
3. ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM Y-rays
The electromagnetic waves have a continuous 1. As food preservation.
wavelength starting from short gamma rays to long 2. In radiotherapy.
radio-waves. The orderly distribution of wavelength
of EM waves is called the electromagnetic spectrum. ***********
Ans : OD 2016
13. Which of the following rays are not electromagnetic
Displacement current arises when electric field in a waves ?
region changes with time i.e., it increases or decreases. (a) g -rays (b) b -rays
(c) X-rays (d) heat rays
9. According to the Maxwell’s displacement current law, Ans : Delhi 2009
a changing electric field is source of b -rays are stream of high energy electrons produced
(a) an e.m.f. (b) magnetic field from the nucleus of a radioactive element after decay.
(c) pressure gradient (d) all of these Therefore b -rays are not electromagnetic waves.
Ans : Delhi 2006 Thus (b) is correct option.
According to the Maxwell’s displacement current law
14. Which radiation in sunlight causes heating effect?
that a changing electric field is a source of magnetic
field. (a) ultra violet (b) infra-red
Thus (b) is correct option. (c) visible light (d) all of these
Ans : OD 2014
10. Comic rays are
Wavelength of infra-red radiation extends from
(a) high energy radiations
8 # 10-7 m to 4 # 10-3 m . These radiations have
(b) low energy radiations longer wavelength and can penetrate deeply into the
(c) ultra high energy radiations materials, causing heating effect.
(d) very low energy radiations Thus (b) is correct option.
Ans : SQP 2017, Foreign 2008
15. An electromagnetic wave of frequency 3 MHz passes
Cosmic rays are high energy radiations consisting from vacuum into a medium with dielectric constant
of mainly protons, electrons and some other atomic k = 4 . Then
nuclei.
(a) both wavelength and frequency remain unchanged
(b) wavelength is doubled and frequency becomes
11. The waves which can not travel in vacuum are half
(a) X-rays (b) radio-waves (c) wavelength is halved and frequency remains
(c) infrasonic waves (d) ultra-violet waves unchanged
Ans : OD 2000 (d) wavelength is doubled and the frequency remains
Electromagnetic waves travel in vacuum as well as in unchanged
a medium, while longitudinal waves need a medium Ans : Foreign 2010
to travel. Since X-rays, radio-waves and ultra-violet Given,
waves are electromagnetic waves while infrasonic
waves are longitudinal waves, therefore infrasonic Frequency, v = 3 MHz
waves can not travel in vacuum. and dielectric constant of medium,
Thus (c) is correct option. k =4
12. Which of the following is/are not electromagnetic Refractive index of medium,
waves? m = e
e0
(a) b -rays (b) X-rays
k e0
(c) cosmic rays (d) both a and b = = k = 4 =2
e0
Ans : Foreign 2015
and wavelength of electromagnetic wave in medium,
b -rays are stream of high energy electrons produced
from the nucleus of a radioactive element after decay. l =l =l
m 2
And cosmic rays come from the other space having high
energy charged particles like a -particles, protons etc. (where l = Wavelength of wave is vacuum)
Therefore, b -rays and cosmic rays are not Since, frequency of wave is independent of the medium,
electromagnetic waves. therefore it remains unchanged.
Thus (d) is correct option. Thus (c) is correct option.
24. Assertion : Radio waves can be polarised. 27. Assertion : Microwaves are better carrier of signals
Reason : Sound waves in air are longitudinal in nature. than optical waves.
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and Reason : Microwaves move faster than optical waves.
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion. (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion.
Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion. (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but
(c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion.
(d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. (c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
Ans : (d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct.

Radio waves can be polarised because they are Ans :
transverse in nature. Sound waves in air are The optical waves used in optical fibre communication
longitudinal in nature. are better carrier of signals than microwaves. The
Thus (c) is correct option. speed of microwave and optical wave is the same in
vacuum.
25. Assertion : Dipole oscillations produce electromagnetic
waves. Thus (d) is correct option.
Reason : Accelerated charge produces electromagnetic
waves.
28. What is the frequency of electromagnetic waves
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct, but produced by oscillating charge of frequency v = 105 Hz?
Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion. Ans : Delhi 2021
(c) Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. The frequency of electromagnetic waves produced by
(d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. oscillating charge of frequency is radio wave (10 4 Hz
to 108 Hz )
Ans :
Hertz produced em waves by oscillating charge 29. The speed of an electromagnetic wave in a material
between dipole electric field. medium is given by V = 1me , m being the permeability
of the mediumand e its permittivity. How does its
A charge moving with non-zero acceleration where
frequency change ?
both magnetic and electric field are varying emits em
waves but this does not explain assertion. Ans : OD 2021
Thus (b) is correct option. The frequency of electromagnetic waves does not
change while travelling through a medium.
26. Assertion : Environmental damage has increased the
amount of ozone in the atmosphere. 30. A plane electromagnetic wave travels in vacuum along
z -direction. What can you say about the direction of
Reason : Increase of ozone increases the amount of
electric and magnetic field vectors ?
ultraviolet radiation of earth.
Ans : Comp 2020, OD 2015
Reason is the correct explanation of Assertion. Electric field vector along X -axis and magnetic field
vector along Y -axis.
Reason is not the correct explanation of Assertion. 31. How are radio waves produced ?
Ans : Delhi 2017
They are produced by rapid acceleration and de-
(d) Assertion is incorrect but Reason is correct. accelerations of electrons in aerials.
Ans : 32. Name the physical quantity which remains same for
Ozone layer in the stratosphere helps in protecting microwaves of wavelength 1 mm and UV radiations of
life of organism form ultraviolet radiation on earth. 1600 Ac in vacuum.
Ozone layer is depleted due to of several factors like
Ans : Delhi 2020
use of chlorofluro carbon (CFC) which is the cause of 8
environmental damages. Velocity (c = 3 # 10 m/s)
Thus (a) is correct option. This is because both are electromagnetic waves.
delivered will be 2cU , because the momentum of the

wave will change from p to - p .
53. Mention some sources of electromagnetic waves.
Ans : Delhi 2015
An accelerating charge produces electromagnetic

waves. An electric charge oscillating harmonically
with frequency n , generates electromagnetic waves of
the same frequency n .
48. Write one use each of them:
An electric dipole is a basic source of electromagnetic
1. Microwaves waves.
2. g -rays An LC -circuit containing inductance L and
Ans : Foreign 2010 capacitance C produces electromagnetic waves of
1. Microwaves : They are used in RADAR devices. frequency,
2. g -rays : It is Used in radio therapy. 1
-n =
49. What is the importance of ozone layer in the 2p LC
atmosphere?
54. Out of electric field vector Ev and magnetic field
Ans : Comp 2017
vector Bv in an electromagnetic wave, which is more
The solar radiation consists of ultraviolet and some effective and why?
other lower wavelength radiations which cause genetic
Ans : Delhi 2019
damages to living cells. The ozone layer absorbs these
v v
Both the electric E and magnetic B vector are
radiations from the sun and prevents them from
reaching the earth’s surface and causing damage to essential in the transmission of EM wave but in the
life. Moreover, it also keeps the earth’s surface warm interaction with matter the electric vector Ev is more
by trapping infrared radiation. important.
When a photon impacts a rod or cone on your retina
50. Write two main features of LASER rays.
it is the E -vector that donates its energy to the light
sensitive molecule, resulting in excitation and hence
Two mean features of LASER rays are following a signal to your brain. Also in polarization, Ev is
1. A laser beam is collimated, meaning it consists important.
of waves travelling parallel to each other in single
direction. 55. Explain briefly how electromagnetic waves are
2. Laser light is coherent, which means all the light produced by an oscillating charge. How is the
wave move in phase together in both time and frequency of electromagnetic waves produced related
space. to that of the oscillating charge?
51. Write any two properties of X-rays. Ans : Foreign 2008
Ans : OD 2013
An oscillating or accelerated charge is supposed to
be sources of an electromagnetic wave. An oscillating
1. The range of wavelength of X-ray is 1 mm to
10-3 nm. charge produces an oscillating electric field in space
which further producers an oscillating magnetic
2. They gives the luminous effect on photo graphic
field which in turn is a source of electric field. These
plates.
oscillating electric and magnetic field, hence, keep on
52. Write an expression for the momentum carried by an regenerating each other and an electromagnetic wave
E.M. wave. is produced. The frequency of electromagnetic wave =
Ans : SQP 2012 Frequency of oscillating charge.
An electromagnetic wave transports linear momentum 56. How do you convince yourself that electromagnetic
as it travels through space. If an electromagnetic wave waves carry energy and momentum?
transfers a total energy U to a surface in time t , then
Ans : Delhi 2015
total linear momentum delivered to the surface is,
According to the quantum theory, electromagnetic
p =U [For complete absorption of energy U ] radiation is made up of massless particles called
c
photons. Momentum of the photon is expressed as
If the wave is totally reflected, the momentum
varying magnetic field gives rise to an electric field. On the basis of his theoretical studies, Maxwell in
By symmetry, a time varying electric field should 1865, argued that, A time-varying electric field is a
give rise to a magnetic field. This is an important source of changing magnetic field. This means that
consequence of displacement current which is a source the change in either field (electric/magnetic) produces
of magnetic field. the other field. Maxwell further showed that these
Another very important consequence of the symmetry variations in electric and magnetic fields occur in
of electricity and magnetism is the existence of mutually perpendicular directions and have wave like
electromagnetic waves. properties. He was thus led to the idea that a wave of
electric and magnetic fields both varying with space
61. State the important properties of displacement and time should exist, one providing the source of the
current. other. Such a wave is called an electromagnetic wave
Ans : OD 2020 and it indeed exists.
These are as follows :
64. Define intensity of an electromagnetic wave. Obtain
1. Displacement current exists whenever there is a an expression for it.
change of electric flux. Unlike conduction current,
Ans : Comp 2018, Foreign 2003
it does not exist under steady conditions.
The energy crossing per unit area per unit time in a
2. It is not a current. It only adds to current density
in Ampere’s circuital law. As it produces magnetic direction perpendicular to the direction of propagation
field, so it is called a current. is called intensity of the wave.
3. The magnitude of displacement current is equal Suppose a plane electromagnetic wave propagates
to the rate of displacement of charge from one along X-axis with speed c . As shown in figure, consider
capacitor plate to the other. a cylindrical volume with area of cross-section A and
4. Together with the conduction current, length cTt along the X-axis. The energy contained
displacement current satisfies the property of in this cylinder crosses the area A in time Tt as the
continuity. wave propagates with speed c . The energy contained
is,
62. State Maxwell’s equations.
U = Average energy density # volume
Ans : Comp 2019
The whole study of electricity and magnetism can = u # cTt # A

be described mathematically with the help of four Intensity of the wave,
fundamental equations, called Maxwell’s equations.
These are stated as follows:
1. Gauss Law of Electrostatics :
# v = q
Ev $ dS
e0
2. Gauss Law of Magnetism :
# Bv $ dS
v =0
3. Faraday’s Law of Electromagnetic Induction :
# v = - df B
Ev $ dl
dt
Energy
I =
= - d : Bv $ dS
# v D Area # Time
dt
= U = uc
4. Modified Ampere’s Circuital Law : ATt
# Bv $ dlv = m 0 :Ic + e 0
df E = 1 e 0 E 02 c = e 0 E rms
dt D
2
c
2
63. Briefly explain how Maxwell was led to predict the Also, I = 1 B 02 c
2m 0
existence of electromagnetic waves.
Ans : = 1 B rms2
c
Delhi 2017 m0
According to Faraday’s law of electromagnetic Thus, the intensity of an electromagnetic wave is
induction, A time-varying magnetic field is a source proportional to the square of the electric/magnetic
of changing electric field. field.
Ic = Id
The current inside the capacitor,
df E
Displacement current Ic and Id = e 0 .
dt
70. State two properties of electromagnetic waves.
How can we show that electromagnetic waves carry
momentum?
Ans : OD 2017
Properties of electromagnetic waves

1. Transverse nature. dq
So, IC = ...(1)
2. Does not get deflected by electric fields or dt
magnetic fields. According to Maxwell, displacement current between
3. Same speed in vacuum for all waves. plates,
4. No material medium required for propagation. df
Id = e 0 E
dt
5. They get refracted, diffracted and polarised.
Electric charges present on a plane, kept normal to where, f E = Electric flux ...(2)
the direction of propagation of an electromagnetic wave Using Gauss’s theorem, if one of the plate is inside the
can be set and sustained in motion by the electric and tiffin type Gaussian surface, then
magnetic field of the electromagnetic wave. The charges q
fE =
thus acquire energy and momentum from the waves. e0
q
71. Arrange the following electromagnetic waves in the So, Id = e 0 d b e l
order of their increasing wavelength dt 0
(a) Gamma (g) rays dq
Id = ...(3)
(b) Microwaves dt
(c) X -rays From equation (1) and (3),
(d) Radio waves Both conduction current and displacement current
or are equal.
How are infrared waves produced ? What role does 73. When an ideal capacitor is charged AC by a DC
infrared radiation play in (i) maintaining the Earth’s battery, no current flows. However, when an AC source
warmth and (ii) physical therapy ? is used, the current flows continuously. How does one
Ans : OD 2016, Comp 2009 explain this, based on the concept of displacement
Gamma (g) rays, X -rays, Microwaves, Radio-waves. current ?
Infrared rays are produced by hot bodies/vibration of Ans : OD 2010
atoms and molecules.
Infrared rays (i) Maintain Earth’s warmth through
greenhouse effect, (ii) Produce heat.
72. A capacitor made of two parallel plates each of

plate area A and separation d , is being charged by
an external AC source. Show that the displacement
current inside the capacitor is the same as the current Ideal capacitor means infinite resistance for DC when
charging the capacitor. an AC source is used, the current flow continuously,
Ans : Delhi 2018 but we know that the capacitor has dielectric (air)
In figure conduction current is flowing in the wires, between its plates. So, there is no current and circuit
causes charge on the plates would be incomplete. In real capacitor is charged due
displacement current may be zero. d fE

Id = e 0
dt
So, # Bv $ dlv = m 0 IC
80. Considering the case of a parallel plate capacitor
(ii) In large region of space, where there is no being charged, show how one is required to generalise
conduction current, but there is only a Ampere’s circuital law to include the term due to
displacement current due to time varying electric displacement current.
field (or flux).
Ans : Delhi 2012
So, v = m0e0 d fE
fBv $ dl
dt
78. Write Maxwell’s generalization of Ampere’s Circuital
Law. Show that in the process of charging a capacitor,
the current produced within the plates of the capacitor
is
df
i = e0 E
dt
Where f E is the electric flux produced during charging
of the capacitor plates.
Ans : Foreign 2006, Comp 2003 During charging capacitor C , a time varying current
Ampere’s circuital law is given by I (t) flows through the conducting wire, so on applying
Ampere’s circuital law (for loop A)
# Bv $ dlv = m 0 IC
# Bv $ dlv = m 0 I (t) ...(1)
For a circuit containing capacitor, during its charging
or discharging the current within the plates of the
capacitor varies producing displacement current Id
. Hence, Ampere’s circuital law is generalised by
Maxwell, given as
# Bv $ dlv = m 0 IC + m 0 Id
The electric flux (f E ) between the place of capacitor
changes with time, producing current within the
plates which is proportional to _ dt i. Thus, we get,
d fE
df
IC = e 0 E e
dt Now, we consider a pot like surface enclosing the
79. (i) Identify the part of the electromagnetic spectrum positively charged plate and nowhere touches the
which is conducting wire,
(a) suitable for radar system used in aircraft
navigation.
# Bv $ dlv =0 ...(2)
(b) produced by bombarding a metal target by From equation (1) and (2), we have a contradiction
high speed electrons.
(ii) Why does a galvanometer show a momentary
deflection at the time of charging or discharging
a capacitor ? Write the necessary expression to
explain this observation.
Ans : OD 2018
(i) (a) Microwaves
(b) X -rays
(ii) Due to conduction current in the connecting
wires and the production of displacement current
between the plates of capacitor on account of
changing electric field.
Current inside the capacitor is given by If surface A and B forms a tiffin box and electric field
83. (a) Which one of the following electromagnetic 85. (a) State clearly how a microwave oven works to heat
radiations has least frequency up a food item containing water molecules.
UV radiations, X -rays, Microwaves ? (b) Why are microwaves found useful for the RADAR
(b) How do you show that electromagnetic waves systems in aircraft navigation ?
carry energy and momentum ? Ans : OD 2011
(c) Write the expression for the energy density of an (a) In microwave oven, the frequency of the
electromagnetic wave propagating in free space. microwaves is selected to match the resonant
Ans : Delhi 2015 frequency of water molecules so that energy from
(a) Microwave. the waves get transferred efficiently to the kinetic
energy of the molecules. This kinetic energy raises
(b) When a charge oscillates with some frequency, it
the temperature of any food containing water.
produces an oscillating electric field and magnetic
field in space. So, an electromagnetic wave is (b) Microwaves are short wavelength radio waves,
produced. with frequency of order of few GHz. Due to short
wavelength, they have high penetrating power
The frequency of the electromagnetic wave is
with respect to atmosphere and less diffraction
equal to the frequency of oscillation of the charge.
in the atmospheric layers. So, these waves are
Hence, energy associated with the electromagnetic suitable for the radar systems used in aircraft
wave comes at the expense of the energy of the navigation.
source.
If the electromagnetic wave of energy U strikes 86. Name the parts of the electromagnetic spectrum
on a surface and gets completely absorbed, total which is
momentum delivery to the surface is p = UE . (i) suitable for RADAR systems in aircraft
navigations.
Hence electromagnetic wave also carry momentum.
(ii) used to treat muscular strain.
(c) The electromagnetic wave consists of oscillating
(iii) used as a diagnostic tool in medicine.
electric and magnetic fields, So net energy density
of electromagnetic wave is Write in brief, how these waves can be produced.
Ans : SQP 2006, OD 2002
U = UE + UB
2
The electromagnetic waves suitable for RADAR
U = 1 e0E 2 + 1 B system is microwaves. The range of frequency is
2 2 m0
3 # 1011 to 1 # 108 Hz .
84. Answer the following questions : (i) These rays are produced by special vacuum tubes,
(i) Name the electromagnetic waves which are namely klystrons, magnetron’s and Gunn diodes.
suitable for RADAR systems used in aircraft (ii) Infrared waves are used to treat muscular strain.
navigation. Write the range of frequency of these These rays are produced by hot bodies and
waves. molecules.
(ii) If the earth not have atmosphere, would its (iii) X -rays are used a diagnostic tool in medicine.
average surface temperature be higher or lower These rays are produced when high energy
than what it is now? Explain. electrons are stopped suddenly on a metal of high
(iii) An electromagnetic wave exerts pressure on the atomic number.
surface on which it is incident. Justify. 87. (a) Describe briefly how electromagnetic waves are
Ans : OD 2017 produced by oscillating charges.
(i) The electromagnetic waves suitable for RADAR (b) Give one use of each of the following :
system is microwaves. The range of frequency is (i) Microwaves
3 # 1011 to 1 # 108 Hz .
(ii) Ultraviolet rays
(ii) The temperature of the earth would be lower
(iii) Infrared rays
because the green house effect of the atmosphere
would be absent. (iv) Gamma rays
(iii) An electromagnetic waves has momentum, Ans : Comp 2011
Energy (E ) (a) Electromagnetic waves are produced by

i.e., p = accelerated charges. An oscillating charge
Velocity of light (c)
produces an oscillating magnetic field which in
When it is incident upon a surface it exerts
its own turn is a source of oscillating electric
pressure on it.
field. The oscillating electric and magnetic fields
of the magnetic field Bv along any closed loop C is

proportional to the current I passing through the
closed loop, i.e.,
# Bv $ dlv
C
= m0I ...(1)
" "
(a) Electric and magnetic fields E and B at any
point Q between the capacitor plates. (b) A cross-
sectional view of figure (a)
A parallel plate capacitor being charged by a battery
In such a region, we expect a magnetic field though
there is no source of conduction current nearby.
In 1864, Maxwell showed that the Eq. (1) is logically
Experiments have shown that a magnetic field Bv inconsistent. Consider a parallel plate capacitor being
is indeed induced (say at a point Q ) between the charged by a battery, as shown in figure (a). As the
capacitor plates and has same magnitude as that just charging current I flows, a magnetic field is set up
outside (say at point P ). around the capacitor.
In Figure (a), the direction of Ev is from the positive Now, the current I flows across the area bounded by
plate to the negative, whereas the direction of Bv at loop C1 . Therefore,
Q is perpendicular to the plane of paper. Figure (b)
shows a cross-sectional loop parallel to the plane of # Bv $ dlv
C1
= m0I ...(2)
the plates. The field Ev is directed normally into the
But the are bounded by C2 lies in the region between
plane paper, as shown by crosses. The induced field
the capacitor plates, so no current flows across it.
Bv is clockwise along the tangents on a circle in this
cross-sectional plane. Hence, # Bv $ dlv
C2
=0 ...(3)
93. State and explain Maxwell’s modification of Ampere’s Imagine the loops C1 and C2 to be infinitesimally close
circuital law. to each other, as shown in figure (b). Then we must
or have,
Discuss the inconsistency in Ampere’s circuital law.
What modification was made my Maxwell in this law?
# Bv $ dlv
C1
= # Bv $ dlv
C2
Ans : OD 2021, Comp 2012 This result is inconsistent with the Eq. (2) and (3).
According to Ampere’s circuital law, the line integral There must be some missing term in this law.
S1 and S2 Hertz also observed that the spark across = B0 sin :2p a x - nt kD kt
S1 and S2 was greatest when the S1 'S ' 2 and S1 S2 were l
parallel to each other. This clearly established that = B0 sin ;2p b x - t lE kt ...(2)
electromagnetic waves produced were polarise i.e. Ev l T
and Bv always lie in one plane. Hence, B x = By = 0
95. What is an electromagnetic wave? How can we Here, E0 and B0 are the amplitudes of the electric
express mathematically a plane electromagnetic field Ev and magnetic field Bv , respectively. They are
wave propagating along X-axis? Also represent it related as,
graphically. E0
=c
Ans : Comp 2020 B0
Electromagnetic Wave The Eq. (1) and (2) show that the variations in electric
An electromagnetic wave is a wave radiated by an and magnetic fields are in same phase.
accelerated charge and which propagates through As the electric and magnetic fields in an e.m. wave
space as coupled electric and magnetic fields, are always perpendicular to each other and also
oscillating perpendicular to each other and to the perpendicular to the direction of wage propagation,
direction of propagation of the wave. so e.m. waves are transverse in nature.
Mathematical Representation of Electromagnetic Maxwell showed that the speed of an e.m. wave in free
Waves space is given by,
c = 1 = 3.0 # 108 ms-1
m0e0
which is the speed of light in vacuum. This fact led
Maxwell to predict that light is an electromagnetic
wave.
96. Prove mathematically that electromagnetic waves are
transverse in nature.
Consider a plane electromagnetic wave travelling in

the X -direction. The associated wave-front lies in the
YZ -plane and ABCD is a portion of it at any time
A plane electromagnetic wave travelling along X-axis t . The electric and magnetic fields at time t will be
zero to the right of ABCD . To the left of ABCD , they
Figure shows a plane electromagnetic wave of
depend on x and t .
frequency n and wavelength l travelling along X -axis
with speed c . The electric field Ev oscillates along Y
-axis while the magnetic field Bv oscillates along Z
-axis. The electric field vector can be represented
mathematically as follows:
Ev = Ey tj = E0 sin (kx - wt) tj
= E0 sin :2p a x - nt kD tj
l
= E0 sin ;2p b x - t lE tj ...(1)
l T
2p
where, k = l is the propagation constant of the
wave
and w = 2pn Consider the closed surface enclosed by the

parallelepiped ABCDEFGH of sides dx , dy and dz
Hence, Ex = Ez = 0 . The total electric flux through this closed surface
The magnetic field vector may be represented as, must be zero as it does not enclose any charge.
Bv = Bz kt = B0 sin (kx - wt) kt By Gauss’s theorem,
= 1.8 # 10-8 C-s-1
100. A parallel plate capacitor consists of two circular

plates each of radius 2 cm separated by distance of
0.1 mm. If rate of change of potential difference is
5 # 1013 V-s-1 , Find out the value of displacement
current ?
Ans : Delhi 2019
Given,
Radius of each plates, r = 2 cm = 0.02 m
Distance between the plates,
d = 0.1 mm = 0.1 # 10-3 m
and rate of change of potential difference,
dV = 5 1013 V-s-1
dt #
Area of circular plate,
A = pr2 = p (0.02) 2
= 1.26 # 10-3 m2
Therefore displacement current,
Electromagnetic spectrum
df
Id = e 0 E
dt
d
= e 0 (EA)
dt
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS
= e 0 d bV # A l
dt d
A parallel plate capacitor is charged to 60 mC . Due e A
= 0 dV
99.
to a radioactive source, the plate loses charge at the d dt
rate of 1.8 # 10-8 C-s-1 . What is the magnitude of (8.85 # 10-12) (1.26 # 10-3) 13
displacement current? = # (5 # 10 )
0.1 # 10-3
Ans : Delhi 2020
= 5.6 # 103 A
Given,
(where, e 0 = Absolute electric permittivity of free
Charge on capacitor, q = 60 mC = 60 # 10-6 C space equal to 8.85 # 10-12 C2-N-1-m-2 )
and rate of losses of charge,
dq 101. In an electromagnetic wave, the electric and magnetic
= 1.8 # 10-8 C-s-1
dt fields are 100 V-m-1 and 0.265 A-m-1 . What is the
Electric field between the parallel plate capacitor, maximum energy flows ?
q Ans : Comp 2018, OD 2013
E =
e0A Given,
Therefore electric flux through the plate, Intensity of electric field,
f E = EA E0 = 100 V-m-1
q q and Intensity of magnetic field,
= A =
e0A # e0
We also know that magnitude of displacement current, H0 = 0.625 A-m-1
df The maximum energy flow,
Id = e 0 E
dt S = E0 # H0
q
= e0 d b l = 100 # 0.265
dt e 0
dq dq = 26.5 W-m2
= e0 # 1 =
e 0 dt dt
not have enough energy to be classified as ionising

radiation. The high energy of gamma rays enables
them to pass through many kinds of materials,
including human tissue. Very dense materials, such as
lead, are commonly used as shielding to slow or stop
gamma rays.
Gamma rays are used in radiotherapy to Treat cancer.
They are used to spot tumors, they kill the living cells
and damage malignant tumor.
(i) What do you mean by ECG?

(ii) A plane electromagnetic wave of frequency 25
MHz travels in free space along the x -direction.
At a particular point space and time, the electric
vector E = 6.3 V/m tj . Calculate B at this point.
Ans :
(i) An electrocardiogram (ECG) is a simple test that (i) What is the source of gamma rays ?
can be used to check your heart’s rhythm and (ii) How is wavelength of gamma rays ?
electrical activity. Sensors attached to the skin (iii) What is the correct order of alpha, beta and
are used to detect the electrical signals produced gamma rays according to the wave length ?
by your heart each time it beats. Ans :
(ii) In given condition, magnetic vector Bv must be (i) Radioactive decay of nucleus.
along z -axis with, (ii) High.
E
B0 = 0 = 6.3 8 (iii) Gamma 2 beta 2 alpha.
c 3 # 10
106. Mohit fractured his leg by chance while playing. His
= 2.1 # 10-8 T parents took him to a doctor for treatment. The
Thus, B = 2.1 # 10-8 Tkt doctor advised that an X -rays of the leg needed to
be done for diagnosing the problem. On seeing X
105. A gamma ray (g) is a packet of electromagnetic energy -rays photograph. Mohit was amazed and excited to
(photon) emitted by the nucleus of some radionuclide know that the photograph was so clear. He requested
following radioactive decay. Gamma photons are the doctor to explain how it happened. The doctor
the most energetic photons in the electromagnetic gave a brief explanation of his question happily and
spectrum. Gamma rays are a form of electromagnetic appreciated Mohit’s nature.
radiation (EMR). They are the similar to X-rays,
distinguished only by the fact that they are emitted
from an excited nucleus. Electromagnetic radiation
can be described in terms of a stream of photons,
which are massless particles each travelling in a wave-
like pattern and moving at the speed of light. Each
photon contains a certain amount (or bundle) of
energy, and all electromagnetic radiation consists of
these photons. Gamma-ray photons have the highest
energy in the EMR spectrum and their waves have the
shortest wavelength. Gamma-ray photons generally
have energies greater than 100 keV. For comparison,
ultraviolet radiation has energy that falls in the range
from a few electron volts to about 100 eV and does
Chap 8 Electromagnetic Wave Page 347
(i) Which property of X -rays make it suitable for

use in diagnosing and identifying the fracture in
bones ?
(ii) Write two other uses of X-rays ?
Ans :
(i) The property of X -rays to resiny pass through
flesh but unable to pass through bones is used to
take X -rays photograph.
(ii) Two other uses of X -ray are :
(a) Study of crystal structures.
(b) In engineering-for detecting cracks, faults etc.
107. Microwave is a form of electromagnetic radiation
with wavelengths ranging from about one meter to
one millimetre corresponding to frequencies between
300 MHz and 300 GHz respectively. Microwave are
used in aircraft navigation. A radar guns out short
bursts of microwave and it reflect back from oncoming
aircraft and are detected by receiver in gun. The
frequency of reflected wave used to compute speed of
aircraft.
(i) How are microwave produced?

(ii) Why microwave use for aircraft navigation?
(iii) Which is use of microwave?
(iv) Where do microwave fall in electromagnetic
spectrum?
Ans :
(i) Klystron and magnetron valve.
(ii) Due to low wavelength
(iii) Studying details of atoms and molecule.
(iv) Between infrared and radio wave.
***********
Page 348 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments Chap 9
CHAPTER 9
Ray Optics and Optical Instruments
SUMMARY
1. REFLECTION OF LIGHT
Reflection of light is the phenomenon of bouncing back
of light in the same medium after striking a surface.
The reflection of light is shown in figure:
where, OA = incident ray

AB = reflected ray
NA = Normal
where, OA = incident ray 1st law
AB = reflected ray The incident ray, refracted ray and the normal at the
point of incidence,all lie on the same plane.
+i = incident angle
2nd law
+r = reflection angle
The ratio of sine of angle of incidence to the sine
2. TOTAL INTERNAL REFLECTION of angle of refraction is constant for any two given
media.
Critical angle is the angle of incidence in the denser
medium for which angle of refraction in rarer medium i.e., m = sin i
sin r
is 90c. a
Also, m b #bm c# cm a = 1
When angle of incidence in the denser medium is
a
greater than critical angle, the ray is reflected back in b mc
or m c = bm a a m c = a
the denser medium. This phenomenon is called total mb
internal reflection. In this case, angle of incidence is Real Depth
Again, m =
equal to the angle of reflection. Apparent Depth
Practical applications of total internal reflection 4. REFRACTION AT SPHERICAL SURFACES
are mirage, optical fibre, brilliance of a diamond.
When light travels from rarer to denser medium, then
3. REFRACTION m1 m m - m1
+ 2 = 2
Refraction of light is the change in path of a ray of light -m v R
a passes from one medium into another. Refraction of but when it travels from denser to rarer medium, then
light follows two laws. m2 m m - m1
+ 1 = 2
-m v R
Chap 9 Ray Optics and Optical Instruments Page 349
Mirror Formula and two triangular plane surfaces.

For a prism,
Mirror Formula is 1 = 1 + 1
f u v 1. A + d = i + e :
where, f = focal length of mirror
2. d = A (m - 1) if angles are small
u = object distance
sin A +2 d m
v = image distance 3. m =
sin A2
Lens Formula where, d = deviation angle
Lens formula is 1f = u1 - v1 and Lens maker’s formula
i = incidence angle
is the relation between the radii of curvatures R1 , R2
of the curved surfaces of lens, then if f is the focal e = emergent angle
length of the lens, then m = refractive index of prism
'
1 = (m - 1) 1 - 1
1 A = prism angle
f R1 R2
In our eye lens, we change its focal length by changing
10. DISPERSION
the radius of two sides of eye lens by the action of
ciliary muscles and zinule fibres. Dispersion is the phenomenon of splitting up of white
light into constituent colours when passed through
5. LINEAR MAGNIFICATION OF THE IMAGE prism. Dispersion is due to different refractive index
The Radio of the height of image and the Ratio of m for different wavelengths.
height of object is knower ass linear magnification. i.e. According to Cauchy’s law
m =v =
f
=
f-v m = a + b2 + c4
u f+u f l l
6. POWER OF A LENS and d = A (m - 1)
Power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length. More the l , lesser the m and lesser deviation d for ray
Power is measured in dioptre (D ). as compared to violet ray.
1 Angle of dispersion,
Power (in dioptre) =
f (in metre) q = d v - d r = (m v - m r ) A
Power are added algebraically Dispersing power, w = q
mean deviation d
P = P1 + P2 + P3 ..... + Pn
m - mr
= v
7. WHEN LENSES ARE COMBINED m-1
When lenses are combined together side to side 11. ANGULAR DISPERSIVE POWER
(touching) then combined focal lengths f is, Angular dispersive power is the angle of dispersion per
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ..... + 1 unit wavelength range. If dd is the angel of dispersion
f f1 f2 f3 fn between wavelength range l and l + dl (range of dl ),
then angular dispersive power
8. THE RESULTANT FOCAL LENGTH
w = dd
The resultant focal length f of combination of two dl
lens of focal lengths f1 and f2 placed distance x apart It can be proved that w ? 13 .
is l
1 =1+1- 1 This shown that spectrum is more spread on the short
f f1 f2 f1 f2 wavelength side (violet) than on the long wavelength
and their combined power is side (red).
P = P1 + P2 - xP1 P2 Hence prism spectrum is not linear.
9. PRISM 12. RAYLEIGH’S LAW OF SCATTERING
Prism is a portion of transparent medium like glass, Rayleigh’s law of scattering is that scattering of light
quartz, rock slat etc. bounded by three rectangular by air etc. is inversely proportional to the fourth
power of wavelength i.e. 2m sin q

R.P. of microscope =
l
Scattering ? 14
l D
and R.P. of telescope =
Blue colour of the sky, reddish colour of the sun at 1.22l
the time of sunrise and sunset can be explained on the
basis of above said law.
13. OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS ***********

Optical instruments are the instruments based upon
laws of reflection and refraction.
14. MICROSCOPE
Microscope is an optical instrument used to observe
minute particles in magnified form.
A simple microscope is an ordinary convex lens of
small focal length placed at such a distance from object
so that its clear image is formed at the least distance
of distinct vision. It is used by biology students to
observe dissected animal by watch repairer and by
palmists. Its magnifying power,
M = c1 + D m
fe
15. COMPOUND MICROSCOPE
Compound microscope consists of two lenses an
objective of small aperture and small focal length.
16. MAGNIFYING POWER OF COMPOUND MICROSCOPE

1. When image formed at near point,
v
m = 0 ^1 + Dfe h
u0
2. When the final image is at infinity,
m = -C $ D
f0 fe
17. TELESCOPE
Telescope is used to study far off objects clearly.
Astronomical telescope is used to observe heavenly
bodies. It forms an inverted image. Its magnifying
power in normal adjustment is,
f
M =- 0
fe
When the image of a distant object is formed at least
distance of distinct vision, the magnifying power is,
f f
M = - 0 b1 + e l
fe D
18. RESOLVING POWER
Resolving power of an optical instrument is its ability
to resolve two images of two point objects lying very
close to each of these so that other images can be seen
quite separately and distinctly.
n2 = Refractive index of second medium Ans : Delhi 2018, 2016
The relation between phase difference (f ) and path

i = Angle of incidence
difference (Tx) is given by,
r = Angle of refraction
Tx = l # f
For critical angle, 2p
Angle of incidence, i =q where, l = wavelength of light
Angle of refraction, r = 90° Thus (c) is correct option.
Now, from Equation (1) 10. A short sighted person uses for clear vision
n1 sin q = n2 sin 90° (a) Convex Lens (b) Concave Lens
(c) Cylindrical Lens (d) Bi-focal Lens
sin q = n2 ...(2)
n1 Ans : OD 2017, SQP 2004
Now n = c A myopic or short slightness eye is corrected by using

v
where n is inversely proportional to v . a concave lens of focal length equal to the distance of
the far point F from the eye. This lens diverges the
Hence, n2 = v1
n1 v2 parallel ray from distant object as if they are coming
from the far point f , finally the eye lens forms a clear
sin q = v1 image at the retina.
v2
v2 = v
sin q 11. The angle of minimum deviation for thin prism of
Thus (b) is correct option. refractive index (m) is
7. Which of the following phenomena taken place when a (a) (1 - m) A (b) (m - 1) A
monochromatic light is incident on a prism? (c) (m + 1) A (d) (m + 1) A2
(a) Dispersion (b) Deviation Ans : SQP 2017
(c) Interference (d) All of these Refractive index of the material of the prism,
Ans : Foreign 2014 sin ` A +2 d j
m
Dispersion phenomena taken place when a m = ...(1)

sin A2
monochromatic light is incident on a prism. If the prism angle is small than minimum.
Thus (a) is correct option. Deviation (d m) is also small.
Optical fibre communication is based on which of the
Hence, sin b A + d m l = A + d m
8.
following phenomena 2 2
(a) Total internal reflection and sin A = A
2 2
(b) Scattering
(c) Reflection A + dm
(d) Interference m = 2
A
2
Ans : OD 2018
Optical fibre communication is based on total internal m = A + dm
A
reflection. When light is incident on one end of the mA = A + d m
fibre at a small angle, it goes inside and suffers
repeated total internal reflection because the angle of d m = mA - A = A (m - 1)
incidence is greater than the critical angle of the fibre Thus (b) is correct option.
material with respect to its outer coating.
12. The focal length of a lens m = 1.5 in air is 20 cm. Its
Thus (a) is correct option. focal length in medium of refractive index 1.5 is
9. The phase difference f is related to path difference (a) 20 cm (b) 40 cm
Tx by
(c) 10 cm (d) 3
(a) l f (b) p f Ans :
p l Foreign 2008
(c) l f (d) 2p f When lens is placed in medium, then

2p l
Ans : OD 2011
f = 1 = 1 m = 100 cm
P 12 12 The reciprocal of focal length f is known as the power
Magnifying lower of simple microscope is given by, of the lens. i.e.,
1
m = 1+D Power of lens, P =
f f (focal length)
The SI unit of power of lens is dioptre.
= 1 + 25 # 12 = 1 + 3 = 4
100 Thus (b) is correct option.
24. A plane mirror products a magnification of
20. A path length t in a glass plate of refractive index n (a) 0 (b) - 1
is equivalent to .......... path length in vacuum.
(c) + 1 (d) between 0 and + 1
(a) (n - 1) t (b) nt
Ans : Delhi 2017
(c) 9n - 1C (d) none of these In a plane mirror, height of image formed is erect and
t
of the same size as of the object i.e.,
Path length = Refractive index of glass plate # h2 = h1 (where, h1 = size of object)
thickness of plate. Therefore magnification of plane mirror,
m = + h2 = + h1 = + 1
21. The radius of curvature of plane mirror is h1 h1
(a) infinite (b) zero
(c) + 5 cm (d) - 5 cm 25. If a ray of light is incident on a plane mirror at an
angle of 30c, then deviation produced by the plane
Ans : OD 2011
mirror is
Since a plane mirror is a part of sphere of infinite focal (a) 30c (b) 60c
length. So its radius of curvature is infinite 6a r = 2f @.
(c) 90c (d) 120c
Ans : SQP 2007
22. The critical angle of light passing from glass to air is
Given,
minimum for
(a) Red colour (b) Green colour Angle of incidence i = 30c
(c) Yellow colour (d) Violet colour Angle of reflection,
Ans : Foreign 2017

r = Angle of incidence i = 30c
The refractive index of glass, We also know that deviation produced by plane
mirror,
m =c ...(1)
v d = 180c - (i + r)
Here, c = velocity of light = 180c - (30c + 30c)
v = velocity of light in medium = 180c - 60c
Since, m = 1 ...(2) = 120c
sin C
Here, C = critical angle
From Eqn. (1) and (2), we get 26. An object is immersed in a fluid. In order that the
object becomes invisible, it should
c = 1
v sin C (a) have refractive index one
Hence, v ? sin C [Since, v = nl] (b) absorb all light falling on it
Thus critical angle is minimum for light with minimum (c) behave as a perfect reflector
v and that is violent. (d) have refractive index exactly matching with that
Thus (d) is correct option. of the surrounding fluid
23. SI unit of power of a lens is Ans : Foreign 2002
(a) joule (b) dioptre If refractive index of a material is exactly matching

(c) candela (d) watt with that of the surrounding fluid, then no refraction
q + r = 90c (a) 1 (b) 4

3
r = 90c - q
(c) 1 (d) 4 sin i
Refractive index of glass plate, sin i 3
sin q Ans :
m = sin i =
OD 2004, SQP 2011
sin r sin (90c - q) Angle of incidence at glass-water interface = i
= sin q = tan q Angle of refraction at glass-water interface = r
cos q
Angle of refraction at water-air interface = 90c
and refractive index of water,
33. A sound wave travels from air to water. The angle of
incidence is a 1 and the angle of refraction is a 2 . If the mw = 4
3
Snell’s law is valid, then For glass-water interface,
(a) a 1 > a 2 (b) a 1 < a 2 mw
= sin i ...(1)
(c) a 1 = a 2 (d) a 1 = 90c mg sin r
Ans : SQP 2010 Similarly, for water-air interface,
Angle of incidence, i = a1 1 = sin r
mw sin 90c
Angle of refractions, r = a2 1 = sin r
Refractive index of water with respect to air, mw
am
w =
Velocity of sound in air mw = 1
Velocity of sound in water sin r
Substituting the value of m w in equation i ,
= ua ...(1)
uw 1 = sin i
Refractive index of water with respect to air, sin r # m g sin r
am sin i = sin a 1 Refractive index of glass,
w = ...(2)
sin r sin a 2
mg = 1
Equating equations (1) and (2), sin i
u a = sin a 1 Thus (c) is correct option.
uw sin a 2 35. Relation between critical angle of water (Cw) and that
Since velocity of sound in water, u w is greater than of the glass (Cg) is
that of air u a , (a) Cw > Cg (b) Cw < Cg
Therefore, ua < 1
uw (c) Cw = Cg (d) Cw = Cg = 0
sin a 1 < 1 Ans : Foreign 2010
sin a 2 Critical angle of water = Cw
sin a 1 < sin a 2 and Critical angle of glass = Cg
a1 < a 2 Refractive index of water,
Thus (b) is correct option. 4
mw = 3
34. A ray of light is incident at the glass-water interface and refractive index of glass,
at an angle i . If it finally emerges parallel to the
m g = 1.5
surface of water as shown in the figure, the value of
m g would be Critical angle of water,
Cw = sin-1 b 1 l
mw
= sin-1 c 14 m
3
= sin-1 (0.75) = 48.6c

Similarly, critical angle of glass,
Cg = sin-1 c 1 m
mg
Since, fV < fR points propagating in two different parallel directions,

because both the rays have different angles of
Therefore, m R < mV
refraction inside the glass slab.
40. The angle of a prism is 60c. If green light of refractive
index 1.5 passes through it, the angle of deviation
will be ASSERTION AND REASON
(a) 30c (b) 40c
(c) 50c (d) 60c 43. Assertion : The setting sum appears to be red.
Reason : Scattering of light is directly proportional to
Ans : Foreign 2016
the wavelength.
Angle of prism, A = 60c
and refractive index for green light, Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
m = 1.5 (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
Angle of deviation, is not the a correct explanation of the Assertion.
d = (m - 1) A = (1.5 - 1) # 60c (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
= 0.5 # 60c = 30c
Ans :
Setting sun appears to be red because red light which
41. If the critical angle for total internal reflection, from has greatest wavelength is least scattered and reaches
a medium to vacuum is 30c, then velocity of light in our eyes the most. Other wavelength are scattered to
the medium is the longest extent. So, reason given is wrong.
(a) 6 # 108 m - s-1 (b) 3 # 108 m - s-1 Thus (c) is correct option.
(c) 2 # 108 m - s-1 (d) 1.5 # 108 m - s-1 44. Assertion : The colour of the green flower seen through
Ans : SQP 2011 red glass appears to be dark.
Critical angle, C = 30c Reason : Red glass transmits only red light.
Velocity of light in the medium, (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
u = c # sin C = c # sin 30c
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
= (3 # 108) # 0.5 is not the a correct explanation of the Assertion.
= 1.5 # 108 m - s-1 (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
8 -1
where, c = velocity of light equal to 3 # 10 m - s (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
Thus (d) is correct option. Ans :
42. A beam of light composed of red and green rays is A green flower absorbs all the light except green
incident obliquely at a point on the face of a rectangular coloured light. So when red glass transmits only red
glass slab. When coming out on the opposite parallel light and falls on green flower, it absorbs all the light.
face, the red and green rays emerge from Therefore, colour of the green flower becomes dark.
(a) one point propagating in the same direction Thus (a) is correct option.
(b) one point propagating in two different directions 45. Assertion : Corpuscular theory fails in explaining the
(c) two points propagating in two different parallel velocities of light in air and water.
directions Reason : According to corpuscular theory, light should
(d) two points propagating in two different non- travel faster in denser medium than in rarer medium.
parallel directions (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
When a beam of light is incident obliquely at a (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
point on the face of a glass slab, it splits up into its is not the a correct explanation of the Assertion.
constituents colours (or rays). (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
Therefore red and green rays emerge out form two (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
is not the a correct explanation of the Assertion. is not the a correct explanation of the Assertion.
(c) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect. (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) The Assertion is incorrect but the Reason is (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
correct. Blue colour of sky is due to scattering of blue colour
Ans : to the maximum extent by dust particles. Blue colour
a md = 6 appears to be coming from the sky. Blue colour has
the least wavelength.
a m, = 3
, md = ?
a md # d m , # , ma = 1
6 # d m, # 1 = 1
3
d m, = 3 = 1
6 2
, md = 2
If C be the critical angle, then
C = 45c. As angle of incidence < 45c, it will not be 52. Assertion : The air bubble shines in water.
internally reflected. So Assertion is incorrect Reason Reason : Air bubble in water shines due to refraction
is correct. of light.
Thus (d) is correct option. (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
50. Assertion : Newton’s rings are formed in the reflected
system when the space between the lens and the glass (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
plate is filled with a liquid of refractive index greater is not the a correct explanation of the Assertion.
than that of glass, the central spot of the pattern is (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
bright.
Reason : This is because the reflection in these cases
will be from a denser to rarer medium and the two Ans :
interfering rays are reflected under similar conditions. Air bubble shines in water due to total internal
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and reflection from the surface of the bubble.
Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. So, Assertion is correct and Reason is incorrect.
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason Thus (c) is correct option.
is not the a correct explanation of the Assertion. 53. Assertion : The stars twinkle while the planets do not.
(c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. Reason : the stars are much bigger in size than the
planets.
Ans : Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
Newton’s rings are formed in reflected system and if
the refractive index of the first medium is more than
is not the a correct explanation of the Assertion.
the second medium, there is no reversal of phase in
reflected ray so, central fringe remains bright. (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
Thus (a) is correct option. (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
51. Assertion : Blue colour of sky appears due to scattering Ans :
of blue colour. Stars twinkle because of changing refractive index of
Reason : Blue colour has shortest wave length in atmosphere. As the apparent size of stars are small,
visible spectrum. the effect of this change on the direction of rays
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and coming from star is more pronounced.
Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. Thus (b) is correct option.
59. Assertion : Plane mirror may form real image. Reason : If the rays seem to be converging at a point
Reason : Plane mirror forms virtual image, if object behind a plane mirror, they are reflected and they
is real. actually meet in front of the mirror.
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
(c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect. (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
Ans : Ans :
Plane mirror may form real image, if object is virtual.
The image of a real object is virtual while that of a

Thus (b) is correct option. virtual object (as shown) is real.
60. Assertion : A concave mirror and convex lens both Thus (a) is correct option.
have the same focal length in air. When they are 62. Assertion : Position of image approaches focus of a
submerged in water, they will have same focal length. lens, only when object approaches infinity.
Reason : The refractive index of water is smaller than Reason : Par-axial rays incident parallel to principal
the refractive index of air. axis intersect at the focus after refraction from lens.
(c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
Ans :
Ans :
If a mirror is placed in a medium other than air, its
focal length does not change as f = R/2 . But for the Thus (b) is correct option.
lens, 63. Assertion : There exists two angles of incidence for
1 = ( n - 1) 1 - 1 the same magnitude of deviation (except minimum
fg a g b R1 R2 l deviation) by a prism kept in air.
1 = ( n - 1) 1 - 1
and
fw w g b R1 R2 l Reason : In a prism kept in air, a ray is incident on
first surface and emerges out of second surface. Now
As w ng < a ng , hence focal length of lens in water if another ray is incident on second surface (of prism)
increase. along the previous emergent ray, then this ray emerges
The refractive index of water is 4/3 and that of air out of first surface along the previous incident ray.
is 1. Hence, refractive index of water is greater than This particle is called principle of reversibility of light.
that of air. (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
Thus (d) is correct option. Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
61. Assertion : The image of a virtual object due to a (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
plane mirror is real. is not the a correct explanation of the Assertion.
Ans : OD 2016 Ans : SQP 2012
A concave lens is made up of certain material behaves A biconvex lens will act like a plane sheet of glass
as a diverging lens, when it is placed in a medium of if than is immersed in a liquid the same index of
refractive index less than the refractive index of the refraction as itself, In this case, the focal length
f = 0 or f "?.
material of the lens and behaves as a converging lens, 1
when it is placed in a medium of refractive index greater

than the refractive index of the material of the lens. 78. A biconvex lens made of a transparent material of
refractive index 1.25 is immersed in water of refractive
In the given case, concave lens is immersed in medium
index 1.33. Will the lens behave as a converging lens?
having refractive index greater than the refractive
Give reason.
index of the material of the lens (1.65 > 1.5).
Therefore, it will behave as a converging lens. Ans : OD 2014, Foreign 2008
No, it will behave as a diverging lens.
73. The refractive index of diamond is much greater than
Using thin lens maker formula
that of glass. How does a diamond cutter make use of
1 = ng - 1 1 - 1
that fact?
fw bn lb R R2 l
m 1
Ans : OD 2017
On using convention R1 = + Ve, R2 = - Ve and
The refractive index of diamond is much higher than
ng = 1.25 and nm = 1.33
that of glass. Due to high refractive index, the critical
1 = 1.25 - 1 1 - 1
angle for diamond air interface is low. The diamond
fw b 1.33 lb R1 R2 l
is cut suitably so that the light entering the diamond
1 1 1.25
from any face suffers multiple total internal reflections b R1 + R2 l = + Ve value and b 1.25 - 1l - Ve value
at the various surfaces.
Hence fw = - Ve So it behaves as a diverging lens.
74. A lens behaves as a converging lens in air and a 79. Write the relationship between angle of incidence i ,
diverging lens in water (m = 43 ). What will be the angle of prism A and angle of minimum deviation for
condition on the value of refractive index (m) of the triangular prism.
material of the lens?
Ans : Delhi 2017
Ans : Delhi 2015
Refractive index of the material of lens is less than the i = A + dm

2
refractive index of water. Where d m = angle of minimum deviation.
75. When light travels from an optically denser medium 80. How does the angle of minimum depiction of a glass
to a rarer medium, why does the critical angle of prism very, if the incident violet light is replaced by
incidence depend on the colour of light? red light? Give reason.
Ans : Comp 2018
Ans : Delhi 2010
The refractive index is different for different colour
( d +2 A )
m
wavelength as m = a + lb2 . Hence, critical angle m = sin

sin iC = m1 would also be different colour of light. sin A2
for red light m = least, d m " will reduce
76. A biconvex lens made of a transparent material of
refractive index 1.5 is immersed in a water of refractive 81. Does the critical angle depend on the wavelength of
index 1.33. Will the lens behave as a converging or a light?
converging lens? Give reason. Ans : Foreign 2013
Ans : Foreign 2016 Yes, Since critical angle depends upon the refractive
A biconvex lens acts as a converging lens in air index of the medium and refractive index of the medium
because the refractive index of air is less than that of depends upon the wavelength of light. So critical angel
the material of the lens. The refractive index of water also depends upon the wavelength of light.
is less than the refractive index of the material of the 82. Why does a convex lens of glass m = 1.5 behave as a
lens (1.5). So, its nature will not change, it behaves as diverging lens when immersed in carbon disulphide of
a converging lens. m = 1.65 ?
Ans : OD 2016
77. Under what condition does a biconvex lens of glass The lens formula is given by,
having a certain refractive index act as a plane glass
1 = m2 - 1 1 - 1
sheet when immersed in a liquid?
f bm lb R R2 l
1 1
is 90c”. The value of critical angle depends on the rarer medium is incident at an angle greater than the
nature of two media in contact. critical angle for the pair of media in contact, the ray
Condition for Critical Angle : is totally reflected back into the denser medium. This
1. Ray of light should be goes from denser of rarer phenomenon is referred as total internal reflection.
medium. Derivation : Let the angle of incidence i be the critical
2. Refraction angle is always 90c. angle C. Let, the angle of refraction, r = 90º .
92. A concave mirror and a convex lens are held separately Refractive index of rarer medium be m a .
in water. What changes, if any, do you expect in the Refractive index of denser medium be m a .
focal length of either? On applying Snell’s law
Ans : SQP 2013 sin i = m a
The focal length of concave mirror will remain sin r mb
constant because its focal length f = R2 , so f does not m a sin C = m a sin 90º
depend upon m . mb
= 1
The focal length of convex lens will increase, because, ma sin C
in this case, focal length is given by,
am b = 1
1 = (m - 1) 1 - 1 sin C
f R1 R2
As, m of lens decreases with reference to water. 96. Explain the brilliance of a diamond.
93. When does Snell’s law fail in refraction?
The refractive index of diamond is 2.42 and the critical
Ans : Delhi 2016
angle for diamond is given by,
Snell’s law fails, if a ray of light in a denser medium
incident on a rarer medium at an angle more than the sin C = 1 = 1 = 0.4132
m 2.42
critical angle for that pair of media, then the ray of
or C = 24.4c
light is totally reflected back into the denser medium
instead of going to the rarer medium as predicted by As the value of critical angle is very small so the
Snell’s law. Hence in this situation, Snell’s law fails in diamond is cut in such a way that it has multiple faces
refraction. at suitable angles. A ray of light on entering into the
diamond suffers total internal reflection from other
94. What are the advantages of total reflecting prism over
faces and comes out of the diamond as an intense
a plane mirror?
beam from selected directions and the faces shine
Ans : OD 2017
when viewed from outside.
1. It reflects whole light i.e. its reflection is 100%.
2. No silvering is required for reflection of light 97. What is the difference between Magnification and
through total reflecting prisms. Magnifying power?
3. In reflecting prism, multiple reflection does not Ans : Delhi 2019
take place and the single image formed is bright. The difference between Magnification and Magnifying
power are as follows :
Magnification Magnifying Power

SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS 1. Magnification is the Magnifying power
ratio of image size to is the ratio of visual
95. Define critical angle for a given pair of media and object size. angle subtended by
total internal reflection. Obtain the relation between the image (b) and
the critical angle and refractive index of the medium. visual angle subtended
by the object (a).
Ans : OD 2023
The critical angle for a pair of refracting media can 2. The range of The value of
be defined as that angle of incidence in the denser magnification is 3 to magnifying power
medium for which the angle of refraction in the +3 D
lies between f and
refraction in the rarer medium is 90°. D
c1 + f m
Total internal reflection when a ray of light travelling
from an optically denser medium to an optically
Mirror Formula and two triangular plane surfaces.

For a prism,
Mirror Formula is 1 = 1 + 1
f u v 1. A + d = i + e :
where, f = focal length of mirror
2. d = A (m - 1) if angles are small
u = object distance
sin A +2 d m
v = image distance 3. m =
sin A2
Lens Formula where, d = deviation angle
Lens formula is 1f = u1 - v1 and Lens maker’s formula
i = incidence angle
is the relation between the radii of curvatures R1 , R2
of the curved surfaces of lens, then if f is the focal e = emergent angle
length of the lens, then m = refractive index of prism
'
1 = (m - 1) 1 - 1
1 A = prism angle
f R1 R2
In our eye lens, we change its focal length by changing
10. DISPERSION
the radius of two sides of eye lens by the action of
ciliary muscles and zinule fibres. Dispersion is the phenomenon of splitting up of white
light into constituent colours when passed through
5. LINEAR MAGNIFICATION OF THE IMAGE prism. Dispersion is due to different refractive index
The Radio of the height of image and the Ratio of m for different wavelengths.
height of object is knower ass linear magnification. i.e. According to Cauchy’s law
m =v =
f
=
f-v m = a + b2 + c4
u f+u f l l
6. POWER OF A LENS and d = A (m - 1)
Power of a lens is the reciprocal of its focal length. More the l , lesser the m and lesser deviation d for ray
Power is measured in dioptre (D ). as compared to violet ray.
1 Angle of dispersion,
Power (in dioptre) =
f (in metre) q = d v - d r = (m v - m r ) A
Power are added algebraically Dispersing power, w = q
mean deviation d
P = P1 + P2 + P3 ..... + Pn
m - mr
= v
7. WHEN LENSES ARE COMBINED m-1
When lenses are combined together side to side 11. ANGULAR DISPERSIVE POWER
(touching) then combined focal lengths f is, Angular dispersive power is the angle of dispersion per
1 = 1 + 1 + 1 + ..... + 1 unit wavelength range. If dd is the angel of dispersion
f f1 f2 f3 fn between wavelength range l and l + dl (range of dl ),
then angular dispersive power
8. THE RESULTANT FOCAL LENGTH
w = dd
The resultant focal length f of combination of two dl
lens of focal lengths f1 and f2 placed distance x apart It can be proved that w ? 13 .
is l
1 =1+1- 1 This shown that spectrum is more spread on the short
f f1 f2 f1 f2 wavelength side (violet) than on the long wavelength
and their combined power is side (red).
P = P1 + P2 - xP1 P2 Hence prism spectrum is not linear.
9. PRISM 12. RAYLEIGH’S LAW OF SCATTERING
Prism is a portion of transparent medium like glass, Rayleigh’s law of scattering is that scattering of light
quartz, rock slat etc. bounded by three rectangular by air etc. is inversely proportional to the fourth
Ans : OD 2011
f = 1 = 1 m = 100 cm
P 12 12 The reciprocal of focal length f is known as the power
Magnifying lower of simple microscope is given by, of the lens. i.e.,
1
m = 1+D Power of lens, P =
f f (focal length)
The SI unit of power of lens is dioptre.
= 1 + 25 # 12 = 1 + 3 = 4
100 Thus (b) is correct option.
24. A plane mirror products a magnification of
20. A path length t in a glass plate of refractive index n (a) 0 (b) - 1
is equivalent to .......... path length in vacuum.
(c) + 1 (d) between 0 and + 1
(a) (n - 1) t (b) nt
Ans : Delhi 2017
(c) 9n - 1C (d) none of these In a plane mirror, height of image formed is erect and
t
of the same size as of the object i.e.,
Path length = Refractive index of glass plate # h2 = h1 (where, h1 = size of object)
thickness of plate. Therefore magnification of plane mirror,
m = + h2 = + h1 = + 1
21. The radius of curvature of plane mirror is h1 h1
(a) infinite (b) zero
(c) + 5 cm (d) - 5 cm 25. If a ray of light is incident on a plane mirror at an
angle of 30c, then deviation produced by the plane
Ans : OD 2011
mirror is
Since a plane mirror is a part of sphere of infinite focal (a) 30c (b) 60c
length. So its radius of curvature is infinite 6a r = 2f @.
(c) 90c (d) 120c
Ans : SQP 2007
22. The critical angle of light passing from glass to air is
Given,
minimum for
(a) Red colour (b) Green colour Angle of incidence i = 30c
(c) Yellow colour (d) Violet colour Angle of reflection,
Ans : Foreign 2017

r = Angle of incidence i = 30c
The refractive index of glass, We also know that deviation produced by plane
mirror,
m =c ...(1)
v d = 180c - (i + r)
Here, c = velocity of light = 180c - (30c + 30c)
v = velocity of light in medium = 180c - 60c
Since, m = 1 ...(2) = 120c
sin C
Here, C = critical angle
From Eqn. (1) and (2), we get 26. An object is immersed in a fluid. In order that the
object becomes invisible, it should
c = 1
v sin C (a) have refractive index one
Hence, v ? sin C [Since, v = nl] (b) absorb all light falling on it
Thus critical angle is minimum for light with minimum (c) behave as a perfect reflector
v and that is violent. (d) have refractive index exactly matching with that
Thus (d) is correct option. of the surrounding fluid
23. SI unit of power of a lens is Ans : Foreign 2002
(a) joule (b) dioptre If refractive index of a material is exactly matching

(c) candela (d) watt with that of the surrounding fluid, then no refraction
q + r = 90c (a) 1 (b) 4

3
r = 90c - q
(c) 1 (d) 4 sin i
Refractive index of glass plate, sin i 3
sin q Ans :
m = sin i =
OD 2004, SQP 2011
sin r sin (90c - q) Angle of incidence at glass-water interface = i
= sin q = tan q Angle of refraction at glass-water interface = r
cos q
Angle of refraction at water-air interface = 90c
and refractive index of water,
33. A sound wave travels from air to water. The angle of
incidence is a 1 and the angle of refraction is a 2 . If the mw = 4
3
Snell’s law is valid, then For glass-water interface,
(a) a 1 > a 2 (b) a 1 < a 2 mw
= sin i ...(1)
(c) a 1 = a 2 (d) a 1 = 90c mg sin r
Ans : SQP 2010 Similarly, for water-air interface,
Angle of incidence, i = a1 1 = sin r
mw sin 90c
Angle of refractions, r = a2 1 = sin r
Refractive index of water with respect to air, mw
am
w =
Velocity of sound in air mw = 1
Velocity of sound in water sin r
Substituting the value of m w in equation i ,
= ua ...(1)
uw 1 = sin i
Refractive index of water with respect to air, sin r # m g sin r
am sin i = sin a 1 Refractive index of glass,
w = ...(2)
sin r sin a 2
mg = 1
Equating equations (1) and (2), sin i
u a = sin a 1 Thus (c) is correct option.
uw sin a 2 35. Relation between critical angle of water (Cw) and that
Since velocity of sound in water, u w is greater than of the glass (Cg) is
that of air u a , (a) Cw > Cg (b) Cw < Cg
Therefore, ua < 1
uw (c) Cw = Cg (d) Cw = Cg = 0
sin a 1 < 1 Ans : Foreign 2010
sin a 2 Critical angle of water = Cw
sin a 1 < sin a 2 and Critical angle of glass = Cg
a1 < a 2 Refractive index of water,
Thus (b) is correct option. 4
mw = 3
34. A ray of light is incident at the glass-water interface and refractive index of glass,
at an angle i . If it finally emerges parallel to the
m g = 1.5
surface of water as shown in the figure, the value of
m g would be Critical angle of water,
Cw = sin-1 b 1 l
mw
= sin-1 c 14 m
3
= sin-1 (0.75) = 48.6c

Similarly, critical angle of glass,
Cg = sin-1 c 1 m
mg
Since, fV < fR points propagating in two different parallel directions,

because both the rays have different angles of
Therefore, m R < mV
refraction inside the glass slab.
40. The angle of a prism is 60c. If green light of refractive
index 1.5 passes through it, the angle of deviation
will be ASSERTION AND REASON
(a) 30c (b) 40c
(c) 50c (d) 60c 43. Assertion : The setting sum appears to be red.
Reason : Scattering of light is directly proportional to
Ans : Foreign 2016
the wavelength.
Angle of prism, A = 60c
and refractive index for green light, Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
m = 1.5 (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
Angle of deviation, is not the a correct explanation of the Assertion.
d = (m - 1) A = (1.5 - 1) # 60c (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
= 0.5 # 60c = 30c
Ans :
Setting sun appears to be red because red light which
41. If the critical angle for total internal reflection, from has greatest wavelength is least scattered and reaches
a medium to vacuum is 30c, then velocity of light in our eyes the most. Other wavelength are scattered to
the medium is the longest extent. So, reason given is wrong.
(a) 6 # 108 m - s-1 (b) 3 # 108 m - s-1 Thus (c) is correct option.
(c) 2 # 108 m - s-1 (d) 1.5 # 108 m - s-1 44. Assertion : The colour of the green flower seen through
Ans : SQP 2011 red glass appears to be dark.
Critical angle, C = 30c Reason : Red glass transmits only red light.
Velocity of light in the medium, (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
u = c # sin C = c # sin 30c
= (3 # 108) # 0.5 is not the a correct explanation of the Assertion.
= 1.5 # 108 m - s-1 (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
8 -1
where, c = velocity of light equal to 3 # 10 m - s (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
Thus (d) is correct option. Ans :
42. A beam of light composed of red and green rays is A green flower absorbs all the light except green
incident obliquely at a point on the face of a rectangular coloured light. So when red glass transmits only red
glass slab. When coming out on the opposite parallel light and falls on green flower, it absorbs all the light.
face, the red and green rays emerge from Therefore, colour of the green flower becomes dark.
(a) one point propagating in the same direction Thus (a) is correct option.
(b) one point propagating in two different directions 45. Assertion : Corpuscular theory fails in explaining the
(c) two points propagating in two different parallel velocities of light in air and water.
directions Reason : According to corpuscular theory, light should
(d) two points propagating in two different non- travel faster in denser medium than in rarer medium.
parallel directions (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
When a beam of light is incident obliquely at a (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
point on the face of a glass slab, it splits up into its is not the a correct explanation of the Assertion.
constituents colours (or rays). (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
Therefore red and green rays emerge out form two (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
(c) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect. (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
(d) The Assertion is incorrect but the Reason is (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
correct. Blue colour of sky is due to scattering of blue colour
Ans : to the maximum extent by dust particles. Blue colour
a md = 6 appears to be coming from the sky. Blue colour has
the least wavelength.
a m, = 3
, md = ?
a md # d m , # , ma = 1
6 # d m, # 1 = 1
3
d m, = 3 = 1
6 2
, md = 2
If C be the critical angle, then
C = 45c. As angle of incidence < 45c, it will not be 52. Assertion : The air bubble shines in water.
internally reflected. So Assertion is incorrect Reason Reason : Air bubble in water shines due to refraction
is correct. of light.
Thus (d) is correct option. (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
50. Assertion : Newton’s rings are formed in the reflected
system when the space between the lens and the glass (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
plate is filled with a liquid of refractive index greater is not the a correct explanation of the Assertion.
than that of glass, the central spot of the pattern is (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
bright.
Reason : This is because the reflection in these cases
will be from a denser to rarer medium and the two Ans :
interfering rays are reflected under similar conditions. Air bubble shines in water due to total internal
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and reflection from the surface of the bubble.
Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. So, Assertion is correct and Reason is incorrect.
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason Thus (c) is correct option.
is not the a correct explanation of the Assertion. 53. Assertion : The stars twinkle while the planets do not.
(c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. Reason : the stars are much bigger in size than the
planets.
Ans : Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
Newton’s rings are formed in reflected system and if
the refractive index of the first medium is more than
is not the a correct explanation of the Assertion.
the second medium, there is no reversal of phase in
reflected ray so, central fringe remains bright. (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
Thus (a) is correct option. (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
51. Assertion : Blue colour of sky appears due to scattering Ans :
of blue colour. Stars twinkle because of changing refractive index of
Reason : Blue colour has shortest wave length in atmosphere. As the apparent size of stars are small,
visible spectrum. the effect of this change on the direction of rays
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and coming from star is more pronounced.
Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. Thus (b) is correct option.
59. Assertion : Plane mirror may form real image. Reason : If the rays seem to be converging at a point
Reason : Plane mirror forms virtual image, if object behind a plane mirror, they are reflected and they
is real. actually meet in front of the mirror.
Ans : Ans :
Plane mirror may form real image, if object is virtual.
The image of a real object is virtual while that of a

Thus (b) is correct option. virtual object (as shown) is real.
60. Assertion : A concave mirror and convex lens both Thus (a) is correct option.
have the same focal length in air. When they are 62. Assertion : Position of image approaches focus of a
submerged in water, they will have same focal length. lens, only when object approaches infinity.
Reason : The refractive index of water is smaller than Reason : Par-axial rays incident parallel to principal
the refractive index of air. axis intersect at the focus after refraction from lens.
Ans :
Ans :
If a mirror is placed in a medium other than air, its
focal length does not change as f = R/2 . But for the Thus (b) is correct option.
lens, 63. Assertion : There exists two angles of incidence for
1 = ( n - 1) 1 - 1 the same magnitude of deviation (except minimum
fg a g b R1 R2 l deviation) by a prism kept in air.
1 = ( n - 1) 1 - 1
and
fw w g b R1 R2 l Reason : In a prism kept in air, a ray is incident on
first surface and emerges out of second surface. Now
As w ng < a ng , hence focal length of lens in water if another ray is incident on second surface (of prism)
increase. along the previous emergent ray, then this ray emerges
The refractive index of water is 4/3 and that of air out of first surface along the previous incident ray.
is 1. Hence, refractive index of water is greater than This particle is called principle of reversibility of light.
that of air. (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and
Thus (d) is correct option. Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
61. Assertion : The image of a virtual object due to a (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
plane mirror is real. is not the a correct explanation of the Assertion.
Ans : OD 2016 Ans : SQP 2012
A concave lens is made up of certain material behaves A biconvex lens will act like a plane sheet of glass
as a diverging lens, when it is placed in a medium of if than is immersed in a liquid the same index of
refractive index less than the refractive index of the refraction as itself, In this case, the focal length
f = 0 or f "?.
material of the lens and behaves as a converging lens, 1
when it is placed in a medium of refractive index greater

than the refractive index of the material of the lens. 78. A biconvex lens made of a transparent material of
refractive index 1.25 is immersed in water of refractive
In the given case, concave lens is immersed in medium
index 1.33. Will the lens behave as a converging lens?
having refractive index greater than the refractive
Give reason.
index of the material of the lens (1.65 > 1.5).
Therefore, it will behave as a converging lens. Ans : OD 2014, Foreign 2008
No, it will behave as a diverging lens.
73. The refractive index of diamond is much greater than
Using thin lens maker formula
that of glass. How does a diamond cutter make use of
1 = ng - 1 1 - 1
that fact?
fw bn lb R R2 l
m 1
Ans : OD 2017
On using convention R1 = + Ve, R2 = - Ve and
The refractive index of diamond is much higher than
ng = 1.25 and nm = 1.33
that of glass. Due to high refractive index, the critical
1 = 1.25 - 1 1 - 1
angle for diamond air interface is low. The diamond
fw b 1.33 lb R1 R2 l
is cut suitably so that the light entering the diamond
1 1 1.25
from any face suffers multiple total internal reflections b R1 + R2 l = + Ve value and b 1.25 - 1l - Ve value
at the various surfaces.
Hence fw = - Ve So it behaves as a diverging lens.
74. A lens behaves as a converging lens in air and a 79. Write the relationship between angle of incidence i ,
diverging lens in water (m = 43 ). What will be the angle of prism A and angle of minimum deviation for
condition on the value of refractive index (m) of the triangular prism.
material of the lens?
Ans : Delhi 2017
Ans : Delhi 2015
Refractive index of the material of lens is less than the i = A + dm

2
refractive index of water. Where d m = angle of minimum deviation.
75. When light travels from an optically denser medium 80. How does the angle of minimum depiction of a glass
to a rarer medium, why does the critical angle of prism very, if the incident violet light is replaced by
incidence depend on the colour of light? red light? Give reason.
Ans : Comp 2018
Ans : Delhi 2010
The refractive index is different for different colour
( d +2 A )
m
wavelength as m = a + lb2 . Hence, critical angle m = sin

sin iC = m1 would also be different colour of light. sin A2
for red light m = least, d m " will reduce
76. A biconvex lens made of a transparent material of
refractive index 1.5 is immersed in a water of refractive 81. Does the critical angle depend on the wavelength of
index 1.33. Will the lens behave as a converging or a light?
converging lens? Give reason. Ans : Foreign 2013
Ans : Foreign 2016 Yes, Since critical angle depends upon the refractive
A biconvex lens acts as a converging lens in air index of the medium and refractive index of the medium
because the refractive index of air is less than that of depends upon the wavelength of light. So critical angel
the material of the lens. The refractive index of water also depends upon the wavelength of light.
is less than the refractive index of the material of the 82. Why does a convex lens of glass m = 1.5 behave as a
lens (1.5). So, its nature will not change, it behaves as diverging lens when immersed in carbon disulphide of
a converging lens. m = 1.65 ?
Ans : OD 2016
77. Under what condition does a biconvex lens of glass The lens formula is given by,
having a certain refractive index act as a plane glass
1 = m2 - 1 1 - 1
sheet when immersed in a liquid?
f bm lb R R2 l
1 1
98. What is total internal reflection? What are the Ans : Delhi 2015
conditions for it? Whole of the earth will appear to lie within 97c instead
Ans : OD 2020
of actual 180c. A ray of light from A incident at angle
of 90c at N will go towards NE at an angle of 48.5c.
The phenomenon in which a ray of light travelling
[Refractive index of water is 1.33 and critical angel is
at an angle of incidence greater than the critical
48.5c]. It shall appear to fish to came from A instead
angle from denser to rarer medium is totally reflected
of Al. Similarly, another ray from B will appear to
back into the denser medium is called total internal
come from Bl. Whole of the earth will appear to lie
reflection.
within a cone of apex angle 48.5c + 48.5c = 97c.
Necessary Conditions for Total Internal Reflection :
1. Light must travel from an optically denser to an
optically rarer medium.
2. The angle of incidence in the denser medium
must be greater than the critical angle for the two
media.
99. What do you mean by refraction of light?
Ans : OD 2019
The phenomenon of bending of light rays as they pass

form one medium to another is called refraction of
light. The bending of light rays is due to the fact that
the speed of light change as it passes from one medium
to another. If the light goes form rarer medium to
denser medium, it bends towards the normal and if it
goes from denser to rarer medium it bends away form
the normal. The refraction of light obeys two laws (a) 102. An empty test tube is placed slanting in the water and
the incident ray, refracted ray and the normal at the viewed from above. What will you observe?
point of incidence all lie on the same plane and (b) the Ans : OD 2012
ratio of sine of angle of incidence and sine of angle of The portion of the tube within water will shine like
refraction is constant for a given pair of media. a mirror due to total internal reflection. If the tube
100. When observed from under water, all the objects is partially filled with water, the portion of tube
above the surface can be seen within a cone of 97c containing water will no linger show this effect.
Why ? Explain
Ans : Comp 2011, OD 2006
Since the critical angle C and refractive index m is

given by
sin C = 1
m
For water, m = 1.33
Hence, sin C = 1 = 0.7519

1.33
or C = 48.75c
Hence, Angle of the cone = 48.75c # 2 = 97c
103. How will you explain twinkling of stars?
Ans : Comp 2018
Unless a star is directly above and the rays from it

are normal to the atmosphere, atmospheric refraction
causes an angular displacement of nearly 1c2 and a
star is not where it appears to be (Figure). This
101. How does the surface of the earth appear to a fish or effect has to be taken into account by astronomers
a person sitting inside clear water? and navigators.
Here, the image is always virtual (independent of

position of object), erect, diminished and is formed
infront of the lens. If the object is moved closer to the
lens, the image moves towards the optical centre is
always formed in front of the lens.
In an astronomical telescope, the objective is a convex

lens of large focal length. The eye lens is also a convex
lens of small focal length. The position of the eye -
piece is adjusted so that final image is seen at infinity.
Then distance between two lenses,
111. Use mirror equation to show that convex mirror
d = f0 + fe always produces a virtual image independent of the
109. Two convex lenses of same focal length but of apertures location of the object.
A1 and A2 (A2 < A1), are used as the objective lenses Ans : OD 2015, Delhi 2011
in two astronomical telescopes having identical 1 =1+1
From equation,
eyepieces. What is the radio of their resolving power? f v u
Which telescope will you prefer and why? Give reason. u 1 0 , i.e., always negative for the object position
Ans : Comp 2010 in front of convex/concave mirror, f > 0 , i.e., focal
Resolving power of telescope, length is always positive for a convex mirror.
1 =1-1
Rp = A v f u
1.22l
where, A = aperture or diameter of the objective fu
v
telescope and l = wavelength of the objective. u-f
On using sign convention,
R ?A
(+ f) (- u)
Hence, Ratio of resolving powers of two telescopes v =
(- u) - (+ f)
R1 = A1
R2 v = + ve
A2
Since, A2 > A1 v 20
Hence, R2 > R1 112. Draw a labelled diagram of a telescope which gives

The larger the aperture of objective, higher the erect images of distant objects.
resolving power of telescope. As well more gathering Ans : Delhi 2015
of light to form the image and hence, brighter image
would be obtained.
110. Describe the formation of image by a concave lens.
Ans : SQP 2009
Let, us consider a concave mirror of focal length F

and optical centre C as shown in figure. Let, a ray
of light AL be incident parallel to the principal axis
of the concave lens and is refracted along LM . When
this ray is produced in backward direction it meets
at F , i.e. the ray LM appears to be coming from the
focus F . Other ray AN which passes through the We use a Galileo telescope to get an erect image of
optical centre C of the concave lens, goes undeviated objects. The objective is a convex lens while the eye -
and these two refracted rays meet at Al. So AlBl is piece is a concave.
the virtual image of object AB .
Image formed at least distance of distinct vision. Ans : Delhi 2016
Given, AQ = AR
We have, QR < BC
117. Draw a schematic arrangement of a reflecting

telescope (Cassegrain) showing how rays coming from
a distant object are received at the eyepiece. Write its
two important advantages over a refracting telescope. At the minimum deviation, the refracted ray inside
Ans : OD 2018, Comp 2015 the prism becomes parallel to its base.
Diagram of a reflecting telescope (Cassegrain) is Hence, q the angle of minimum deviation
shown as below
sin ^ A +2 q h
m =
sin ^ A2 h
sin _ 60c2+ q i
3 =
sin 30c
sin b 60c + q l = 3
2 2
sin b 60c + q l = sin 60c
2
Advantages of reflecting telescope over a refracting 60c + q = 60c
2
telescope are given as below
(i) A reflecting telescope reflects all wavelengths of q = 60c
light at the same angle, so there are no colour 119. Figure shows a ray of light passing through a prism.
halos. If the refracted ray QR is parallel to the base BC ,
(ii) A mirror has only one surface to be figured, so it show that
is easier to control the shape.
A
(iii) A mirror reflects the light, so the material that is (i) r1 = r2 = 2 and
made from does not have to be transparent and
infrared and ultraviolet light reflects equally well. (ii) Angle of minimum deviation, Dm = 2i - A
118. A ray PQ incident on the refracting face BA is refracted

in the prism BAC as shown in the figure and emerges
from the other refracting face AC as RS such that AQ
= AR . If angle of prism A = 60c and refractive index
of material of prism is 3 , calculate angle q.
Ans : Foreign 2014

(i) When QR is parallel to the base BC, we have
i=e
Ans : Comp 2007

(i) They ray diagram for the formation of the image
of the phone is shown as below. The image of the
part which is on the plane perpendicular to the
principal axis will be on the same plane. It will be
of the same size,
i.e., B'C = BC
For convex lens of focal length + (f1)
+ 1 = 1' - 1 ...(1)
f1 v u
For convex lens of focal length (- f2)
- 1 = 1 - 1' ...(2)
f2 v v
Adding equation (1) and (2)
(ii) We may think that the image will now show only 1-1 =1-1 ...(3)
f2 f2 v u
half of the object, but considering the laws of
reflection to be true for all points of the remaining For an equivalent lens (Using lens formula)
part of the mirror, the image will be the of 1 =1-1 ...(4)
the whole object. However, as the area of the f v u
reflecting surface has been reduced, the intensity where, f is the focal length of combination
of the image will be low, i.e., half. From equation (3) and (4),
1 =1-1
f f1 f2
124. Define power of a lens. Write its units. Deduce the

relation 1f = f1 - f1 for two thin lenses kept in contact
1 2
coaxially.
or
Draw a ray diagram to show the image formation
by a combination of two thin convex lenses on
contact. Obtain the expression for the power of this
combination in terms of the focal length of the lenses.
123. A convex lens of focal length f1 is kept in contact with Ans : Comp 2017, OD 2012
a concave lens of focal length f2 . Find the focal length The power of a lens is equal to the reciprocal of its
of the combination. focal length when it is measured in metre. Power of
Ans : SQP 2006 a lens,
P = 1
f (metre)
It’s SI unit is dioptre (D),
127. (i) Draw a schematic ray diagram of a compound

microscope when image is formed at distance of
distinct vision.
(ii) Write the expression for resolving power of a
compound microscope. How can the resolving
power of a microscope be increased ?
Ans : SQP 2007
(i)
A plane wave front becomes spherical convergent after

refection
(ii) Resolving power of compound microscope 129. Draw a labelled ray diagram showing image formation
by a refraction telescope. Define its magnifying power.
2m sin b
= Write two limitations of a refracting telescope over a
1.22l
reflecting telescope.
Where m = Refractive index of the medium
between the object and the objective lens. Ans : OD 2023, Comp 2010
Resolving power can be increased by decreasing Ray diagram showing image formation by a refraction
wavelength and by increasing refractive index of telescope :
medium.
128. Draw the diagrams to show behaviour of plane wave-
fronts as they (a) pass through a thin prism, and (b)
pass through a thin convex lend and (c) reflect by a
concave mirror.
Ans : Delhi 2014
The behaviour of a thin prism and a thin convex lens

are shown in figs (a) and (b) respectively.
Magnifying power,
tan b b
m = ,
tan a a
Limitations of refracting telescope reflecting telescope.
(A) Refracting telescope suffers chromatic observation
as it uses large lenses.
(B) The image formed by refracting telescope is less
brighter than the image formed by the reflecting
type telescope due to some loss of light by
reflection at the lens and by absorption.
(C) The resolving power of refracting telescope is
less than the resolving Power of reflecting type
Ans : OD 2020
BllQ D = BllQ
Compound Microscope m =
D # AB AB
A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses BllQ AlB l
coaxially separated by some distance. The lens nearer = # AB
AlBl
to the object is called the objective. The lens through Thus, the magnification produced by the compound
which the final image is viewed is called the eyepiece. microscope is the product of the magnification
Working produced by the eyepiece and objective.
The objective of compound microscope forms the Hence, m = me # mo ...(2)
real, inverted and magnified image of the object. This Where, me and mo are the magnifying powers of the
image serves as the object for the second lens, i.e., eyepiece and objective, respectively.
eyepiece which produces the final image, which is The linear magnification of the real inverted image
enlarged and virtual.
produced by the eyepiece is AllBll .
The first inverted image is thus near the focal plane AlBl
of the eyepiece, at a distance appropriate for final Case I When the Final Image is Formed at Near Point
image formation at infinity or a little closer for Linear magnification is given by,
image formation at the near point. The final image is
inverted with respect to the original object. me = 1 + D ...(3)
fe
where, fe is local length of the eyepiece.
AlBl
AB is the linear magnification of the object produced
by the objective.
v
m0 = 0 ...(4)
u0
From equation. (2), (3) and (4), we have
v
m = 0 c1 + D m ...(5)
u0 fe
Now 1 -1 =1
v0 u0 f0
Multiplying both sides by v0 , we have
v0 v0 v
- = 0
v0 u0 f0
Angular magnification or magnifying power of
- v0 = 1 v0
compound microscope is defined as the ratio of the - +
u0 f0
angle b subtended by the final image at the eye to the
v0 v
angle a subtended by the object seen directly, when = 1- 0
u0 f0
both are placed at least distance of distinct vision. v0
Substituting the value of in equation (5), we have
u0
Hence, Angular magnification,
v0
b m = b1 - lc1 + D m
m = f0 fe
a
Since, the angles are small, then Case II When the Final Image is at Infinity
a . tan a or b . tan b If u0 is the distance of the object from the objective
tan b and v0 is the distance of the image from the objective,
Hence, m = ...(1)
tan a then the magnifying power of the objective is,
From right angles TC lQBll, we have v
m0 = 0
BllQ BllQ u0
tan b = = = AllBll When the final image is at infinity, then angular
C lQ D D
Also, from right angled TC lAllQ , we have magnification is given by,
AllQ me = D
tan a = fe
C lQ
The total magnification when image is at infinity is
= AB [Since, AllQ = AB] given by,
D
v
Substituting the values of tan a and tan b in equation m = me # me = c 0 # D m
u0 fe
(1), we have
For TNIC , +NCM is the exterior angle.

Hence, +NCM = r + +NIM
r = +NCM - +NIM
i.e., r = MN - MN ...(2)
MC MI
By Snell’s law,
m 1 sin i = m 2 sin r
For small angles, m 1 = m 2
Substituting the value of i and r from Equation.
(1) and (2), we get
m 1 c MN + MN m = m 2 c MN - MN m
OM MC MC MI (b)
m1 m m - m1
or + 1 = 2 ...(3) deviation d with the angle of incidence i . For a given
OM MI MC
Applying new Cartesian sign convention, prism and for a given colour of light, the angle d
depends on i only. As i increases, the angle of d first
OM = - u
decreases and reaches a minimum value d m and then
MI = + v increase. Clearly, any given value of d corresponds
MC = + r to two angles of incidence i and il in the equation :
d = i + il - A i.e., d remains the same as i and il are
Substituting these values in equation (3), we get
interchanged. Physically, it means that the path of
m 2 m1 m - m1 the ray in Figure (a) can be traced back, resulting in
- = 2
v u r
the same angle of deviation.
This equation holds for any curved spherical
The minimum value of the angle of deviation suffered
surface.
by a ray on passing through a prism is called the angle
of minimum deviation and is denoted by d m .
135. Show for a prism that the refractive index n is given
by, Relation between Refractive Index and Angle of
sin ` 2 mj
A+d Minimum Deviation
h = When a prism is in the position of minimum deviation,
sin ^ A2 h
a ray of light passes symmetrically (parallel to the
where, symbol have their usual meaning.
base) through the prism so that,
or
i = il, r = rl, d = d m
Draw a ray diagram to show the refraction of light
through a glass prism. Derive the formula for the As, A + d = i + i'
determination of refractive index of the material of
A + d m = i + i or i = A + d m
the prism. 2
Ans : Delhi 2020 Also, A = r + rl = r + r = 2r
Figure (a) shows the path of a ray of light suffering
refraction through a prism of refracting angle A. Hence, r =A
2
Figure (b) shows the variation of angle of
From Snell’s law, the refractive index of the material
of the prism will be.
sin A +2 d
m = sin i =
m
sin r sin A2
By measuring the value of A and d m , with the help
of a spectrometer, the refractive index m of the prism
glass can be determined accurately.
136. Establish the formula 1 = (m - 1) : 1 - 1 D .

f r1 r2
(a) Ans : Comp 2019, OD 2013
Suppose a ray OA traversing parallel to the

principal axis is incident on lens L1 . It is refracted
along AF , F being the second principal focus of
L1 . The deviation produced by L1 is,
d 1 = tan d 1 = h1
f1
The emergent ray is further refracted by second
lens L2 along BFl. Since the incident ray OA is
parallel to the principle axis, Fl should be second
(I) (II)
principal focus of the combination. The deviation
produced by the second lens L2 is, For first figure,
d 2 - tan d 1 = h1 n2 - n1 = n2 - n1 ...(1)
f1 vl u R1
The final emergent ray BFl, when produced For second figure,
backwards, meets the incident ray at point D .
= 3- 2
n3 ne n n
Obviously, d is the final deviation produced. A - ...(2)
v vl R2
single thin lens placed at C will produce the same After adding equation 1 and 2, we get
deviation as by the combination of two lenses.
= n2 - n1 + 3 - 2
n3 n1 n n
Thus distance CFl is the second focal length of -
v u R1 R2
the combination. If f is the focal length of the
combination, then 139. Draw a ray diagram to show image formation by
a compound Microscope. Derive an expression for
d = h1 magnifying power of your instrument. Explain the
f
It is obvious from figure, that applications of your instrument.
Ans : Foreign 2014
d = d1 + d 2
Compound Microscope
h1 = h1 + h2 A compound microscope consists of two convex lenses
f f1 f2 coaxially separated by some distance. The lens nearer
As TAC1 F ` TBC2 F , therefore, we have to the object is called the objective. The lens through
AC1 = BC2 or h1 = h2 which the final image is viewed is called the eyepiece.
C1 F C2 F f1 f1 - d Working
f -d The objective of compound microscope form the real,
h2 = 1 $ h1
f1 inverted and magnified image of the object. This
Hence, h1 = h1 + f1 - d $ h image serves as the object for the second lens, i.e.,
1
f f1 f1 f2 eyepiece which produces the final image, which is
1 = 1+1+1- d enlarged and virtual.
f f1 f1 f2 f1 f2 The first inverted image is thus near the focal plane
2. of the eyepiece at a distance appropriate for final
image formation at infinity or a little closer for image
information at the near point. The final image is
inverted with respect to the original object.
Astronomical telescope has two convex lenses coaxially

separated by some distance. The lens towards the
object is called objective and has much larger aperture
than the eyepiece of the lens towards the eye.
Working
Light from the distant object enters the objective and
real image is formed at second focal point of objective.
The eyepiece magnifies this image producing a final
inverted image.
Case I When the Final Image is Formed at Infinity
TABC and TABlC are similar, so we have
AlBl = CBl ...(1)
AB CB
TDCF and TAlBlF are similar, so we have
AlBl = FBl
DC CF
But, DC = AB
Hence, AlBl = FBl ...(2)

AB CF
From equations (1) and (2), we have Angular magnification is given by,
CBl = FBl b
CB CF m =
a
or CBl = CBl - CF ...(3) Since, b and a are very small.
CB CF
Hence, b . tan b
Using sign conventions,
or a . tan a
Let, CBl = v , CB = - u , CF = f
tan b
So equation (3) becomes, m =
tan a
v = v-f
-u f Now, tan a = I
f0
or vf = - uv + uf
and tan b = I
Dividing both sides by uvf , we get - fe
uf uf Where, I is the image formed by the objective, F0
= - uv + and fe are the focal length of objective and eyepiece,
uvf uvf uvf
1 =- 1 + 1 respectively. Substituting the values of tan a and
u f v tan b in equation (1), we get
or 1 = -1
1 - If fo
f v u m = I
e
or m = -
fe
f0
or -1 + 1 = 1 Case II When Final Image is Formed at Near Point
u v f
This is lens formula.
141. Draw a ray diagram to show image formation by a
Astronomical Telescope. Derive an expression for
magnifying power of your instrument. Explain the
applications of your instrument.
Ans : Foreign 2014
Astronomical (Refracting) Telescope

An astronomical telescope is an optical instrument
which is used for observing distinct images of heavenly Angular magnification,
bodies like stars, planers, etc., when the final image is b tan b
m = = [Since, b and a are small]
formed at infinity. a tan a
- m 1 AM1 + m 2 AM1 = (m 2 - m 1) AM1 Since, -1 + 1 = 1

u v
M1 O M1 I1 M1 C1 f
m1 m (m - m 1) Where f = focal length of the lens
- + 2 = 2
M1 O M1 I1 M1 C1 1 = (m - 1) 1 - 1
Since point M1 is very close to C . So, So,
f b R1 R2 l
M1 O = CO , M1 I1 = CI1 and M1 C1 = CC1 This is required lens maker’s formula for this concave
m1 m m - m1 lens.
Hence, - + 2 = 2 ...(2)
CO CI1 CC1 144. Derive lens formula for a concave lens.
Refraction at X2 Y2 Ans : SQP 2011, Comp 2009
Actually the lens material is not continuous and the Consider a concave lens of focal length f and optical
ray AB suffers refraction at B and bend away from centre C. Let an object AB be placed perpendicular
the normal along BQ . When BQ is produced in to the principal axis at any suitable distance. The
backward direction, it meets ate I on the principal image formed by this lens is always virtual, erect and
axis and I is the virtual image of virtual object I1 . on the same side of the lens as shown in figure
From Snell’s law for small i2 and r2 , we have
sin i2 = i2 = m 1
sin r2 r2 m2
or m 1 m 2 = m 2 i2 ...(3)
In TBC2 I i2 = b 1 + g 2
Putting the value of i2 and r2 in equation (3), we get
m 1 (b 2 + g 2) = m 2 (b 1 + g 2)
or m1b 2 + m1g 2 = m 2 b1 + m 2 g 2
TABC and TAlBlC are similar, so
or m 1 b 2 - m 2 b 1 = (m 2 - m 1) g 2
AlBl = CBl ...(1)
Since, b 2 , b 1 and g 2 are small, so they can be replaced AB CB
by their tangents. So,
TDCF and TA B F are similar, so
l l
m 1 tan b 2 - m 2 tan b 1 = (m 2 - m 1) tan g 2 AlBl = BlF
m 1 BM2 - m 2 BM2 = (m 2 - m 1) BM2 DC CF
M2 I M2 I1 M2 C2
But, DC = AB
m1 m m - m1
- 2 = 2 AlBl = BlF
M2 I M2 I1 M2 C2 Hence, ...(2)
Since, point M2 is every close to C , so AB CF
From equations (1) and (2), we have
m1 m m - m1
- 2 = 2 ...(4) CBl = BlF
CI CI1 CC2
Adding equations (2) and (4), we get CB CF
m m or CBl = CFl - CBl ...(3)
- 1 + 1 = (m 2 - m 1) : 1 + 1 D CB CF
CO CI CC1 CC2
Using sign conventions,
Using sign conventions, CO = - u , CI = v
Let CBl = - v , CB = - u , CF = - f
CC1 = - R and CC2 = - R2
So equation (3) becomes,
- m1 m
+ 1 = (m 2 - m 1) b 1 + 1 l -v = -f + v
-u -v - R1 R2
-u -f
- m1 m1
+ = (m 2 - m 1) b 1 - 1 l or - vf = - uf + uv
u v R1 R2
Dividing both sides by m 1 , we get Dividing both sides by uvf , we get
- uf - uf
m
- 1 + 1 = b 2 - 1lb 1 - 1 l = + uv
u v m1 R1 R2 uvf uvf uvf
Writing,
m2
= m , we get - 1 =- 1 + 1
m1 u v f
- 1 + 1 = (m - 1) b 1 - 1 l -1 + 1 = 1
u v R1 R2 u v f
5. When the Object is Placed beyond 2F : The

incident ray AL , which is parallel tot he principal
axis, passes through the principal focus F after
refraction, and the ray AAl which passes through
the optical centre C goes undeviated. These two
rays meet at point Al. So AlBl is the real image
of object AB . Figure (e).
(b)
Here the image is real, inverted, highly enlarged

and is formed at infinity.
3. When Object is Placed between F and 2F : The
incident ray AL , which is parallel to the principal
axis, passes through the focus F after refraction
and ray AAl, which passes through the optical
centre C , goes undeviated. These two rays meet (e)
at point Al. So AlBl is the real image of object
AB . Here, the image is real, inverted, smaller in size
and is formed between F and 2F on the other
side of the lens.
147. (a) Draw a ray diagram for formation of image of a
point object by a thin double convex lens having
radii of curvature R1 and R2 . Hence, derive lens
maker’s formula for a double convex lens. State
the assumptions made and sign convention used.
(c)
Here the image is real, inverted, magnified and is

formed beyond 2F . Figure (c)
4. When Object is Placed at 2F : The incident ray
AL , which is parallel to the principal axis, passes
through the focus F after refraction and ray AAl
, which passes through the optical centre C goes
undeviated. These two rays meet at point Al. So
AlBl is the real image of object AB Figure (d).
Here the image is real, inverted, equal to the size
of object and is formed at 2F on other side of the (b) A convex lens is placed over a plane mirror. A pin
lens. is positioned so that there is no parallax between
the pin and its image formed by this lens-mirror
combination. How will you use this observation to
find focal length of the lens? Explain briefly.
Ans : OD 2013, SQP 2015
(a) Lens Maker’s Formula : Suppose L is a thin
lens. The refractive index of the material of lens
is n2 and it is placed in a medium of refractive
index n1 . The optical centre of lens is C and X'
X is principal axis. The radii of curvature of
(d) the surfaces of the lens are R1 and R2 and their
poles are P1 and P2 . The thickness of lens is t ,
or r = g-b ...(2) According to Cauchy’s formula,

From Snell’s law, sin i = 2n ...(3) n = a + b2 + c4 + ....
sin r n1 l l
If point A is very close to P , then angles i, r, a, b and n is inversely proportional to l .
g will be very small, therefore When wavelength increase, the refractive index n
sin i = i decreases; so focal length of lens increase with increase
and sin r = r of wavelength.
i = n2 149. A biconvex lens with its two faces of equal radius
From eq. (3), of curvature R is made of a transparent medium
r n1
Substituting values of i and r from (1) and (2), we get of refractive index n1 . It is kept in contact with a
g+a medium of refractive index n2 as shown in the figure.
= n2
g-b n1
or n1 (g + a) = n2 (g - b) ...(4)
Let h be the height of perpendicular drawn from A on
principal axis i.e., AM = h . As a, b and g are very
small angles.
Hence, tan a = a, tan b = b
and tan g = g
Substituting these value in eq. (4),
n1 (tan g + tan a) = n2 (tan g - tan b) ...(5)
As point A is very close to point P, point M is
coincident with P .
From figure,
tan a = AM = h (a) Find the equivalent focal length of the combination.
OM OP (b) Obtain the condition when this combination acts
tan b = AM = h as diverging lens.
MI PI (m + 1)
(c) Draw the ray diagram for the case m 1 > 2 . 2
tan g = AM = h When the equal the object is kept far away from
MC PC the lens. Point out the nature of the image formed
Substituting these value in eq. (5), we get by the system.
n1 b h + h l = n2 b h - h l Ans : Comp 2015
PC OP PC PI
(a) If refraction occurs at first surface,
or n1 b 1 + 1 l = n2 b 1 - 1 l ...(6) n1 - 1 = n1 - 1
PC OP PC PI ...(1)
v1 u R
If the distances of object O , image I, centre of
If refraction occurs at second surface, and the
curvature C from the pole be u, v and R respectively.
image of the first surface acts as an object
Then by sign convention PO is negative while PC
and PI are positive.
Thus,
u = - PO, v = + PI, R = + PC
Substituting these value in eq. (6), we get
n1 b 1 - 1 l = n2 b 1 - 1 l
R u R v
n1 - n1 = n2 - n2
R u R v
or n2 - n1 = n2 - n1
v u R
The focal length of a convex lens is given by
1 = (n - 1) 1 - 1
f b R1 R2 l
Ans : Delhi 2019

Since, For double convex lens as R1 > 0 and R2 < 0.
So, R1 = R and R2 = - R
Using lens maker’s formula,
1 = (n - 1) 1 - 1
f b R1 R2 l
1 = (1.55 - 1) . 1 + 1
20 bR R l
1 = 0.55× 2
20 R
Refractive index, m = sin i
sin r R = 0.55×2×20
3 = sin 60c = 22 cm
sin r
Hence, the radius of curvature is 22 cm.
sin r = 3× 1 =1
2 3 2
157. A compound microscope uses an objective lens of
sin r = sin 30c focal length 4 cm and eyepiece lens of focal length 10
r = 30c cm. An object is placed at 6 cm from the objective
lens microscope. Also calculate the length of the
Angle of refraction = 30c microscope.
155. Monochromatic light of wavelength 589 nm is incident Ans : Foreign 2013
from air on a water surface. If m for water is 1.33, find Given, f0 = 4 cm , fe = 10 cm , u0 = - 6 cm
the wavelength, frequency and speed of the refracted
Magnifying power of microscope,
light.
v0
Ans : 1+Dm
u0 c
OD 2017 M =-
fe
Wavelength in air, l a = 589 nm = 5.89×10-7 m
From lens formula,
Refractive index of water, m w = 1.33
1 = 1 - 1 & 1 =1+ 1
Since, Speed of light in Vacuum, f0 v0 u0 v0 f0 u0
c = 3 # 108 m/s
= 1 -1 = 3-2
4 6 12
3×108 m/s
Hence, frequency, v = c = v0 = 12 cm
la 5.89×10-7 m
= 5.093×1014 Hz Hence, M = - 12 b1 + 25 l
6 10
Now, Speed of light in water,
= - 2×3.5 = - 7
3×108 m/s
v = c = Negative sign shows that the image is inverted.
mw 1.33
= 2.2605×108 m/s Hence, Length of microscope,
Hence, Wavelength in water, L = v0 + ue

c/m w = 12 + 7.14 = 19.14 cm
l w = vw = = la
va c/l a lw
(Since, frequency remains the same in all media) 158. A convex lens of focal length 20 cm is placed coaxially
with a convex mirror of radius of curvature 20 cm. The
= 4.43×10-7 m two are kept 15 cm apart. A point object is placed 40
156. A double convex lens is made of a glass of refractive cm in front of the convex lens. Find the position of
index 1.55, with both faces of the same radius of the image formed by this combination. Draw the ray
curvature. Find the radius of curvature required, if diagram showing the image formation.
the focal length is 20 cm. Ans : OD 2016
Ans : OD 2017, Delhi 2006 For convex lens,
Given, n = 1.55, f = 20 cm u = - 40 cm , f = 20 cm
R1 = R2 = R (let)
A A
Find the position of the image formed of an object O
= 2 sin 2 cos
162.
Hence, m = sin A A
2
A
sin 2 sin 2 by the lens combination given in the figure.
= 2 cos A
2
cos A = 3
2 2
or A = 30
2
A = 60c
(ii) m = 3 = 1
sin ic
sin ic = 1 Ans : Delhi 2014, SQP 2003
3 For first lens, u1 = - 30 cm , f1 = + 10 cm
Hence lens formula,
f
= 1- 1
f1 v1 u2
1 = 1 + 1 = 1 - 1 = 3-1
v1 f1 u1 10 30 30
v1 = 15 cm
This means that the image formed by first is at a
distance of 15 cm to the right of first lens. This image
serves as a virtual object for second lens.
For second lend, f2 = - 10 cm ,
Alternatively, u2 = 15 - 5 = + 10 cm
Which is less than 12 . 1 = f + 1 =- 1 + 1
Hence,
Hence, Angle of incidence > ic v2 f2 u2 10 10
Total internal reflection takes place. v2 = 3
161. The radii of curvature of both the surfaces of a lens This means that the real image is formed by second
are equal. If one of the surfaces is made plane by lens at infinite distance. This acts as an object for
grinding then will the focal length of lens change? third lend.
Will the power change? For third lens, f3 = + 30 cm, u3 = 3
Ans : Comp 2015
From lend formula,
1 = (n - 1) 1 + 1
Focal length of lens,
f bR R l 1 =1+ 1 = 1 + 1
v3 f3 u3 30 3
f = R
v3 = 30 cm
2 (n - 1)
When one surface is made plane, i.e., final image is formed at a distance 30 cm to the
1 = (n - 1) 1 + 1 right of third lens.
f bR 3l The ray diagram of formation of image is shown in
Hence, f ' = R = 2f figure.
(n - 1)
That is, the focal length will be doubled.
As P = 1f , so power will be halved.
From the figure, it is clear that angle of incidence for

ray 1 is 45c. Given, u = + 12 cm , f = - 16 cm v = ?
For ray 1, sin i = sin 45c = 1 = 1 Using lens formula,
2 1.414
1 =1-1
For ray 1, refractive index of the prism is m = 1.35 f v u
m = 1 -1 =1 -1
sin C 16 v 12
sin C = 1 = 1 1 = 1 - 1 = 4-3 = 1
m 1.35 v 12 16 48 48
Here, 1 < 1 v = + 48 cm
1.414 1.35
The image of virtual object at P from at Pl at a
i.e., sin i < sin C distance 48 cm from the lens.
or i <C 171. A convex lens of focal length 25 cm is placed coaxially
So, ray 1 will be refracted by the prism. in contact with a concave lens of focal length 20 cm.
For ray 2, angle of incidence, Determine the power of the combination. Will the
system be converging or diverging in nature?
i = 45c
Ans : OD 2016, Comp 2000
sin i = sin 45c = 1 = 1 Given, focal length of convex lens,
2 1.414
f1 = + 25 cm = + 0.25 m
For ray 2, the refractive index, m = 1.45
Focal length of concave lens,
m = 1
sin C f2 = - 20 cm = - 0.20 m
sin C = 1 = 1 Equivalent focal length of convex and concave lens,

m 1.45
F =1+1
Here, 1 > 1 f1 f2
1.414 1.45
= 1 + 1 =- 1
i.e., sin i = sin C 25 - 20 100
or i >C Hence, F - 100 cm = - 1 m
So, ray 2 will get total internally reflected. Now, the power of lens,
P =1
170. A beam of light converges at a point P . A concave f
lens of focal length 16 cm is placed in the path of this
For convex lens, P2 = 1 = 1
beam 12 cm from P . Draw a ray diagram and find f1 0.25
the location of the point at which the beam would
For concave lens, P2 = 1 = 1
now converge. f2 - 0.20.
Ans : Delhi 2013 Hence, power of the combination
P = P1 + P2
Using mirror formula, 1 = ( n - 1) 1 - 1

f w g b R1 R2 l
1 + 1 =- 1
2u u 10 n
= b a g - 1lb 1 - 1 l ...(1)
3 =- 1 a nw R1 R2
2u 10 As, a ng < a nm (1.65) for the first medium with
u = - 15 cm refractive index 1.65.
(ii) And a ng > a nm (1.33) for the second medium with
Hence, v = 2× (- 15) = - 30 cm refractive index 1.33.
(b) Using sing convention for convex mirror, we get Hence, the value of focal length f will be negative
f > 0, u < 0 in the first medium.
Hence, from the formula (a) So, the convex lens will behave as the diverging
1 =1-1 lens for first medium and will behave as the
v f u converging lens for the second medium as the sign
As f is positive and u negative, v is always positive, of the focal length will not mange in second case.
hence image is always virtual. 4
Given, a ng = 1.5, a nw =
3
175. A converging lens has a focal length of 20 cm in air.
a ng
It is made of a material of refractive index 1.6. It is w ng = = 1.45 = 4.5
a nw 3 4
immersed in a liquid of refractive index 1.3. Calculate
As, 1 1
= (n - 1) b - l 1
its new focal length. f R1 R2
Ans : Delhi 2011
n -1
f2
f1 c a nw - 1 m
(b) Hence, = a g
Given, f 1 = + 20 cm
(1.5 - 1)
a ng = 1.6, a nw = 1.3 = 4.5 = 00..55 = 4
ng ^4 - 1h 4
w ng = a
= 1.6 f2
nw a 1.3 =4
f1
Using lens maker’s formula (in water) for converging
lens, f2 = 4f1
1 = ( n - 1) 1 + 1 Change in focal length = 4 f1 - f1 = 3f1 .
f2 w g b R1 R2 l ...(1)
Change in focal length is equal to thrice of its
1 = ( n - 1) 1 + 1 original focal length.
In air,
f1 a g b R1 R2 l ...(2)
177. In the following diagram, an object O is placed 15
Dividing eq. (2) by eq. (1), we get cm in front of a convex lens L1 of focal length 20 cm
f2 ( n - 1) and the final image is formed at I at a distance of 80
= a g
f1 (w ng - 1) cm from the second lens L2 . Find the focal length of
(1.6 - 1) the L2 .
= 1.6 = 0.6×1.3
^ 1.3 - 1h 0.3
f2
= 2.6
f1
New focal length, f2 = 2.6×f1 = 2.6×20
f2 = 52 cm
176. A convex lens made up of a glass of refractive index Ans : OD 2010
1.5 is dipped in turn in :
Let focal length of lens L2 be x cm.
(i) a medium of refractive index 1.65.
Now, for lens L1 ,
(ii) a medium of refractive index 1.33.
u = - 15; f = + 20 cm, v = ?
(a) Will it behave as a converging lens or a diverging
lens in the two cases? Using lens formula,
(b) How will its focal length change in the two media? 1 - 1 +1
v u f
Ans : Comp 2006, OD 2010
1 =1+1
(i) From lens maker’s formula, v f u
1 = 1+ 1 181. Two convex lenses of focal length 20 cm and 1 cm

fm v2 u2 constitute a telescope is focused on a point which is 1 m
1 = 1+ 1 away from the objective. Calculate the magnification
fm v2 15 produced and the length of the tube if the final image
1 = 1 - 1 = 1 is formed at a distance 25 cm from the eyepiece.
v2 10 15 30
v2 = + 30 cm Given, f0 = 20 cm, fe = 1 cm , ve = - 25 cm
Hence, the final image I is a virtual image formed at
and u0 = 1 m = 100 cm
a distance of 30 cm to the right of convex mirror or 45
cm from the convex lens. For objective
180. You are given three lenses L1 , L2 and L3 each of focal u0 = 1 m = 100 cm
length 20 cm. An object is kept at 40 cm in front of L1 1 = 1 - 1 = 1
, as shown. The final real image is formed at the focus f0 v0 u0 20
I of L3 , Find the separations between L1, L2 and L3. = 1 - 1
v0 (- 100)
1 = 1 - 1 = 5-1 = 4
v0 20 100 100 100
v0 = 25 cm
For eye piece
fe = 1 cm , ue = ? , ve = - 25 cm
1 = 1 = 25 = - 1
fe ue 25 ue
1 + 1 = - 1 = 25 = - 1
Ans : Delhi 2012 25 ue 26 ue
Given, f1 = f2 = f3 = 20 cm ue = - 25
26
For lens L1 , u1 = - 40 cm ue = - 0.96 cm
By lens formula, v0
1+Dm
u0 c
Magnification, m =-
1- 1 =1 fe
v1 u1 f1 25
= -b 1 + 25 l
1 = 1 - 1 100 lb 1
v1 20 - 40 1
m = - ×26 = - 6.5
v1 = 40 cm 4
Length of telescope,
For lens L1 , f3 = 20 cm, v3 = 20 cm, u3 = ?
L = v0 + ue = 25 + 0.96
By lens formula,
1 - 1 =1 L = 25.96 cm
v3 u3 f3 182. You are given two converging lenses of focal length
1 - 1 = 1 1.25 cm and 5 cm to design a compound microscope.
20 u3 20 If it is desired to have a magnification of 30, find out
1 =0 &u =3 the separation between the objective and the eyepiece.
3
u3
Ans : Comp 2015, OD 2010
Thus lens L2 should produce image at infinity.
The magnification due to the objective lens,
Hence, for L2 , it’s objective should be at focus. The
v
image formed by lens L1 is at 40 cm on the right side m0 = 0
u0
of lens L1 . Which lies at 20 cm left of lens L2 , i.e.,
If the object is close to focus of the objective lens then,
focus of lens L2 .
u0 = f0 and v = L
Hence, the distance by lens L2 lies at infinity, then
the distance between lens L2 and L3 does not matter. (where, L = distance between two lenses)
Hence, the distance between L2 and L3 can have any m0 = L
value. f0
If the final image is at the near point,then magnification
Ans : Delhi 2012

188. Light from a point source in air falls on a convex
As R is negative for a concave mirror, so spherical glass surface ( m = 1.5 , radius of curvature
f = R = - 15 = - 7.5 cm = 20 cm ). The distance of light source from the glass
2 2 surface is 100 cm . At what position is the image
1. Here object distance, formed?
m = - 10 cm Ans : Foreign 2010, OD 2007
By mirror formula, Given, m1 = 1

1 =1-1 = 1 - 1 m 2 = 1.5
v f u - 7.5 - 10
u = - 100 cm
= - 2.5 = - 1
7.5 # 10 30 R = + 20 cm
v = - 30 cm
[R is positive for a convex refracting surface]
As v is negative a real image is formed 30 cm
m 2 m1 m - m1
from the mirror on the same side as the object. As, - = 2
v u R
Magnification,
Hence, 1.5 + 1 = 1.5 - 1 = 1
m = - v = - - 30 = - 3 v 100 20 40
u - 10
or 3 = 1 - 1 = 5-2 = 3
The image is magnified, real and inverted. 2v 40 100 200 200
2. Here object distance, Hence, v = + 100 cm
u = - 5 cm Thus the image is formed at a distance of 100 cm from
By mirror formula, the glass surface, in the direction of incident light.
1 =1-1 = 1 - 1 189. The velocity of light in glass is 2 # 108 ms-1 and that
v f u - 7.5 - 5
in air is 3 # 108 ms-1 . By how much would an ink dot
= - 5 + 7 . 5 = 1 appear to be raised, when covered by a glass plate 6.0
7.5 # 5 15
cm thick?
v = + 15 cm Ans : OD 2011
As v is positive a virtual image is formed 15 cm
Given, v = 2 # 108 ms-1
behind the mirror.
Magnification, c = 3 # 108 ms-1
8
m = - v = - 15 = 3 Refractive index of glass, m = c = 3 # 108 = 1.5
u -5 v 2 # 10
The image is magnified, virtual and erect. Real depth = 6.0 cm
Real depth
The refractive index of glass is 1.5 and that of water Hence, Apparent depth =
187. m
is 1.3. If the speed of light in water is 2.25 # 108 ms-1 , 6 . 0
what is the speed of light is glass? = = 4.0 cm
1.5
Ans : Delhi 2013 Distance through which the ink dot appears to be
As we know that, raised
am c = 1.5 = 6.0 - 4.0 = 2.0 cm
g =
vg
190. Find the value of critical angle for a material of
am c = 1.3
and w = refractive index 3 .
vw
Ans : Foreign 2014
c vg
Hence, = 1.3
vw # c 1.5 Given, m = 3
or vg = 1.3 # v w sin ic = 1 = 1
1.5 m 3
= .3 # 2.25 # 108
1
= 3 = 0.5773
1.5 3
= 1.95 # 108 ms-1
Hence, Critical angle, ic - 35.3c

Power of second lens, P2 = - 2 D
Given, Now, Power of equivalent lens,
Angular magnification, M = 10 P = P1 + P2
Length of the tube, L = 44 cm
= 12 D - 2 D = 10 D
f
Angular magnification, M = 0
fe Focal length, f = 1 = 1 meter
P 10
f0
10 =
fe = 1 # 100 = 10 cm
10
f0 = 10fe ...(1) 198. 1. Two thin convex lenses of focal length 15 cm and
According to the question 30 cm are placed in contact. What will be power
Length of tube, L = f0 + fe = 44 ...(2) of the combination?
From equation (1), we get 2. A glass Prism (m g = 1.66) of angles of Prism 72c
, is placed in Water (m w = 1.33). Calculate the
10fe + fe = 44 value of minimum deviation produced by prism
fe = 44 = 4 cm for parallel incident ray.
11 Ans : OD 2015
Now, from equation (2), we get
1. Given,
f0 + 4 = 44 Focal length of first convex lens,
f0 = 44 - 4 f 1 = 15 cm
= 40 cm Focal length of second convex lens,
196. Double convex lenses are to be manufacture from f 2 = 30 cm
a glass of refractive index 1.55 with both faces of Focal Length of combination,
the same radius of curvature. What is the radius of
1 = 1+1
curvature required if the focal length is to be 20 cm? feq f1 f 2
Ans : SQP 2006
= 1 + 1 = 2+1
Given, 15 30 30
Refractive index of glass, m = 1.55 f eq = 10 cm or 0.1 m
Focal length of lens, f = 20 cm Power of the lens combination,
Let the radius of curvature of lens are R1 and R2 . P = 1 = 1 = 10 D
feq (in meter) 0.1
1 = (m - 1) 1 - 1
f b R1 R2 l 2. Angle of deviation,
Let, R1 = R2 , then d m = a n2 - 1k A
n1
R1 = R Here, n1 = 1.33
R2 = - R (Since, Lens is convex) n2 = 1.66
1 = (1.55 - 1) 1 - 1
20 ;R (R)E Angle of prism, A = 72
1 = 0.55 1 + 1
:R R D Hence, d m = b 1.66 - 1l 72
20 1.33
1 = 0.55 2 = (1.24 - 1) # 72
20 #R
= 0.24 # 72 = 17.8°
R = 0.55 # 2 # 20 = 22 cm
199. At what distance an object be placed from a convex
197. The power of two lenses are +12 D and –2 D. They are lens of focal length 15 cm so that its three times
placed in contact on the same axes. What will be the magnified image is formed?
focal length of the combination?
Ans : Delhi 2017
Ans : Delhi 2012
Given,
Given,
Focal length of the lens,
Power of first lens, P1 = + 12 D
f = + 15 cm
Ans : OD 2016, Comp 2011

Time, t = t
cg Wavelength of monochromatic light,
= 2 = 10-8 sec c
l 0 = 6000 A
2 # 108
Refractive index of medium,
202. Green light of wavelength 5460 Ac is incident on an air
m = 1.5
and glass interface. If refractive index of glass is 1.5,
What is the wavelength of light in glass? 1
As we know n ? that,
l
Ans : Delhi 2011
n = Refractive index
Actual wavelength of light,
c and l = Wavelength
l = 5460 A
So, n1 = l 2
and refractive index of glass, n2 l1
m = 1.5 For Air, n1 = 1
Wavelength of light in glass, c
l 1 = 6000 A
l = l = 5460 = 3640 A
c
For Glass, n2 = 1.5
m 1.5
l2 = 7
203. A magnifying glass is to be used at the fixed object
distance of 1 inch. If it is to produce an erect image 1 = l2
5 times magnified. What is the focal length of 1.5 6000
magnifying glass ? c
l 2 = 4000 A
Ans : OD 2018
205. In a pond of water, a flame is held 2 m above the
Given, u = 1 inch surface of water. A fish is at depth of 4 m from water
Magnification, m =5 surface. Refractive index of water is 43 . What is the
apparent height of the flame from the eyes of fish ?
Magnification, m =v Ans : Comp 2008
u
Given, Height of flame above water surface,
where, u = Object distance
h = 2m
v = Image distance
Depth of fish, d =4m
5 =v
u and refractive index of water,
v = 5u (Here, u = 1 inch ) m =4
3
v = 5 # 1 = 5 inch
Apparent height of flame above water surface,
1 =1-1
Now,
f v u hl = m # h = 4 # 2 = 8 m
3 3
Using sign convention. Therefore, apparent height of the flame from the eyes
Here, u = - 1 inch of fish
v = - 5 inch = d + hl = 4 + 8 = 20 m
3 3
1 = 1 - 1
-5 b-1l
Hence, 206. A biconvex lens (m = 1.5) has equal curvature each of
f
20 cm. What is the power of the lens?
= 1-1 = 4 Ans :
5 5 Delhi 2012
1 = 0.8 inch Refractive index of lens,

f m = 1.5
f = 1 = 1.25" Relation for the focal length of a double convex lens
0.8
f is,
204. A monochromatic light of wavelength 6000A c in
1 = (m - 1) 1 - 1
vacuum enters a medium of refractive index 1.5. f b R1 R2 l
Calculate the wavelength of light in this medium?
where, R1 = 20 cm
Therefore, focal length of lens when its plane surface refractive index 43 . What is the focal length in water?
is polished Ans : Comp 2016, OD 2008
f
= = 20 = 10 cm Refractive index of glass,
2 2
mg = 3
211. The projection lens of a projector has focal length 2
5 cm. It is desired to get an image with a magnification and refractive index of water,
30. What is the distance of the screen from the lens?
mw = 4
Ans : OD 2011 3
Focal length of lens, f = 5 cm Since the lens is symmetrical, therefore radius of
curvature of two surfaces of convex lens are,
Magnification, m = 30
R1 = 0.3 m
Magnification m =- v
u and R2 = - 0.3 m
30 = - v Refractive index of glass with respect to water,
u
mg 3
u =- v
w mg = = 2
=9
30 mw 4
3 8
Relation for the distance of screen from the lens v is, Relation for focal length of convex lens when immersed
1 = 1 - 1 = 1 + 30 = 31 in water fw is,
f v u v v v 1 = (w m - 1) 1 - 1
1 = 31 fw g b R1 R2 l
5 v
= b 9 - 1lb 1 + 1 l
v = 5 # 31 8 0.3 0.3
= 155 cm = 1.55 m = 1 # 2 = 20 = 10
8 0.3 24 12
212. A convex lens of focal length 0.1 m and made of glass fw = 12 = 1.2 m
(m = 1.5) is immersed in water (m = 1.33). What is 10
the change in its focal length? 214. What is the power of combination of two lenses of
Ans : SQP 2008 powers + 1.5 D and - 2.5 D ?
Focal length of lens in air, Ans : Delhi 2014
fa = 0.1 m Power of first lens, P1 = + 1.5 D

Refractive index of glass, Power of second lens, P2 = - 2.5 D
m g = 1.5 Power of the combination of two lenses when placed in
and refractive index of water, contact with each other,
m w = 1.33 P = P1 + P2
Focal length of convex lens when immersed in water, = + 1.5 + (- 2.5)
m -1 =- D
fw = = m g G # fa
^m h - 1
g
In the figure, an air lens of radii of curvature

w
215.
= = 11..55 - 1 G # 0.1 (R1 = R2 = 10 cm) is cut in a cylinder of glass
^ 1.33 h - 1 (a m g = 1.5). What is the focal length and the nature
= : 0.5 D # 0.1 of lens?
1.13 - 1
= 0.5 # 0.1 = 0.4 m
0.13
Therefore, change in focal length of the lens
= fw - fa = 0.4 - 0.1
= 0.3 m
213. A thin symmetrical convex lens of refractive index 32
and radius of curvature 0.3 m is immersed in water of
224. The refractive index of material of prism for blue and information with her. The class teacher arranged for
red colours are 1.532 and 1.514 respectively. If angle of the money and rushed to the hospital. On tantalising
prism is 8c, what is the angular dispersion produced that Chetan belonged to a below average income
by the prism? group family, even the doctor offered concession for
Ans : SQP 2009 the test. The test was conducted successfully.
Refractive index of lens for blue colour,
m B = 1.532
Refractive index of lens for red colour,
m R = 1.514
and angle of prism,
A = 8c
Angular dispersion produced by small-angled prism,
d d = (m B - m R) A
= (1.532 - 1.514) # 8c
= 0.018 # 8c = 0.144c

(i) Which principal in optics is used in endoscopy?
225. Ankit goes to visit a museum. A special mirror is Explain this principal briefly.
lying there. When he stands in front of the mirror he
(ii) Briefly explain the values reflected in the action
finds his image having a very small head, a fat body
asked by the teacher.
and legs of normal size. He becomes frightened and
Ans :
comes to his friend Ramesh to know the facts. Being a
science student Ramesh explains the reason behind it. (i) Total internal reflection. If a light ray enters at
one end of an optic fibre coated with a material of
low refractive index, it is refracted and strikes the
walls at an angle greater than the critical angle.
(ii) The teacher knows that Chetan belongs to a
below Average income group family, So he/she
immediately Arranged the money required to
be paid as test fee. His/her caring and helping
(i) Name the kinds of mirror. attitude towards others resulted in timely help to
Chetan’s mother.
(ii) How do you explain such a thing properly?
Such helping attitude on the part of the person
Ans :
living in the society makes it a better society to
(i) Plane, concave and convex mirrors. live in.
(ii) The special mirror is the combination of three
mirrors which show their characteristics properly.
(a) convex mirror is the upper portion of the
mirror.
(b) convex mirror is the middle portion of the
mirror.
227. A glass window has been broken into tiny particles of
(c) Plane mirror is the lower portion of then
glass in a robbery case. Some of there tiny Particles
mirror.
are found at the scene of crime and some in the
226. One day Chetan’s mother developed a severe Stomach robbers clothing If the police can both particles found
ache all of a sudden. She was rushed to the doctor from the places are similar. They have a strong case.
who suggested for an immediate endoscopy test and Being a responsible person Deepak helped the police
gave an estimate of expenditure for the same. Chetan to prove such case.
immediate contacted his class teacher and shared the
(i) What is the condition for total internal reflection

to occur?
(ii) Which signal is transmitted by optical fibres?
(i) What is refractive index of a medium? (in terms (iii) What is the internal reflection of light??
of speed of light) Ans :
(ii) In the above diagram, calculate the speed of light (i) Angle of incidence must be greater than the
in the liquid of unknown refractive index? critical angle.
(iii) What is refractive index of a medium (in terms of (ii) Optical Signal.
real and apparent depth)? (iii) The phenomenon which occurs when the light
(iv) What is the relation between refractive index and rays travel from a more optically denser medium
critical angle for a medium? to a less optically denser medium.
Ans : 231. Ravi is a student of mechanical engineering studying
(i) Speed of light in vacuum/speed of light in in one of the engineering colleges. The other day he
medium. saw an old man who suddenly collapsed as he walked
(ii) 1.8 × 108 m/s. out of the house in his neighbourhood. Ravi rushed
(iii) Real depth/Apparent depth. towards him immediately made a call to the nearby
(iv) n = 1/ sin ic hospital, asked for the ambulance and took him to the
emergency ward of the hospital. On getting the medical
230. Now-a-days optical fibres are extensively used aid, the old man soon got recovered. he did not forget
for transmitting audio and video signals through to thank Ravi for the timely help he rendered. He
long distances. Optical fibres too make use of the was wondering that in his times to get the telephone
phenomenon of total internal reflection. Optical fibres connection, one had to wait for years whereas these
are fabricated with high quality composite glass/quartz days it takes no time to get the connection. Ravi told
fibres. Each fibre consists of a core and cladding. The him it was all because of the technological progress/
refractive index of the material of the core is higher development due to which the simple phenomenon in
than that of the cladding. When a signal in the form physics could be easily used.
of light is directed at one end of the fibre at a suitable
angle, it undergoes repeated total internal reflections (i) To which phenomenon in physics was Ravi
along the length of the fibre and finally comes out referring to, which made the land line links so
easily accessible ?
at the other end. Since light undergoes total internal
reflection at each stage, there is no appreciable loss (ii) What are the essential conditions required to
in the intensity of the light signal. Optical fibres are observe this phenomenon ?
lubricated such that light reflected at one side of inner Ans :
surface strikes the other at an angle larger than the (i) Ravi was referring to the phenomenon of total
critical angle. Even if the fibre is bent, light can easily Internal Reflection
travel along its length. Thus, an optical fibre can be (ii) Conditions required for the occurrence of total
used to act as an optical pipe. internal reflection :
(a) Angle of incidence > Critical Angle
(b) Light should travel from denser to rarer
medium
232. Amit’s uncle was finding great difficulty in reading a
book placed at normal position. He was not going to
the doctor because he could not afford the cost. When
Amit came to know of it, he took his uncle to the
doctor, After thoroughly checking his eyes, the doctor
prescribed the proper lenses for him. Amit bought the
Ans :
(i) Dispersion. Because the speed of each colour is
different when the colours enter the glass.
(ii) Studying and analysing the spectrum of distant
light sources.
***********
Chap 10 Wave Optics Page 417
CHAPTER 10
Wave Optics
SUMMARY I = a 12 + a 22 + 2a1 a2 cos f

= I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos f
1. HUYGEN’S PRINCIPLE where, I1 = a 12 = intensity of one wave
Huygen’s principle is essentially a geometrical I2 = a 22 = intensity of other wave
construction, which gives the shape of the wavefront
Condition of Maxima
at any time, allows us to determine the shape of the
wavefront at a later time, According to Huygen’s Phase difference, f = 2np
principle: Path difference, T = nl , n being integer
1. Every point on a wave-front behaves like a light Maximum amplitude, A max = a1 + a2
source and emits secondary wavelets. 2
2. The secondary wavelets spread in all directions in Maximum intensity, I max = A max = (a1 + a2) 2
space (vacuum) with the velocity of light. = a 12 + a 22 + 2a1 a2
3. The envelope of wave-front of secondary wavelets, = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2
after a given time, along forward direction gives
Condition of Minima
the new position of wave-front.
2. COHERENT SOURCES Phase difference, f = (2n - 1) p
Coherent sources of light are the sources which emit Path difference, T = (2n - 1) l
2
light waves of same frequency, same wavelength and n = 1, 2, 3, .....
have a constant initial phase difference.
Minimum amplitude, A min = (a1 - a2)
Coherent source of light can be obtained by deriving
two sources from a primary (or initial) source by, Minimum intensity, I min = (a1 - a2) 2
1. Division of wave-front = a 12 + a 22 - 2a1 a2
2. Division of amplitude = I1 + I2 - 2 I1 I2
Two such sources of light, which do not emit light
waves with a constant phase difference are called 5. YOUNG’S DOUBLE SLIT EXPERIMENT
incoherent sources. 1. Fringe width of bright and dark fringe,
3. INTERFERENCE OF LIGHT b = Dl
d
Interference is the phenomenon of superposition of where, l = wavelength of light
two light waves of same frequency and constant phase
difference travelling in same direction. The position of D = distance between slit and screen
maximum intensity are called maxima while those of and d = distance between two slits
minimum intensity are called minima.
Angular fringe width,
b
4. CONDITION OF MAXIMA AND MINIMA q = =l
D d
If a1 and a2 are amplitudes of interfering waves and q
is the phase difference at a point under consideration, 2. Separation of nth order bright fringe from central
fringe,
then resultant intensity at a point in the region of
superposition Yn = Dnl
d
Page 418 Wave Optics Chap 10
where,n = 1, 2, 3, ..... As shown in the diagram below,
1. n th order secondary minima is obtained when,

3. Separation of nth order dark fringe from central d sin q = nl
fringe,
where, r = 1, 2, 3 ...
Yn = (2n - 1) Dl 2. n th
order secondary maximum is obtained when,
2d
where, n = 1, 2, 3 .... d sin q = (2n + 1) l
2
4. Angular position of nth order,
where, n = 0, 1, 2, 3, ...
Bright fringe = Yn = nl 3. Angular separation for n th minima,
D d
Dark fringe = n = (2n - 1) l
Y q n = nl
D d d
where, n = 1, 2, 3, ... where, n = 0, 1, 2,3, ...
4. Linear separation of n th secondary minima,
6. INTENSITY OF LIGHT
Yn = Dnl
d
Intensity of light I is proportional to the width d of
slit and ratio of slit-width a . 5. Angular position of n th secondary maxima,
d1 = I2 = a 12 q n = (2n + 1) l
d2 I2 a 22 2d
Ratio of maximum and minimum intensity of light, 6. Angular width of central maxima = 2l .
d
I max = a1 + a2 2
I min b a1 - a2 l 7. Linear width of central maxima = 2Dl .
d
= br + 1l
2
8. Angular width of secondary maxima or minima
r-1
= l.
d
where, r = a1 = I1
a2 I2 9. Linear width of secondary maxima or minima
= Dl .
d
8. MALUS LAW
It states that if completely plane polarised light is
passed through an analyser, the intensity of light
transmitted ? cos2 q, where q is angle between planes
7. DIFFRACTION DUE TO A SINGLE SLIT
of transmission of polariser and analyser i.e.,
A parallel beam of light with a plane wave-front I = I0 cos2 q (Malus Law)
WWl is made to fall on a single slit AB . Width of the
If incident light is unpolarised, then
slit is of the order of wavelength of light, therefore,
I
diffraction occurs on passing through the slit. I = 0
2
5. Huygen’s wave theory of light can not explain And the bright colours exhibited by the spider’s web
(a) diffraction (b) interference exposed to sun light is due to this phenomenon.
(c) polarisation (d) photoelectric effect Thus (c) is correct option.
Ans : SQP 2016 10. When exposed to sunlight, thin films of oil on water
often exhibit brilliant colours due to the phenomenon
Huygen’s wave theory of light can explain reflection,
of
refraction, interference, polarisation and diffraction,
while quantum theory can explain the photoelectric (a) interference (b) diffraction
effect. (c) dispersion (d) polarisation
Thus (d) is correct option. Ans : Foreign 2007
6. Which nature of the wavefront is associated with a When a thin films of oil on water is exposed to
parallel beam of light? sunlight, then light waves, reflected from the upper
(a) plane (b) spherical and lower surfaces of the thin film of oil interfere with
each other.
(c) cylindrical (d) all of these
And the brilliant colours due to the constructive and
Ans : OD 2011
destructive interference, depends upon wavelength the
We know from the Huygen’s wave theory that the light.
locus of all points oscillating in the same phase in a As a result of this, thin films of oil on water often
parallel beam of light forms plane wavefront. exhibit brilliant colours due to the phenomenon of
Thus (a) is correct option. interference.
7. The inverse square law of intensity (illuminance) is Thus (a) is correct option.
valid for 11. In Young’s double slit experiment, if one slit is covered
(a) plane wavefront (b) conical wavefront with red filter and the other slit is covered by green
(c) spherical wavefront (d) cylindrical wavefront filter, then their interference pattern will be
Ans : Foreign 2009, Comp 2014 (a) red (b) green
Inverse square law of intensity (illuminance) is valid (c) yellow (d) invisible
for a point source, which produces spherical wavefront. Ans : OD 2008
Thus (c) is correct option. Red and green colours are complementary to each
8. In Huygen’s wave theory, the locus of all points other. Therefore if one slit is covered with red filter
oscillating in the same phase is called a and another slit is covered by green filter, then their
(a) ray (b) vibrator interference pattern will be invisible.
(c) wavefront (d) half period zone
Ans : OD 2014
12. In Young’s double slit experiment, interference was
observed, when air was present in the interference
We know from the Huygen’s wave theory that the
chamber. If the chamber is evacuated and the same
locus of all points oscillating in the same phase is
light is used, then we will see
called a wavefront.
(a) no interference
In other words, a wavefront is defined as a surface of
constant phase. (b) interference with dark bands
Thus (c) is correct option. (c) interference with bright bands
(d) interference with increased fringe width
9. Bright colours exhibited by spider’s web exposed to
sun light are due to Ans : SQP 2013
(a) diffraction (b) polarisation Fringe width, b = lD ? l

d
(c) interference (d) resolution
Since, refractive index of air is more than that
Ans : SQP 2011 of vacuum, therefore when air is evacuated, then
The phenomenon of non-uniform distribution of energy wavelength l of light increases.
in a medium, due to superposition of light waves is As a result of this, fringe width also increases.
called interference of light. Thus (d) is correct option.
(a) be halved (b) be two times (c) spectrum of the colours

(c) be four times (d) remains constant (d) one of the component colours
Ans : Delhi 2007 Ans : Delhi 2017
Final distance between the slits, When light is incident on a diffraction grating, then
diffraction bands obtained are coloured. But the zero
d2 = d1
2 order principal maxima will be white.
where, d1 = initial distance between the slits and Thus (a) is correct option.
final distance between slit and screen 24. When a compact disc is illuminated by a source of
white light, coloured lanes are observed. This is due to
D2 = 2D1
(a) dispersion (b) diffraction
where, D1 = initial distance between slit and screen
(c) interference (d) refraction
Fringe width, b = lD ? D Ans : SQP 2003
d d
d1 When a compact disc is illuminated by a source of
b1
Therefore = D1 # d2 = D1 # 2 = 1 white light, then the small ripples on the surface of
b2 D2 d1 2D1 d1 4
disc, break up white light into different colours due to
or b 2 = 4b 1 diffraction.
Thus the fringe width will be quadrupled. As a result of this, coloured lanes are observed.
Thus (b) is correct option. Thus (b) is correct option.
21. The maximum number of possible interference maxima 25. The waves that can be polarised are
for slit separation equal to twice the wavelength in (a) light waves
Young’s double-slit experiment is
(b) transverse waves
(a) zero (b) three
(c) longitudinal waves
(c) five (d) infinite
(d) electromagnetic waves
Ans : OD 2005
Slit separation, d = 2l
Longitudinal waves can not be polarised. As the light
We know from the Young’s double slit experiment waves and electromagnetic waves are transverse in
that interference of flight occurs when slit separation nature, therefore they can be polarised.
d = less than the wavelength of light used Thus (c) is correct option.
Since, d = 2l
26. The phenomenon of diffraction can be treated as the
i.e., d >l phenomenon of interference, if the number of coherent
Therefore no interference occurs. sources are
Thus (a) is correct option. (a) one (b) two
22. The bending of beam of light around the corners of an (c) zero (d) infinite
obstacle is called Ans : OD 2007
(a) reflection (b) refraction Diffraction at a single slit is equivalent to the

(c) diffraction (d) interference interference of light from infinite number of
coherent sources contained in the slit. Therefore
Ans : SQP 2006
the phenomenon of diffraction can be treated as
The phenomenon of bending of light around the interference phenomenon, if the number of coherent
corners of an obstacle or aperture in the path of light sources are infinite.
is called diffraction. Thus (d) is correct option.
27. A diffraction pattern is obtained by using a beam of
23. When light is incident on a diffraction grating, then red light. What happens, if the red light is replaced
zero order principal maxima will be by blue light?
(a) white (a) no change
(b) absent (b) diffraction bands disappear
ASSERTION AND REASON (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
34. Assertion (A) : In Young’s double slit experiment all Ans :
fringes are of equal width. Goggles protect from harmful UV light of sun rays and
Reason (R) : The fringe width depends upon do not correct sight defects hence have zero power.
wavelength of light (l) used distance of screen from Both lens of goggles are identical hence have same
plane of slits (D) and slits separation (d). curvature.
(a) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Thus (b) is correct option.
37. Assertion : The clouds in sky generally appear to be
(A).
whitish.
(b) Both Assertion (A) and Reason (R) are true and Reason : Diffraction due to clouds is efficient in equal
Reason (R) is NOT the correct explanation of measure at all wavelengths.
Assertion (A).
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the
(c) Assertion (A) is true and Reason (R) is false. Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
(d) Assertion (A) is false and Reason (R) is also false. (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
Ans : is not a correct explanation of the Assertion.
The fringe width is given as : (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
l (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
b = 0
d
Ans :
So, if l, D and d remains constant, then fringe width
remains constant. The clouds in the sky appear white as the size of cloud
particle is not small enough to permit diffraction. So
all the wavelength gets reflected and it appears white.
35. Assertion : In Young’s experiment, the fringe width Thus (c) is correct option.
for dark fringes is different from that for white fringes. 38. Assertion : When tiny circular obstacle is placed in
Reason : In Young’s double slit experiment the fringes the path of light from some distance, a bright spot is
are performed with a source of white light, then only seen at the centre of the shadow of the obstacle.
black and bright fringes are observed. Reason : Destructive interference occurs at the centre
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the of the shadow.
Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
is not a correct explanation of the Assertion. (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
(c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. is not a correct explanation of the Assertion.
(d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect. (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
Ans : (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
In Young’s experiment, fringe width of dark and white Ans :
fringes are equal. If white light is used as source, A bright spot is found at the centre of circular fringe
coloured fringes are observed representing bright band patterns formed due to diffraction of light at the
of different colours. edge of circular obstacles. This bright spot is due to
Thus (d) is correct option. constructive interference there by secondary wavelets.
36. Assertion : Goggles have zero power.
Reason : Radius of curvature of both sides of lens is 39. Assertion : A famous painting was painted by not
same. using brush strokes in the usual manner, but rather
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the a myriad of small colour dots. In this painting the
Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. colour you see at any given place on the painting
changes as you move away.
Reason : The angular separation of adjacent dots
is not a correct explanation of the Assertion.
changes with the distance from the painting.
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason 2

or l =d
is not a correct explanation of the Assertion. D
(c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. l ? d2
(d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect. Now, intensity of a dark fringe is zero.
Ans : Thus (d) is correct option.
When d is negligibly small, fringe width b which is 45. Assertion : A white source of light during interference
proportional to 1/d may become too large. Even a forms only white and black fringes.
single fringe may occupy the whole screen. Hence the Reason : Width of fringe is inversely proportional to
pattern cannot be detected. the wavelength of the light used.
Thus (a) is correct option. (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the
44. Assertion : In Young’s double slit experiment the two Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
slits are at distance d apart. Interference pattern is (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
observed on a screen at distance D from the slits. is not a correct explanation of the Assertion.
At a point on the screen when it is directly opposite (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
to one of the slits, a dark fringe is observed. Then,
the wavelength of wave is proportional to square of
distance of two slits. Ans :
Reason : For a dark fringe intensity is zero. A white source of light during interference will form
coloured fringes.
Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. Fringe width is given by b = lD i.e., it is directly
d
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason proportional to wavelength.
is not a correct explanation of the Assertion. Thus (d) is correct option.
(c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. 46. Assertion : Thin films such a soap bubble or a thin
layer of oil on water show beautiful colours when
illuminated by white light.
Ans : Reason : It happens due to the interference of light
When dark fringe is obtained at the point opposite to reflected from the upper surface of the thin film.
one of the slits then (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the
Ans :
Interference in between two rays, one is reflected from
the upper surface and second from the lower surface.
S1 P = D
2 1/2
and S2 P = D 2 + d 2 = D c1 + d 2 m
D
2
= D c1 + d
2D2 m
(By binomial theorem)
Path difference = S2 P - S1 P Thus (c) is correct option.
2
= D c1 + d 2 m - D
2D
2
= d = l
2D 2
59. What happens to the interference pattern when two 1. In sunglasses

coherent sources are 2. To prepare filters.
(a) infinitely dose, and 64. Light from two coherent sources is reaching the screen.
(b) far apart from each other. If the path difference at a point on the screen for the
Ans : OD 2023
yellow light be 3l2 , then what will be the colour of the
fringe at that point?
(a) No interference pattern is detected when two
coherent sources are infinitely close to each other. Ans : Delhi 2019
(b) If the sources are far apart, d is large, so ‘ fringe If the light is white, the fringes will be colored,
width 0) will be so small that the fringes are not however, the yellow and neighbouring colors shall
resolved and they do not appear separate. That be absent. If the source is emitting yellow light (i.e.
is why the interference pattern is not detected for monochromatic) there will be dark fringe at that
large separation of coherent sources. point.
60. Can two electric bulbs of same power and having 65. When a tiny circular obstacle is placed in the path of
filaments of the same material placed close to each light from a distant source, a bright spot is seen at the
other produce interference on the screen? centre of shadow of the obstacle. Explain.
Ans : Comp 2018
Ans : Foreign 2008
No, the interference pattern will not be obtained The light waves diffracted from the edges of the
on the screen because the two electric bulbs are circular obstacle interfere destructively at the center
not coherent sources and the path difference from of the shadow producing bright spot at the center of
two incoherent sources will change randomly. Thus the shadow.
sustained interference pattern will not be observed 66. Explain why the intensity of light coming out of a
but there will be general illumination on the screen. polaroid does not change irrespective of the orientation
61. Radio-waves diffract pronouncedly around buildings, of the pass axis of the polaroid.
while light waves, which are electromagnetic waves, Ans : Comp 2016
do not. Why? When unpolarised light passes through a polariser,

Ans : OD 2010 vibrations perpendicular to the axis of the polaroid
Since phenomenon of diffraction is observed only when are blocked.
size of the obstacle is comparable to the wavelength of Hence, if the polariser is rotated, the unblocked
the wave. The wavelength of radio waves (particularly vibrations remain same with reference to the axis of
short waves) have wavelength comparable to general polariser.
objects like buildings and hence easily get diffracted. Hence, for all positions of polaroid, half of the incident
c to 7800A
But wavelength of light is very small (3900A c) light always get transmitted. Hence, the intensity of
. So they are not diffracted. the light does not change.
62. Why light can travel in vacuum whereas sound cannot 67. State the principle of superposition of waves.
do so? Ans : Comp 2021
Ans : Foreign 2009 This principle state that when a number of waves
Light wave are electromagnetic waves and hence do travelling through a medium superpose on each other,
not require any material medium for propagation the resultant displacement at any point at a given
hence light can travel in vacuum. The sound waves are instant is equal to the vector sum of the displacement
mechanical waves and a material medium is must for due to the individual waves at that point.
them to travel, hence they cannot travel in vacuum. If yv1 , yv2 , yv3 , ....., yvn are the displacements due to the
63. What are polaroid ? Mention its uses. different waves acting separately, then according to the
principle of superposition, the resultant displacement
when all the waves act together is given by the vector
Polaroid is a material which can polarise light. sum:
Tourmaline is a natural polarising material. These
are now artificially made. They are also used for the yv = yv1 + yv2 + yv3 + ..... + yvn
identification of a given light i.e. whether the light is 68. What happens to fringe width, when the separation
polarised or unpolarised. between the slits as well as distance of the screen from
Polaroids are used : the slit are halved?
73. State Malus law. Draw a graph showing the dependence will be general illumination on the observation
of intensity of transmitted light on the angle between screen. The two sources in the case are incoherent.
polariser and analyser. Hence to observe interference, we need to have two
Ans : Foreign 2012 sources with the same frequency and with a stable
When a beam of completely plane polarised light is phase difference. Such a pair of sources are called
passed through analyser, the intensity I of transmitted coherent sources.
light varies directly as the square of the cosine of 75. How does one demonstrate, using a suitable diagram,
the angle q between the transmission directions of that unpolarised light when passed through a polaroid
polariser and analyser. This statement is known as gets polarised?
the law of Malus. Ans : OD 2016, Comp 2012
Mathematically, I ? cos2 q As shown in figure, when a beam of unpolarised
or I = I0 cos2 q light falls on a polaroid P1 , it transmits only those
vibrations which are parallel to its polaroid axis. It
Here, I0 is the maximum intensity of transmitted
absorbs the vibrations in the perpendicular direction.
light.
Thus the transmitted light is plane-polarised. This
Intensity Curve can be examined by using a second polaroid P2 . When
As the angle q between the transmission direction of the polaroid axes of the two polaroids are parallel to
polariser and analyser is varied, the intensity I of the each other [Figure (a) and (b)], the plane-polarised
light transmitted by the analyser varies as a function light transmitted by P1 is also transmitted by P2
of cos2 q , as shown in figure. , when the second polaroid is rotated through 90c
(cross polaroids), no light is transmitted by P2 [Figure
(c) and (d)]. This experiment demonstrates that light
has transverse wave nature.
(a) (b)
74. Explain why do we need coherent sources to produce
interference of light.
Ans : Delhi 2021
When two monochromatic waves of intensity I1 , I2

and phase difference f meet at a point, the resultant
intensity is given by,
I = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos f
The last term 2 I1 I2 cos f is called interference term.

There are two possibilities: (c) (d)
1. If cos f remains constant with time, the total
intensity at any point will be constant. The 76. Why are two bulbs lighting the same walls considered
intensity will be maximum ( I1 + I2 ) 2 at points as incoherent sources? How do their intensities add
up?
where cos f is + 1 and minimum ( I1 - I2 ) 2 at
points where cos f = - 1. The sources in this case Ans : OD 2015
are coherent. The bulbs are incoherent source at any frequency,

2. If cos f varies continuously with time, then the the radiation from one has no stable phase relation
interference term averages to zero. There will be with the other. This is because independent atoms
same intensity, I = I1 + I2 at every point i.e., there and electrons are responsible for the radiation for each
source.
This means width of beam due to diffraction remain 84. Two nearby narrow slits are illuminated by a single
equal to the size of the width of the slit (3 # 10-3) i.e. monochromatic source. Name the pattern obtained on
diffraction effect can be neglected (upto 18 m) and the screen. One of the slits is now covered. What is
ray optics is valid. the name of the pattern now obtained on the screen?
82. Give two differences between interference and Write two differences between the patterns obtained
diffraction of light. in the two cases.
or Ans : Comp 2019
State three characteristic features which distinguish When two nearby narrow slits are illuminated by
between interference pattern due to two coherently a single monochromatic source of light, we get
illuminated sources as compared to that observed in a interference fringes on the screen i.e., we have
diffraction pattern due to a single slit. alternative bright and dark bands.
Ans : Foreign 2014, OD 2017 When one of the slits is covered, we have no interference
Difference between interference and diffraction are as pattern but have a general illumination on the screen.
follows : However, there may be a little diffraction pattern at
the edge due to Fraunhoffer’s diffraction.
Interference Diffraction Differences
(i) It is due to the It is due to the In first case interference bands are alternative bright
superposition of two superposition of and dark bands. All bands are of equal brightness.
waves coming from secondary wavelets In second case diffraction pattern at the edges are not
two coherent sources. originating from of uniform brightness.
different parts of the
85. Explain, polarisation affords a convincing evidence of
same wavefront.
transverse nature of light.
(ii) The width of the The width of the Ans : Delhi 2018, OD 2010
interference bands is diffraction bands is
The phenomenon of interference and diffraction
equal. not the same.
establishes the wave nature of light. Both these
(iii) The intensity of all The intensity of phenomena are exhibited by both the types of wave
maxima (fringes) is central maximum is motion i.e., longitudinal and transverse.
same. maximum and goes In transverse wave motion the vibrations of particles
on decreasing rapidly
take place in a direction perpendicular to the direction
with increase in order
of propagation of the wave. Hence the vibration in
of maxima.
ordinary light are distributed symmetrically in all
83. What is difference between diffraction and interference? directions in a plane perpendicular to the direction
Ans : OD 2013
of propagation. Such light is called unpolarised light.
Differences between interference and diffraction are Light waves which exhibit different properties in
as follows. different directions are called polarised light waves.
This can be demonstrated by using a pair of tourmaline
Interference Diffraction crystals in the path of light waves.
1. Interference is the Diffraction is the 86. Describe two commonly used devices which use
result of superposition superposition of polarised light.
of light from two secondary waves
Ans : OD 2009
different wave fronts emitted from various
produced by two points of the same The two commonly used devices using polarised light
coherent sources. wave front. are:
1. Liquid Crystal Display : They are found in many
2. Interference fringes are Intensity of diffraction
watches and calculators. Liquid crystals have long
of the same intensity. fringes fall rapidly.
molecules whose direction can be controlled by
3. Interference fringes are Diffraction fringes are applying electric fields. This is used to modify the
equally spaced. unequally spaced. light produced by polariser to make its polarisation
4. Minimas of interference In case of diffraction perpendicular to the axis of an analyser. The
fringes are of zero fringes, minimas are analyser cuts these lights and produces dark
intensity. never perfectly dark. regions. These dark regions are controlled and are
used to form numbers and letters.
92. (a) Why are coherent sources necessary to produce a or I = I0 cos2 q

sustained interference pattern ? where I0 = maximum intensity of transmitted light;
(b) In Young’s double slit experiment using q = angle between vibrations in light and axis of
monochromatic light of wavelength l , the intensity polaroid sheet.
of light at a point on the screen where path
difference is l is K units. Find out the intensity of I
or I = I0 cos2 60c = 0
4
light at a point where path difference is l3 .
Percentage of light transmitted
Ans : Delhi 2014
(a) This is because coherent sources are needed to = I # 100
I0
ensure that the positions of maxima and minima
do not change with time. = 1 # 100 = 25%
4
If the phase difference between wave, reaching at
a point change with time, intensity will change 94. Find an expression for intensity of transmitted light,
and sustained interference will not be obtained. when a polaroid sheet is rotated between two crossed
polaroids. In which position of the polaroid sheet will
(b) We know,
the transmitted intensity be maximum ?
f
I = 4I0 cos2 Ans : SQP 2009, OD 2002
2
For path difference l , phase difference f = 2p Let us consider two crossed polarisers, P1 and P2 with
a polaroid sheet P3 placed between them.
Intensity of light = K
Hence, K = 4I0 cos2 p = 4I0
For path difference l

, phase difference f = 2p
3 3
f
Intensity of light, Il = 4I0 cos2
2
= 4I0 cos2 p = I0
3
Let I0 be the intensity of polarised light after passing
Il = K
4 through the first polariser P1 . If q is the angle
between the axes of P1 and P3 , then the intensity
93. Distinguish between polarized and unpolarized light. of the polarised light after passing through P3 will
Does the intensity of polarized light emitted by a be I = I0 cos2 q . As, P1 and P2 are crossed, the angle
polaroid depend on its orientation ? Explain briefly. between the axes of P1 and P2 is 90º.
The vibrations in a beam of polarized light make an Angle between the axes of P2 and P3 is (90c - q).
angle of 60c with the axis of the polaroid sheet. What
The intensity of light emerging from P2 will be given
percentage of light is transmitted through the sheet?
by
Ans : Comp 2016
I = [I0 cos2 q] cos2 (90c - q)
A light which has vibrations in all directions in a
plane perpendicular to the direction of propagation is = [I0 cos2 q] sin2 q
said to be unpolarised light. The light from the sun, I0
= (4 cos2 q sin2 q)
an incandescent bulb or a candle is unpolarised. 4
If the electric field vector of a light wave vibrates just I
= 0 (2 sin q cos q) 2
in one direction perpendicular to the direction of wave 4
propagation, then it is said to be polarised or linearly I0
= sin2 (2q)
polarised light. 4
Yes, the intensity of polarised light emitted by a The intensity of polarised light transmitted from P2
polaroid depends on orientation of polaroid. When will be maximum, when
polarised light is incident on a polaroid, the resultant sin 2q = maximum = 1
intensity of transmitted light varies directly as the
square of the cosine of the angle between polarisation sin 2q = sin 90c
direction of light and the axis of the polaroid. 2q = 90c
2
I ? cos q q = 45c
98. (i) State law of Malus. Fringe width, b ? 1

(ii) Draw a graph showing the variation of intensity d
(l ) of polarised light transmitted by an analyser
with angle (q ) between polariser and analyser.
Ans : SQP 2008
(i) Malus law states that when the pass axis of a
polaroid makes an angle q with the plane of
polarisation of polarised light of intensity I0
incident on it, then the intensity of the transmitted
emergent light is given by I = I0 cos2 q .
(ii)
If distance d between the slits is reduced, the size

of fringe width will increase.
100. State clearly how an unpolarised light get linearly
polarised, when passed through a polaroid.
(i) Unpolarised light of intensity I0 is incident on a
polaroid P1 which is kept near polaroid P2 whose
pass axis is parallel to that of P1 . How will the
intensities of light, I1 and I2 transmitted by
99. (a) Write the necessary conditions to obtain sustained the polaroids P1 and P2 respectively, change on
interference fringes. Also write the expression for rotating P1 without disturbing P2 ?
the fringe width. (ii) Write the relation between the intensities I1 and
(b) In Young’s double slit experiment, plot a graph I2 .
showing the variation of fringe width versus the Ans : Delhi 2015, OD 2010
distance of the screen from the plane of the slits
keeping other parameters same. What information (i)
can one obtain from the slop of the curve?
(c) What is the effect on the fringe width if the
distance between the slits is reduced keeping
other parameters same?
Ans : Comp 2019
(a) Conditions for sustained interference
(i) The interfering sources must be coherent
i.e., source must have same frequency and
constant initial phase.
(ii) Interfering waves must have same or nearly
same amplitude, so that there may be contrast
According to law of Malus, when a beam of
between maxima and minima.
completely plane polarised light is incident on
Fringe width b = Dl an analyser, the resultant intensity of light I
d transmitted from the analyser varies directly as
where D = distance between slits and screen the square of the cosine of angle q between the
d = separation between slits plane of transmission of analyser and polariser.
i.e., I \ cos2 q
l = wavelength of light
(b) Information from the slope : I = I0 cos2 q
Wavelength, l = slope # d = d $ tan q When polariser and analyser are parallel, q = 0c
or 180º.
(c) Effect From relation,
So, that cos q = ! 1
b = lD
d I = I0
According to Malus law c1 = speed of light in rarer medium

2
I3 = I1 cos b ...(1) c2 = speed of light in denser medium
2
I2 = I3 cos (q - b) ...(2) The point P on incident wavefront is reached at Q on
According to question, refracted wavefront in time t as taken by point B to
reach at C and point A to reach at D .
I2 = I3
OQ
Substituting the value of I2 and I3 from i.e., t = PO +
c1 c2
Equation (1) and (2), we get
In TAPO , sin i = PO
I3 cos2 (q - b) = I1 cos2 b AO
Substituting the value of I3 from equation (1), PO = AO sin i
2 2 2
I1 cos b cos (q - b) = I1 cos b OQ
In TCQO , sin r =
2
cos (q - b) = 1 OC
OQ = OC sin r
(q - b) = cos-1 (1)
(q - b) = 0 Hence, t = AO sin i + OC sin r
c1 c2
q =b ...(3) (AC - AO) sin r
= AO sin i +
According to question I1 = I2 c1 c2
Substituting the value of I2 from equation (2), = AO b sin i - sin r l + AC sin r
c1 c2 c2
I1 = I3 cos2 (q - b)
AO and AC independent on time, hence we get
Substituting the value of I3 from equation (1),
sin i - sin r = 0
I1 = I1 cos2 b cos2 (q - b) c1 c2
or cos2 b = 1 [From eq. (3), q = b ] sin i = sin r
c1 c2
b = 0c or p c1 = sin i
c2 sin r
The ratio of speed of light in rarer medium to denser
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS medium is called refractive index of optical medium.
i.e., m = c1
c2
105. How are wavefront and secondary wavelets defined?
Verify laws of reflection or laws of refraction on the Hence, m = sin i
sin r
basis of Huygen’s wave theory.
This is Snell’s law.
Ans : OD 2021
Laws of Refracting using Huygen’s Principle 106. Two harmonic waves of monochromatic light
y1 = a cos wt and y2 = a cos (wt + f) are superimposed
on each other. Show that maximum intensity in
interference pattern is four times the intensity due to
each slit. Hence write the conditions for constructive
and destructive interference in terms of the phase
angle f .
The resultant displacement will be given by

y = y1 + y2
where, XXl = two media separating surface = a cos wt + a cos (wt + f)
AB = incident wavefront = a [cos wt + cos (wt + f)]

f f
CD = refracted wavefront = 2a cos b l cos b wt + l
2 2
+i = incident angle The amplitude of the resultant displacement is
f
+r = refracted angle 2a cos ( 2 ) .
or t = AF sin i + FC sin r
v1 v2
State Huygen’s principle. With the help of a diagram,
sin i sin r
show how a plane wave reflected from a surface. Hence t = AC sin r + AF b v1 - v2 l
v2
verify law of reflection.
For rays of light from the different part on the
incident wavefront, the values of AF are different.
According to Huygen’s principle But light from different points of the incident
(i) Each point on the given wavefront (called wavefront should take the same time to reach the
primary wavefront) is the source of a secondary corresponding points on the refracted wavefront.
disturbance (called secondary wavelets) and the So, t should not depend on F . This is possible
wavelets emanating from these point spread out only, if
in all the directions with the speed of the wave.
sin i - sin r = 0
(ii) A surface touching these secondary wavelets, v1 v2
tangentially in the forward direction at any
sin i = v1 = m
instant gives the new wavefront at that instant. sin r v2
This is called secondary wavefront. Now, if c represents the speed of light in vacuum,
then m 1 = vc and m 2 = vc are known as the refractive
1 2
index of medium 1 and medium 2 respectively.

Then, m 1 sin i = m 2 sin r
m = sin i
sin r
This is known as Snell’s law of refraction.
109. What are coherent sources of light? Draw the
variation of intensity with position in the interference
of Young’s double slit experiment.
Ans : Comp 2020
Coherent sources are those sources which emit

continuously light of same wavelength and magnitude
Propagation of wave front either in the same phase or with a constant phase
difference.
Let the waves of two coherent sources be,
y1 = a sin wt
and y2 = b sin (wt + f)
where, a and b are the respective amplitudes of the
two waves and f is the constant phase angle by which
the second wave leads the first wave. [Figure (a)]
According to superposition principle, the displacement
y of resultant wave is
y = y1 + y2 = a sin wt + b sin (wt + f)
= a sin wt + b sin wt cos f + b cos wt sin f
= sin wt (a + b cos f) + cos wt $ b sin f
If v1, v2 are the speed of light into two mediums Substituting, a + b cos f = A cos q ...(1)
and t is the time taken by light to go from B to
C or A to D or E to G through F , then and b sin f = A sin q ...(2)
We have, y = sin wt $ A cos q + cos wt $ A sin q
t = EF + FG
v1 v2
= A sin (wt + q)
In TAFE , sin i = EF where, A is the amplitude of the resultant wave.
AF
FG Squaring and adding (1) and (2), we have
In TFGC , sin r =
FC 2 2 2 2
a2 + b2 cos2 f + 2ab cos f + b2 sin2 f = A cos q + A sin q
Laws of Reflection using Huygen’s Principle Ans : Delhi 2011, SQP 2001
(i) In diffraction due to a single slit the path difference
is given by :
Tx = a sin q
where, a is the width of the slit
For maxima, Tx = (2x + 1) l
2
Tx = a sin q = (2x + 1) l
2
where, XXl = reflecting surface 3 $ l
For x = 1, sin q =
2a
AB = incident wavefront
Let us divide the slit into three equal parts. If
+i = incident angle we take first two parts of slit, the path difference
CD = reflected wavefront between rays diffracted from the extreme ends of
first two parts.
+r = reflected angle
2 a sin q = 2 a 3l = l
c = speed of light 3 3 # 2a
The point P on incident wavefront is reached at Q on
reflected wavefront in time t , as taken by point A to
reach at D and point B to reach at C .
OQ
i.e., t = PO +
c c
In TAPO ,
sin i = PO
AO
PO = AO sin i
In TCQO ,
OQ Then the first two parts will have a path
sin r =
OC difference of l2 and cancel the effect of each other.
OQ = OC sin r The remaining third part will contribute to the
intensity at a point between two minima. This is
Hence, t = AO sin i + OC sin r called first secondary maxima. In similar manner
c
we can show that the intensity of the other
= AO sin i + AC sin r - AO sin r secondary maxima will go on decreasing.
c
AO (sin i - sin r) + AC sin r (ii) For first minima,
=
c a sin q = l
AO and AC independent on time, hence we get aq = l
sin i - sin r = 0 Since, for small angle sin q - q
sin i = sin r y
tan q = 1
D
+i = +r
y
1. The incident angle is equal to reflected angle. q = 1
D
2. The incident wavefront, reflected wavefront and
lD = y = y
normal all lie on same plane. a 1 2
111. In the experiment of diffraction due to a single slit, Hence, whole width on secondary maxima on one
show that side is ldD .
(i) the intensity of diffraction fringes decreases as the The angular width of the central maxima = 2lD
order (n) increases. a
(ii) angular width of the central maximum is twice So, angular width of the central maxima is twice
that of the first order secondary maximum. that of the first order secondary maximum.
waves from corresponding points of the parts AC1 BL2 = d sin q 2 = 2l

and C1 C3 cancel each other. Also the waves from the
corresponding points C2 C3 and C3 B cancel each other sin q 2 = 2l
d
producing second minima at angle q 2 given by,
q 2 = 2l provided q 2 is small
d
In general, the various minima occur if the path
difference between extreme rays is even multiple of l2 .
i.e., d sin q n = 2nl = nl
2
sin q n = nl
d
x = q = nl
n
D d
(As, q n is very small, sin q n . q n )
The intensity of central fringes is maximum whereas
that of other fringes falls off rapidly in either direction
from the centre of the fringe pattern.
(a) 2. Width of central maxima is the distance between
first secondary minimum on either side of central
point in front of slit.
Hence, d sin q = 1l for first secondary minima
or sin q = l
d
If f is the focal length of the focussing lens (on screen
side), held close to the slit, then D , the distance of slit
from the screen is equal to f i.e.,
D =f
y y
Hence, sin q . q = =
f D
y
=l
D d
y = Dl
d
(b) Since q is half the angular width of central maxima
of single slit,
Hence, Width of central maxima
2f
= 2y = 2Dl = ...(1)
d d
Width of secondary maxima is the distance between
nth and (n + 1)th maxima.
We know for a nth minima
d sin q n = nl
sin q n = nl
d
and sin q n + 1 = (n + 1) l
d
Hence, sin q n + 1 - sin q n = [n + 1 - n] l = l
d d
Since angles are small,
sin q . q
(c)
qn + 1 - qn = l
d
Tq n = l
d
y
=l ...(2)
D d
Thus we find that equation (1) is twice the equation
(2) showing there by that the central maxima is twice
any secondary maxima.
If the width of slit is increased then as y decreases (b)
which shows that pattern will become narrower as the
width of the slit is increased. 114. What do you mean by wave front? Write down its
113. What are unpolarised and polarised waves? Explain type briefly?
polarisation, taking an example of mechanical waves. Ans : OD 2020
Ans : OD 2015, Comp 2007 Wave front is defined as the locus of the neighboring
A transverse wave in which vibrations are present in particles of the medium which are in the same phase
all possible directions, in a plane perpendicular to the of disturbance.
direction of propagation is said to be unpolarised. Wave front are classified in the following types :
If the vibrations of a wave are present in just one 1. Spherical Wave-front : A wave-front due to point
direction in a plane perpendicular to the direction source in a three dimensional isotropic space is
of propagation, the wave is said to be polarised or called spherical wave-front.
plane polarised. The phenomenon of restricting the Consider a point source of light placed in an
oscillations of a wave to just one direction in the isotropic medium i.e., a medium in which the
transverse plane is called polarisation of waves. velocity of light is the same in all directions. The
Experimental Demonstration with Mechanical Waves disturbance from the point source travels equally
in all directions.
Consider a long string AB passing through two
If c = velocity of light, then after time t , light
rectangular slits S1 and S2 , as shown in figure The end will have travelled a distance equal to ct in all
B of the string is tied to a hook in a wall and the free directions. The locus of all points where light
end A is jerked in all possible directions perpendicular reaches after time t will be a sphere. A set of
to the length of the string so as to generate transverse spherical wave-front represents a diverging beam
waves in it. The portion AS1 of the string has of light (Fig. (a)).
vibrations in all directions perpendicular to AB , so
that the wave is unpolarised. The first slit S1 will
permit only those vibrations to pass through it which
are parallel to the slit S1 and will cut off all other
vibrations. Thus the wave emerging from the slit S1 is
plane polarised. The slit S1 is called the polariser. If
the second slit S2 , called the analyser, is held parallel
to S1 will pass through S2 unchanged. If S2 is held
perpendicular to S1, no vibrations will emerge from
the slit S2 . This indicates that the slit S1 has polarised
the incoming wave in the vertical plane.
(a)
2. Cylindrical Wave-front : When the slit is a source

of light, all points equidistant from the source, lie
on a cylinder. Therefore, wave-front is cylindrical
(Fig. (b)).
(a)
116. (i) State the essential conditions for diffraction of

light.
(ii) Explain diffraction of light due to a narrow single
slit and the formation of pattern of fringes on the
(b) screen.
(iii) Find the relation for width of central maximum
3. Plane Wave-front : When the source is at infinite in terms of wavelength l , width of slit a , and
distance, the radius of curvature of wave-front separation between slit and screen D .
will be very large. (iv) If the width of the slit is made double the original
A small portion of spherical wave-front with width, how does it affect the size and intensity of
source at infinite distance is a plane wave-front. the central band?
(Fig. (c)). Ans : OD 2016
(i) Essential conditions for diffraction of light
(a) Sources of light should be monochromatic.
(b) Wavelength of the light used should be
comparable to the size of the obstacle.
(ii) Single slit diffraction is explained by treating
different parts of the wavefront at the slit as
sources of secondary wavelets.
At the central point C on the screen, q is zero,
All path differences are zero and give maximum
intensity at C .
(c) At any other point P , the path difference between
two edges of the slit is NP - LP = NQ
115. Describe an experiment to show that light waves are
= a sin q - aq
transverse in nature.
Any point P , in direction q , is a location of
minima if a q = nl
When ordinary (unpolarised) light is passed through
a tourmaline crystal P , called polariser, its intensity
is cut down to half. We get plane polarised light. This
is possible only if light is a transverse wave. To fur-
ther confirm this, a similar crystal A called analyser,
is placed in the path of the beam. When the axes of
the two crystals are parallel, maximum intensity is
transmitted by A. If crystal A is rotated in its own
plane, the intensity of light gradually decreases until
it becomes zero when the axes of the two crystals are
perpendicular to each other. This confirms the trans-
verse nature of light waves.
This can be explained by dividing the slit into

even number of parts. The path difference between
waves from successive parts is 180c out of phase
and hence cancel each other leading to a minima.
Any point P , in direction Q , is a location of wave. The resultant intensity will be given by
maxima if a q = ^n + 12 h l f
I = 4a2 cos2
This can be explained by dividing the slit into 2
odd number of parts. The contributions from (b) A path difference of l , corresponds to phase
successive parts cancel in pairs because of 180c difference of 2p
phase difference. The unpaired part produce Intensity, I = 4a2
intensity at P , leading to a minima.
(iii) If q is the direction of first minima, then aq = l a2 = 1
4
q =l
l
A path difference of 3 , corresponds to a phase
a
difference of 2p
3
Angular width of central maxima = 2q = 2l
a Intensity = 4 # I $ cos2 2p = 1
4 3 4
Linear width of central maxima,
118. (a) In Young’s double slit experiment, deduce the
b = 2q $ D = 2lD conditions for (i) constructive and (ii) destructive
a
interference at a point on the screen. Draw a
(iv) If a is doubled, b becomes half and intensity graph showing variation of the resultant intensity
becomes 4 times. in the interference pattern against position X on
117. (a) (i) ‘Two independent monochromatic sources of the screen.
light cannot produce a sustained interference (b) Compare and contrast the pattern which is seen
pattern’. Give reason. with two coherently illuminated narrow slits in
(ii) Light waves each of amplitude a and angular Young’s experiment with that seen for a coherently
frequency w, emanating from two coherent illuminated single slit producing diffraction.
light sources superpose at a point. If the Ans : Comp 2012, OD 2016
displacements due to these waves is given by (a) Conditions of Constructive and Destructive
y1 = a cos wt and y2 = a cos (wt + f) where Interference : When two difference travel in the
f is the phase difference between the two. same direction along a straight line simultaneously,
Obtain the expression for the resultant they superpose in such a way that the intensity
intensity at the point. of the resultant wave is maximum at certain
(b) In Young’s double slit experiment, using points and minimum at certain other points. The
monochromatic light of wavelength l , the phenomenon of redistribution of intensity due
intensity of light at a point on the screen where to superposition of two waves of same frequency
path difference is l , is K units. Find out the and constant initial phase difference is called
intensity of light at a point where path difference the interference. The waves of same frequency
is l3 . and constant initial phase difference are called
coherent waves. At points of medium where the
Ans : OD 2014
waves arrive in the same phase, the resultant
(a) (i) The light waves, originating from two intensity is maximum and the interference at
independent monochromatic sources, will not these points is said to be constructive. On the
have a constant phase difference for wave other hand, at points of medium where the waves
reaching at a point. Therefore, these sources arrive in opposite phase, the resultant intensity
will not be coherent and therefore would not is minimum and the interference at these points
produce a sustained interference pattern. is said to be destructive. The positions of
(ii) The resultant displacement will be given by maximum intensity are called maxima while those
of minimum intensity are called minima. The
y = y1 + y2
interference takes place in sound and light both.
= a cos wt + a cos (wt + f) Mathematical Analysis : Suppose two coherent
= a [cos wt + cos (wt + f)] waves travel in the same direction along a
w
straight line, the frequency of each wave is 2p
f f
2 cos a wt 2 k
= 2a cos + and amplitudes of electric field are a1 and a2
respectively. If at any time t , the electric fields
The amplitude of the resultant displacement of waves at a point are y1 and y2 respectively and
f
is 2a cos ( 2 ) . The intensity of light is directly phase difference is f , then equation of waves may
proportional to the square of amplitude of the be expressed as
y1 = a1 sin wt ...(1) = (a1 + a2) 2 ...(11)

y2 = a2 sin (wt + f) ...(2) Path difference, T = l # Phase difference
2p
According to Young’s principle of superposition,
the resultant displacement at that point will be = l # 2np = nl ...(12)
2p
y = y1 + y2 ...(3) Clearly, the maximum intensity is obtained in the
Substituting values of y1 and y2 from (1) and (2) region of superposition at those points where waves
in (3), we get meet in the same phase or the phase difference
y = a1 sin wt + a2 sin (wt + f) between the waves is even multiple of p or path
difference between them is the integral multiple
Using trigonometric relation, of l and maximum intensity is (a1 + a2) 2 which
sin (wt + f) = sin wt cos f + cos wt sin f is greater than the sum intensities of individual
waves by an amount 2a1 a2 .
y = a1 sin wt + a2 (sin wt cos f + cos wt sin f)
Destructive Interference : For minimum intensity
= (a1 + a2 cos f) sin wt + (a2 sin f) cos wt at any point cos f = - 1
...(4) or phase difference, f = p, 3p, 5p, 7p, ...
Let, a1 + a2 cos f = A cos q ...(5) = (2n - 1) p, n = 1, 2, 3, ... ...(13)
and a2 sin f = A sin q ...(6) In this case the minimum intensity,
Where A and q are new constants I max = a 12 + a 22 - 2a1 a2
Then equation (4) gives
= (a1 - a2) 2 ...(14)
y = A cos q sin wt + A sin q cos wt
Path difference, T = l # Phase difference
= A sin (wt + q) ...(7) 2p
This is equations of the resultant disturbance. = l # (2n - 1) p
2p
Clearly the amplitude of resultants disturbance is
A and phase difference from first wave is q . The = (2n - 1) l
values of A and q are determined by (5) and (6). 2
Squaring (5) and (6) and then adding, we get Clearly, the minimum intensity is obtained
in the region of superposition at those points
(a1 + a2 cos f) 2 + (a2 sin f) 2 = A2 cos2 q + A2 sin q
where waves meet in opposite phase or the phase
2 2 2
a 12 + a 22 cos2 f + 2a1 a2 cos f + a 22 sin2 f = A (cos q + sin q) difference between the waves is odd multiple of
As, cos2 q + sin2 q = 1, we get p or path difference between the waves is odd
multiply of l2 and minimum intensity = (a1 - a2) 2
A2 = a 12 + a 22 (cos2 f + sin2 f) + 2a1 a2 cos f
which is less than the sum of intensities of the
A2 = a 12 + a 22 + 2a1 a2 cos f individual waves by an amount 2a1 a2 .
Amplitude, A = a 12 + a 22 + 2a1 a2 cos f ...(8)
As the intensity of a wave is proportional to its
amplitude in arbitrary units I = A2
Intensity of resultant wave,
I = A2 = a 12 + a 22 + 2a1 a2 cos f ...(9)
Clearly the intensity of resultant wave at any
point depends on the amplitudes of individual
waves and the phase difference between the waves
at the point.
Constructive Interference : For maximum From equations (12) and (14). it is clear that
intensity at any point cos f = + 1 the intensity 2a1 a2 is transferred from positions
or phase difference f = 0, 2p, 4p, 6p ... of minima to maxima. This implies that the
interference is based on conservation of energy
= 2np (n = 0, 1, 2 ...) ...(10)
i.e., there is no wastage of energy.
The maximum intensity, Variation of intensity of light with position x is
I max = a 12 + a 22 + 2a1 a2 shown in figure.
(b) Comparison between two Slit Young’s Interference -9

d = l = 600 # 10 # 180
pattern and Single slit diffraction pattern : Both q 0 . 1 #p
patterns are the result of wave nature of light; d = 3.44 # 10-4 m
both patterns contain maxima and minima.
Interference pattern is the result of superposing Thus, the spacing between the two slits is
two coherent wave while the diffraction pattern 3.44 # 10-4 m .
is the superposition of large number of waves 121. Two plane monochomic waves propagating in the same
originating from each point on a single slit. direction with amplitudes A and 2A and differing in
Differences : phase by p3 superpose. Calculate the amplitude of the
(i) In Young’s two slit experiment; all maxima are of resultant wave.
same intensity while in diffraction at a single slit, Ans : OD 2020
the intensity of central maximum is maximum and Given, A1 = A
it falls rapidly for first, second order secondary
maxima on either side of it. A2 = 2A
(ii) In Young’s interference the fringes are of equal f =p
width while in diffraction at a single slit, the 3
central maximum is twice as wide as wide as other Hence, AR = A 12 + A 22 + 2A1 A2 cos f
maxima. The intensity falls as we go to successive
maxima away from the centre on either side. = A2 + (2A) 2 + 2A # 2A cos p
3
(iii) In a single slit diffraction pattern of width a ,
= 5A2 + 4A2 # 1
the first minimum occurs at al ; while in two slit 2
interference pattern of slit separation a , we get = 7A2 = 7A
maximum at the same angle al .
122. In Young’s double-slit experiment, the angular width
of fringe formed on a distance screen is 0.1c. If
o . What is the spacing
wavelength of light is 6000 A
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS between the slits?
Ans : Delhi 2008
119. How is linearly polarised light obtain by the process Angular width of fringe, q = 0.1c
of scattering of light ? find the Brewster angle for = 1.745 # 10-3 rad
air-glass interface, when the refractive index of glass
o = 6000 # 10-3 m
Wavelength of light, l = 6000A
= 1.5
Ans : Comp 2017 Spacing between the slits,
-10
d = l = 6000 # 10 -3
According to Brewster law
q 1.745 # 10
tan iB = m
= 3.4 # 10-4 m
iB = tan-1 (m)
iB = tan-1 (1.5) 123. Two sources of intensity I and 4 I are used in an
iB = 56.30 interference experiment. Find the intensity at points
where the waves from two sources superimpose with a
120. In double slit experiment using light of wavelength phase difference (1) zero (2) p2 and (3) p .
600 nm, the angular width of a fringe formed on a Ans : Delhi 2014
distant screen is 0.1c. What is the spacing between
The resultant intensity at a point where phase
the two slits ?
difference is f is,
IR = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos f
Wavelength of light,
l = 600 nm = 600 # 10-9 m As, I1 = I
and I2 = 4I
Angular width of fringe q = 0.1c = 0.1p rad
180
Therefore, IR = I + 4I + 2 I $ 4I cos f
Using the formulae, q =l
d = 5I + 4I cos f
Spacing between the slits,
1. When f = 0 , then 125. A parallel beam of light of wavelength 500 nm falls

IR = 5I + 4I cos 0 = 9I on a narrow slit and the resulting diffracting pattern
is observed on a screen 1 m away. It is observed that
2. When f = p , then the first minimum is at a distance of 2.5 mm from the
2
centre of the screen. Calculate the width of the slit.
IR = 5I + 4I cos p = 5I
2 Ans : OD 2013, Comp 2002
3. When f = p , then
The distance of the nth minimum from the centre of
IR = 5I + 4I cos p = 5I - 4I = I the screen is
124. Two wavelengths of sodium light 590 nm and 596 nm xn = nDl ...(1)
are used, in turn, to study the diffraction taking place d
at a single slit of aperture 2 # 10-4 m . The distance where, D = distance of slit from screen
between the slit and the screen is 1.5 m. Calculate the l = wavelength of the light
separation between the positions of the first maxima
of the diffraction pattern obtained in the two cases. d = width of the slit for first minimum,
Ans : Delhi 2020 n=1
For maxima other than central maxima. xn = 2.5 mm = 2.5 # 10-3 m
1
a $ q = bn + 2 l l D = 1m
y l = 500 nm = 500 # 10-9 m

and q =
D Putting this values in equations (1), we get
y 1 1 (1) (500 # 10-9)
Hence, a$ = bn + 2 l l 2.5 # 10-3 =
D d
For light of wavelength l 1 = 590 nm d = 2 # 10-4 m = 0.2 mm
y 1
2 # 10-14 # 1 = b1 + 2 l # 590 # 10-9
1. 5 126. In Young’s double slit experiment, the slits are 0.2 mm
-9 apart and the screen is 1.5 m away. It is observed
y1 = 3 # 590 # 10 -# 1.5
2 2 # 10 4 that the distance between the central bright fringe
= 6.64 mm and fourth dark fringe is 1.8 cm . Find the wavelength
of light used.
Ans : Foreign 2013
Given, d = 0.2 mm = 0.2 # 10-3 m

D = 1.5 m
xl4 = 1.8 cm = 1.8 # 10-3 m
The distance of n th dark fringe from the central bright
fringe is given by,
xln = (2n - 1) Dl
2dl
Hence, 7
xl4 = $ D l
2 d
l = 2dx 4
l
For light of wavelength l 2 = 596 nm or
7D
y 1
2 # 10-4 # 2 = b1 + 2 l # 596 # 10-9
-3 -2
1.5 = 2 # 0.2 # 10 # 1.8 # 10
7 # 1.5
-9
y2 = 3 # 596 # 10 -# 1.5 -7
= 6.86 # 10 m
2 2 # 10 4
= 6.705 mm 127. (a) In Young’s double slit experiment, two slits are 1
Separation between two positions of first maxima mm apart and the screen is placed 1 m away from
Ty = y2 - y1 the slits. Calculate the fringe width when light of
wavelength 500 nm is used.
= 6.705 - 6.64 = 0.065 mm
(b) What should be the width of each slit in order 129. c produces fringes
Yellow light of wavelength 6000 A
to obtain 10 maxima of the double slits pattern of width 0.8 mm in Young’s double slit experiment.
within the central maximum of the single slit What will be the fringe width if the light source
pattern ? is replaced by another monochromatic source of
(c) The intensity at the central maxima in Young’s c and the separation between the
wavelength 7500 A
double slit experiment is I0 . Find out the intensity
slits is doubled?
at a point where the path difference is l6 , l4 and l3
Ans : Delhi 2017
Ans : SQP 2016
Given, c
l 1 = 6000 A
(a) Fringe width is given by
b 1 = 0.8 mm
b = lD
d c
-9
l 2 = 7500 A
= 500 # 10-3
# 1 = 0.5 mm
Fringe width in first case,
10
= 0.5 # 10-3 m b 1 = Dl 1
d
= 5 # 10-4 m Fringe width in second case,
(b) b 0 = 2lD = 10b b 2 = Dl 2
d 2d
-9 Dl 2
d = 2 # 500 # 10 -# 1
Hence,
b2
= 2d
= 1 $ l2
10 # 5 # 10 4 b1 Dl 1 2 l1
d
= 2 # 10-4 m
b 2 = 1 $ l 2 $ b1
(c) The general expression, for the intensity, at a 2 l1
point is c
f = 1 # 7500 A # 0.8 mm
I = I0 cos2 2 c
6000 A
2
= 0.5 mm
(i) For path difference = l , f = 60c
6 130. The fringe width in a Young’s double slit interference
3I0 pattern is 2.4 # 10-4 m , when red light of wavelength
I =
4 c is used. By how much will it change, if blue
6400 A
[For path difference l , phase difference f = 2p ] c is used.
light of wavelength 4000 A
(ii) For path difference = l , f = 90c Ans : Comp 2012
4
I Given, b 1 = 2.4 # 10-4 m
I = 0
2 c
l 1 = 6400 A
(iii) For path difference = l , f = 120c
3 c
l 2 = 4000 A
I0
I = As know that
4
In Young’s double experiment, the two parallel slits b = Dl
128. d
are made one millimetre apart and a screen is placed b2
one metre away. What is the fringe separation when = l 2 = 4000 = 5
b1 l1 6400 8
blue green of wavelength 500 nm is used? 5
or b 2 = # b1
Ans : OD 2015, Foreign 2001 8
Given, d = 1 mm = 10-3 m 5
= # 2.4 # 10-4
8
l = 500 nm = 500 # 10-9 m
= 1.5 # 10-4 m
Fringe width, b = Dl Decrease in fringe width
d
-9 = b1 - b 2
= 1 # 500-# 10 m
10 3 = (2.4 - 1.5) # 10-4
= 5 # 10-4 m = 0.5 mm
= 0.9 # 10-4 m
137. The refractive index of glass is 1.5. What is the 140. If the ratio of intensities of two waves causing
speed of light in glass? (Speed of light in vacuum is interference be 9 : 4, What is the ratio of maximum
3.0 # 108 ms-1 ). and minimum intensities ?
Ans : Delhi 2011 Ans : Foreign 2015
c Intensity of first wave,

As we know that, m =
u I1 = 9I
Here, C = 3.0 # 108 m/s and intensity of second wave,
m = 1.5 I2 = 4I
8
or u = c = 3 # 10 Intensity of a wave,
m 1.5
I = 2p2 v2 a2 r u ? a2
= 2 # 108 ms-1
a ? I
138. What is the value of maximum amplitude produced
Therefore, a1 = I1 = 9I = 3
due to interference of two waves is given by y1 = 4 sin a2 I2 4I 2
wt and y2 = 3 cos wt ?
We also know that ratio of maximum to minimum
Ans : Comp 2018
intensities,
We have y1 = 4 sin wt ...(1)
I max â1 + a2h2
y2 = 3 cos wt b I max l =
(a1 - a2) 2
y2 = 3 sin ( p2 + wt) ...(2) (3 + 2) 2
= = 25
Compare Eq. (1) and (2) with a standard equation, (3 - 2) 2 1
we get I max : Imin = 25 : 1
A1 = 4 141. Two beams of light having intensities I and 4I
A2 = 3 interfere to produce a fringe pattern on a screen. The
phase difference between the beams is p2 at point A
Initial phase difference, f =p and p at point B . What is the difference between the
2
Resultant amplitude, resultant intensities at A and B ?
A = A 12 + A 22 + 2A1 A2 cos f Ans : SQP 2010
Intensity of first beam,
cos f = 1
I1 = I
For maximum amplitude,
and intensity of second beam,
Hence, f = 0c
I2 = 4I
A = (A1 + A2) 2 Phase difference between the beams at point,
So, A max = A1 + A2 A (f A) = p
2
= 3+4 = 7 and phase difference between the beams at point,
139. Two coherent sources have intensities in the ratio B (f B) = p
25 : 16. Find the ratio of the intensities of maxima to The resultant intensity of beams at,
minima, after interference of light occurs.
A (IA) = I1 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos f A
Ans : Comp 2019, Delhi 2006
I1 = I + 4I + 2 I # 4I cos a p k
Amplitude ratio, r = 2
I2
= 5I
= 25 = 5
16 4 Similarly, resultant intensity of beam at,
I max = (r + 1)
2 B (IB) = I2 + I2 + 2 I1 I2 cos f B
Hence,
I min (r - 1) 2 = I + 4I + 2 I # 4I cos p = I
^ + 1h
2
5
4
Therefore, difference between the resultant intensities
= 2 = 81 : 1
^ - 1h at A and B
5
4
= IA - IB = 5I - I = 4I
f l = wavelength of light
Hence, I = 4I0 cos2
2 If velocity will decrease, then wavelength (l) will
= 4I0 cos2 p = 4I0 = k also decrease.
1. When p = l and f = p , then 148. Two wavelengths of sodium light 590 nm and 596 nm
4 2
are used, in turn, to study the diffraction taking place
I = 4I0 cos2 p at a single slit of aperture 2 # 10-4 m . The distance
4
between the slit and the screen is 1.5 m. Calculate the
= 4I0 # 1 = 2I0 = k separation between the positions of the first maxima
2 2
of the diffraction pattern obtained in the two cases.
2. When p = l and f = 2p , then Ans : SQP 2013, OD 2000
3 3
For maxima other than central maxima.
I = 4I0 cos2 p 1
3 a $ q = bn + 2 l l
= 4I0 # 1 = I0 = k y
4 4 and q =
D
3. When p = l and f = p , then
2 y 1
a$ = bn + 2 l l
I = 4I0 cos2 p = 0 D
2
For light of wavelength l 1 = 590 nm
147. (i) In a double slit experiment using light of
y 1
wavelength 600 nm, the angular width of the 2 # 10-14 # 1 = b1 + 2 l # 590 # 10-9
1.5
fringe formed on a distant screen is 0.1c. Find the -9
spacing between the two slits. y1 = 3 # 590 # 10 -# 1.5
2 2 # 10 4
(ii) Light of wavelength 5000 A c propagating in air
gets partly reflected from the surface of water. = 6.64 mm
How will the wavelengths and frequencies of the
reflected and refracted light be affected ?
Ans : Comp 2019
(i) Angular width (q) of the fringe in double slit
experiment is given by
q =l
d
Where, d = spacing between the slits
Given, wavelength of light,
l = 600 nm
Angular width of fringe,
q = 0.1c = p For light of wavelength l 2 = 596 nm
1800
y 1
= 0.0018 rad 2 # 10-4 # 2 = b1 + 2 l # 596 # 10-9
1.5
d =l
-9
Hence,
q y2 = 3 # 596 # 10 -# 1.5
2 2 # 10 4
-9
d = 600 # 10-4 = 6.705 mm
18 # 10 Separation between two positions of first maxima
= 0.33 # 10-3 m
Ty = y2 - y1
(ii) The frequency and wavelength of reflected wave
will not change. The refracted wave will have = 6.705 - 6.64 = 0.065 mm
same frequency. The velocity of light is in water is 149. A parallel beam of light of 500 nm falls on a narrow
given by n = lf slit and the resulting diffraction pattern is observed
where, n = velocity of light on a screen 1 m away. It is observed that the first
minimum is at a distance of 2.5 mm from the centre
f = frequency of light
of the screen. Calculate the width of the slit.
Ans :
(i) Increasing the wavelength of the light increases
the spacing between different fringes since the
spacing between different fringes is wavelength
dependent.
(ii) The size of the aperture/obstacle should be
comparable to the wavelength of the light.
(iii) As the wavelength of X -rays is much smaller than
that of yellow high, so the diffraction pattern is
not seen when the yellow light is replaced by X (i) Why do we people wear sunglasses during hot days?
-rays in such condition. (ii) Name the phenomenon based on which cooling
152. Waves change direction when they pass from one glasses reduce the glare.
medium to another. This phenomenon is called (iii) What is the resultant intensity of light if both
refraction. Refraction can occur in different types polariser and analyser are rotated thorough same
of mediums like sound, water, etc. Refraction is the angle ?
bending of light waves. The amount of refraction Ans :
depends on the change in the speed of light and the (i) On a bright, sunny day, sunlight can bounce off
angle at which the waves are bending. from anything at any time. Wearing sunglasses
Snell’s law shows the relationship between angles of with UV protection can protect you from extreme
brightness from driving during a sunny day. This
incidence and refraction, and the refractive index of
allows you to focus on the road better as you get
each medium. The refractive index refers to the extent
to your destination.
to which a medium can increase or decrease the speed
of light. (ii) Polarisation
(iii) No change in intensity of light.
154. Young’s double-slit experiment uses two coherent
sources of light placed at a small distance apart.
Usually, only a few orders of magnitude greater than
the wavelength of light are used. Young’s double-slit
experiment helped in understanding the wave theory
of light, which is explained with the help of a diagram.
(i) What is the angle made by the ray of light on the

wavefront?
(ii) Which parameter remains unchanged while a ray
of light propagates from one medium to another?
(iii) Write the correct expression for Snell’s law for
given diagram?
Ans :
(i) 90c
(ii) Frequency.
(iii) n1 sin i = n2 sin r
153. Sonu and Kabir were going to their friend’s house by
walk. It was a sunny day in the afternoon. It was very
hot. Sonu was finding it very difficult to see around
him. He had to strain his eyes to see. Suddenly, Kabir
took his cooling glasses from his pocket and asked him
to wear them and later, Sonu slowly managed to see,
Kabir advised Sonu on the necessity of wearing Sun
glasses during summer season.
Page 460 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Chap 11
CHAPTER 11
Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter
SUMMARY 3. Above the threshold frequency, the maximum

kinetic energy of the emitted photo-electron is
independent of the intensity of incident light but
1. ELECTRON EMISSION depends only upon the frequency (or wavelength)
of the incident light.
The phenomenon is the process which gives emission 4. The photoelectric emission is an instantaneous
of electrons from the surface of a metal. The minimum process. The time lag between the incidence of
energy needed by an electron to come out from a radiation and emission of photoelectrons is very
metal surface is known as work function of the metal. small, less than 10-9 second.
It is denoted by f 0 or W0 and measured in electron
Photoelectric Current
volt (eV).
Photoelectric current depends on the intensity of
Work function, W = hu 0 = hc incident light and the potential difference applied
l0
The electron emission can be obtained from the between the two electrodes.
following physical processes. Stopping Potential
Thermionic Emission The minimum negative potential given to anode plate
It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the w.r.t. to cathode plate at which the photoelectric
metal surface when heated suitably. current becomes zero is known as stopping potential
or cut off potential. It is denoted by V0 . If e is the
Photoelectric Emission
charge on the photo-electron, then
It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from
the surface of metal when light radiations of suitable K max = eV0 = 1 mv max
2
2
frequency fall on it.
where, m is the mass of photo-electron and Vmax is the
Field Emission or Cold Cathode Emission
maximum velocity of emitted photoelectrons.
It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from the 1. Variation of stopping potential V0 with frequency
surface of a metal under the application of a strong u of incident radiation.
electric field.
2. PHOTOELECTRIC EFFECT
It is the phenomenon of emission of electrons from
the surface of metals, when light radiations of suitable
frequency fall on them.
Laws of Photoelectric Emission
The laws of photoelectric effect are as follows-
1. For a given metal and frequency of incident
radiation, the number of photoelectrons ejected
per second is directly proportional to the intensity
of the incident light.
2. For a given metal, there exists a certain minimum
frequency of the incident radiation below which
no emission of photoelectrons takes place. This
frequency is known as threshold frequency.
Chap 11 Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter Page 461
2. Variation of photo-current with collector plate 4. DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION

potential for different intensity of incident
Wave theory of electromagnetic radiation explains
radiation.
the phenomenon of interference, diffraction and
polarisation. On the other hand, photoelectric effect
is supported by particle nature of light. Hence, we
assume dual nature of light.
5. THE PHOTONS
These are the packets of energy (or energy particles)
which are emitted by a source of radiation. The
photons emitted from a source, travel through space
with same speed c (equal to the speed of light).
1. Energy of a photon,
E = hu = hc
l
where,
u = frequency, l = wavelength
3. Variation of photo-current with collector plate
potential for different frequencies of incident h = Plank’s constant,
radiation. c = speed of the light
2. Momentum of photon is,
p = E = hu
c c
3. The rest mass of photon is zero.
4. The moving mass m of photon is
m = E2 = hu2
c c
5. All photons of light of a particular frequency v or
wavelength l have the same energy E ^= hu = hcl h
and momentum p ^= hvc = lh h , whatever be the
intensity of radiation.
6. Photon energy is independent of intensity of
radiation.
7. Photons are not deflected by electric and magnetic
fields.
3. EINSTEIN’S PHOTOELECTRIC EQUATION
8. In a photon-particle collision (such as photon-
If a light of frequency u is incident on a photosensitive electron collision), the total energy and total
material having work function (f 0), then maximum momentum are conserved.
kinetic energy of the emitted electron is given as, 9. Number of photons emitted per second of
K max = hu - f 0 frequency u from a lamp of power P is,
For, u 2 u0 n = P = Pl
hu hc
or eV0 = hu - f 0 = hu - hu 0
6. DE BROGLIE WAVES (MATTER WAVES)
or eV0 = K max = hc b 1 - 1 l
l l0 Radiation has dual nature, wave and particle. The
where, u 0 = threshold frequency nature of experiment determines whether a wave or
a particle description is best suited for understanding
l 0 = threshold wavelength
the experimental result. Reasoning that radiation and
l = incident wavelength matter should be symmetrical in nature, Louis Victor
Einstein’s photoelectric equation is in accordance de Broglie attributed a wave like character to matter
with the law of conservation of energy. (material particles). The waves associated with the
4. The number of Photons of frequency 1014 Hz in Ans : SQP 2017
radiation of 6.62 J will be Photon is the charge less (neutral particle) because
(a) 1010 (b) 1015 electromagnetic wave does not have charge in it and
it produced by photon particles.
(c) 1020 (d) 1025
Ans : OD 2018
Energy, E = 6.62 J 8. If an electron of mass m and charge e is accelerated

from rest through a potential difference V in vacuum,
Frequency, n = 1014 Hz then its final velocity will be
Number of Photons =
Energy (a) eV (b) eV
Energy of one Photon 2m m
2eV eV
= 6.62 = 6.62 (c)
m
(d)
m
hn 6.62 # 10-34 # 1014
= 1020 Ans : Delhi 2012
Thus (c) is correct option. Mass of electron = m
5. The energy of emitted photo electron depends upon Charge = e

(a) Intensity of light and Potential difference = V
(b) Wavelength of light Kinetic energy of an electron
(c) Work-function of metal = 1 mv2 = eV
2
(d) None of these
Ans : v = 2eV
Delhi 2001, SQP 2014 m
Energy of photon is given by, (where, v = Final velocity of electron)
E = hn Thus (c) is correct option.
where, h = Planck’s constant
9. Cathode rays can be deflected by
n = Frequency of light radiation (a) electric field (b) magnetic field
Since, n =c (c) both types of fields (d) none of these fields
l
Ans :
Hence, E = hc
l Cathode rays are the stream of moving electrons.
Therefore, they can be deflected by both the electric
Here, h and c are constant E ? 1 .
l and magnetic fields.
Therefore the energy of emitted photo-electron Thus (c) is correct option.
depends upon the wavelength of light.
Thus (b) is correct option. 10. If a photon has velocity c and frequency n , then which
of the following represents its wavelength?
6. The value of 1 MeV is
(a) 1.6 # 10-19 J (b) 1.6 # 10-16 J (a) hc (b) hn
E c
(c) 1.6 # 10-13 J (d) 1.6 # 10-11 J (c) 2h n (d) hn
c
Ans : Foreign 2009 Ans : OD 2002
-19
1 eV = 1.6 # 10 J Velocity of photon = c
Therefore, and Frequency = n
Value of 1 MeV = 106 eV Energy of a photon,
= 106 # (1.6 # 10-19)
E = hc
-13 l
= 1.6 # 10 J
or l = hc
Thus (c) is correct option. E
7. Which one of following is charge less? (where, l = Wavelength of photon)
(a) Alpha particle (b) Beta particle
(c) Photon particle (d) Proton
16. The de-Broglie wavelength l depends upon mass m l1 = E2

Therefore,
and energy E according to the relation represented as l2 E1
(a) mE1/2 (b) m1/2 E = 2E1 = 2
-1/2 -1/2 -1/2 1/2 E1
(c) m E (d) m E
Ans : Foreign 2004
or l 2 = l1
2
Mass = m Hence, de-Broglie’s wavelength of an electron changes
and Energy = E by the factor 12 .
de-Broglie wavelength, Thus (d) is correct option.
l =h 19. In photoelectric effect, the no. of electrons ejected per
p
second is proportional to
= h ? 1 ? m-1/2 E-1/2
2mE mE (a) intensity of light
Thus (c) is correct option. (b) wavelength of light
17. Mass of a photon of frequency n is given by (c) frequency of light

(d) frequency of the metal
(a) m = h (b) m = hn
l c Ans : Foreign 2006, Delhi 2015
(c) m = hn (d) m = n2
h In photoelectric effect for a given photosensitive
c c
material and frequency of incident light above the
Ans : SQP 2014
threshold frequency of the material, the number of
Frequency of photon = n electrons ejected per second is directly proportional
Energy of a photon, to the intensity of light.
E = hn ...(1) Thus (a) is correct option.
Energy of a photon, 20. If the intensity of light falling on a metal is increased,
E = mc 2
...(2) then
(a) K.E. of photoelectrons increases
Equating these two equations of energies, we get
(b) photoelectric current increases
hn = mc2
(c) K.E. of photoelectrons decreases
or m = h n2 (d) photoelectric current remains constant
c
where, m = mass of the photon Ans : Delhi 2016
For a given photosensitive material and frequency

and c = velocity of light
of incident radiation above the threshold frequency,
Thus (d) is correct option. emission of photoelectrons (i.e., photoelectric current)
18. If the kinetic energy of an electron doubles, its de- is directly proportional to the intensity of the incident
Broglie’s wavelength changes by a factor light. Therefore if the intensity of light falling on a
(a) 2 (b) 2 metal is increased, then photoelectric current will also
increase.
(c) 1 (d) 1 Thus (b) is correct option.
2 2
Ans : Delhi 2008
21. When ultraviolet rays are incident on a metal plate,
Final kinetic energy of electron, then the photoelectric effect does not occurs. It occurs
E2 = 2E1 by the incidence of
(where, E1 = Initial kinetic energy of electron) (a) X-rays (b) radio wave
de-Broglie’s wavelength of an electron, (c) infrared rays (d) green house effect
Ans : OD 2004
l = h
mv Phenomenon of emission of electrons from a metal
h surface when light of sufficient frequency falls upon
= \ 1
2mE E it, is known as photoelectric effect. We also know that
photoelectrons are ejected by the radiations of short
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason 30. Assertion : In photosensitive cell inert gas is used.
is not a correct explanation of the Assertion. Reason : Inert gas in the photoemissive cell gives
(c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. greater current.
(d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect. (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the
Ans :
Photoelectric saturation current is independent of
frequency. It only depends on intensity of light.
Thus (d) is correct option. (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
28. Assertion : The photoelectrons produced by a (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
monochromatic light beam incident on a metal Ans :
surface, have a spread in their kinetic energies. The photoemissive cell contain two electrodes are
Reason : The work function of the metal varies as a enclosed in a glass bulb which may be evacuated or
function of depth from the surface. contain an inert gas at low pressure. An inert gas in the
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the cell gives greater current but causes a time lag in the
Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. response of the cell to very rapid changes of radiation
which may make it unsuitable for some purpose.
is not a correct explanation of the Assertion. Thus (a) is correct option.
(c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. 31. Assertion : In process of photoelectric emission, all
emitted electrons do not have same kinetic energy.
Reason : If radiation falling on photosensitive surface
Ans : of a metal consists of different wavelength then energy
Electrons being emitted as photoelectrons have different acquired by electrons absorbing photons of different
velocities. Actually all the electrons do not occupy wavelengths shall be different.
the same level of energy but they occupy continuous (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the
band and levels. So, electrons being knocked off from Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
different levels come out with different energies. Work
function is the energy required to pull the electron out
of metal surface. Naturally electrons on the surface will
require less energy to be pulled out hence will have (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
lesser work function as compared with those deep (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
inside the metal. So, assertion and reason are correct
Ans :
and reason correctly explains the assertion.
Both statement I and II are true; but even it radiation
of single wavelength is incident on photosensitive
29. Assertion : The photoelectrons produced by a surface, electrons of different KE will be emitted.
monochromatic light beam incident on a metal surface Thus (a) is correct option.
have a spread in their kinetic energies.
32. Assertion : If the speed of charged particle increases
Reason : The work function of the metal is its
both the mass as well as charge increases.
characteristics property.
Reason : If m0 = rest mass and m be mass at velocity
v then
m0
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason m = 2
1 - cv
2
where c = speed of light.
(d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect. Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
Ans : (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
The kinetic energy of emitted photoelectrons varies is not a correct explanation of the Assertion.
from zero to a maximum value. Work function
depends on metal used. (c) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
Thus (b) is correct option. (d) The Assertion is incorrect but the Reason is correct.
CLASS 12

CLASS 10

39. State de-Broglie hypothesis. because the metal has free electron. When a metal is
Ans : Comp 2016 heated, its free electrons get sufficient thermal energy
According to hypothesis of de-Broglie “The atomic and they can overcome surface barrier.
particles of matter moving with a given velocity, can 46. Define threshold frequency, work function and
display the wave like properties.” stopping potential with reference to photoelectric
effect.
i.e., l = h (mathematically)
mv Ans : OD 2018, Foreign 2004
40. What is photoelectric effect? 1. Threshold Frequency : The minimum value of the
Ans : OD 2018 frequency of incident radiation below which the
The phenomenon of emission of electrons from a photo electric emission stops.
metal surface, when electromagnetic radiations of 2. Work Function : It is the minimum amount of
sufficiently high frequency are incident on it, is called energy required to remove an electron from the
photoelectric effect. The photo (light)-generated surface of given metal.
electrons are called photoelectrons. 3. Stopping Potential : The value of the retarding
potential at which the photoelectric current
41. In photoelectric effect, why should the photoelectric becomes zero is called cut off or stopping potential.
current increase as the intensity of monochromatic
radiation incident on a photosensitive surface is 47. Write down the some important uses of photo-cells.
increased? Explain. Ans : Comp 2020
Ans : Foreign 2014 Some important uses of photo-cells in daily life are as
The photoelectric current increases proportionally follows :
with the increase in intensity of incident radiation. 1. In cinematography, photo-cells are used for the
Larger the intensity radiation, larger is the number reproduction of sound.
of incident photons and hence larger is the number of 2. As light meters in photographic cameras.
electrons ejected from the photosensitive surface. 3. In burglar’s alarms.
42. Define intensity of radiation on the basis of photon 4. In counting devices.
picture of light. Write its SI unit. 5. In automatic control of street light system.
Ans : Delhi 2017 6. In industries for detecting minor flaws or holes in
metal sheets.
The amount of light energy or photon energy incident
per metre square per second is called intensity of 48. What is meant by work function of a metal? How does
radiation. Its SI unit is mW or j/s m2 .
2 the value of work function influence the kinetic energy
of electrons liberated during photoelectron emission?
43. What do you mean by stopping potential.
Ans : Delhi 2016
Ans : Comp 2011
The minimum energy required to free an electron
The particular value of negative potential V0 at which
from metallic surface is called the work function.
photoelectric current becomes zero that is known as
stopping potential. Smaller the work function, larger the kinetic energy of
emitted electron.
44. What is de-Broglie wave? Write an expression for its
wavelength. 49. Write the expression for the de-Broglie wavelength
associated with a charged particle having charge q
Ans : OD 2013
and mass m , when it is accelerated by a potential.
The wave which is associated with movable matter
Ans : Comp 2017
particle is known as the de-Broglie wave or matter
wave. The wavelength of de-Broglie wave is given by A charged particle having charge q and mass m , then
following expression: kinetic energy of the particle is equal of the particle
is equal to the work done on it by the electric field.
Wavelength, l =h = h (where, p is
p mv i.e., K = qV
momentum)
1 mv2 = qV
45. Why does thermionic emission take place from a 2
metal surface only? p2
= qV
Ans : SQP 2010 2m
Thermionic emission take place from a metal surface p = 2mqV
Ans : OD 2017
pairs of curves that corresponds to different materials
but same intensity of incident radiation.
(1)
Ans : Delhi 2016
Curves 1 and 2 correspond to similar materials while

curves 3 and 4 represent different materials, since the
value of stopping potential for the pair of curves (1
and 2) and (3 and 4) are the same. For given frequency
of the incident radiation, the stopping potential is
independent of its intensity.
So, the pairs of curves (1 and 3) and (2 and 4)
correspond to different materials but same intensity
of incident radiation.
62. A proton and a deutron are accelerated through the
same accelerating potential. Which one of the two has.
1. Greater value of de-Broglie wavelength associated
(2) with it.
2. Less momentum?
60. Write the relationship of de-Broglie wavelength l Give reasons to justify your answer.
associated with a particle of mass m in terms of its Ans : OD 2013
kinetic energy E . 1. de-Broglie wavelength,
h
l =
p2 2mqV
Kinetic energy, EK =
2m
Here, V is same for proton and deutron.
where, p = momentum As mass of proton 1 mass of deutron and q p = qd .
m = mass and EK = kinetic energy Therefore, l p 2 l d for same accelerating
potential.
p = 2mEK
2. Momentum = h .
de-Broglie wavelength, l
Therefore, l p 2 l d
l =h
p So, momentum of proton will be less than that of
where, p = 2mEK deuteron.
h 63. Show on a plot the nature of variation of photoelectric

Hence, l = current with the intensity of radiation incident on a
2mEK
photosensitive surface.
61. The given graph shows the variation of photoelectric Ans : Comp 2019
current I versus applied voltage V for two different Graph of variation of photoelectric current with the
photosensitive materials and for two different intensity of radiation incident on a photosensitive
intensities of the incident radiations. Identify the surface is given as below.
lp ma qa (ii) Work function is the minimum energy required to

Hence, =
la mp qp eject the photoelectron from the metal surface.
4m p 2e f = hn 0
= . = 8 =2 2
mp e
where n 0 = Threshold frequency.
Clearly, l p 2 la
70. (a) Define the term intensity of radiation in terms of
Hence, proton has a greater de-Broglie wavelength. photon picture of light.
(ii) Kinetic energy, (b) Two monochromatic beams, one red and the
EK = qV other blue, have the same intensity in which case
For same V , (i) the number of photons per unit area per
EK ? q second is larger,
(ii) the maximum kinetic energy of the
EK q
= p
p
photoelectrons is more? Justify your answer.
EK a
qa
Ans : SQP 2009, OD 2015
= e =1 (a) The number of photons incident normally per
2e 2
unit area per unit time is determined the intensity
Clearly, EK 1 EK
p a
of radiations.
69. Write two characteristic features observed in (b) (i) Red light, because the energy of red light is
photoelectric effect which support the photon picture less than that of blue light
of electromagnetic radiation. (hn) R 1 (hn) B
Draw a graph between the frequency of incident (ii) Blue light, because the energy of blue light is
radiation (V) and the maximum kinetic energy of the greater than that of red light.
electrons emitted from the surface of a photosensitive
(hn) B 2 (hn) R
material. State clearly how this graph can be used to
determine (i) Planck’s constant and (ii) work function 71. (a) Give a brief description of the basic elementary
of the material. process involved in the photoelectric emission in
Ans : Delhi 2012
Einstein’s picture.
(a) All photons of light of a particular frequency 'n ' (b) When a photosensitive material is irradiated with
have same energy and momentum whatever the the light of frequency v, the maximum speed of
2
intensity of radiation may be. electrons is given by Vmax . A plot of V max is found
to vary with frequency v as shown in the figure.
(b) Photons are electrically neutral and are not affected
by presence of electric and magnetic fields. Use Einstein’s photoelectric equation to find the
expressions for (i) Planck’s constant and (ii) work
(i) From this graph, the Planck constant can be
function of the given photosensitive material, in terms
calculated by the slope of the current.
of the parameters l, n and mass m of the electron.
D (KE)
h =
Dn
Ans : OD 2016
(a) According to Einstein, packets of energy called
photons, which are absorbed completely by
electrons. This absorbed energy is used to reject
the electron and also provide kinetic energy to the
emitted electron.
1,
l ?m Hence l p 1 l e light and emission of photoelectrons.
(ii) These features cannot be explained in the wave
Thus, electron has greater de-Brogile wavelength, if theory of light because wave nature of radiation
accelerated with same speed. cannot explain the following.
77. Plot a graph showing variation of de-Broglie wavelength (a) The instantaneous ejection of the
l versus 1V where V is accelerating potential for two photoelectrons.
particles A and B carrying same charge but of masses (b) The existence of threshold frequency for a
m1, m2 (m1 2 m2) . Which one of the two represents a metal surface.
particle of smaller mass and why? (c) The fact that kinetic energy of the emitted
Ans : Comp 2017
electrons is independent of the intensity of
light and depend upon its frequency.
79. Define the terms (i) ‘cut-off voltage’ and (ii)
‘threshold frequency’ in relation to the phenomenon
of photoelectric effect.
Using Einstein’s photoelectric equation show how the
cut-off voltage and threshold frequency for a given
photosensitive material can be determined with the
help of a suitable plot/graph.
(i) Cut-off or stopping potential is that minimum
As, l = h
value of negative potential at anode which just
2mqV
stops the photoelectric current.
or l =e h $ 1 o1 (ii) For a given material, there is a minimum frequency
2q m V of light below which no photoelectric emission will
l = h $ 1 take place, this frequency is called as threshold
or
2q m
1
V
frequency.
As the charge of two particles is same, we get EK = hc - f = hv - hv0
max
l
Slope ? 1 eV0 = hv - hv0
m
Hence, particle with lower mass (m2) will have greater
V0 = h v - h v0
slope. e e
78. (i) Describe briefly three experimentally observed Clearly, V0 - v graph is a straight line.
features in the phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
(ii) Discuss briefly how wave theory of light cannot
explain these features.
Ans : Comp 2010
(i) Three experimentally observed features in the
phenomenon of photoelectric effect.
(a) Intensity- When intensity of incident light
increases as one photon ejects one electron,
the increase in intensity will increase the
number of ejected electrons. Frequency has
no effect on photoelectrons.
(b) Frequency- When the frequency of incident
photon increase, the kinetic energy of the
emitted electrons increases, intensity has no 80. A beam of monochromatic radiation is incident on a
effect on kinetic energy of photoelectrons. photosensitive surface. Answer the following questions.
(c) No time lag- When energy incident photon (i) Do the emitted photoelectrons have the same
is greater than the work function, the kinetic energy?
photoelectrons is immediately ejected. Thus, (ii) Does the kinetic energy of the emitted electrons
there is no time lag between the incidence of depend on the intensity of incident radiation?
(ii) 3 and 4 correspond to same intensity but different Ans : OD 2016, SQP 2001
material. Characteristic properties of photons are as follows :

This is because the saturation current are same and (a) Energy of photon is directly proportional to
stopping potentials are different. the frequency (or inversely proportional to the
or wavelength)
(b) In photon electron collision, total energy and
(i) 1 and 3 correspond to different intensity but same
momentum of the system of two constituents
material.
remains constant.
(ii) 2 and 4 correspond to different intensity but same
(c) In the interaction of photons with the free
material.
electrons, the entire energy of photon is absorbed.
This is because the stopping potentials are same but
If radiation of frequency (v) greater than threshold
saturation currents are different.
frequency (v0) irradiate the metal surface, electrons
84. Sketch the graphs showing variation of stopping emitted out from the metal. So, Einstein’s photoelectric
potential with frequency of incident radiations for two equation can be given as
photosensitive materials A and B having threshold EK max = 1 mv max
2
= hv - hv0
frequencies vA 2 vB . 2
(i) In which case is the stopping potential more and (i) Cut off or stopping potential is that minimum
why? value of negative potential at anode which just
stops the photoelectric current.
(ii) Does the slope of the graph depend on the nature
of the material used? Explain. (ii) For a given material, there is a minimum frequency
of light below which no photoelectric emission will
Ans : Delhi 2018
take place, this frequency is called as threshold
(i) From the graph for the same value of 'n ' stopping frequency.
potential is more for material 'B ' .
By Einstein’s photoelectric equation
From Einsten’s photoelectric equation
eV0 = hn - hn 0 EK max = hc - f = hv - hv0
l
V0 = h n - h n 0 = h (n - n 0) eV0 = hv - hv0
e e e
Hence, V0 is higher for lower value of n 0 V0 = h v - h v0
e e
Clearly, V0 - v graph is a straight line.
h
(ii) No, as slope is given by e which is a universal
constant.
86. Define the term “cut off frequency” in photoelectric
85. State two important properties of photon which are emission. The threshold frequency of a metal is f .
used to write Einstein’s photoelectric equation. Define When the light of frequency 2f is incident on the
(i) stopping potential and (ii) threshold frequency metal plate, the maximum velocity of photoelectrons
using Einstein’s equation and drawing necessary plot is v1 . When the frequency of the incident radiation
between relevant quantities. is increased to 5f , the maximum velocity of
photoelectrons is v2 . Find the ratio of v1 and v2 .
= 12.27 # 10-10 m hc = f + 2eV ...(2)

0 0
V l2
because EK is doubled
l = 12.27 A
c
V From equations (1) and (2), we get
This is the required expression for de-Broglie hc = l + 2 hc - f
l2 2 b l1 0l
wavelength associated with electron accelerated to
potential of V volt. = f 0 + 2hc - 2f 0
l1
The diagram of wave packet describing the motion of
a moving electron is shown. f 0 = 2hc - hc
l1 l2
For threshold wavelength l 0, kinetic energy EK = 0
and work function f 0 = hc
l0
hc = 2hc - hc
l0 l1 l2
1 = 2 - 1
l0 l1 l 2
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS l 0 = l1l 2
2l 2 - l 1
Write Einstein’s photoelectric equation. State clearly hc (2l 2 - l 1)
89. Work function, f0 =
the three salient features observed in photoelectric l1l 2
effect which can explain on the basis of this equation. 90. (i) Why photoelectric effect cannot be explained on
The maximum kinetic energy of the photoelectrons the basis of wave nature of light? Give reasons.
gets doubled when the wavelength of light incident (ii) Write the basic features of photon picture of
on the surface changes from l 1 to l 2 . Derive the electro magnetic radiation on which Einstein’s
expressions to the threshold wavelength l 0 and work photoelectric equation is based.
function for the metal surface. Ans : Delhi 2016, OD 2011
Ans : Comp 2014 (i) The photoelectrons effect cannot be explained on

Einstein’s photoelectric equation is EK = hv - W for the basis of wave nature of light because wave
a single photon ejecting a single electron. nature of radiation cannot explain the following.
(i) Explanation of frequency law- When frequency of (a) The instantaneous ejection of photoelectrons.
incident photon (v), increases, the kinetic energy (b) The existence of threshold frequency for a
of emitted electron increases. Intensity has no metal surface.
effect on kinetic energy of photoelectrons. (c) The fact that kinetic energy of the emitted
(ii) Explanation of intensity law- When intensity of electrons is independent of the intensity of
incident light increases, the number of incident light and depends upon its frequency.
photons increases, as one photon ejects one (ii) Photon picture of electromagnetic radiation on
electron; the increase in intensity will increase which Einstein’s photoelectric equation is based
the number of ejected electrons. In other words, on particle nature of light. Its basic features are
photocurrent will increase with increase of given as below.
intensity. Frequency has no effect on photocurrent.
(a) In interaction of radiation with matter,
(iii) Explanation of no time lag law- When the energy
radiation behaves as if it is made up of
of incident photon is greater than work function,
particle called photons.
the photoelectron is immediately ejected, Thus,
there is no time lag between incidence of light and (b) Each photon has energy E^= hv = hcl h and
emission of photoelectrons. momentum p (= hv/c = h/l) , where c is the
For wavelength l 1 , speed of light, h is Planck’s constant, v and
l are frequency and wavelength of radiation.
hc = f + E = f + eV ...(1)
l1 0 K 0 0 (c) All photons of light of a particular frequency
where, EK = eV0 v or wavelength l have the same energy
E^= hv = hcl h and momentum p^= hvc - lh h
For wavelength l 2 , whatever the intensity of radiation may be.
1. Intensity of Light on Photoelectric Current : If saturation currents have increased in proportion

we allow radiations of a fixed frequency to fall on to the intensity of incident radiation, while the
plate P and the accelerating potential difference stopping potential is still the same. Thus, for a
between the two electrodes is kept fixed, then given frequency of incident radiation, the stopping
the photoelectric current is found to increase potential is independent of its intensity.
linearly with the intensity of incident radiation, 3. Effect of Frequency of Incident Radiation on
as shown in Figure. Since the photoelectric Stopping Potential : To study the effect of
current is directly proportional to the number frequency on photoelectric effect, the intensity of
of photoelectric emitted per second, this implies incident radiation at each frequency is adjusted
that the number of photoelectrons emitted per in such a way that the saturation current is
second is proportional to the intensity of incident same each time when the plate A is at a positive
radiation. potential. The potential on the plate A is gradually
reduced to zero and then increased in the negative
direction till stopping potential is reached. The
experiment is repeated with radiations of different
frequencies.
As shown in Figure, the value of stopping
potential increases with the frequency of incident
radiation. For frequencies n 3 > n 2 > n 1 , the
corresponding stopping potentials vary in the
order V03 > V02 > V01 .
2. Effect of Potential : As shown in Figure, if we

keep the intensity I1 and the frequency of incident
radiation fixed, and increase the positive potential
(called accelerating potential) on plate A gradually,
it is found that the photoelectric current increases
with the increase in accelerating potential till a
stage is reached when the photoelectric current
becomes maximum and does not increase further
with the increase in the accelerating potential.
This maximum value of the photoelectric current
is called the saturation current. At this stage, all
the electrons emitted by the plate C are collected If we plot a graph between the frequency of
by the plate A. incident radiation and the corresponding stopping
Now, if we apply a negative potential on plate A potential for different metals, we get straight line
with respect to plate C and increase its magnitude graphs, as shown in Figure. These graphs reveal
gradually, it is seen that the photoelectric current the following facts :
decreases rapidly until it becomes zero for a (a) The stopping potential or the maximum
certain value of negative potential on plate A. kinetic energy of the photoelectrons increases
The value of the retarding potential at which the linearly with the frequency of the incident
photoelectric current becomes zero is called cut radiation, but is independent of its intensity.
off or stopping potential for the given frequency of
(b) There exists a certain minimum cut-off
the incident radiation. At the stopping potential
V0 , when no photoelectrons are emitted, the work frequency for which the stopping potential
done by stopping potential on the fastest electron is zero. The minimum value of the frequency
must be equal to its kinetic energy. Hence, of incident radiation below which the
photoelectric emission stops altogether is
K max = 1 mv max
2
= eV0 called threshold frequency.
2
If we repeat the experiment with incident radiation (c) For two different metals A and B , these
of the same frequency but of higher intensity I2 graphs have same slope. But the threshold
and I3 (I3 > I2 > I1), we find that the values of frequencies are different.
the metal is a single event which involves transfer stops. In 1900, Lenard argued that when ultraviolet
of energy in one lump instead of the continuous light is incident on the emitter plate, it causes the
absorption of energy as in the wave theory of light. emission of electrons from its surface. These electrons
Hence there is no time lag between the incidence are attracted by the positive collector plate so that
of photon and the emission of a photoelectrons. the circuit is completed and a current flows. This
95. Briefly describe the observations of Hertz, Hallawach’s current was called photoelectric current.
and Lenard’s in regard of photoelectric effect.
Ans : OD 2021, Comp 2005
Hertz’s Observations
The phenomenon of photoelectric effect was discovered
by Heinrich Hertz in 1887. While demonstrating the
existence of electromagnetic waves, Hertz found that
high voltage sparks passed across the metal electrodes
of the detector loop more easily when the cathode was
illuminated by ultraviolet light from an arc lamp. The
ultraviolet light falling on the metal surface caused
the emission of negatively charged particles, which are
now known to be electrons, into the surrounding space
and hence enhanced the high voltage sparks.
Hallwach’s and Lenard’s Observations (b) Production of Photoelectric Production
During the years 1886-1902, Wilhelm Hallwachs
and Philipp Lenard investigated the phenomenon of Hallwachs and Lenard also observed that when the
photoelectric emission in detail. frequency of the incident light was less than a certain
As shown in Figure (a), Hallwachs connected a zinc minimum value, called the threshold frequency, no
plate to an electroscope. He allowed ultraviolet light photoelectrons were emitted at all.
to fall on a zinc plate. He observed that the zinc plate 96. Write down Einstein’s photoelectric equation and
became (1) uncharged if initially negatively charged, explain the photoelectric effect on its basis.
(2) positively charged if initially uncharged and (3) Ans : OD 2018
more positively charged if initially positively charged. When a quantum of light radiation of energy hv falls
From these observations, he concluded that some on a metal surface, then this energy is absorbed by
negatively charged particles were emitted by the zinc the electron and is used in following two ways:
plate when exposed to ultraviolet light.
1. A part of energy is used to overcome the surface

(a) Demonstration of Photoelectric Effect barrier and come out of the metal surface. This
part of energy is called work function. It is
A few years later, Lenard observed that when expressed as f 0 = hv0 .
ultraviolet radiations are allowed to fall on the 2. The remaining part of the energy is used in giving
emitter plate of an evacuated glass tube enclosing a velocity v to the emitted photoelectrons. This
two electrodes (cathode C and anode A), a current is equal to the maximum kinetic energy of the
flows in the circuit, as shown in Figure (b). As soon photoelectrons. ^ 12 mv2maxh, where m is the mass of
as ultraviolet radiations are stopped, the current also the photoelectrons.
103. If the wavelength of a photon is 4000 Ac . What is the 106. The kinetic energy of the fastest moving photoelectron
8
energy of photon? (c = 3 # 10 m s )
-
-1 from a metal of work function 2.8 eV is 2 eV. If the
frequency of light is doubled, What is the kinetic
energy of photoelectron?
Wavelength of photon, l = 4000 A c
Ans : Delhi 2013
= 4000 # 10-10 m Work function of metal,
Velocity of light, c = 3 # 108 m-s-1 f 0 = 2.8 eV
Energy of a photon, E = hc Initial maximum kinetic energy of photoelectrons,
l
where, h = Plank’s constant equal to 6.6 # 10-34 J-s . E max = 2 eV
1
(6.6 # 10-34) # (3 # 108) Initial frequency of light,

E =
(4000 # 10-10) n1 = n
= 4.95 # 10-19 J and Final frequency of light,
104. What is the velocity of an electron having de-Broglie’s n 2 = 2n
wavelength of 10-10 m ? (Take h = 6.6 # 10-34 J-s ) Initial kinetic energy of photoelectrons,
Ans : SQP 2011
E max = h n 1 - f 0
1
De-Broglie’s wavelength of electron,

or h n 1 = K max + f 0
l = 10-10 m
1
= 2 + 2.8 = 4.8 eV
Planck’s constant h = 6.6 # 10-34 J-s
Similarly, final kinetic energy of photoelectrons,
Velocity of electron,v = h E max = h n 2 - f 0
ml 2
6.6 # 10 -34
= h (2n 1) - f 0
=
(9.1 # 10-31) (10-10) = 2h n 1 - f 0
(where, m = Mass of electron to 9.1 # 10-31 kg) = (2 # 4.8) - 2.8
= 7.25 # 106 m-s-1 = 9.6 - 2.8
105. If the work function of aluminium is 4.125 eV, what = 6.8 eV
is the cut off wavelength for photoelectric effect for
aluminium is (Take h = 6.6 # 10-34 J-s ) 107. If threshold wavelength for photoelectric effect on
sodium is 5000 Ac , What is the work function of
Ans : Foreign 2014
Work function of the aluminium, sodium? (Take h = 6.6 # 10-34 J-s )

Ans : Comp 2017
f 0 = 4.125 eV
Threshold wavelength of sodium,
= 4.125 # (1.6 # 10-19)
c = 5000 # 10-10 m
l 0 = 5000 A
= 6.6 # 10-19 J
and Planck’s constant,
and Planck’s constant,
h = 6.6 # 10-34 J-s
-34
h = 6.6 # 10 J-s
Work function of sodium,
Cut off wavelength of aluminium,
f 0 = hc
l 0 = hc l0
f0
(6.6 # 10-34) # (3 # 108)
(6.6 # 10-34) # (3 # 108) =
= 500 # 10-10
6.6 # 10-19 (where, c = Velocity of light equal to 3 # 108 m-s-1 )
= 3 # 10-7 m
= 3.96 # 10-19 J
= 300 # 10-9 m -19
= 3.96 # 10-19 = 2.5 eV
= 300 nm 1.6 # 10
(where, c = Velocity of light equal to 3 # 108 m-s-1 ) 108. Light of two different frequencies, whose photons have
energies of 1 eV and 2.5 eV successively illuminate
frequency (it is a property of material). The Ans :

stopping potential varies with frequency of Mass of electron, m = 9.1 # 10-31 kg.
incident light and increase in frequency of the (i) Momentum,
incident light will increase the kinetic energy of p = 2mEK
the emitted electrons therefore greater retarding
potential is needed to stop them. = = 2meV
111. “Know your face beauty through complexion meter” = 2 # 9.1 # 10-31 # 1.6 # 10-19 # 56
was one of the stall on a science exhibition. A student = 4.04 # 10-24 kg ms-1
interested to know his/her face beauty was made to
(ii) de-Broglie wavelength,
stand on a platform and light from a lamp was made
to fall on his/her face. The reading of complexion =h
p
meter indicated the face beauty of the student which
-34
might be very fair, fair, semi fair, semi dark and dark = 6.63 # 10 24
etc. 4.04 # 10
= 1.64 # 10-10 m
= 0.164 nm.
113. A function was organised in the school auditorium.
There was 500 sitting arrangement in the auditorium.
When entry started students entered in groups
and so counting became a great problem. Then
(i) What is the basic concept used in the working of principle of the school ordered science students to
complexion meter? take responsibility at the gate. The science students
(ii) How is the face beauty recorded by face complexion managed the situation and now all the students used
meter? to enter the hall one by one. This helped them to
maintain discipline and counting became easy with
Ans :
the help of a scientific device used by these students.
(i) The basic concept used in the working of
complexion meter is photoelectric effect.
(ii) The reading of complexion meter depends on the
current generated from the light reflected from
the face. Fair the colour more is the light reflected
and vice versa.
112. Kamal had knowledge that energy and momentum of
an electron are related to frequency and wavelength
of the associated matter (de-Broglie) wave by the
relations, E = hv, p = lh . But when he heard from his
friend that value of l has no physical significances.
Kamal requested Ravi to explain such thing clearly.
Ravi said to him that according to de-Broglie a
particle behaves as a wave, but it is now established (i) Why do we use photocell?
that a particle cannot be equivalent to a single wave, (ii) Name the scientific device which is based on
but it is equivalent to a group of waves or a wave application of photoelectric effect.
packet. (iii) What is the principle of such scientific device?
As p = lh , so in the discussion of matter waves, a Ans :
wave packet is significant and hence only wavelength, (i) Photocells and motion sensors are electronic
l is significant. As a single wave is insignificant, so devices you can use to manage indoor or outdoor
phase velocity (velocity of a single wave, V = vl ) is lighting. These sensors improve the security and
insignificant and thus, frequency v is also insignificant. safety of your home, automatically turning on
Calculate the lights when it gets dark or they detect motion.
(i) momentum and They also save energy by turning themselves off
(ii) de-Broglie wavelength of the electrons accelerated when extra light is unnecessary.
through a potential difference of 56 V. (ii) Photocell.
116. The photoelectric emission is possible only if the (i) What are the principles that are used in
incident light is in the form of packets of energy, maintaining traffic signals?
each having a definite value, more than the work (ii) What is the leading physical quantity in the
function of the metal. This shows that light is not of process? Write an equation for the speed of the
wave nature but of particle nature. It is due to this photoelectrons.
reason that photoelectric emission was accounted by Ans :
quantum theory of light. (i) Principle of photoelectric effect is used to maintain
the traffic signal.
(ii) The leading physical quantity of photoelectric
current raised due to motion of photoelectrons.
The required equation is
v = 2E - 2f
m m
Here, v = speed of the electron, E = energy of the
photon, m = mass of the electron and f = work
function for the metal.
***********
(i) What is the name of packet of energy ?

(ii) How much energy associated with each photon?
(iii) Which of the waves can produce photo electric
effect?
Ans :
(i) Quanta.
(ii) hm .
(iii) UV radiation.
117. Rekha’s brother was riding the bike on highway and
she was sitting behind him. While sitting, at a place
traffic signal turned red from green and her brother
continued riding without noticing the signal change.
Rekha observed the whole situation and asked her
brother to stop. Her brother felt happy on his sister’s
intelligence.
Chap 12 Atoms Page 493
CHAPTER 12
Atoms
SUMMARY mvr = nh
2p
where,n = any positive integer i.e., 1, 2, 3,....
1. IMPACT PARAMETER It is also called principle quantum number.
The perpendicular distance of the velocity vector of 3. Bohr’s Third Postulate : It states that an electron
a -particle from the central line of the nucleus of the might make a transition from one of its specified
atom is called impact parameter b . non-radiating orbits to another of lower energy.
When it does so, a photon is emitted having
b = 1 . Ze2 cot q energy equal to the energy difference between the
4pe 0 EK 2
initial and final states.
The frequency of the emitted photon is then given
2. DISTANCE OF CLOSEST APPROACH
by
The smallest distance of approach of a -particle near hv = Ei - E f
heavy nucleus is a measure of the size of nucleus.
where, Ei and E f are the energies of the initial
Distance of nearest approach . size of nucleus
2 and final states and Ei > E f .
= 4pe
1 2Ze
0E .K
where, EK = kinetic energy of incident a -particle 3.1 Important Terms Related to Bohr’s Model
th
Z = atomic number 1. Radius of n orbit is given by
e = electronic charge e 0 h2 n2
rn =
pmZe2
3. BOHR’S THEORY OF HYDROGEN ATOM For hydrogen atom, Z =1
Bohr combined classical and early quantum concepts e 0 h2 n2
(rn) H =
and gave his theory in the form of three postulates. pme2
The radius of first orbit of hydrogen atom is called
These are
Bohr’s radius. It is denoted by,
1. Bohr’s First Postulate : It states that an electron
in an atom could revolve in certain stable orbits e 0 h2
a0 = = 0.529 # 10-10 m
without the emission of radiant energy, contrary pme2
to the predictions of electromagnetic theory. = 0.529 A c
2. Bohr’s Second Postulate : This postulate states 2. Energy of Orbiting Electron
that the electron revolves around the nucleus only 2
in those orbits for which the angular momentum Kinetic energy, EK = 1 mv2 = 1 Ze
h 2 4pe 0 2r
is some integral multiple of 2p . Where h is the
(Ze) (- e)
Planck’s constant (= 6.6 # 10-34 J-s) .Thus, the Potential energy, U = 1
4pe 0 r
angular momentum (L) of the orbiting electron is
2
quantised, = - 1 Ze
4pe 0 r
i.e., L = nh 2
2p Total energy, E = - 1 Ze
As, angular momentum of electron, 4pe 0 2r
For n th orbit, writing En for E , we have
L = mvr
2
Hence, for any permitted (stationary) orbit, En = - 1 Ze
4pe 0 2rn
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS 3. Which series comes in visible region of hydrogen

spectrum?
(a) Lyman series (b) Balmer series
1. A hydrogen atom makes a transition n = 5 to n = 1
orbit. The wavelength of photon from emitted is l (c) Paschen series (d) Bracket series
. The wavelength of photon emitted when it makes a Ans : OD 2013
transition from n = 5 to n = 2 orbit is When an electron jumps from n th orbit to second
(a) 8 l (b) 16 l orbit in an hydrogen atom then the series emitted is
7 7
balmer series is in visible region.
(c) 24 l (d) 32 l Thus (b) is correct option.
7 7
Ans : OD 2023
4. Rutherfrd’s a -particle experiment showed that the
atoms have
Required formula for calculating wavelength,
(a) proton (b) nucleus
1 =R 1 - 1
l ;n 2 n 2 E (c) neutron (d) electrons
1 2
where, R is the Rydberg constant. Ans : Foreign 2007
Here, n2 = 5, n1 = 1 From Rutherford’s a particle experiment we know

1 = R 1 - 1 = R 24 that the atoms have nucleus and the nucleus contains
l : 25 D b 25 l atoms all the mass of an atom.
or l = 25 = 25 ...(i)
24R 24l 5. According to the Rutherford’s atomic model, the
Now, when n1 = 2, n2 = 5 electrons inside the atom
1 =R 1- 1 (a) stationary (b) not stationary
ll : 4 25D
(c) centralized (d) none of these
1 = R 25 - 4 = R 21
ll b 100 l b 100 l Ans : Delhi 2002
According to Rutherford’s atomic model that the

ll = 100 = 100 # 24 l
21 # R 21 # 25 electron inside the atom are not stationary.
If these electrons would have been stationary, they
= 32 l
7 would have been pulled into the nucleus due to the
Thus (d) is correct option. electrostatic force of attraction between the nucleus
2. The minimum angular momentum of electron in and electrons.
Hydrogen atom will be Thus (b) is correct option.
(a) h Js (b) h Js 6. The hydrogen atom can give spectral lines in the
p 2p Lyman, Balmer and Paschen series. Which of the
(c) hpJs (d) 2ph Js following statement is correct?
Ans : OD 2018, Comp 2005
(a) Balmer series is in the visible region
According to Bohr’s atomic model, the electrons are (b) Paschen series is in the visible region
permitted to circulate only in those orbits in which (c) Lyman series is in the infra-red region
the angular momentum of an electron is an integral
h (d) Balmer series is in the ultraviolet region
multiple of 2p , h being plank’s constant.
Ans : SQP 2009
L = nh Balmer series, all the spectral lines correspond to
2p
When, n =1 transition of electrons from higher excited state to
the orbit having n = 2 i.e., n1 = 2 , n2 = 3 , 4, 5, ...
L = h and maximum wavelength of Balmer series ^n2 = 3h
2p c and minimum wavelength of Balmer
, l max = 6564 A
Hence, the minimum angular momentum of electron
h
series ^n2 = 3h , l min = 3646 A c . These values of
in hydrogen atom will be 2p . maximum and minimum wavelengths indicate that
Thus (b) is correct option. the series lies in the visible region.
Ans : OD 2001
E2 = E21
Radius of ionised beryllium = Radius of hydrogen n
atom.
= - 13.62
Energy level of ground state of hydrogen n1 = 1. ^2 h
Atomic no. of hydrogen atom Z1 = 1. = - 3.4 eV
and atomic no. of beryllium atom Z2 = 4 . Thus (a) is correct option.
Orbital radius of n th orbit, 16. The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is - 13.6 eV
e n2 h2 . What is the potential energy of the electron in this
rn = 0 2
pme Z state?
or n ? Z (a) 0 eV (b) 1 eV
n1 = Z1 = 1 =1 (c) 2 eV (d) - 27.2 eV
Therefore,
n2 Z2 4 2
or n2 = 2n1 = 2 # 1 = 2 Total energy of hydrogen atom in ground state,
where, n2 = Energy level of triply ionised beryllium E = - 13.6 eV
Thus (b) is correct option. Potential energy of the electron in ground state,
14. In which of the following system will the radius of first P = 2#E
orbit be minimum ?
= 2 # ^- 13.6h = - 27.2 eV
(a) hydrogen atom
(b) deuterium atom
17. As the electron in Bohr’s orbit of hydrogen atom
(c) singly ionized helium passes from state n = 2 to n = 1, the kinetic energy
(d) doubly ionized lithium K and the potential energy u change as
Ans : Foreign 2014 (a) K four-fold and u two-fold
Energy level of first orbit, n = 1 (b) K two-fold and u four-fold
Radius of first orbit, (c) K two-fold and u also two-fold
e h2
r = 0 2 ? 1 (d) K four-fold and u also four-fold
pme Z Z
Atomic number of hydrogen atom ^1 H1h , deuterium Ans : OD 2005
atom ^1 H2h , singly ionized helium ^He+h and doubly Initial energy level, n1 = 2
ionized lithium ^Li++h are 1, 1, 2 and 3 respectively. Final energy level, n2 = 1
Since the atomic no. of doubly ionized lithium is Kinetic energy of an electron in the n th orbit,
maximum, therefore radius of first orbit of doubly
ionized lithium will be minimum. Kn = me 4 ? 1
8e 20 n2 h2 n2
and potential energy of an electron in the n th orbit,
15. If the energy of hydrogen atom in ground state is 4
- 13.6 eV , then its energy in the first excited state un = - me 1

2 2 2 ?- 2
4e 0 n h n
will be 2
K1 = n2
(a) - 3.4 eV (b) - 6.8 eV Therefore, dn n
K2 1
(c) - 27.2 eV (d) - 52.4 eV 2

= b1l = 1
Ans : OD 2007
2 4
Energy of hydrogen atom in ground state, or K2 = 4K1
2
E1 = - 13.6 eV u1 = n2
Similarly,
u2 dn n
1
Energy level of a hydrogen atom in its first excited
2
state, = b1l = 1
2 4
n =2
or u2 = 4u1
Therefore energy of hydrogen atom in first excited
state, Thus (d) is correct option.
VERY SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS multiple of h

2p i.e.,
mvr = nh where, n = 1, 2, 3, ...
22. What is the ratio of radii of the orbits corresponding 2p
to first excited state and ground state, in a hydrogen m , v , r are mass, speed and radius of electron
atom? respectively and h being Planck’s constant.
Ans : OD 2021 27. In the Rutherford scattering experiment, the distance
For first excited states n = 2 of closest approach for an a -particles is d0 . If a
Ground state occurs for n = 1 -particles is replaced by a proton, then how much
kinetic energy in comparison to a -particle will be
Hence, rn = r0 n2
required to have the same distance of closest approach
Since, r \ n2 [r0 = 0.53] d0 ?
r1 = n1 2
r2 a n2 k Ans : Delhi 2017
Distance of closest approach,

= b2l
2
2
1 d0 = 2kZe 1
b where, k = 4pe 0 l
Kx
r1 |r2 = 4 | 1
Since, For given distance of closest approach,
Where, r1 and r2 are radii corresponding to first
Kinetic energy ? Z (atomic number)
excited state and ground state of the atom.
K proton Z
23. Define ionisation energy. What is its value for a = proton = 1
Ka Za 2
hydrogen atoms?
K proton : Ka = 1 : 2
Ans : Delhi 2020
The minimum amount of energy required to remove 28. Why is the classical Rutherford model for an atom
an electron from the ground state of the atom is of electron orbiting around the nucleus not able to
known as ionisation energy. explain the atomic structure?
Ionisation energy for hydrogen atom = E3 - E1 Ans : OD 2013
The classical method could not explain the atomic

= - (- 13.6 eV) = 13.6eV
structure as the electron revolving around the nucleus
24. Where is H a -line of the balmer series in the emission are accelerated and emits energy as the result, the
spectrum of hydrogen atom obtained? radius of the circular paths goes on decreasing.
Ans : Comp 2018, SQP 2015 Ultimately electrons fall into the nucleus, which is not
H a -line of the balmer series in the emission spectrum in practical.
of hydrogen atom is obtained in visible region. 29. In the Rutherford scattering experiment, the distance
25. Consider two different hydrogen atoms. The electron of closest approach for an a -particle is d0 . If a -particle
in each atom is in an excited state. Is it possible for is replaced by a proton, then how much kinetic energy
the electrons to have different energies but the same in comparison to a -particle will be required to have
orbital angular momentum according to the Bohr the same distance of closest approach d0 ?
model? Ans : Comp 2021
Ans : Comp 2014 Distance of closest approach

According to Bohr model electrons having different 2
d0 = 2kZe Where, k = 1
energies belong to different levels having different KX 4pe 0
values of n . So, their angular momenta will be Since, for given distance of closest approach, kinetic
different, as energy \ Z (atomic number)
L = nh or L ? n K proton Z
= proton = 1
2p Ka Za 2
26. State Bohr’s quantisation condition for defining K proton : Ka = 1 | 2
stationary orbits.
30. Define ionization energy. How would the ionization
Ans : SQP 2011
energy change when electron in hydrogen atom is
According to Bohr’s quantisation condition, electrons replaced by a particle of mass 200 times that of the
are permitted to revolve in only those orbits in which electron but having the same charge?
the angular momentum of electron is an integral
Excitation Potential 1. This model is applicable only to hydrogenic

It is that accelerating potential which gives to a atoms. It cannot be extended to even two electron
bombarding electron, sufficient energy to excite the atoms such as He.
target atom by raising one of its electrons from an 2. This model is unable to explain the relative
inner to an outer orbit. intensities of the frequencies emitted by hydrogenic
First excitation potential of hydrogen atoms.
3. It does not explain the fine structure of spectral
= - 3.4 - (- 13.6) = 10.2 V
lines even in hydrogen atom.
Second excitation potential of hydrogen 4. It does not explain why only circular orbits should
= - 1.51 - (- 13.6) = 12.09 V be chosen when elliptical orbits are also possible.
Ionisation Potential 5. It does not take into account the wave properties
of electrons.
It is that accelerating potential which gives to a
bombarding electron, sufficient energy the target 37. Write the expression for Bohr’s radius in hydrogen
atom by knocking one of its electrons completely out atom.
of the atom. Ans : Foreign 2015, OD 2003
Ionisation potential of hydrogen Expression for Bohr’s radius in hydrogen atom,
= 0 - (- 13.6) = 13.6 V n2 h2
r =
4p mkZe2
2
35. Describe Rutherford’s model of the atom. Give its
limitations. r = n2 h2
Ans : OD 2020
4p2 mke2
Rutherford’s Model of an Atom where, n = principal quantum number
On the basis of the a -particle scattering experiment, m = mass of electron
Rutherford proposed the following model of an atom: 1
k =
1. An atom consists of a small and massive central 4pe 0
core in which the entire positive charge and almost = 9 # 109 N - m2 /C2
the whole mass of the atom are concentrated.
This core is called the nucleus. Z = atomic number of atom = 1
2. The size of the nucleus (. 10-15 m) is very small
h = Planck’s constant
as compared to the size of atom (. 10-10 m).
3. The nucleus is surrounded by a suitable number 38. In an experiment of a -particle scattering by a thin foil
of electrons so that their total negative charge is of gold, draw a plot showing the number of particle
equal to the total positive charge on the nucleus scattered versus the scattering angle q .
and the atom as a whole is electrically neutral. Why is it that a very small fraction of the particles
4. The electrons revolve around the nucleus in various are scattered at q > 90c ?
orbits just as planets revolve around the sun. The
centripetal force required for their revolution is
provided by the electrostatic attraction between
the electrons and the nucleus.
Limitations of Rutherford’s Atomic Model
Rutherford’s model has two main difficulties in
explaining the structure of atom:
1. It predicts that atoms are unstable because the
accelerated electrons revolving around the nucleus
must radiate energy and move spirally into the
nucleus. This contradicts the stability of matter.
2. It cannot explain the characteristic line spectra of
atoms of different elements.
36. Sate the drawbacks of Bohr’s atomic theory.
Ans : SQP 2013
Ans : Comp 2015
A small fraction of the alpha particles scattered at
Limitations of Bohr’s Atomic Model
angle q > 90c is due to the reason.
Page 504 Atoms Chap 12
de-Broglie hypothesis, this electron is also associated for which the angular momentum is some integral
h
with wave character. Hence a circular orbit can be multiple of 2p , where h is the Plank’s constant
taken to be a stationary energy state only if it contains
(= 6.63 # 10-34 J - s)
an integral number of de-Broglie wavelengths, i.e., we
Thus, the angular momentum (L) of the orbiting
must have
electron is quantised,
2pr = nl
i.e., L = nh
But de-Broglie wavelength, 2p
As, angular momentum of electron = mvr
l = h
mv Hence, for any permitted (stationary) orbit,
Hence, 2pr = nh mvr = nh
mv 2p
The angular momentum L of the electron must be, where, n = any positive integer 1, 2, 3, ....
L = mvr = nh It is also called principal quantum number.
2p 3. Bohr’s Third Postulates states that an electron
n = 1, 2, 3 ..... might make a transition from one of its specified
This is the famous Bohr’s quantisation condition for non-radiating orbits to another of lower energy,
angular momentum. Thus only those circular orbits When it does so, a photon is emitted having
energy equal to the energy difference between the
can be the allowed stationary states of an electron in
initial and final states.
which its angular momentum is an integral multiple
of 2ph . The frequency of the emitted photon is given by
hv = Ei - E f
where, Ei and E f are the energies of the initial
and final states and Ei > E f .
Hydrogen Spectrum or Line Spectra of Hydrogen
Atom
Hydrogen spectrum consists of discrete bright lines
in a dark background and it is specifically known
as hydrogen emission spectrum. There is one more
type of hydrogen spectrum that exists where we get
dark lines on the bright background, it is known as
absorption spectrum.
Blamer found an empirical formula by the observation
of a small part of this spectrum and it is represented
LONG ANSWER QUESTIONS by.
1 =R 1 - 1
46. Give postulates of Bohr’s theory. Explain hydrogen l b 22 n2 l
spectrum on the basis of Bohr’s theory.
where, n = 3, 4, 5 , ...
Ans : SQP 2015
and, R = is a constant called Rydberg constant
Bohr combined classical and early quantum concepts
and gave his theory in the form of three postulates. and its value is 1.097 # 107 m-1
These three postulates are as follows: 1 = 1.522 106 m-1
So, #
1. Bohr’s First Postulate was that an electron in an l
atom could revolve in certain stable orbits without = 656.3 nm for n = 3
the emission of radiant energy, contrary to the
Other series of spectra for hydrogen were subsequently
predictions of electromagnetic theory. According
discovered and known by the name of their discoverers.
to this postulate, each atom has certain definite
stable states in which it can exist and each The lines of Balmer series are found in the visible
possible state has definite total energy. These are part of the spectrum. Other series were found in the
called the stationary states of the atom. invisible parts of the spectrum.
2. Bohr’s Second Postulate states that the electron e.g. Lyman series in the ultraviolet region and
revolves around the nucleus only in those orbits Paschen, Brackett and Pfund in the infrared region.
Observations
Rutherford made the following observations from his
experiment that are given below
1. Most of the a -particles passed through the gold
foil without any appreciable deflection.
2. Only about 0.14% of the incident a -particles
scattered by more than 1c.
3. About one a -particle in every 8000 a -particles
deflected by more than 90c. Ans : Delhi 2019
The total number of a -particles (N) scattered 1. Only those orbits are stable for which the angular
through an angle (q) is as shown in the below momentum of revolving electron is an integral
figure: multiple of ^ 2p
h
h, where h is the planck’s constant.
Thus, the angular momentum (L) of the orbiting
electron is quantised. That is,
L = nh
2p
According to de-Broglie hypothesis
Linear momentum = h and for circular orbit,
l
L = rn P
where, rn is the radius of quantised orbits a
= rn h .
l
Also, L = nh
2p
Hence, rn h = nh
4. The number of a -particles scattered per unit area l 2p
4
N (q) at scattering angle q varies inversely as sin2 q or 2prn = nl
.
Hence, circumference of permitted orbits are
N (q) ? 1 sin 4 q integral multiples of the wavelength.
2
2. EC - EB = hc ...(1)
5. The force between a -particles and nucleus is l1
given by,
EB - EA = hc ...(2)
(2e) (Ze) l2
F = 1 .
4pe 0 r2 EC - EA = hc ...(3)
l3
Where, r is the distance between the a -particles
Adding (1) and (2), we have
and the nucleus. This force is directed along the line
joining the a -particle and the nucleus. The magnitude EC - EA = hc + hc ...(4)
l1 l 2
and direction of this force on a -particle continuously
From (3) and (4), we have
changes as it approaches the nucleus and recedes away
from it. hc = hc + hc
l3 l1 l 2
49. 1. State Bohr’s quantization condition for defining 1 = 1 + 1
stationary orbits. How does the Broglie hypothesis, l3 l1 l 2
explain the stationary orbits?
2. Find the relation between the three wavelengths l 3 = l1l 2
l1 + l 2
l 1 , l 2 and l 3 from the energy level diagram
shown below. 50. What is the energy level diagram for an atom?
Calculate the energies of the various energy levels of
a hydrogen atom and draw and energy level diagram
for it.
1 $ 2pe2 = e2 $ 1 Energy ejected when electron jumps from one energy

=
4pe 0 nh 2e 0 h n state to another energy state,
2
v = e $1 E = - 13.6 < 12 - 12 F
2e 0 h n n1 n 2
(1.6 # 10-19) 2
= - 13.6 ; 12 - 12 E
1
= b l
2 # 8.85 # 10-12 # 6.63 # 10-34 n 3 2
6
= 2.18 # 10 m/s 1
= - 13.6 ; - E 1
n 9 4
For n = 2 , = - 13.6 # - 5
36
6
v2 = 2.18 # 10 = 1.09 # 106 m/s = 1.9 eV
2
6 55. The ground state energy of hydrogen is - 13.6 eV.
For n = 3 , v3 = 2.18 # 10 = 7.27 # 105 m/s What is the kinetic and potential energies of the
3
Obviously the speed of electron goes on decreasing electron in this state?
with increasing n . or
53. In a Geiger-marsdon experiment, calculate the Given the value of the ground state energy of hydrogen
difference of closest approach to the nucleus of Z = 80 atom as - 13.6 eV , find out its kinetic and potential
when an a -particles of 8 MeV energy impinges on it energy in the ground and second excited states ?
before it comes to momentarily rest and reverses its Ans : Delhi 2021, Foreign 2010
direction. 2
Kinetic energy, EK = 1 mv2 = 1 $ e ...(1)
How will the distance of closest approach be affected 2 4pe 0 2r
when the kinetic energy of the a -particle is doubled? 2
Potential energy, U = - 1 $ e ...(2)
Ans : OD 2021 4pe 0 r
2
Given, Z = 80 , EK = K = 8 MeV Total energy, E = EK + U = - 1 e ...(3)
4pe 0 2r
6 -19
= 8 # 10 # 1.6 # 10 J Comparing equations (1), (2), (3), we have
Energy conservation law, EK = - E and U = 2E
(Ze) (2e)
K = Given, E = - 13.6 eV
4pe 0 r0
where, r0 = distance of closest approach. For ground state n =1
r0 = 2Ze2 Hence, kinetic energy, EK = 13.6 eV

4pe 0 (K)
Potential energy, U = 2 # (- 13.6 eV)
9
r0 = 9 # 10 # 2 # 80 # (1.6 # 10-19) 2
6 -19
8 # 10 # 1.6 # 10 = - 27.2 eV
-14
r0 = 2.88 # 10 m For second excited state, n =3
r0 = 1 EK = - E
K
If EK gets doubled, distance of closest approach = + 13.6 eV = 1.51 eV
9
reduces to half.
and U = 2E
54. The energy E of a hydrogen atom with principal
quantum no. n is given by E = - 13n.6 eV . Find the 2 # (- 13.6 eV)
2 =
energy ejected when the electron jumps from n = 3 9
state to n = 2 state of hydrogen. = - 3.02 eV
Ans : 56. What is the ratio of radii of the orbits corresponding
Relation for energy, E = - 13.26 eV to first excited state and ground state, in a hydrogen
n atom?
(where, n is quantum no.) Ans : Comp 2019
Initial energy level, n1 = 3 For first excited states, n =2

Final energy level, n2 = 2 Ground state occurs for, n =1
EK = 1 (Ze) (2e) = 9.116 # 10-8 m - 912 A

c
4pe 0 r
63. A 12.5 eV electron beam is used to bombard gaseous
or r = 1 $ 2Ze2
4pe 0 EK hydrogen at room temperature. Upto which energy
9 2 level the hydrogen atoms would be excited ? Calculate
= 9 # 10 # 2 # 80e the wavelengths of the first members of Lyman and
4.5 MeV
9 -19 first member of Balmer series.
= 9 # 10 # 2 # 80 #6 1.6 # 10 Ans : OD 2016
4.5 # 10
The energy of gaseous hydrogen at room temperature
= 9 # 160 # 16 # 10-16
4.5 are,
= 512 # 10-16 m E1 = - 13.6 eV
-14
= 5.12 # 10 m E2 = - 3.4 eV
61. In the ground state of hydrogen atom, its Bohr radius E3 = - 1.51 eV
is given as 5.3 # 10-11 m . The atom is excited such
E 4 = - 0.85 eV
that the radius becomes 21.2 # 10-11 m . Find:
1. The value of the principal quantum number. E3 - E1 = - 1.51 - (- 13.6) = 12.09 eV
2. Total energy of the atom in this excited state. and E 4 - E1 = - 0.85 - (- 13.6) = 12.75 eV
Ans : OD 2017 As both the values does not match the given value,
1. Given, r1 = 5.3 # 10-11 m but it is nearest to E 4 - E1 .
r2 = 21.2 # 10-11 m Hence, upto E 4 energy level the hydrogen atoms
would be excited.
n1 = 1 Lyman Series
, r ? n2
; 2
1 =R 1 - 1
l
E
r1 = n 2
1
1 n2
r2 n 2
2 For first member, n = 2
n1 = 1 1 =R 1 - 1
Hence,
l1
; 2 E
1 = 5.3 # 10 -11 1 22
n 22 21.2 # 10-11 = 1.097 # 107 ; 4 - 4 E
4
n 22 = 4
l 1 = 1.215 # 10-7 m
n2 = 2
Balmer Series
2. E = - 132 .6
n ; 2
1 =R 1 - 1
l
E
2 n2
= - 13 .6 = - 3.4 eV
4 For first member, n = 3
Calculate the wavelength of radiation emitted when
; 2
1 =R 1 - 1
E
62.
Hence,
electron in a hydrogen atom jumps from n = 3 to l1 2 32
n = 1.
Ans : = 1.097 # 107 ; 1 - 1 E
Comp 2013 4 9
As we know that, 1 = R ; 12 - 12 E l 1 = 6.56 # 10-7 m
l n1 n 2
64. Calculate the shortest wavelength in the Balmer
Where, n1 = 1
series of hydrogen atom. In which region (infrared
n2 = 3 visible, ultraviolet) of hydrogen spectrum does this
1 =R 1 - 1 wavelength lie?
l
; 2 E
1 32 Ans : Comp 2018, OD 2011
1 =R Since, we know that for Balmer series,
l
1 = R 1 - 1 , n = 3 , 4, 5, ...
c 22 n 2 m 2
l = 1 = 1 m l 2
R 1.097 # 107
For shortest wavelength in Balmer series, the spectral
2
The ground state energy of hydrogen atom is -13.6 eV.
E = EK + U = - 1 e
70.
Total energy, ...(3)
4pe 0 2r If an electron makes a transition from an energy level
Comparing equation (1), (2), (3), we have -0.85 eV to 3.4 eV , Calculate the wavelength of the
spectral line emitted. To which series of hydrogen
EK = - E and U = 2E
spectrum does this wavelength belong?
Given, E = - 13.6 eV Ans : Delhi 2013
[For ground state, n = 1] We have En = - 13 . 6 eV ...(1)

Hence, Kinetic energy, EK = 13.6 eV n2
For, n = 1, E1 = - 13.6 eV
Potential energy, U = 2 # (- 13.6 eV)
When electron undergoes transition from,
= - 27.2 eV
EA = 0.85 eV to EB = - 3.4 eV
For second excited state, n =3
Then, from equation (1),
Hence, EK = - E = + 13.6 eV = 1.51 eV
9 - 0.85 = - 132 .6
and U = 2E nA
nA = 4
2 # (- 13.6 eV)
= = - 3.02 eV
9 Similarly, - 3.4 = - 132 .6
nB
69. The electron in a given Bohr orbit has a total energy
of - 1.5 eV. Calculate its nB = 2
1. Kinetic energy Hence, electron transits from n = 4 to n = 2 . It
2. Potential energy corresponds to Balmer series.
3. Wavelength of radiation emitted, when this 1 =R 1 - 1
l cn2 n2 m
electron makes a transition to the ground state. B A
(Given, energy in the ground state = - 13.6 eV and Here, nA = 4 , nB = 2 , R = 1.097 # 107 m-1
Rydberg’s constant = 1.09 # 107 m-1 )
1 = 1.097 107 1 - 1
Ans : OD 2017
Then,
l # b 22 42 l
1. The kinetic energy EK of the electron in an orbit c
l = 4862 A
is equal to negative of its total energy E .
EK = - E 71. The value of ground state energy of hydrogen atom
is - 13.6 eV.
= - (- 1.5) = 1.5 eV
1. Find the energy required to move an electron
2. The potential energy U of the electron in an orbit from the ground state to the first excited state of
is equal to twice its total energy E . the atom.
i.e., U = 2E 2. Determine (a) the kinetic energy and (b) orbital
= - 1.5 # 2 = - 3 eV radius in the first excited state of the atom.
[Given, the value of bohr’s radius = 0.53 A c]
3. As, a result of transition of electron from excited
state of ground state. Ans : OD 2015, Comp 2011
Energy of radiation = - 1.5 - (- 13.6) 1. Energy of electron in n th orbit of hydrogen atom.

Hence, Ground state energy of H -atom En = - 132 .6 eV
= - 13.6 eV n
For n = 1,
E = hv = h v
l E1 = 13.6 eV
hc = 12.1 eV = energy of radiation
l For n = 2,
1 = 12.1 # 1.6 # 10-19 E2 = - 13.6 = - 3.4 eV

Hence, 4
l 6.62 # 10-34 # 3 # 108
Energy required to move an electron
l = 1.025 # 10-7 m = E2 - E1 = - 3.4 - (- 13.6)
c
= 1025 A = - 3.4 + 13.6 = 10.2 eV
Ans : OD 2012, 15
1 =R 1 - 1
H=
Given, 6563 ^2h2 ^3 h2 G
Energy of a -particle,
= RH ; 1 - 1 E
E = 5 MeV 4 9
= ^5 # 106h # ^1.6 # 10-19h = 5RH ...(1)

36
= 8 # 10-13 J Similarly, relation for the wavelength of second
Atomic no. of uranium Z = 90 . member in Balmer series l 2 is,
Distance of the closet approach, 1 =R 1 - 1
H=
2
l2 ^2h2 ^n2h2 G
r = k # 2Ze
E = 1 # RH = 1 2 - 1 2 G
where, k = Electrostatic force constant equal to
l2 ^2 h ^4 h
= RH ; 1 - 1 E
9
9 # 10
4 16
2 # 92 # (1.6 # 10) 2
= (9 # 109 ) #
8 # 10-13 = 3RH ...(2)
16
-14
= 5.3 # 10 m Dividing equation (1) and (2),
1 5RH
= 5.3 # 10-12 cm 6563
= 36
1 3RH
Therefore, distance to the closest approach is of the l2 16
order of 10-12 cm . l2 = 5 16 = 80
6563 36 # 3 108
76. In a hydrogen atom, when an electron jumps from
second orbit to first orbit, What is the wavelength of l 2 = 6563 # 80 = 4861 A
c
108
spectral line emitted by hydrogen atom?
Ans : Comp 2018
78. If the atom 100 Fm257 follows the Bohr’s atomic model
and radius of 100 Fm257 is m times the Bohr radius,
Initial energy level, n1 = 2 what is the value of m ?
Final energy level, n2 = 1 Ans : OD 2019, Foreign 2015
Change in energy, DE = - 13.6 < 12 - 12 F Atom = 100 Fm257

n1 n 2
Radius of atoms, rn = mr0 (where, r0 is Bohr radius)
= - 13.6 = 1 2 - 1 2 G
^ 2 h ^1 h Principal quantum no. of 100 Fm257 atom,
-
= - 13.6 ; 3 E n =5
4 257
Radius of 100 Fe atom,
= 10.2 eV
n2 r0
Wavelength of emitted spectral line, rn =
Z
l = 12375 n2 r0
DE or mr0 =
Z
= 12375 c
= 1213 A
10.2 2 ^5h2
or m =n =
77. The first member of Balmer’s series of hydrogen has a Z 100
wavelength of 6563 Ac . What is the wavelength of its = 25 = 1
100 4
second member?
Ans : SQP 2010 79. Atomic radius of first orbit of hydrogen atom is 0.53 A c
In Balmer series, first wavelength corresponds to . What is the radius of its fifth orbit?
n1 = 3 and second wavelength corresponds to n2 = 4 . Ans : Delhi 2009
Relation for the wavelength of first member in Balmer Radius of first orbit, c
r1 = 0.53 A ;
series l 1 is,
Initial energy level, n1 = 1 and
1 =R 1 - 1
H=
l1 ^2h2 ^n1h2 G Final energy level, n2 = 5
Bohr’s atomic model that radius of n th orbit,
using any chemical means because it is the basic prediction based on the assumption that the target
building block of an element. Every state of matter atom has a small, dense, positively charged nucleus.
solid, liquid, gas, and plasma is composed of either Many of the a -particles pass through the foil. It means
atom either it is neutral (unionized), or ionized that they do not suffer any collisions. Only about
atoms. An atom is made up of three particles known 0.14% of the incident a -particles scatter by more
as protons, neutrons, and electrons. And these than 1c; and about 1 in 8000 deflect by more than
particles are also made up from sub-particles. Among 90c. Rutherford argued that, to deflect the a -particle
these three particles, protons have a positive charge backwards, it must experience a large repulsive force.
while electrons carry a negative charge and the third This force could be provided if the greater part of
particle neutrons have no electrical charge. And the the mass of the atom and its positive charge were
charge of atoms depends on the number of protons concentrated tightly at its centre. Then the incoming
and electrons, i.e. an atom is electrically neutral if the a -particle could get very close to the positive charge
number of protons and electrons are equal. If an atom without penetrating it, and such a close encounter
has more or fewer electrons than protons, then it has would result in a large deflection. This agreement
an overall negative or positive charge, respectively. supported the hypothesis of the nuclear atom. This is
These atoms are extremely small or you can say why Rutherford is credited with the discovery of the
their typical sizes are around 100 picometers. So the nucleus.
dense region consisting of protons and neutrons at the In Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom, the entire
center of an atom is known as the atomic nucleus of positive charge and most of the mass of the atom are
an atom. Every atom is composed of such nucleus and concentrated in the nucleus with the electrons some
some elections will be surrounding it. Studying these distance away. The electrons would be moving in
atoms and Nuclei will help us to have a thorough orbits about the nucleus just as the planets do around
understanding of matter. Studying about the nucleus the sun. Rutherford’s experiments suggested the size
and its reactions will help us to understand more of the nucleus to be about 10-15 m to 10-14 m . From
about nuclear energy, which is a very useful renewable kinetic theory, the size of an atom was known to be
energy. That’s why it is very important to study about 10-10 m , about 10,000 to 100,000 times larger than the
Atoms and Nuclei. size of the nucleus. Thus, the electrons would seem
to be at a distance from the nucleus of about 10,000
to 100,000 times the size of the nucleus itself. Thus,
most of an atom is empty space. With the atom being
largely empty space, it is easy to see why most a
-particles go right through a thin metal foil. However,
when a -particle happens to come near a nucleus, the
intense electric field there scatters it through a large
angle. The atomic electrons, being so light, do not
appreciably affect the a -particles. The scattering
data shown in fig. can be analysed by employing
Rutherford’s nuclear model of the atom. As the gold
foil is very thin, it can be assumed that a -particles
(i) What is the basic unit of matter? will suffer not more than one scattering during their
(ii) Which particle is responsible for the ionization of passage through it. Therefore, computation of the
the atom? trajectory of an alpha-particle scattered by a single
(iii) Which is the most dense part of an atom? nucleus is enough. Alpha particles are nuclei of helium
Ans : Comp 2009 atom. The charge of the gold nucleus is Ze , where Z
(i) Atom. is the atomic number of the atom; for gold Z = 79
(ii) Electron. . Since the nucleus of gold is about 50 times heavier
(iii) The region at the center of atom containing than a -particle, it is reasonable to assume that it
neutrons and protons. remains stationary throughout the scattering process.
Under these assumptions, the trajectory of an alpha-
83. A typical graph of the total number of a -particles particle can be computed employing Newton’s second
scattered at different angles, in a given interval of law of motion and the coulomb’s law for electrostatic
time, is shown in fig. The dots in this figure represent force of repulsion between the alpha-particle and the
the data points and the solid curve is the theoretical positively charged nucleus.
Page 518 Nuclei Chap 13
CHAPTER 13
Nuclei
SUMMARY 4. MASS ENERGY EQUIVALENCE RELATION

According to Einstein, the mass and energy are
equivalent i.e., mass can be converted into energy and
1. ATOMIC MASSES vice-versa. The mass energy equivalence relation is
The masses of atoms, nuclei, etc., are expressed in E = mc2
terms of atomic mass unit represented by amu or u . Accordingly, 1 kg mass, is equivalent to energy
For this mass of C-12 is taken as standard. = 1 # (3 # 108) 2
mass of one 12C 6 atom = 9 # 1016 joules
i.e., 1u =
12
= 1.660565 # 10-27 Kg and 1 amu (= 1
6.02 # 1026
kg) mass is equivalent to energy
931 MeV .
Mass of proton, m p = 1.00727 u
5. BINDING ENERGY
Mass of neutron, mn = 1.00866 u
The binding energy of a nucleus is defined as the
Mass of electron, me = 0.000549 u
minimum energy required to separate its nucleons and
2. COMPOSITION OF NUCLEUS place them at rest and infinite distance apart. Using
Einstein’s mass-energy relation,
The composition of a nucleus can be described by
TE = (Tm) c2
using the following terms and symbols.
1. Atomic Number (Z ) : Atomic mass number of an TE = [Zm p + (A - Z ) mn - M ] c2
element is the number of protons present inside 1 amu , 931.5 MeV
nucleus of an atom of the element
The difference in mass of nucleus and its constituents
Atomic number = Number of protons is called mass defect.
= Number of electrons
6. BINDING ENERGY PER NUCLEON
2. Mass Number (A) : (Atomic mass) Mass number
of an element is the total number of protons and This mass defect is in the form of binding energy of
neutrons inside the atomic nucleus of the element. nucleus, which is responsible for binding the nucleons
Mass number into a small nucleus.
= Number of protons + Number of neutrons Hence, Binding energy of nucleus = (Tm) c2
= Number of electrons + Number of neutrons (Tm) 2
and Binding energy per nucleon = c
A
i.e., A = Z+N
3. SIZE OF NUCLEUS 7. NUCLEAR ENERGY
According to experimental observations, the radius of Transmutation of less stable into more tightly bound
the nucleus of an atom of mass number A is nuclei provides excellent possibility of releasing
nuclear energy.
R = R0 A1/3
Two distinct ways of obtaining energy from nucleus
where, R0 = 1.2 # 10-15 m = 1.2 fm are given as below
Atomic number, Z = 90 9. Elements having different atomic number as well as

Hence, N = 230 - 90 different mass number, but same number of neutrons,
are known as
= 140
(a) isobars (b) isotones
(c) isotopes (d) isodiaphers
5. As the mass number A increase which of the following Ans : OD 2007
quantities related to a nucleus does not change? The elements having different atomic number as
(a) Mass (b) Volume well as different mass number, but same number of
(c) Density (d) Binding energy neutrons, are known as isotones.
Ans : OD 2009 Thus (b) is correct option.
Density of nuclear matter is the ratio of mass of 10. If elements with principal quantum n > 4 were not
nucleus and its volume. It is given by, allowed in nature, the number of possible elements
would have been
r = 3m 3
4pR 0 (a) 4 (b) 32
Hence density is not depends on the mass number
(c) 60 (d) 64
therefore when mass number A increase than density
remains constant. Ans : Delhi 2014
Thus (c) is correct option. Principal quantum number allowed in nature, n = 4 .

Number of possible elements for principal quantum
6. The isotopes have number,
(a) same atomic number and mass number 4
(b) same mass number but different atomic number

N = / 2n 2
n=1
(c) different atomic number and mass number = 2 6^1 h2 + ^2 h2 + ^3 h2 + ^4 h2@

(d) same atomic number but different mass number = 2 630@ = 60
Ans : SQP 2017 Thus (c) is correct option.
Isotopes of an element have same atomic number, but
11. For uranium nucleus, how does its mass vary with
different masses number.
volume ?
(a) m ? V (b) m ? V 2
7. The elements with same atomic mass, but different (c) m ? V (d) m ? 1
atomic number, are called V
(a) isobars (b) isotones Ans : SQP 2012
(c) isotopes (d) isochores Mass of nucleus, m = Density # Volume

Ans : Foreign 2016, OD 2005 = rV
The elements with same atomic mass, but different Since density of nucleus is constant, therefore its mass
atomic nos., are called isobars. varies with volume i.e., m ? V .
8. Which of the following is an essential requirement for 12. Numerically, 1 Curie is equal to
initiating a fusion reaction? (a) 3.7 # 107 dps (b) 3.7 # 106 dps
(a) critical mass (b) thermal neutrons (c) 3 # 1010 dps (d) 3.7 # 1010 dps
(c) high temperature (d) critical temperature Ans : OD 2016
10
Ans : Delhi 2008 1 Curie = 3.7 # 10 dps
In a fusion reaction, two or more light nuclei get fused It is the unit of rate of decay of a radioactive substance.
together to form a heavy nucleus, if they possess Thus (d) is correct option.
sufficiently high kinetic energy to overcome the force
13. If A is the mass number of an element, then volume of
of repulsion and they can possess high kinetic energy
the nucleus of an atom of this element is proportional
only at very high temperature (of the order of 108 C ).
to
19. An element has binding energy 8 eV per nucleon. If it Ans :

has total binding energy of 128 eV, then the number Half life of radioactive substance is 40 days. It means
of nucleons are 50% substance decays in 40 days. During this period
(a) 8 (b) 16 rate of decay is on decrease, So, 25% decay must have
taken place is less than 20 days.
(c) 32 (d) 64
1 n
Ans : Delhi 2011 N = N0 b 2 l
Binding energy per nucleon = 8 eV time elapsed
where, n =
and Total binding energy = 128 eV half life period
Number of nucleons, Thus (d) is correct option.
Total binding energy 22. Assertion : Separation of isotope is possible because of
N = the difference in electron numbers of isotope.
Binding energy per nucleon
Reason : Isotope of an element can be separated by
= 128 = 16
8 using a mass spectrometer.
Thus (b) is correct option. (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the
ASSERTION AND REASON is not a correct explanation of the Assertion.
(c) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
20. Assertion : Isobars are the elements having same mass (d) The Assertion is incorrect but the Reason is
number but different atomic number. correct.
Reason : Neutrons and protons are present inside Ans :
nucleus. Isotope of an element can be separated by using a
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the mass spectrometer because isotopes have different
Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. atomic mass. Alternative (e) is correct.
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason Thus (d) is correct option.
is not a correct explanation of the Assertion. 23. Assertion : It is not possible to use 35 Cl as the fuel for
(c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. fusion energy.
(d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect. Reason : The binding energy of 35 Cl is too small.
Ans : (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the
By definition, isobars are elements having same mass
number but different atomic number. Presence of (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
neutron and proton inside nucleus has nothing to do is not a correct explanation of the Assertion.
with this definition. (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
Thus (b) is correct option. (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
21. Assertion : If the half life of a radioactive substance is Ans :
40 days then 25% substance decay in 20 days. Since, 35 Cl is stable so binding energy is high. So it is
1 n not capable of disintegration.
Reason : N = N0 b 2 l
time elapsed Assertion : Radioactive nuclei emit b- particles.
where, n = 24.
half life period
Reason : Electrons exist inside the nucleus.
(c) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
(d) The Assertion is incorrect but the Reason is
correct. (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
Ans : (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the
Cobalt 60 is radioactive isotope of cobalt. g -radiation Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
emitted by it is used in radiation therapy is cancer as
it destroys cancerous cells.
30. Assertion : Heavy water is a better moderator than (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
normal water.
Ans :
Reason : Heavy water absorbs neutrons more
Absorption transition
efficiently than normal water.
Ans : Two possibilities in absorption transition.
Heavy water has better ability to slow down neutrons
by elastic collision between their protons and neutrons
hence they are better moderators. Heavy water does
not absorb neutrons.
31. Assertion : 90 Sr from the radioactive fall out from

a nuclear bomb ends up in the bones of human Three possibilities in emission transition. Therefore,
beings through the milk consumed by them. It cause absorption transition < emission.
impairment of the production of red blood cells. Thus (a) is correct option.
Reason : The energetic b -particles emitted in the 33. Assertion : Energy is released in nuclear fission.
decay of 90 Sr damage the bone marrow. Reason : Total binding energy of the fission fragments
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the is larger than the total binding energy of the parent
Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. nucleus.
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the
is not a correct explanation of the Assertion. Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
(c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect. (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
(d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect. is not a correct explanation of the Assertion.
Ans : (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
RBC of blood are produced in the bone marrow. The (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
radiation from the radioactive substances destroys of Ans :
bone marrow which result in hampered production of Total binding energy of fragment nucleus is more than
RBC. total binding energy of parent nucleus. Since, binding
Thus (a) is correct option. energy results in decrease of total energy. Hence there
is great decrease in energy fragment nucleus because
32. Assertion : Between any two given energy levels, the
energy is released in nuclear fission.
number of absorption transitions is always less than
the number of emission transitions. A $ B + E
(Parent) (Fragment) (Energy)
Reason : Absorption transitions start from the lowest
Energy of B is decrease but the binding energy of
energy level only and may end at any higher energy
B is increased due to release of energy from it. So,
level. But emission transitions may start from any
reason supports the assertion.
higher energy level and end at any energy level below
it. Thus (a) is correct option.
can overcome their mutual coulombic repulsions is concentrated in the nucleus. According to proton-
and come closer than the range of nuclear force. neutron hypothesis proposed by Heisenberg in 1932,
That is why a fusion reaction is also called a protons and neutrons are the main building blocks
thermonuclear reaction. of the nuclei of all atoms. Thus a nucleus of mass
2. High density or pressure increases the frequency number A and atomic number Z contains Z protons
of collision of light nuclei and hence increases the and (A-Z ) neutrons. The protons give positive charge
rate of fusion. to the nucleus, while protons and neutrons together
43. A chain reaction dies out sometimes. Why? give it mass. To neutralise the positive charge of the
Ans : OD 2003
nucleus, i.e., to make the atom electrically neutral,
the number of extra-nuclear electrons is Z .
A chain reaction may die out due to any of the
following causes: Proton
1. Excessive neutron leakage if the size of the It is a fundamental particle having a positive charge
fissionable material is smaller than the critical 1.6 # 10-19 C and a rest mass of 1.6726 # 10-27 kg . It
size. has an intrinsic (spin) angular momentum equal to
2. Fast neutrons may escape the fissionable material 1/2 and a magnetic moment much smaller than that
without causing further fissions. of an electron.
3. Some neutrons may suffer non-fission capture by Neutron
238 U nuclei.
92
It is a changeless fundamental particle having rest
mass of 1.6749 # 10-27 kg . Its intrinsic angular
momentum is equal to 1/2. It also possesses a small
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS magnetic moment.
46. What is mass defect of a nucleus? Express it

44. How is the size of a nucleus estimated? Write the mathematically. What light does it throw on the
relation between the radius of a nucleus and its mass binding energy of nucleus?
number. Ans : OD 2012, SQP 2007
Ans : OD 2005 The difference between the rest mass of a nucleus and
A nucleus can be considered to be spherical in the sum of the rest masses of its constituent nucleons
shape. By performing scattering experiments using is called its mass defect.
high energy electrons, we can determine its radius Consider the nucleus ZA X . It has Z protons and
accurately. (A - Z ) neutrons. Therefore, its mass defect will be,
Experimental observations show that the volume of a Tm = Zm p + (A - Z ) mn - m
nucleus is directly proportional to its mass number. If
where, m p , mn and m are the rest masses of a proton,
R is the radius of a nucleus having mass number A,
neutron and the nucleus ZA X respectively.
then
When a nucleus is formed from its nucleons, some
4 pR2 ? A
3 of their mass is converted into energy which binds
the nucleons together inside the nucleus. This energy,
or R ? A1/3
called binding energy, is equivalent of mass defect.
or R = R0 A1/3 47. What are nuclear forces? Give their important
Thus, the radius R of a nucleus is proportional to the properties.
cube root of its mass number. The value of constant Ans : OD 2010
R0 depends on the nature of probe particles. The strong attractive forces acting between the
For electrons, R0 = 1.2 # 10-15 m = 1.2 fm protons and neutrons of a nucleus which keep them
bound together inside the tiny nucleus are called
45. Briefly describe proton-neutron hypothesis of nuclear
nuclear forces.
composition.
The important properties of nuclear forces are as
Ans : OD 2018
follows:
Composition of a Nucleus
1. Nuclear forces are the strongest attractive forces
An atom has a positively charged nucleus. The radius known in nature,
of the nucleus is smaller than the radius of an atom
by a factor of 10 4 More than 99% mass of the atom FG : FE : FN = 1 : 1036 : 1038
52. What is nuclear fission? Explain how a chain reaction 54. Define multiplication factor of a fissionable mass.
can occur in a fissionable material? Give its physical significance.
Ans : OD 2012 Ans : OD 2008
Nuclear fission is a peculiar type of reaction which, The multiplication factor of a fissionable mass is
besides the other fission products, produces the same defined as the ratio of the number of neutrons present
kind of particles that initiate it, viz., neutrons. at the beginning of a particular generation to the
number of neutrons present at the beginning of the
previous generation.
Thus,
Number of neutrons present at
the beginning of one generation
k =
Number of neutrons present at the
beginning of previous generation
The multiplication factor k gives a measure of the
growth rate of the neutrons in a fissionable mass.
If k > 1, the chain reaction grows.
If k = 1, the chain reaction remains steady.
If k < 1, the chain reaction gradually dies out.
55. How the size of a nucleus is experimentally determined?
Write the relation between the radius and mass
number of the nucleus. Show that the density of
A Chain Reaction in 235 U nucleus is independent of its mass number.
92
When a single 235
92 U nucleus captures a neutron, its The size of the nucleus is experimentally determined
fission produces 2.5 neutrons. These freshly produced using Rutherford’s a -scattering experiment and the
neutrons can further cause the fission of more distance of closest approach and impact parameter.
uranium nuclei, producing still more neutrons, which The relation between radius and mass number of
can further cause the fission of a larger number of nucleus is
nuclei and so on. The number of fissions taking place
at each successive stage goes on increasing at a rapid R = R0 A1/3
rate (rather in a geometric progression). Thus a chain where, R0 = 1.2 Fm
reaction is set up, as illustrated in figure. Enrico Fermi
A = mass number
first suggested possibility of such a reaction in 1939.
R = radius of nucleus
53. What are uncontrolled and controlled chain reactions?
Ans : OD 2006 Nuclear density, r = Mass of nucleus
Volume of nucleus
Uncontrolled Chain Reaction
If a chain reaction is started in a fissionable material = 4 mA 1/3 3
3 p (R 0 A )
having mass greater than certain critical mass, then
the reaction will accelerate at such a rapid rate that where, m = mass of each nucleon
the whole material will explode within a microsecond, mA = m
Hence, r =
liberating a huge amount of energy. Such a chain 4
3 pR 03 A 3
3 pR 0
4
reaction is called uncontrolled chain reaction. It forms From the above formula, it is clear that r does not
the underlying principle of the atomic bombs. depend on the mass number.
Controlled Chain Reaction
56. What are the utilities of moderator, coolant and
The chain reaction can be controlled and maintained
controlling rods with reference to unclear reactor?
steady by absorbing a suitable number of neutrons at
Ans : OD 2014
each stage of the reaction, so that on an average one
neutron remains available for exciting further fission. 1. Moderator : It is a medium to slow down the
Such a reaction is called controlled chain principle of fast moving secondary neutrons produce during
the fission. Heavy water, graphite, deuterium,
a controlled chain reaction.
paraffins, etc., acts as moderator.
reasons, the two process (in terms of A, B, C, D A is the mass number of the element.
and E ), one of which can occur due to nuclear
Volume of the nucleus = 4 pR3
fission and the other due to nuclear fusion. 5
2. Identify the nature of the radioactive radiations = 4 (pR0 A1/3) 3
emitted in each step of the decay process given 5
below, 4
= pR 03 A
3
A
Z X $ ZA--24 Y " ZA--14 W Put the value in eq. (1)
Thus, density of nucleus = mA = 3m 3
4 pR 3 A 4pR 0
0
3
As, m and R0 are constants, therefore density of
the nuclear matter is the same for all elements.
Now, using m = 1.66 # 10-27 kg.
-27
= 3 # 1.66 #3 10
4pR 0
Using, R0 = 1.1 # 10-15 m and
density = 2.97 # 1017 kg m-3
Which shows that the density is independent of
mass number A.
Ans : OD 2004
1. Nuclear fission of E to D and C ; as there is an 63. Distinguish between nuclear fission and fusion.
increase in binding energy per nucleon. Show how in both these processes energy is released.
Nucleon fusion of A and B into C ; as there is an Calculate the energy release in MeV in the deuterium
increase in binding energy per nucleon. fusion reaction.
2. First step a particle, as the atomic number 2
1 H + 31H $ 42He + n
decreases by 2 and mass number decreases by 4.
Using the data
Second step b particle, as the atomic number
increases by 1, while mass number remains m ^21Hh = 2.014102 u
unchanged. m ^31Hh = 3.016049 u
62. (i) In a typical nuclear reaction. e.g., m ^42Heh = 4.002603 u
2 2 3
1H + 1H $ 2 He + n + 3.27
mn = 1.008665 u
Although number of nucleons is conserved yet
energy is released. How? Explain. 1u = 931.5 MeV
(ii) Show that nuclear density in a given nucleus is c2
independent of mass number A. Ans : OD 2015, Comp 2002
Ans : OD 2012
Nuclear fission is the phenomenon of splitting of a
(i) In a nuclear reaction, the sum of the masses of the heavy nucleus (usually A 2 230 ) into two or more
larger nucleus ^12 Hh and the bombarding particle lighter nuclei.
(12 H) may be greater or less than the (13 He) and U 235 1 141 92 1
92 + n 0 $ Ba 56 + Kr 36 + 3n 0 + Q
the outgoing particle (10 n) . So, from the law of
In this case, the energy released per fission of U 235
92 is
conservation of mass-energy, some energy (3.27
200.4 MeV.
MeV) is evolved or involved in a nuclear reaction.
This energy is called Q -value of the nuclear Nuclear fission is the phenomenon of fusion of two or
reaction, more lighter nuclei to form a single heavy nucleus. The
(ii) Density of nuclear matter is the ratio of mass of mass of the product nucleus is slightly less than the
the nucleus and its volume. sum of the masses of the lighter nuclei fusing together.
Density of the nuclear matter This difference in the masses results in the release of
tremendous amount of energy. e.g.,
= Mass of nucleus ...(1)
Volume of nucleus 1
1 H + 11H $ 21He + e+ + v + 0.42 MeV
If m is average mass of a nucleun and R is the 2
1 H + 21H $ 31He + n + 3.27 MeV
nuclear radius, then mass of nucleus = mA , where
Chap 13 Nuclei Page 531
2
1 H + 21H $ 1He3 + 11H + 40.3 MeV (b) Nuclear forces are negligible when the
2 3 4
H + H $ He + nMeV distances between the nucleons is more than
1 1 2
10 fm.
3 m = (2.014102 + 3.016049)
- (4.002603 + 1.008665) 65. Explain giving necessary reaction, how energy is
released during:
= 0.018883 u
(i) fission
Energy released, Q = 0.018883 # 931.5 MeV (ii) fusion
c2
Ans : OD 2011, SQP 2005
= 17.589 MeV (i) Nuclear Fission : The phenomenon of splitting of
heavy nuclei (mass number 2 120) into smaller
64. (i) Write three characteristic properties of nuclear
nuclei of nearly equal masses is known as nuclear
force.
fission.
(ii) Draw a plot of potential energy of a pair of
In nuclear fission, the sum of the masses of the
nucleons as a function of their separation. Write
product is less than the sum of masses of the
two important conclusions that can be drawn
reactants. This difference of mass gets converted
from the graph.
into energy E = mc2 and hence sample amount of
Ans : OD 2012 energy is released in a nuclear fission.
(i) Characteristic properties of nuclear force are as 235
e.g., 92 U + 10 n " 141 92 1
56 Ba + 36 Kr + 3 0 n + Q
follows :
(a) Nuclear force act between a pair of neutrons, Masses of reactant = 235.0439 amu + 1.0087 amu
a pair of protons and also between a neutron- = 236.0526 amu
proton pair, with the same strength. This
Masses of product = 140.9139 + 91.8973 + 3.0261
shows that nuclear forces are independent of
charge. = 235.8373 amu
(b) The nuclear forces are dependent on spin or Mass defect = 236.0526 - 235.8373
angular momentum of nuclei.
= 0.2153 amu
(c) Nuclear forces are non-central forces. This
shows that the distribution of nucleons in a Hence, 1 amu = 931 MeV
nucleus is not spherically symmetric. Energy released = 0.2153 # 931
(ii)
= 200 MeV nearly
Thus, energy is liberated in nuclear fission, if 235
92 U .
(ii) Nuclear Fusion : The phenomenon of conversion

of two lighter nuclei into a single heavy nucleus is
called nuclear fusion.
Since, the mass of the heavier product nucleus
is less than the sum of masses of reactant nuclei
and therefore certain mass defect occurs which
converts into energy as per Einstein’s mass-energy
relation. Thus, energy is released during nuclear
fusion.
e.g., 1H1 + 1H3 $ 1H2 + e+ + v + 0.42 MeV
Also, 1H2 + 1H2 $ 1H3 + 1H1 + 4.03 MeV
66. Differentiate between nuclear fission and nuclear

From the plot, it is concluded that fusion. Which one of these processes produces energy
(a) The potential energy is minimum at a (1) in nuclear reactor and (2) in the sun?
distance r0 (= 0.8 fm) which means that the
force is attractive for distance larger than Ans : OD 2005
0.8 fm and repulsive for the distance less than The differentiate between nuclear fission and nuclear
0.8 fm between the nucleons. fusion and nuclear are as follows :
(ii) Binding Energy Curve R = R0 Am3

where, R0 = 1.2 # 10-15 m
and A is the mass number
(ii) The radius R of nucleus is related to its mass
number (A) as :
R = R0 Am1/3
where, R0 = 1.1 # 10-15 m
If m is average mass of nucleon, then mass of nucleus
= mA,
where A is mass number.
Volume of nucleus = 4 pR3
3
= 4 p (R0 A1/3) 3
3
= 4 pR 03 A
3
Density of nucleus,
Nuclear Fission : When a heavy nucleus (A > 235
say) breaks into two lighter nuclei (nuclear fission), r N = mass
volume
the binding energy per nuclear increases i.e. nucleons
get more tightly bound. This implies that energy = mA
4 pR 3 A
would be released in nuclear fission. 3 0
Nuclear Fusion : When two very light nuclei join to

= m
form a heavy nucleus, the binding energy per nucleon 4 pR 3
0
of fused. Heavier nucleus more than the binding 3
energy per nucleon of lighter nuclei, so again energy Clearly, nuclear density, r N is independent of mass
would be released in nuclear fusion. number A.
1 H 2 + 1 H2 $ 2 He 4 + 26 MeV 69. Give reason for :
(a) Lighter elements are better moderators for a
or nuclear reactor than heavier elements.
(b) (i) Nucleus was first discovered in 1911 by Lord (b) In a natural uranium reactor, heavy water is
Rutherford and his associates by experiments preferred moderator as compared to ordinary
on scattering of a-particles by atoms. He found water.
that the scattering result could be explained, (c) Cadmium rods are provided in a reactor.
if atoms consists of a small central massive (d) Very high temperature as those obtained in the
and positive core surrounded by orbiting interior of the sun are required for fusion reaction.
electron. The experiment results indicated Ans : Comp 2016
that the size of the nucleus is of the order of (a) A moderator slows down fast neutrons released
10-14 meters and is thus, 10,000 times smaller in a nuclear reactor. The basic principle of
than the size of the atom. mechanics is that the energy transfer in a collision
The size of nucleus is obtained by the point is the maximum when the colliding particles have
of closest approach of an alpha-particle. By equal masses. As lighter elements have mass close
shooting alpha particles of kinetic energy to that of neutrons, lighter elements are better
5.5 MeV. The point of closest approach was moderators than heavier elements.
estimated to be about 4 # 10-14 m. Since, (b) Ordinary water has hydrogen nuclei (11 H) which
the repulsive force acting here is coulomb have greater absorption capture for neutrons;
repulsion, there is no contact. This means so ordinary water will absorb neutrons rather
that the size of the nucleus is smaller than than slowing them; on the other hand the heavy
4 # 10-14 m. hydrogen nuclei (12 H) have negligible absorption
Relation between radius and mass number is capture for neutrons, so they share energy with
neutrons and neutrons are slowed down.
E = mc2
= 10-3 # (3 # 108) 2
= 9 # 1013 J
73. Express 16 mg mass into equivalent energy in eV.
Ans : OD 2007
Given, m = 16 mg = 16 # 10-6 kg
c = 3 # 108 ms-1
Hence Equivalent energy,
E = mc2
= 16 # 10-6 # (3 # 108) 2 J
16 # 10-6 # (3 # 108) 2
= eV
The variation of binding energy per nucleon versus 16 # 10-19
mass number is shown in figure. = 9 # 1030 eV
Inferences from Graph 74. A nucleus with mass number, A = 240 and
1. The nuclei having mass number below 20 and BE/A = 7.6 MeV breaks into two fragments each
above 180 have relatively small binding energy of A = 120 with BE/A = 8.5 MeV. Calculate the
and hence they are unstable. released energy.
2. The nuclei having mass number 56 and about 56 Ans : OD 2010
have maximum binding energy - 5.8 MeV and so
Binding energy of nucleus with mass number 240,
they are most stable.
3. Some nuclei have peaks, e.g., 2He 4 , 6C12 , 8O16 ; BE1 = 240 # 7.6 = 1824 MeV
this indicates that these nuclei are relatively more Binding energy of two fragments,
stable than their neighbours. BE2 = 2 # 120 # 8.5
(a) Explanation of Constancy of Binding Energy :
Nuclear force is short ranged, so every nucleus = 2040 MeV
interacts with its neighbours only, therefore Hence, Energy released = BE2 - BE1
binding energy per nucleon remains constant. = (2040 - 1824) MeV
(b) Explanation of Nuclear Fission : When a heavy
= 216 MeV
nucleus (A $ 235 say) breaks into two lighter
nuclei (nuclear fission), the binding energy per 75. How many electron volts make up one joule?
nucleon increases i.e., nucleons get more tightly Ans : OD 2015, SQP 2001
bound. This implies that energy would be released
By definition, one electron volt is the energy gained
in nuclear fission.
by an electron, when accelerated through a potential
(c) Explanation of Nuclear Fusion : When two difference of 1 volt, therefore
very light nuclei (A # 10) join to form a heavy
nucleus, the binding is energy per nucleon of fused 1 eV = 1.602 # 10-19 C # 1 V
heavier nucleus more than the binding energy per = 1.602 # 10-19 J
nucleon of lighter nuclei, so again energy would be 1
released in nuclear fusion. Hence, 1J = eV
1.602 # 10-19
= 6.242 # 1018 eV
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS 76. What is the value of radius of Ge70 : (Given
R0 = 1.1 fm).
72. Calculate the energy equivalent of 1 g of substance. Ans : OD 2004
Ans : OD 2010
Given, A = 70
-3
Here, m = 1 g = 10 kg
R0 = 1.1 fm
c = 3 # 108 ms-1 As we know that,
Hence, equivalent energy,
weights of 5 B10 to 5 B11 ? = 2.015650 amu

Ans : OD 2013 Mass of 2 neutrons = 2 # 1.008665
Atomic weight of boron = 10.81 = 2.017330 amu
Isotopes of boron = 5 B10 and 5 B11 Total mass,
Let, x be the atomic weight of isotope 5 B10 in boron. Mass of He nucleus = 4.002800 amu
11
Therefore, atomic weight of isotope 5 B in boron Mass defect, Tm = 0030180 amu
= ^100 - x h .
Binding energy of a -particle
Atomic weight of boron
= 0.030180 # 931
^x # 10h + ^100 - x h # 11
= = 28.097 MeV
100
= 10x + 1100 - 11x
100
or 10.81 = 1100 - x
100
or x = 1100 - 1081 = 19
85. The density of nuclear matter is the ratio of the mass
Therefore value of isotope, of a nucleus to its volume. As the volume of a nucleus
5 B11 = 100 - x is directly proportional to its mass number A, so the
density of nuclear matter is independent of the size
= 100 - 19 = 81
of the nucleus. Thus, the nuclear matter behaves like
Therefore, ratio of atomic weights of 5 B10 to 5 B11 a liquid of constant density. Different nulcei are like
10
= 5 B11 = 19 drops of this liquid, of different sizes but of same
5B
81 density.
or 5 B10 : 5 B11 = 19 : 81 Let A be the mass number and R be the radius of a
nucleus. If m is the average mass of a nucleon, then
83. If the binding energy of the electron in a hydrogen Mass of nucleus = mA
atom is 13.6 eV . How much energy required to remove
the electron from the first excited state of Li++ ? Volume of nucleus = 4 # pR3 = 4 p (R0 A1/3) 3
3 3
Ans : OD 2004
Binding energy of electron in hydrogen atom, EH = 4 pR 03 A
3
= 13.6 eV .
Nuclear density, r nu = Mass of nucleus
Energy level of first excited state, n = 2 . Volume of nucleus
Binding energy of hydrogen-like atom ^Li++h in n th r nu = mA = 3m 3
excited state, 4 ! R 3A 4 ! R0
0
3
2
En = EH 2Z Clearly, nuclear density is independent of mass number
n
A or the size of the nucleus. The nuclear mass density
13.6 # ^3 h2 is of the order 1017 kg m-3 . This density is very large
= = 30.6 eV
^2h2 as compared to the density of ordinary matter, say
(Where, Z = Atomic mass of Li++ equal to 3) water, for which It r = 1.0 # 103 kg m-3 .
(i) Find the density of nuclear matter of 16 8 Ol its
84. Calculate the binding energy of an a -particle in MeV.
radius is 3 # 10-15 m.
Given,
(ii) If the nucleus of 13
27 Al has a nuclear radius of about
m p (mass of proton) = 1.007825 amu 3.6 fm , then find the radius of 125
52 Te .
mn (mass of neutron) = 1.008665 amu (iii) Two nuclei have mass number in the ratio 1 : 2.
Mass of He nucleus = 4.002800 amu What is the ratio of their nuclei densities ?
(iv) Why do stable nuclei never have more protons
1 amu = 931 MeV
than neutrons ?
Ans : OD 2003. SQP 2016
(v) Are the nuclear force affected by the charge
An a -particle contains 2 protons and 2 neutrons. present inside nucleus.
Mass of 2 protons = 2 # 1.007825
Chap 14 Semiconductor and Electronics Devices Page 539
CHAPTER 14
Semiconductor and Electronics Devices
SUMMARY forbidden band. No electrons are present in this gap.

It is a measure of energy band gap.
1. The minimum energy required for shifting
1. CLASSIFICATION OF SOLIDS ON THE BASIS OF THEIR electrons from valence band to conduction band
CONDUCTIVITY is known as energy band gap.
2. If l is the wavelength of radiation used in shifting
On the basis of the relative values of electrical the electron from valence band to conduction
conductivity (s) and resistivity (r = 1/s), the solids band, then energy band gap is,
are broadly classified as:
Eg = hu = hc
1. Metals : Those solids which have high conductivity l
and very low resistivity. The value of conductivity Where h is called Planck’s constant and c is the
for metals lies in between 102 to 108 Sm-1 and of speed of light.
resistivity in between 10-2 to 108 Sm-1 and of 3. The forbidden energy gap Eg in a semiconductor
resistivity in between 10-2 to 10-8 Wm . depends upon temperature.
2. Insulators : Those solids which have low 4. Fermi energy is the maximum possible energy
conductivity and high resistivity. The value of possessed by free electrons of a material at
conductivity for insulators lies between 10-11 absolute zero temperature (i.e. 0 K).
to 10-19 Sm-1 and of resistivity between 1011 to
1019 Wm .
3. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN METALS, INSULATORS AND
3. Semiconductors : Those solids which have SEMICONDUCTORS ON THE BASIS OF BAND THEORY
conductivity and resistivity intermediate to metals
and insulators. The value of conductivity for
3.1 Metals
semiconductors lies in between 105 to 10-6 Sm-1
and of resistivity between 10-5 to 106 Wm . In metals either the conduction band is partially
filled or conduction band and valence band partially
2. ENERGY BANDS OF SOLIDS OR BAND THEORY OF SOLIDS overlap each other.
In metals, there is no forbidden energy gap
2.1 Valence Band
between the valence and conduction bands.
This band contains valence electrons. This band may
be partially or completely filled with electrons. This
band is never empty. Electrons in this band do not
contribute to electric current.
2.2 Conduction Band

In this band, electrons are rarely present. This band
is either empty or partially filled. Electrons in the
conduction band are known as free electrons. These
electrons contribute to the electric current.
2.3 Forbidden Energy Gap or Forbidden Band

(a)
The energy gap between the valence band and
conduction band is known as forbidden energy gap or
due to motion of electrons i.e. negative charges. independent of the amount of donor and acceptor
3. It is called donor type semiconductor, because the impurity doping. This relationship is known as the
doped impurity atom donates one free electron to mass action law and is given by
semiconductor for conduction. ne nh = n i2
4. In n -type semiconductor electrons are majority
Where, ne , nh are number density of electrons and
carriers and holes are minority carriers.
holes respectively and ni is the intrinsic carriers
5. The representation of n -type semiconductor is as concentration.
shown in the figure. Electrical Conductivity in Semiconductor
The conductivity of the semiconductor is given by s
= e (ne m e + nh m h) where m e and m h are the electron
and hole densities, e is electronic charge.
1. The conductivity of an intrinsics semiconductor
is, s i = ni e (m e + m h)
2. The conductivity of n -type semiconductor is, s n
6. n -type semiconductor is neutral.
= eNd m e .
7. In n -type semiconductor,
3. The conductivity of p -type semiconductor is, s p
ne c Nd >> nh
= eNa m h .
where, Nd is the density of donor atoms.
8. p -n JUNCTION
6.2 p -Type Semiconductor
When donor impurities are introduced into one side
When a pure semiconductor of Si or Ge (tetravalent) and acceptors introduced into one side and acceptors
is doped with a group III trivalent impurities like into the other side of a single crystal of an intrinsic
aluminium (Al), boron (B), indium (In) etc., we obtain semiconductor, a p - n junction is formed. It is
a p -type semiconductor. The trivalent impurity atoms also known as junction diode. The most important
are known as acceptor atoms. characteristic of a p - n junction is its ability to
1. It is called p -type because the conduction of conduct current in one direction only. In the other
electricity in such semiconductor is due to motion (reverse) direction it offers very high resistance. It is
of holes i.e. positive charges. symbolically represented by
2. It is called acceptor type semiconductor
because doped impurity atom creates a hole
in semiconductor which accepts the electron,
resulting conduction in p -type semiconductor.
3. In p -type semiconductor, holes are majority 8.1 Depletion Region
carriers and electrons are minority carriers. In the vicinity of junction, the region containing the
4. The representation of p -type semiconductor is as uncompensated acceptor and donor ions is known as
shown in the figure. depletion region. There is a depletion of mobile charges
(holes and free electrons) in this region. Since this
region has immobile (fixed) ions which are electrically
charged it is also known as the space charge region.
The electric field between the acceptor and the donor
ions is known as a barrier. The physical distance from
one side of the barrier to the other is known as the
5. p -type semiconductor is neutral. width of the barrier. The difference of potential from
one side of the barrier to the other side is known as
6. In p -type semiconductor
the height of the barrier.
nh . Na >> ne 1. For a silicon p -n junction, the barrier potential
where, Na is the density of acceptor atoms. is about 0.7 V, whereas for a germanium p -n
junction it is approximately 0.3 V.
7. MASS-ACTION LAW 2. The width of the depletion layer and magnitude
Under thermal equilibrium, the product of the free of potential barrier depend upon the nature of the
negative and positive concentrations is a constant material of semiconductor and the concentration
Page 542 Semiconductor and Electronics Devices Chap 14
of impurity atoms. The thickness of the depletion 1. Knee Voltage : In forward biasing, the voltage
region is of the order of one tenth of a micrometre. at which the current starts to increase rapidly is
known as cut-in or knee voltage. For germanium
8.2 Forward Biasing of a p -n Junction it is 0.3 V while for silicon it is 0.7 V.
When the positive terminal of external battery is 2. Dynamic Resistance : It is defined as the ratio
connected to p -side and negative to n -side of p -n of a small change in voltage (TV) applied across
junction, then the p -n junction is said to be froward the p -n junction to a small change in current TI
biased. through the junction.
1. In forward biasing, the width of the depletion rd = TV
region decreases and barrier height reduces. TI
2. The resistance of the p -n junction becomes low in 9. IDEAL DIODE
forward biasing.
A diode permits only unidirectional conduction. It
8.3 Reverse Biasing of a p -n Junction conducts well in the forward direction and poorly in
When the positive terminal of the external battery is the reverse direction. It would have been ideal if a
connected to n -side and the negative terminal to p diode acts as a perfect conductor (with zero voltage
-side of a p -n Junction, then the p -n junction is said across it) when it is forward biased, and as a perfect
to be reverse biased. insulator (with no current-flows through it) when it
1. In reverse biasing, the width of the depletion is reverse biased. The I - V characteristics of an ideal
region increases and barrier height increases. diode as shown in figure.
2. The resistance of the p -n junction becomes high
in reverse biasing.
8.4 Breakdown Voltage

A very small current flows through p -n junction,
when it is reverse biased. The flow of the current
is due to the movement of minority charge carriers.
The reverse current is almost independent of the
applied voltage. However, if the reverse bias voltage is
continuously increased, for a certain reverse voltage,
the current through the p -n junction will increase
abruptly. This reverse bias voltage is thus known as 1. An ideal diode acts like an automatic switch.
breakdown voltage. There can be two different causes 2. In forward bias, it acts as a closed switch whereas
for the break down. One is known as zener breakdown in reverse bias it acts as an open switch as shown
and the other is known as avalanche breakdown. in the figure.
I -V Characteristics of a p -n Junction
The I -V characteristics of a p -n junction do not
obey Ohm’s law. TheI -V Characteristics of a p -n
junction are as shown in the figure.
10. RECTIFIER
It is a device which converts AC voltage to DC voltage.
Diode is used as a rectifier. Rectifier is based on the
fact that, a forward bias p -n junction conducts and a
reverse bias p -n junction does not conduct.
10.1 Half Wave Rectifier

Diode conducts corresponding to positive half cycle
and does not conduct during negative half cycle,
Hence, AC is converted by diode into undirectional
OBJECTIVE QUESTIONS 4. For n -type Germanium, impurity doped in Germanium

is
(a) Trivalent (b) Tetravalent
1. In an extrinsic semiconductor, the number density of
holes is 4 # 1020 m-3 . If the number density of intrinsic (c) Pentavalent (d) None of these
carriers is 1.2 # 10 45 m-3 . The number density of Ans : Delhi 2017
electron in it is n -type semiconductor is obtained by doping the
(a) 1.8 # 109 m-3 (b) 2.4 # 1010 m-3 tetravalent semiconductor Si (or Ge) with pentavalent
(c) 3.6 # 109 m-3 (d) 3.2 # 1010 m-3 impurities such as As, P or Sb group V of the periodic
table.
Ans : OD 2023
The electron and hole concentration in a semiconductor
in thermal equilibrium is given by, 5. Diode is used as
ne n h = n i2 (a) An amplifier (b) An oscillator
(c) A modulator (d) A rectifier
2
(1.2 # 1015) 2
ne = n i = Ans : OD 2017
nh 4 # 1020
= 0.36 # 1010 Diode is used as rectifier. Rectifier converts alternating
current (AC) into direct current (DC).
= 3.6 # 109 m-
3

Thus (c) is correct option. 6. The majority current-carrier in p -type semiconductor
2. The formation of depletion region in a p - n junction is
diode is due to (a) electron (b) hole
(a) movement of dopant atoms (c) photon (d) proton
(b) diffusion of both electrons and holes Ans : SQP 2016
(c) drift of electrons only In the p -type semiconductor hole are the majority
(d) drift of holes only charge carriers and electrons are the minority charge
carriers.
Ans : OD 2023
The depletion layer in the P-N junction region is
caused by diffusion of carriers. 7. The state of energy of the valence electrons, when the
Thus (b) is correct option. temperature is raised or when electric field is applied,
is called
3. A semiconductor is cooled from T1 K to T2 K , then
(a) valence band (b) conduction band
its resistance will
(a) increase (c) forbidden band (d) none of these
Ans : Foreign 2010
(b) decrease
State of energy of the valence electrons, when the
(c) remain constant
temperature is raised or electric field is applied, is
(d) first decrease then increase called conduction band.
Ans : Foreign 2018, OD 2015 An increase in the conduction band increases
Actually resistivity depends upon the temperature in conductivity of the metal.
such way: Thus (b) is correct option.
r = r 0 [1 + a (Tf - Ti)] 8. The impurity atom that should be added to the
germanium to make it an n -type semiconductor is
where, a = Coefficient of resistivity
(a) iodine (b) indium
In case of semiconductor 'a' be negative. Hence if
we increases the temperature then resistivity will be (c) arsenic (d) aluminium
decreases, it means resistance will be decreases. Here, Ans : Delhi 2015
semiconductor is cooled, means temperature decreases Arsenic is a pentavalent impurity atom. Therefore
then, resistivity increases and hence, resistance when it is added to tetravalent germanium crystal, we
increases. obtain n -type semiconductor.
Thus (a) is correct option. Thus (c) is correct option.
9. With the increase of temperature, width of the 13. In some substances, charge can flow at ordinary
forbidden gap temperature, but not at very low temperatures. These
(a) decreases (b) increases substances are called
(c) remains same (d) becomes zero (a) conductors (b) insulators
Ans : OD 2010
(c) dielectrics (d) semiconductors
With the increase of temperature, the excitation of Ans : OD 2009
charge carriers (i.e., electrons) increases. It increases In semiconductor, charge can flow at ordinary
the concentration of charge carriers and conductivity. temperature. And its resistance increases with the
decrease in temperature. Therefore at absolute zero
As a result of this, there is a small decrease in the
temperature, a semiconductor behaves as an insulator.
width of forbidden gap.
14. At 0 K temperature, a p -type semiconductor
10. A pure semiconductor behaves slightly as a conductor (a) does not have any charge carrier
at
(b) has few holes and few free electrons
(a) low temperature (b) high temperature
(c) has few holes but no free electron
(c) room temperature (d) both (a) and (b)
(d) has equal no. of holes and free electrons
Ans : Delhi 2008
Ans : Foreign 2005
At room temperature, a few electrons in valence band
At 0 K temperature, a p -type semiconductor behaves
acquire energy greater than the forbidden energy gap
as an insulator, because it has a few holes in its valence
and jump to the conduction band.
band. But there is no free electrons in this state.
Therefore at room temperature, a pure semiconductor
behaves slightly as a conductor.
Thus (c) is correct option. 15. To obtain a p -type semiconductor, germanium atom
must be doped with
11. When the conductivity of a semiconductor is only due (a) arsenic (b) antimony
to breaking of covalent bonds, the semiconductor is (c) indium (d) phosphorus
called
Ans : SQP 2008
(a) extrinsic (b) intrinsic
To obtain a p -type semiconductor, germanium atom
(c) n -type (d) p -type must be doped with a trivalent impurity atom.
Ans : SQP 2014, Comp 2009 Since indium is a trivalent impurity atom, therefore
In an intrinsic or pure semiconductor, the charge when tetravalent germanium is doped with trivalent
carriers (i.e., electrons and holes) are created due to impurity, we obtain a p -type semiconductor.
breaking of covalent bonds. Thus (c) is correct option.
Therefore conductivity of an intrinsic semiconductor 16. When the p -end of the p -n junction is connected to
is only due to breaking of covalent bonds. the negative terminal and the n -end to the positive
Thus (b) is correct option. terminal of the battery, then p -n junction behaves
like a/an
12. The n -type semiconductors are obtained, when
(a) insulator (b) conductor
germanium is doped with
(a) arsenic (b) phosphorus (c) semiconductor (d) superconductor
Ans : Delhi 2016
(c) antimony (d) any one of these
When p -end of p -n junction is connected to the
Ans : Foreign 2012 negative terminal and n -end to the positive terminal
Arsenic, phosphorous and antimony are pentavalent of the battery, then p -n junction is reverse biased,
impurity atoms. which offers high resistance. Therefore p -n junction
Therefore n -type semiconductors are obtained when behaves like an insulator.
tetravalent germanium atom is doped with any one Thus (a) is correct option.
of them. 17. To a germanium sample, traces of gallium are added
Thus (d) is correct option. as an impurity. The resultant sample would behave
like a/an
Ans : Delhi 2013
Rectifier is a device which converts an alternating

current (or voltage) into direct current (or voltage).
The process of converting alternating current into 29. Assertion : The resistivity of a semi-conductor
direct current is called rectification. increases with temperature.
Thus (c) is correct option. Reason : The atoms of semi-conductor vibrate with
larger amplitude as higher temperatures thereby
26. A p -n junction is used as a/an increasing its resistivity.
(a) rectifier (b) amplifier (a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the
(c) oscillator (d) modulator Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
Ans : Foreign 2012 (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
Rectifier is a device which converts an alternating is not a correct explanation of the Assertion.
current (or voltage) into direct current (or voltage). (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
We also know that when an alternating e.m.f. signal is (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
applied across a p -n junction, it permits large current
during forward bias, and no current during reverse Ans :
bias. That is why, a p -n junction is used as rectifier. The resistivity of semiconductor decreases with
Thus (a) is correct option. increase in temperature as more electrons jump into
conduction band increasing its conductivity.
27. In comparison to a half wave rectifier, the full wave
rectifier gives lower
(a) efficiency (b) average current 30. Assertion : The value of current through p -n junction
in the given figure will be 10 mA.
(c) average output voltage (d) none of these
Ans : SQP 2009
Efficiency, average current as well as average output

voltage in case of full wave rectifier are higher as
Reason : In the above figure, p -side is at higher
compared to half wave rectifier.
potential than n -side.
28. Assuming that the p -n junction diode shown in the Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
figure is ideal, the current through the diode is (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
(a) 0.02 A (b) 2 A (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
(c) 0.2 A (d) 20 A Ans :
Ans : OD 2003 The p -side of the junction diode is at a higher
potential than the n -side. So p -n junction is forward
Potential at one end, V1 = 3 Volt
biased. Hence a current flows through it and is given
Potential at other end, V2 = 1 Volt by
External resistance, R = 100 W I =V = 5-2
Change in potentials, R 300
DV = V1 - V2 = 10-2 A = 10 mA
= 3 - 1 = 2 Volt
31. Assertion : In a transition the base is made thin.
Since the p -n junction diode offers zero resistance
when it is ideal, therefore current through the diode, Reason : A thin base makes the transistor stable.
I = DV Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion.
R
= 2 = 0.02 A (b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason
100 is not a correct explanation of the Assertion.
Ans : Ans :
In a transistor the base is made thin so that base For common base, Input is Ic and output is Ie .
current remains small and we can get output or
Current gain = Ic = Ic which is less than unity.
collector current. We know that Ie Ic + Ib
Ic = Ie - Ib Collector terminal is reversed biased to increase the
collector current. Both Assertion and Reason are
Reason is incorrect.
correct but they are uncorrelated statements.
32. Assertion : The number of electrons in a p -type silicon
35. Assertion : The logic gate NOT can be built using
semiconductor is less than the number of electrons in
diode.
a pure silicon semiconductor at room temperature.
Reason : The output voltage and the input voltage of
Reason : It is due to law of mass action.
the diode have 180c phase difference.
(d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect. (c) The Assertion is correct but Reason is incorrect.
Ans : (d) Both the Assertion and Reason are incorrect.
ne nh = h i2 Ans :
This formula is based on law of mass action. In p -type The diode is unidirectional it allows current to pass
semiconductor nh > ni . So, me < ni . through it in a particular direction. It does not change
the phase of input signal.
33. Assertion : In a common emitter transmitter amplifier
the input current is much less than the out put current. 36. Assertion : If the temperature of a semiconductor is
increased then it’s resistance decreases.
Reason : The common emitter transistor amplifier has
very high input impedance. Reason : The energy gap between conduction band
and valence band is very small.
Ans :
Ans :
In an amplifier output current is always more than
input current. Amplifier has low input impedance. In semiconductors the energy gap between conduction
band and valence band is small (. 1 eV). Due to
temperature rise, electron in the valence band gain
34. Assertion : In common base configuration. The thermal energy and may jumpy across the small energy
current gain of the transistor is less than unity. gap, (to the conduction band). Thus conductivity
Reason : The collector terminal is reverse biased for increases and hence resistance decreases.
amplification. Thus (a) is correct option.
(a) Both Assertion and Reason are correct and the 37. Assertion : NAND or NOR gates are called digital
Reason is a correct explanation of the Assertion. building blocks.
(b) Both Assertion and Reason are correct but Reason Reason : The repeated use of NAND (or NOR) gates
is not a correct explanation of the Assertion. can produce all the basis or complicated gates.
SHORT ANSWER QUESTIONS Ans : SQP 2012
The required energy band diagram is shown below.

44. Answer the following giving reasons :
(i) A p - n junction diode is damaged by a strong
current.
(ii) Impurities are added in intrinsic semiconductors.
Ans : OD 2023
(i) When a strong current passes through the

semiconductor it heats up the crystal and
covalent bonds are broken. Hence, because of
excess number, of free electrons it behaves like a
conductor.
(ii) If some impurity is added to intrinsic semiconductor
it will increase the concentration or density of
charge carriers (either holes or electrons) and
which in turn increases its conductivity.
45. Distinguish between n -type and p -type
semiconductors.
Ans : Comp 2015, 13
The difference between n -type and p -type

semiconductor are as follows : 47. Distinguish between an intrinsic semiconductor and
a p -type semiconductor. Give reason why a p -type
n -type Semiconductor p -type Semiconductors semiconductor crystal is electrically neutral, although
1. These are extrinsic These are extrinsic nh 22 ne .
semiconductors semiconductors Ans : Comp 2010, Delhi 2001
obtained by doping obtained by doping The difference between intrinsic semiconductor and a
impurity atoms of impurity atoms of p -type semiconductor are as follows :
group V to Ge or Si group III to Ge or Si
crystal. crystal. Intrinsic p -type semiconductor
2. The impurity atoms The impurity atoms semiconductor
added provide free added create vacancies (i) It is a semiconductor It is a semiconductor
electrons and are of electrons (or in pure form. doped with p -type
called donors. holes) and are called like Al, in impurity.
acceptors
(ii) Intrinsic charge Majority charge
3. The donor impurity The acceptor impurity carriers are electrons carries are holes
level lies just below the level lies just above the and holes with equal and minority charge
conduction band. valence band. concentration. carriers are electrons.
4. The electrons are The holes are majority (iii) Current due to charge Current due to charge
majority charge charge carriers while carriers is feeble (of carriers is significant
carriers while holes electrons are minority the order of mA ). (of the order of mA).
are minority charge charge carriers.
carriers. p -type semiconductor is electrically neutral because
every atom, whether it is of pure semiconductor (Ge
5. The free electron The hole density is or Si) or of impurity (Al) is electrically neutral.
density is much greater much greater than free
than hole density i.e. electron density i.e. 48. Distinguish between ‘Intrinsic’ and ‘Extrinsic’
ne >> nh . nh >> ne . semiconductors?
Ans : Delhi 2015
46. Draw energy band diagram of n -typed and p -typed The differences between intrinsic and Extrinsic
semiconductor at temperature T 2 0 K . Mark the semiconductor are as follows :
donor and acceptor energy level with their energies.
Intrinsic Extrinsic Semiconductor device that is used in reverse

semiconductor semiconductor biasing, is zener diode.
1. It is a pure It is prepared by 50. Explain, with the help of a circuit diagram, the working
semiconductor doping a small of a p - n junction diode as a half-wave rectifier.
material with no quantity of impurity Ans : Delhi 2017, Comp 2015
impurity atoms in it. atoms to the pure 1. p - n Junction Diode as a Half-Wave Rectifier
semiconductor. : AC voltage to be rectified is connected to
the primary coil of a step-down transformer.
2. The number of free The number of
Secondary coil is connected to the diode through
electrons in the free electrons and
resistors RL , across which output is obtained.
conduction band and holes is never equal.
the number of holes in There is an excess of
valence band is exactly electrons in n -typed
equal. semiconductors and
excess of holes in p
-type semiconductors.
49. Draw V - I characteristics of a p - n junction diode.

Answer the following questions, giving reasons:
(i) Why is the current under reverse bias almost
independent of the applied potential upto a 2. Working : During positive half cycle of the input
critical voltage? AC, the p - n junction is forward biased. Thus,
(ii) Why does the reverse current show a sudden the resistance in p - n junction becomes low
increase at the critical voltage? and current flows. Hence, we get output in the
Name any semiconductor device which operates under load. During negative half cycle of the input AC,
the reverse bias in the breakdown region. the p - n junction is reverse biased. Thus, the
Ans : Delhi 2008
resistance of p - n junction is high and current
does not flow. Hence, no output in the load. So,
for complete cycle of AC, current flows through
the load resistance in the same direction.
(i) In the reverse biasing, the current of order of mA

is due to movement/drifting of minority charge
carriers from one region to another through the
junction.
A small applied voltage is sufficient to sweep the
minority charge carriers through the junction. So, Input and Output Waveforms
reverse current is almost independent of critical
voltage.
51. Name the important process that occurs during the
(ii) At critical voltage (or breakdown voltage), a large
formation of a p - n junction. Explain briefly, with
number of covalent bonds break, resulting in the
the help of a suitable diagram, how a p - n junction
increase of large number of charge carriers. Hence,
is formed. Define the term ‘barrier potential’.
current increases at critical voltage.
(c) In insulators : The energy band between 55. The circuit shown in the figure has two oppositely
conduction band and valence band is very large, connected ideal diodes connected in parallel. Find the
so it is unsurpassable for small temperature rise. current flowing through each diode in the circuit.
So, there is no change in their behaviour.
54. Draw the circuit diagram of a full-wave rectifier using
p - n junction diode. Explain its working and show
the output input waveforms.
Ans : OD 2011
The circuit diagram of full-wave rectifier is shown

below:
Ans : OD 2013
(i) Diode D1 is reverse biased, so it offers an infinite
resistance. So, no current flows in the branch of
diode D1 .
(ii) Diode D2 is forward biased, and offers no
resistance in the circuit. So, current in the branch.
I = V
Req
= 12V = 2A
2W + 4W
56. Describe briefly, with the help of a diagram, the role

of the two important process involved in the formation
of a p - n junction.
Ans : OD 2012
Two important processes occurring during the

The input and output waveforms have been given formation of a p - n junction are
below : (i) Diffusion : In n -type semiconductor, the
concentration of electrons is much greater as
compared to concentration holes ; while in p
-type semiconductor, the concentration of holes is
much greater than the concentration of electrons.
When a p - n junction is formed, then due to
concentration gradient, the holes diffuse from p
-side to n -side (p " n ) and electrons diffuse from
n -side to p -side (n " p ). This motion of charge
carriers gives rise to diffusion current across the
junction.
(ii) Drift : The drift of charge carriers occurs due to
electric field. Due to built in potential barrier, an
electric field directed from n -region to p -region
is developed across the junction. This field causes
motion of electrons on p -side of the junction to n
-side of junction to p -side. Thus, a drift current
starts. This current is opposite to the direction of
Its working based on the principle that junction diode diffusion current.
offer very low resistance in forward bias and very high
resistance in reverse bias.
A battery is connected across the p -n junction

diode through a potentiometer (or rheostat) so
that the voltage applied to the diode can be
changed. The milliammeter measures the current
through the diode and the voltmeter measures the
voltage across the diode. For different values of
voltages, the value of current is noted. A graph
is plotted between V and I , as shown in Figure.
This voltage-current graph is called forward
characteristics.
59. Explain the band theory of solids. State how on this

basis solids are classified into conductors, insulators
and semiconductors.
or
What are energy bands in solids ? How are
semiconductors, insulators and conductors classified
on the basis of band theory?
Band Theory of Solids

From Bohr’s atomic model, we know that the electrons
have well defined energy levels in an isolated atom.
But due to interatomic interactions in a crystal, the
electrons of the outer shells are forced to have energies
different from those in isolated atoms. Each energy
level splits into a number of energy levels forming a
continuous band, called energy band.
2. Reverse Bias Characteristic : Figure shows
Depending on the energy band gap is zero, large
the experimental arrangement for studying
characteristic curve of a p -n junction when it is or small, the solids may be classified into metals,
reverse biased. insulators and semiconductors, as explained below:
1. Metals : Here the last occupied band, called
conduction band is partially filled with electrons.
Two types of band structures are found in metals:
(a) Either there is energy gap between the completely
filled valence band and the partially filled
conduction band. As shown in figure (i), this
band structure is met in alkali metals (Li, Na, K,
etc.), noble metals (Cu, Ag, Au) and third group
elements like Al, Ga, In and Tl.
Here a micro-ammeter is used to measure the

small currents through the reverse biased diode.
A V -I graph of the type shown in Figure. It is
called reverse characteristic of the junction diode.
(i)
3. Semiconductors : At 0K , the conduction band is

empty and the valence band is filled. So the material
is essentially insulator at low temperatures.
However, the energy gap between conduction and
valence bands is small (Eg < 3 eV) . For example,
Eg = 1.17 eV for Si and Eg = 0.74 eV for Ge.
At room temperature, some valence electrons
acquire enough thermal energy and jump to the
conduction band where they are free to conduct
(ii) electricity (according to Boltzmann law, number
of thermally excited electrons n ? e-Eg /kT ) Thus
(b) The conduction and valence band partly the semiconductor acquires a small conductivity
overlap. As shown in figure(ii), this band at room temperature. The resistance of a
structure is seen in metals like Be (Z = 4: 1s2 2s2) semiconductor would not be as high as that of
, Mg (Z = 12: 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2), Zn etc. Here the insulator.
valence band is completely filled but the upper
unoccupied band ( 2p with 2s in Be, 3p with 3s
in Mg) partly overlaps the valence band.
The highest energy level in the conduction band
filled up with electrons at absolute zero is called
fermi level and the energy corresponding to the
fermi level is called fermi energy. Many electrons
after gaining a slight amount of energy from any
source get excited to the empty energy levels lying
immediately above the fermi level and become
free to conduct electricity. This makes available a
large number of conduction electrons. So metals
have low resistivity or high conductivity. Even a 60. 1. State briefly the process involved in the formation
small electric field applied across the metal causes of p - n junction explaining clearly how the
a current flow through it. depletion region is formed.
2. Insulators : In insulators, the valence band is 2. Using the necessary circuit diagrams, show how
completely filled while the conduction band is the V - I characteristics of a p - n junction are
empty as shown in Figure (b), there is a larger obtained in:
energy gap (Eg > 3 eV) between the valence (a) Forward biasing
and conduction bands. For example, in case of (b) Reverse biasing
diamond, Eg = 6 eV . Even an electric field cannot How are these characteristics made use of in
give this much energy to an electron to make it rectification?
jump from the valence band into the conduction
or
band. Hence due to the lack of free electrons in
the conduction band, the insulators are poor Draw the circuit arrangement for studying the V - I
conductors of electricity. characteristics of a p - n junction diode (1) in forward
bias and (2) in reverse bias. Draw the typical V - I
characteristics of a silicon diode.
Describe briefly the following terms:
1. “minority carrier injection” in forward bias
2. “breakdown voltage” in reverse bias.
1. Two processes occur during the formation of a
p - n junction are diffusion and drift. Due to the
concentration gradient across p and n -sides of
the junction, holes diffuse from p -side to n -side
(p " n) and electrons diffuse from n -sides to p
-side (n " p). This movement of charge carriers
the first half cycle of input AC signal, the terminal s1

is positive relative to centre tap O and s2 is negative
relative to O . Then diode D1 is forward biased
and diode D2 is revere biased. Therefore, diode D1
conducts while diode D2 does not. The direction of
current (i1) due to diode D1 in load resistance RL is
direction from A to B . In next half cycle, the terminal
s1 is negative and s2 is positive relative to centre tap
O . The diode D1 is reverse biased and diode D2 is
forward biased. Therefore, diode D2 conducts while
D1 does not. The direction of current (i2) due to diode
D2 in load resistance RL is still from A to B . Thus, the
current in load resistance RL is in the same direction
for both half cycles of input AC voltage. Thus for
input AC signal the output current is a continuous
series of unidirectional pulses.
In a full wave rectifier, if input frequency is f hertz,
then output frequency, will be 2f hertz because for
each cycle of input, two positive half cycles of output
are obtained.
62. What are ‘Energy Bands’ ? How are these formed?
Distinguish between conductors, semiconductors and
insulators on the basis of formation of these bands.
Energy Band and its Formation

From Bohr’s atomic model, we know that the electrons
have well defined energy levels in an isolated atom.
But due to interatomic interactions in a crystal, the
electrons of the outer shells are forced to have energies
different from those in isolated atoms. Each energy
level splits into a number of energy levels forming a
Working continuous band called energy band.
The AC input voltage across secondary s1 and s2 Distinguishing features on the basis of energy band
changes polarity after each half cycle. Suppose during diagrams :
Conductors Semiconductors Insulators

1. Either the conduction band is Valence and conduction bands Valence and conduction bands
partially filled or the valence and are separated by a small energy are separated by a large energy
conduction bands partly overlap. gap. gap.
Eg = 0 Eg = 0.2 eV to 3 eV Eg > 3 eV
2. They have large number of free They have a very small number They have no free electrons in
electrons in the conduction band of free electrons in the conduction the conduction band and so do
available for conduction. band available for conduction. not conduct electricity.
3.
NUMERICAL QUESTIONS and I = - 1 mA

Hence, Static resistance,
63. The V I characteristic of a silicon diode is as shown
-
R = V = 10 V
in the figure. Calculate the resistance of the diode at I 1 mA
(i) I = 15 mA = 10 = 107 W
(i) V = - 10 Volt . 1 # 10-6

64. Anita was thinking that C, Si and Ge have same
lattice structure, but C is insulator while Si and Ge
intrinsic semiconductors. For its answer, she meet
her friend Parul. Parul explained him that the four
bonding electrons of C, Si and Ge lie respectively in
the second, third and fourth orbit. So, energy required
to take out an electron from these atoms known as
ionisation energy IE will be least for Ge, followed by
Si and highest for C. Hence number of free electrons
for conduction in Ge and Si are significant while
negligible small for C.
Ans : Comp 2020

(i) I = 15 mA
By considering straight line of V - I characteristic
curve between 10 mA to 20 mA and assuming passing
through the origin, draw horizontal and vertical lines
from 10 mA and 20 mA , we have
I1 = 10 mA
V1 = 0.7 Volt
I2 = 20 mA
V2 = 0.8 Volt (i) Which is better silicon or germanium?
(ii) If a pure silicon crystal has 5 # 1028 atoms/m3 . It
Dynamic resistance in forward biasing can be given
is doped by 1 ppm concentration of pentavalent
as,
arsenic.
R = TV = V2 - V1 If ni = 1.5 # 1016 /m3 , then calculate the number
TI I2 - I1
of electrons and holes.
(0.8 - 0.7) V
= Ans :
(20 - 10) mA
(i) In present, Silicon is preferred over Germanium
= 0.1 V for semiconductor. Silicon can be worked at a
10 mA
higher temperature as compared to germanium.
= 0.1 # 103 W The structure of Germanium crystals will be
10
destroyed at higher temperature. Also, Silicon
= 10 W has much smaller leakage current than that of
(ii) V = - 10 Volt . germanium.
At - 10 V . The V - I characteristic graph is a straight (ii) Given, ni = 1.5 # 1016 /m3
line parallel to the voltage axis and not showing any n = 5 # 1028 atoms/m3
variation. So, the static resistance can be given as,
The number of free electrons ne in the doped
V = - 10 Volt
silicon is given by
28
ne = 1 6 # n = 5 # 106
10 10
= 5 # 1022 /m3
Now, in a doped semiconductor,
ne nh = n i2
2
nh = n i
ne
(1.5 # 1016) 2
=
5 # 1022
32
= 2.25 # 1022
5 # 10
= 4.5 # 109 /m3
***********

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CBSE 2025

Chapter-wise Question Bank

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CHAP 1. Electric Charges and Fields 21-61

CHAP 2. Electrostatic Potential and Capacitance 62-117

CHAP 3. Current Electricity 118-170

CHAP 4. Moving Charge and Magnetism 171-217

CHAP 5. Magnetism and Matter 218-242

CHAP 6. Electromagnetic Induction 243-278

CHAP 7. Alternating Current 279-320

CHAP 8. Electromagnetic Wave 321-344

CHAP 9. Ray Optics and Optical Instruments 345-413

CHAP 10. Wave Optics 414-456

CHAP 11. Dual Nature of Radiation and Matter 457-488

CHAP 12. Atoms 489-513

CHAP 13. Nuclei 514-534

CHAP 14. Semiconductor and Electronics Devices 535-556

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Exam 2024 Solved Paper

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SUMMARY Also, 1 = 9 109 N - m2 /C2

where, e 0 = permittivity of free space

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Fv01 = Force on q0 due to q1 .

4. ELECTRIC FIELD LINES

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Ans : Delhi 2021

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(d) Will be in equilibrium if charges have different Q:Q Q2

Two equal point charges = + Q Distance of point from centre, x = 2 cm