Responding to the environment -

Human
 THE NERVOUS SYSTEM

PERIPHERAL
CRANIAL NERVES SPINAL NERVES
NERVOUS SYSTEM

CENTRAL NERVOUS
BRAIN SPINAL CORD
SYSTEM

AUTONOMIC
PARASYMPATHETIC SYMPATHETIC
NERVOUS SYSTEM
 The Nervous system

How does our nervous system work?

Stimulus Response

Receptor Effector

Sensory neuron Motor neuron

Central
Nervous
system
 Structure of the brain and the functions
Cerebrum
• Controls voluntary Corpus callosum
actions • Connects the left and
• Receives and interprets right hemispheres of
sensations from sense the brain – allowing
organs communication between
• Higher thought processes both hemispheres

Cerebellum
• Coordinates all
voluntary movements
Medulla oblongata • Controls muscle
• Transmits nerve impulses tension to maintain
between the spinal cord balance
and the brain
• Controls involuntary Hypothalamus
actions such as heartbeat • Control centre for hunger,
and breathing thirst, sleep, body
temperature and emotions
 Questions

1. Write down the name of the part which:

1.1. Controls heartbeat (1)

1.2. Contains the centres that control balance,

muscle tone and
equilibrium (1)

1.3. Has centres that interpret what you see (1)

1.4. Coordinates voluntary muscle movements (1)

1.5. Controls body temperature (1)

[5]
 Answers

1.1. Medulla oblongata √ (1)

1.2. Cerebellum √ (1)

1.3. Cerebrum √ (1)

1.4. Cerebellum √ (1)

1.5. Hypothalamus √ (1)

[5]
 Neurons

Neurons are specialised cells which connect the brain and spinal
cord to all other parts of the body.

There are 3 types of neurons (nerve cells)

Sensory neurons:
Conduct impulses from the receptors TO the
central nervous system

Motor neurons:
Conduct impulses FROM the central nervous
system to effectors like muscles and glands

Connector / inter-neurons:
Connect sensory neurons to motor neurons
Neurons

Axon
Neurons
 Neurons

The Synapse

The synapse is the point where an impulse passes from the terminal branch
of one neuron to the dendrite of the next neuron.

The neurons NEVER touch each other.

The gap between the two neurons is called the synaptic gap.

Chemical neurotransmitters such as acetylecholine/dopamine/serotonin

help to transmit the impulse from one neuron to the next across the
synaptic gap.
 The reflex arc

A reflex arc is the path travelled by the

nerve impulses.

It is a rapid automatic response to a

stimulus that is received by a sensory
organ to ensure a quick response.

The reflex arc will cause the body to

respond very quickly as a reflex action,
allowing it to protect against possible
severe injury.
 The Spinal Cord

• Protection: vertebrae, meninges and cerebrospinal fluid.

• There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves that enter from the body.

• The spinal cord is the pathway for all impulses conducted to and
from the brain.

• The grey matter lies on the inside in the shape of an ‘H’

• The white matter lies on the outside (opposite to the cerebrum).

• The spinal cord processes all reflex actions.

• The spinal cord functions automatically and is not controlled by the

will.

• Sympathetic and parasympathetic nerve impulses are conducted

along the spinal cord to all organs.
The Spinal Cord
The Spinal Cord
 Questions

3 muscle
1 hummer
5

Organ Spinal cord Right leg

4
 Questions
Study the above diagram of longitudinal section of the human brain, a
cross-section of the spinal cord and the right leg.

1. Identify the parts 1, 2 and 5. (3)

2. What will be the effect on the body if part 5 is damaged? (1)

3. Mention three disorders of the nervous system. (3)

4. Describe the reflex action shown in the diagram. (13)

5. Draw and label the type of neuron as indicated by NUMBER 4. (10)

 Questions
Human Nervous system – MEMO 2.5
2.1
1 - cerebrum/ brain √
2 - medulla oblongata √
5 – cerebellum √ (3)

2.2 Lack of muscle control/lack of co-ordination/ bad posture

/ upset equilibrium √ Any 1 (1)
√
2.3 Alzheimer’s Disease √,
Attention Deficit Disorder, √
Depression √ (3)

2.4 Hammer strikes the knee √ stimulating the touch

corpuscles/receptors. √
An impulse is transmitted along the dorsal root √ to the dorsal horn √
where the sensory neuron √ makes a synapse with an interneuron. √
It moves along the motor neuron in the ventral horn √, along the
ventral root √ to the effector √, the muscles in the leg. √ The leg is
raised upwards. √ At the same time an impulse moves to the brain √
to be interpreted. √ (13)
 The Eye
Cornea: Responsible for the Pupil: A circular
refraction (bending) of light opening in the iris
The Structure and function rays from the object, to which allows light into
create the the eye
image on the
Optic nerve:
retina
Carries nerve impulses
Retina: Contains from the retina to the
the light-sensitive brain
receptor cells, i.e. Iris: The coloured
the rods and cones part of the eye
Sclera: The tough Lens: Changes
white outer coat, shape for near
which protects the and distant
eye against damage (far) vision
Choroid: A dark coloured layer Vitreous humour:
which: A jelly-like
• Reduces reflection substance which
• Is rich in blood vessels which gives shape to the
supply the cells of the eye with eye
nutrients and oxygen
 The Eye

Functioning of the eye

The eye performs the following functions:

• Binocular vision

• Formation of the image

• Accommodation

• Pupillary reflex
 Binocular Vision
• Refers to the ability to focus on an
object with both eyes, creating a single
image

• During binocular vision the three pairs

of muscles on the outside of each eye
enable the eye to see three
dimensionally.

• The ability to perceive depth is known

as stereoscopy or stereoscopic vision

• Depth of perception enables us to walk

down/up stairs.
 Accommodation

• Refers to the ability of the eye to

change the shape (convexity) of the
lens to ensure a clear image is formed
on the retina whether the image is near
or distant to bend the light more to
focus it

• Fat lens needed

 Pupillary Mechanism
Controlling light levels
• Your eye are very sensitive and can be
damaged by harsh light.

• Your iris controls light allowed into the eye

by changing the size of the pupil

In bright light Sclera

• The circular muscles of the iris contract

• The radial muscles relax Pupil Radial

Constricts muscles
(becomes Iris relax
• The pupil constricts
Smaller)

• The amount of light entering the eye is

Circular
reduced
muscles of
iris contract
 Pupillary Mechanism

In dim light Sclera

• The radial muscles of the iris contracts

• The circular muscles relax Circular

muscles
Pupil of iris relax
• The pupil dilates widens Radial
muscles of
of iris
• The amount of light entering the eye is
contract
increased.
 Nature and treatment of visual defects

Hypermetropia (long sightedness)

Causes :
• Eyeball being too rounded
• Inability of the lens to become more convex
common in the elderly
Treatment
• Wear classes with convex lens
 Nature and treatment of visual defects

Myopia (short sightedness)

Causes :
• Eyeball being too long
• Inability of the lens of the eye to
become less convex.

Treatment
Wear glasses with a concave lens.
 Nature and treatment of visual defects

Astigmatism

The front surface of the cornea is curved

more in one direction than in the other.

Symptoms:
• Distortion or blurring of images at all
distances
• Headache and fatigue squinting and
eye discomfort and irritation

Treatment
• Prescription glasses are required if
the degree of astigmatism is great
enough to cause eye strain and head
ache, or distortion of vision.
 Nature and treatment of visual defects

Cataracts
Refers to:
• The cloudy, opaque part of the lens not
clear understanding of its causes.

Treatment:
• Surgical removal of the lens
replacing the lens with a synthetic
lens.
 Questions

3. Various possible options are provided as answers to the following questions. Choose
the correct answer and write only the letter (A – D) next to the question number.
Refer for to the diagram of the human eye below for 3.1 to 3.3 :

3.1 The parts that control the amount of light rays that enter the eye
are…..
A 1 and 2
B 1 and 3
C 2 and 3
D 3 and 4
 Questions
3.2 The greatest convergence takes place when light rays pass through the part
numbered…..
A4
B5
C6
D 11
3.3 The function of part numbered 9 is to:
1. reflect light
2. change the shape of the eyeball
3. refract light rays
4. prevent reflection
5. supply the retina with nutrients and oxygen
6. absorb excess light
Choose the correct options for the function of part no.9
A 1, 2, 3
B 4, 5, 6
C 2, 4, 6
D 1, 3, 5
 Questions
3.4 The following are part of the human eye:
1 cornea 2 lens 3 retina 4 iris 5 choroid
Which parts are respectively concerned with/in:
• Adjusting the focus?
• Preventing internal reflection?
• Recording changes in light intensity?
A 2, 4 and 3
B 3, 4 and 1
C 2, 5 and 4
D 4, 1 and 5
 Answers

3.1. C √ √

3.2. C √ √

3.3. B √ √

3.4. C √ √
 Questions
3.5 The diagram alongside that represents a section through part of the
human eye.

3.5.1. Supply labels for the parts numbered 1, 3

and 5. (3)

3.5.2. Supply the number and name the part that

controls the amount of light that
enters the eye. (2)

3.5.3 Mention the changes that the part names in

Question 3.5.2 will undergo when
exposed to bright light. (4)

3.5.4. List one function for each of parts 4 and 7.

(2)
3.5.5 Supply the number and the name of the part that is responsible
for the accommodation of the eye. (2)

3.5.6. Explain the changes that will take place when the part named in
Question 3.5.5 views an object closer that 6m.
3.5.1. 1 = cornea√ 3= pupil √ 5 = suspensory ligaments √
3.5.2. Number 2 , the iris √
3.5. 3. The radial muscles of the iris relax the circular muscles contract
this will cause the pupil to constrict √ allowing less light to enter into the eye √
3.5.4. Part 4 = the lens focusses the light rays onto the retina at the back of the
eye √ .
Part 7 = the vitreous body / vitreous humour is part of the refracting medium of
the eye and helps to maintain the shape of the eyeball. √
3.5.5 Number 6 = the ciliary muscles in the ciliary body √ √
3.5.6.
• The ciliary muscles contract √
• Releasing the tension on the suspensory ligaments so they become
relaxed √
• The tension on the elastic lens becomes less √
• The lens becomes rounder/more convex √
• This increases the refraction of light through the lens so that the image
focusses on the retina √ (18)
The Ear
 Structure

The ear consists of three regions:

Outer ear

Middle ear

Inner ear
 Outer Ear

Outer ear
Consists of the cartilaginous pinna and an Functions of the
auditory canal outer ear
• The pinna directs sound
Pinna waves through the auditory
canal to the tympanic
membrane
• The auditory canal directs
sound waves to the tympanic
Auditory canal membrane.
Cerumen (wax) and hairs in the
auditory canal prevents small
organisms from entering the
ear.
Wax also prevents the ear drum
from drying out.
 Middle Ear

Structure of the middle ear Functions of the middle ear

Tympanic membrane transmits vibrations to
the ossicles
The ossicles transmits impulses from the
tympanic membrane to the inner ear
The Eustachean tube maintains equal
pressure on either side of the tympanic
membrane
The oval window transmits vibrations of the
ossicles into the inner ear.
The round window absorbs the pressure set
up in the inner ear.
 Inner Ear

Structure of the inner ear Functions of the inner ear

Semi circular
canals • The semicircular canals, sacculus and
utriculus are connected with balance
and equilibrium.

• The cochlea contains the organ of

Oval
window Cochlear nerve Corti which converts the stimulus of
sound into impulses.

• The auditory nerve transmits sound

impulses to the brain.
Round window Cochlea
 Hearing and Balance

Path sound • When the direction of the head

Pinna ------auditory canal -------tympanic changes, gravitational pull
membrane ----hammer ---anvil ---- stirrup ---- stimulates maculae – in the
sacculus and utriculus
oval window----perilymph---organ of
Corti---auditory canal ----brain • Within the cristae and maculae
the stimuli is converted to
Balance impulses
• Sudden changes in speed and direction
• These impulses are sent to the
causes the endolymph within the
brain by the vestibular branch of
semicircular canals to move.
the auditory nerve to the
cerebellum for interpretation to
• The movement of the fluid stimulates the
restore balance.
cristae in the ampullae – situated at the
base of the semi circular canal.
 Hearing Defects

Hearing defect Causes Treatment

Middle ear - Excess fluid in the Inserting grommets

middle ear caused by - Antibiotics
infection pathogen
-Infection caused by
viruses and bacteria that
cause common cold,
influenza, measles and
mumps.
-The fluid caused by the
infection makes the
Eustachian tube to be
swollen, inflamed and
clogged.

Deafness Injury to parts of the ear, Hearing aids

nerves or parts of brain - Cochlear implants
responsible for hearing
- Hardened wax
- Hardening of ear tissues
such as ossicles.
 Question 1

1. Study the following diagram of the human ear and answer the
questions that follow.
1.1 Identify parts B and G. (2)

1.2 State the function of each of parts C and E. (2)

1.3. Explain:
a) Why you can often clear a buzzing/humming in
the ear by swallowing (3)
b) Why the membrane labelled F is much larger
than membrane C (2)

1.4. A dog has lost part A in an accident. Part A is

replaced with a stiff, non-elastic,
solid plastic structure.
a) Is the plastic structure as effective as the
original ear of the dog? (1)
b) Explain your answer to QUESTION 1.4 (a). (2)

1.5. Explain how part D and the retina of the eye

function in similar ways. (4)
1.6. Give ONE reason for part D being spirally
shaped. (2)
 Answers
1.1 B : Semi-circular canals √ √
G : Auditory meatus/canal √ √ (4) b)
• To amplify √
1.2 C : Transmits pressure waves to the perilymph of the • Sound √ (2)
inner ear √ √ (2)
1.4 (a) No √ (1)
E: Prevents pressure build-up of sound waves √ / distortion √ (b) It is not moveable or flexible √ for more
/eases vibrations out of the inner ear √ / absorbs vibrations accurate collection of sound √
√ (any two) (2) / for finding the direction √ that the sound is
coming from √ (2)
1.3
(a) 1.5
• A buzzing sound is caused by a difference in the pressure Both receive √ stimuli √ and convert √ to impulses
between the outer and √ which they send √ through
the middle ear √ the sensory neuron √ (Any 2 x 2) = (4)
• Swallowing opens / closes the Eustachian tube √
• to equalize the pressure √ (3) 1.6
Larger surface area √ to accommodate more
receptors √ fits into smaller area /
takes up less space √ (Any 2) = (2)
 Question 2
2. Study the diagram below and answer the
questions that follow:

2.1. State the letter and name of the part

associated with each of the following
statements:
a) the part that secretes cerumen (ear wax) (2)
b) the part that intensifies sound waves (2)
c) the part that carries impulses to the brain (2)
d) the part that is responsible for balance (2)
e) the part that ensure that the air pressure is
equal on both sides of the
eardrum (2)

2.2. Explain what would happen if part F was

blocked. (4)
2.3. Describe the sequence of events that occur
between the entry of a sound
wave into the ear canal, until it reaches the
auditory nerve. (14)
2.4. Briefly discuss what a middle ear infection is
and how this is solved. (10)
 Answers

2.1. • Sound waves are collected by the pinna

a) H = external auditory canal √ √ and passed down the external
b) A = bony ossicles √ √ auditory canal. √
c) D = auditory nerve √ √ • We become conscious of sound when the
d) C = semi-circular canals √ √ vibrations reach our ear-drums
e) F = Eustachian tube √ √ (5 x 2) (10) (tympanic membrane). √
• The ear-drum vibrates according to the
2.2. If the Eustachian tube was blocked: frequency of the sound waves. √
• The air external to the eardrum will have a • These vibrations are transmitted to the
different pressure √ to the air three ossicles (the hammer, anvil
in the middle ear √. This will cause pressure and stirrup) in the middle ear, which
to build on one side of the eardrum √ and amplify the vibrations. √
cause it to bulge and possible burst √ (4) • The stirrup passes the vibration through
2.3. the oval window, into the inner ear √.
• Sound waves move from the vibrating
source (e.g. a person talking, a car • The oval window vibrates and causes
driving past etc) in horizontal waves √ vibrations of the perilymph in the form
• Humans hear sounds with a vibration of wave movements. √
frequency of between 16 and 20 • The wave movements are transferred to
000Hz √ the endolymph inside the cochlea) √
• The hair cells of the Organs of Corti
convert the mechanical stimulus of
the sound wave is converted into an impulse
by the hair cells √
 Answers

• The impulse is passed via the cochlear 2.4. Middle ear infection:
branch of the auditory nerve to the • An inflammation of the middle ear √
auditory centre in the cerebral cortex, • When the middle ear becomes infected by
where the sensation of sound is bacteria, there is extreme pain as
perceived. √ pressure builds up behind the eardrum √
• Excess vibrations are passed out through • The pressure is caused by pus, which collects in
the round window, to prevent the middle ear cavity √
sound pressure and echoes. √ (14) • The Eustachian tube becomes blocked so there is
a lack of the ability to
equalise the pressure on both sides of the
eardrum√
• In some cases, the eardrum may burst and pus
drains out of the ear √
• Antibiotics are generally prescribed. √
• Severe scarring of the eardrum can affect the
person’s hearing. √
• When a person gets middle ear infections often,
an Ear, Nose and Throat
specialist (ENT) √will insert grommets √ into the
eardrum to assist to drain
excess fluid out of the middle ear. √ (10)