Eng Geology

J.B.
INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

(UGC AUTONOMOUS)
Bhaskar Nagar, Moinabad Mandal, R.R. District, Hyderabad -500075
DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING
Engineering Geology
LECTURE NOTESR18
B. TECH
II YEAR – I SEM (Sec- A&B)
Academic Year 2020-21
Prepared & Compiled by
MR.P.Ravi Kumar
ASSISTANT PROFESSOR, DEPARTMENT OF CE
J.B.I.E.T
Bhaskar Nagar, Yenkapally(V), Moinabad(M),
Ranga Reddy(D), Hyderabad – 500 075, Telangana, India
Pg. 1
UNIT-I
ENGINEERING GEOLOGY
Definition:-
a. The science which deals with the physical structure and substance of the earth, their
history, and the processes which act on them.
b. The geological features of a district.
c. The geological features of a planetary body.
The importance of geology in civil engineering may briefly as follows:
a. Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction material, its occurrence,

composition, durability and other properties. Example of such construction materials is
building stones, road metal, clay, limestones and laterite.
b. The knowledge of the geological work of natural agencies such as water, wind, ice and
earthquakes helps in planning and carrying out major civil engineering works. For example the
knowledge of erosion, transportation and deposition helps greatly in solving the expensive
problems of river control, coastal and soil conservation.
c. Ground water is the water which occurs in the subsurface rocks. The knowledge about its
quantity and depth of occurrence is required in connection with water supply, irrigation,
excavation and many other civil engineering works.
d. The foundation problems of dams, bridges and buildings are directly concerned with the
geology of the area where they are to be built. In these works drilling is commonly undertaken
to explore the ground conditions. Geology helps greatly in interpreting the drilling data.
e. In tunneling, constructing roads, canals, docks and in determining the stability of cuts and
slopes, the knowledge about the nature and structure of rocks is very necessary.
f. Before staring a major engineering project at a place, a detailed geological report which is
accompanied by geological maps and sections, is prepared. Such a report helps in planning and
constructing the projects.
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Physical Geology:
a. Physical Geology uses the scientific method to explain natural aspects of the Earth - for
example, how mountains form or why oil resources are concentrated in some rocks and not in
others.
b. This chapter briefly explains how and why Earth's surface, and its interior, is constantly
changing. It relates this constant change to the major geological topics of interaction of the
atmosphere, water and rock.
Petrology:-
a. Petrology is the branch of geology that studies the origin, composition, distribution and structure
of rocks.
(from the Greek language : petra-"rock" and logos- "study")
b. “Lithology” was once approximately synonymous with petrography, but in current usage,
lithology focuses on macroscopic hand-sample or outcrop-scale description of rocks while
petrography is the specialty that deals with microscopic details.
Branches:
There are three branches of petrology, corresponding to the three types of rocks:
a. Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.
1. Igneous petrology focuses on the composition and texture of igneous rocks (rocks such as
granite or basalt which have crystallized from Molten rock or magma).
Igneous rocks include volcanic and plutonic rocks.
2. Sedimentary petrology focuses on the composition and texture of sedimentary rocks (rocks
such as sandstone, shale.
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3. Metamorphic petrology focuses on the composition and texture of metamorphic rocks such
as slate, marble, gneiss, or schist which started out as sedimentary or igneous rocks but which
have undergone chemical, mineralogical or textural changes due to extremes of pressure,
temperature or both).
4. Metamorphic rocks arise from the transformation of existing rock types, in a process called
metamorphism, which means "change in form". The original rock (protolith) is subjected to
heat (temperatures greater than 150 to 200 °C) causing profound physical and/or chemical
change.
Structural geology:
b. 
Structural geology is the study of the three-dimensional distribution of rock units with
respect to their deformational histories.
c. The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock

geometries to uncover information about the history of deformation (strain) in the rocks, and
ultimately, to understand the stress field that resulted in the observed strain and geometries.
Weathering of Rocks:
a. Weathering breaks down and loosens the surface minerals of rock so they can be transported
away by agents of erosion such as water, wind and ice.
b. There are two types of weathering: mechanical and chemical.
1. Mechanical or physical weathering involves the breakdown of rocks and soils through direct
contact with atmospheric conditions, such as heat, water, ice and pressure.
2. The second classification, chemical weathering involves the direct effect of atmospheric
chemicals or biologically produced chemicals also known as biological weathering in the
breakdown of rocks, soils and minerals.
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MINERALOGY
Introduction:
• A mineral is a naturally occurring substance that is solid and inorganic represent able by a
chemical formula, and has an ordered atomic structure.
• Minerals are broadly grouped into
a) The rock forming minerals and
b) Ore-forming minerals
In civil engineering practice, it is important to have knowledge of the important

rock- forming types.
The ore-forming minerals are to be understood in detail by the mining, Metallurgical and
Mineral Engineering professionals.
• The study of minerals is called mineralogy.
• There are over 4,900 known mineral species; over 4,660 of these have been approved by the
International Mineralogical Association (IMA).
• The silicate minerals compose over 90% of the Earth's crust.
• Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties.
Formation of minerals:
• Minerals are crystalline solid substances, meaning the atoms making up a mineral are
arranged in an ordered, three-dimensional, structure.
• The distances and angles between an individual atom and the neighbors it is bonded to are
constant.
• The process of mineral formation is known as crystallization. In order for a mineral to crystallize,
ions from the nearby environment must be brought together.
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• A second process of mineral formation occurs during cooling of a melt.
• When crystallization of this type takes place in water, we call it freezing.
• Through a very similar mechanism, molten rock-forming liquids, known as magmas and lavas,
cool and crystallize to form minerals and thus rocks.
Study of minerals:
• Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of chemistry, crystal

structure, and physical (including optical) properties of minerals.
• Specific studies within mineralogy include the processes of mineral origin and formation,
classification of minerals, their geographical distribution, as well as their utilization.
• As of 2004 there are over 4,000 species of minerals recognized by the IMA. Of these, perhaps
150 can be called "common," another 50 are "occasional," and the rest are "rare" to "extremely
rare."
Physical properties:
• The physical characteristics of minerals include traits which are used to identify and
describe mineral species. These traits include color, streak, luster, density, hardness,
cleavage, fracture, tenacity, and crystal
• Color .Cleavage
• Streak .Fracture
• Luster .Tenacity
• Density .Habit
• Hardness
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UNIT-II
PETROLOGY
Definition of rock:
a. In geology, rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals or

mineraloids.
b. For example, the common rock granite is a combination of
I. the quartz, feldspar and biotite minerals. The Earth's outer solid layer, the
lithosphere, is made of rock.
c. Rocks have been used by mankind throughout history. From the Stone Age, rocks have been
used for tools. The minerals and metals found in rocks have been essential to human civilization.
d. Three major groups of rocks are defined: Igneous, Sedimentary, and Metamorphic.
The scientific study of rocks is called petrology.
Crystallization:
a. Crystallization is also a chemical solid–liquid separation technique, in which mass

transfer of a solute from the liquid solution to a pure solid crystalline phase occurs.
b. In chemical engineering crystallization occurs in a crystallizer.
Dykes and sills:
• Dyke” and “sill” are geological terms used to describe an intrusion; usually a mass of igneous or
volcanic rocks that forcibly entered, penetrated, and embedded into layers of another rock or land
form. Dykes and sills are often.
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• A dike or dyke in geological usage is a sheet of rock that formed in a fracture in a
pre-existing rock body.
• However, when the new rock forms within and parallel to the bedding of a layers rock, it is
called a sill.
• It is a type of tabular or sheet intrusion, that either cuts across layers in a planar wall rock
structures, or into a layer or unlayered mass of rock.
Structure and texture of igneous rocks:
• The texture of igneous rocks depends on the composition of the magma and the conditions
surrounding the magma’s cooling.
• The textures are different in intrusive, vein, and extrusive rocks. Intrusive ro cks are
characterized by
aholocrystalline texture, in which all the rock material is crystallized.
• Also depends on the shape of the crystals of the component minerals.
Structure and texture of Sedimenatry rocks:
• The relationship between rock structure and texture and rock genesis is more pronounced
insedimentary rocks than in igneous rocks.
• Clastic rocks consist of detrital (clastic) grains of various sizes and shapes.
• The grains, which canbe angular, subrounded, or rounded, sometimes lie fre ely without
attachment.
• The structure of clastic rock, which depends on the mutual arrangement of th e grains, can be
random, laminar, or fluidal. With a random structure, the particles do not have an ordered
arrangement.
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Properties of rocks and Minerals:
Physical Properties of Calcite
Chemical
carbonate
Classification
Color usually white but also colorless, gray, red, green, blue, yellow, brown, orange
Streak white
Luster vitreous
Diaphaneity transparent to translucent
Cleavage perfect, rhombohedral, three directions
Mohs Hardness 3
Specific Gravity 2.7
rhombohedral cleavage, powdered form effervesces weakly in dilute HCl, curved

Diagnostic Properties
crystal faces and frequent twinning
Chemical
CaCO3
Composition
Crystal System hexagonal
acid neutralization, a low hardness abrasive, soil conditioner, heated for the
Uses
production of lime
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Physical Properties of Hematite
Chemical
oxide
Classification
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Color black to steel-gray to silver; red to reddish brown to black
Streak red to reddish brown
Luster metallic, submetallic, earthy
Diaphaneity Opaque
Cleavage None
Mohs Hardness 5 to 6 ½
Specific Gravity 5.0 to 5.3
Diagnostic
red streak, specific gravity
Properties
Chemical
Fe2O3
Composition
Crystal System trigonal
the most important ore of iron, pigment, heavy media separation, radiation shielding,
ballast,
Uses
polishing compounds, a minor gemstone
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Physical Properties of Quartz
Chemical
silicate
Classification
Quartz occurs in virtually every color. Common colors are clear, white, gray, purple,
Color
yellow, brown, black, pink, green, red.
Streak colorless (harder than the streak plate)
Luster vitreous
Cleavage none - typically breaks with a conchoidal fracture
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Mohs Hardness 7
Diagnostic Properties conchoidal fracture, glassy luster, hardness
Chemical SiO2
Composition
Crystal System hexagonal
Uses glass making, abrasive, foundry sand, hydraulic fracturing proppant, gemstones
Physical Properties of Chromite

Chemical
Classification oxide
Color dark gray to black, rarely brownish black
Streak dark brown
Luster metallic to submetallic
Diaphaneity opaque
Cleavage none
Mohs Hardness 5.5 to 6
Specific Gravity 4.0 to 5.1 (variable)

Diagnostic
Properties luster, streak
Chemical FeCr2O4
Composition with magnesium substituting for iron in significant amounts
Crystal System isometric
Uses an ore of chromium
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Physical Properties of Fluorite
Chemical
halide
Classification
Color typically purple, green and yellow. Also colorless, blue, red and black.
Streak white
Luster vitreous
Cleavage four directions of perfect cleavage
Mohs Hardness 4
Specific Gravity 3.2
Diagnostic Properties cleavage, hardness, specific gravity, color
Chemical
CaF2
Composition
Numerous uses in the metallurgical, ceramics and chemical industries. A source of

Uses fluorine, hydrofluoric acid, metallurgical flux. High clarity pieces are used to make
lenses for microscopes, telescopes and cameras.
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Physical Properties of Pyrite
Chemical
sulfide
Classification
Color brass yellow - often tarnished to dull brass
Streak greenish black to brownish black
Luster metallic
Diaphaneity opaque
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Cleavage breaks with a conchoidal fracture
Mohs Hardness 6 to 6.5
Diagnostic Properties color, hardness, brittle, greenish black streak
Chemical
iron sulfide, FeS2
Composition
Texture and structure of metamorphic rocks:
• The structures and textures of metamorphic rocks arise during the recrystalli zation in thesolid
state of primary sedimentary and magmatic rocks.
• The recrystallization occurs under the action of lithostatic pressure, tempera ture.
• Which leads to an ordered arrangement of the mineral Grains?
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GROUND WATER
DEFINITION:
• Groundwater (or ground water) is the water present beneath Earth's surface in soil pore spaces
and in the fractures of rock formations.
• A unit of rock or an unconsolidated deposit is called an aquifer when it can yield a usable
quantity of water.
• The depth at which soil pore spaces or fractures and voids in rock become completely saturated
with water is called the water table.
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USES:
• Groundwater is also often withdrawn for agricultural, municipal, and industrial use by
constructing and operating extraction wells.
• The study of the distribution and movement of groundwater

is hydrogeology, also called GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY.
• Groundwater is often cheaper, more convenient and less vulnerable

to pollution than surface water.
SPRINGS:
• A spring is the result of an aquifer being filled to the point that the water overflows onto the land
surface.
• They range in size from intermittent seeps, which flow only after much rain, to huge pools
flowing hundreds of millions of gallons daily.
Types of springs:
• Seepage or filtration spring. The term seep refers to springs with small flow rates in which the
source water has filtered through permeable earth.
• Fracture springs, discharge from faults, joints, or fissures in the earth, in which springs have
followed a natural course of voids or weaknesses in the bedrock.
CONE OF DEPRESSION:
• A cone of depression occurs in from a an aquifer when groundwater is pumped aquifer

well. In an unconfined depression of the (water table), this is an actual
water levels.
• In confined aquifers (artesian), the cone of depression is a reduction in the pressure head
surrounding the pumped well.
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DIFFERENCE:
• The size and shape (slope) of the cone of depression depends on many factors. The pumping rate
in the well will affect the size of the cone.
• Also, the type of aquifer material, such as whether the aquifer is sand, silt, fractured rocks etc.,
also will affect how far the cone extends.
• The amount of water in storage and the thickness of the aquifer also will determine the size and
shape of the cone of depression.
• As a well is pumped, the cone of depression will extend out and will continue to expand in a
radial fashion until a point of equilibrium occurs.
• This usually is when the amount of water released from storage equals the rate of pumping. This
also can occur when recharge to the aquifer equals the amount of water being pumped.
1.Confinedaquifer
2.Unconfined aquifer
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AQUIFERS
What is an aquifer???
• An aquifer is an underground layer of water-bearing permeable rock or unconsolidated materials

(gravel, sand, or silt) from which groundwater can be extracted using a water well.
• The study of water flow in aquifers and the characterization of aquifers is called hydrogeology.
• What is confining layer (aquitard)?
• Geological material through which significant quantities of water can not move, located below
unconfined aquifers, above and below confined aquifers. Also known as a confining bed.
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Confined aquifer(artesian) :-
• Confined aquifers are those in which an impermeable dirt/rock layer exists that prevents water
from seeping into the aquifer from the ground surface located directly above.
Unconfined aquifer (water table aquifer):-
• Unconfined aquifers are those into which water seeps from the ground surface directly above the
aquifer.
Unconfined aquifers:
• Natural recharge of the unconfined aquifers is mainly due to the downward seepage (or
percolation) through the unsaturated zone of the excess water over passing the field capacity of
the soil. Recharge can also occur through upward seepage (leakage) from underlying aquifers.
Confined aquifers:
• A regional confined aquifer is directly recharged by precipitation in the area where the aquifer
crops out, having the same characteristics as an unconfined aquifer.
INFILTRATION GALLERIES:
• Infiltration galleries is a conduit,
• Built in permeable earth, for collecting ground water.
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• We have seen earlier that ground water travels towards lakes, rivers or streams. This water
which is travelling can be intercepted by digging a trench or by constructing a tunnel with
holes on sides at right angle to the direction of flow.
• These underground tunnel used for tapping underground water near rivers, lakes or streams
are called “INFILTRATION GALLERIES”.
• These are also known as Horizontal walls.
Example:-
• Infiltration galleries can be used to collect sub-surface flow from rivers. Water is taken to a
collective well, or sump, and then pumped to a storage tank.
• Infiltration galleries vary in size, from a few meters feeding into spring box, to many kilometers
forming an integral part of unban water supply.
Construction of galleries:
• To ensure a continuous supply of water, infiltration galleries should be built in the end of dry
season and should be at least one meter under the dry season water table.
• Excavate a trench to at least 1 m below the water table,
• Lay graded gravel on the base of the trench.
• Lay the pipe or drain blocks on top of the gravel. Cover the top and sides with more graded
gravel.
• Cap the gravel with an impermeable layer of clay to prevent surface water entering the
gallery.
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STRATIGRAPHY
Stratigraphy is a branch of geology which studies rock layers (strata) and layering
(stratification).
It is primarily used in the study of sedimentary and layered volcanic rocks.
Stratigraphy includes two related subfields:
1. Lithologic stratigraphy or lithostratigraphy,
2. Biologic stratigraphy or biostratigraphy.
Application of stratigraphy was by William Smith in the 1790s and early
1800s. Smith, known as the "Father of English geology“.
Created the first geologic map of England and first recognized the significance of strata or rock
layering and the importance of fossil markers for correlating strata.
1) Lithostratigraphy:
Lithostratigraphy, or lithologic stratigraphy, provides the most obvious visible

layering. It deals with the physical contrasts in lithology, or rock type. Such layers can occur
both vertically– in layering or bedding of varying rock types.
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Lithology:
The lithology of a rock unit is a description of its physical characteristics visible at outcrop,
in hand or core samples or with low magnification microscopy, such as colour, texture, grain
size, or composition.
2) Biostratigraphy:
Biostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy which focuses on correlating and

assigning relative ages of rock strata by using the fossil assemblages contained within
them.
Biologic stratigraphy was based on William Smith's principle of faunal succession, which
predated, and was one of the first and most powerful lines of evidence for, biological evolution.
Out crop:
• An outcrop or rocky outcrop is a visible exposure of bedrock or ancient

superficial deposits on the surface of the Earth.
• Outcrops do not cover everywhere on the surface of the earth, these are mostly covered with a
thick and thin layer called alluvium or most common language as soil.
• However, in places where the overlying cover is removed through erosion or tectonic uplift,
the rock may be exposed, or crop out.
• In fact in some areas the soil may spread over for thousands of square km and the bed block
may not be visible anywhere.
• As in the mountains and sub- mountains tracts, exposure of rocks may be easily seen
forming sides of valley or caps of hills.
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• Hence outcrop is simply defined as “An exposure of solid rock on the surface of the
rock”.
Strike :
• Strike is a geographic direction given by the line of intersection of a horizontal plane

with a bedding plane of a layer of rock.
• It is measured in field with the help of a compass.
Dip:
• It is defined as the max angle of inclination with the horizontal. It is expressed both in terms of
degree of inclination and direction of inclination.
• The amount of dip is called angle of inclination, which a bedding plane makes with a
horizontal plane.
True Dip:
• when the dip of the layer is measured in a direction that is essentially at right angles to the strike
of the particular layer, then It is called TRUE DIP.
Apparent Dip:
• When the dip of the layer is measured in any other direction which is not a right angles to the
strike direction is called APPARENT DIP.
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FOLDS
DEFINITION:
• Folds are one of the most common geological structures found in rocks. When a set of
horizontal layers are subjected to compressive forces, they bend either upwards or
downwards.
• The bends noticed in rocks are called folds.
• Folds are described variously as wavy or arch or curvy types founds in rocks.
• In terms of nature too, folds may occur as single local bends or may occur repeatedly and
intricately folded according to the tectonic history of the region.
Types of FOLDS:
Based on different principles, the folds are variously classified on:
1. Symmetrical character.
2. Upward or downward bend.
3. Occurrence of plunge.
4. Bed thickness
5. Behaviour of the fold pattern.
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Anticline and Syncline:
• When beds are bent upwards, the resulting fold is called Anticline. This fold is convex upwards.
• (Anti= Opposite, Cline= Inclination)
• Syncline is just opposite to anticline on its nature, when the beds are bent downwards the
resulting fold is called Syncline.
Symmetrical and Asymmetrical folds:
• When the axial plane divides a fold into two equal halves in such a way that one half is the
mirror image of another, then such fold is called Symmetrical fold.
• If the two halves are not mirror images, then the fold is called Asymmetrical fold. IF the
compressive forces responsible for folding are not of the same magnitude, asymmetrical folds
are formed.
• Open and Closed Folds
• Similar and Parallel Folds
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UNIT-III
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
STRATIGRAPHY:
(stratification).

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Application of stratigraphy was by William Smith in the 1790s and early 1800s.
Smith, known as the "Father of English geology“.
Lithostratigraphy, or lithologic stratigraphy, provides the most obvious visible layering. It deals with
the physical contrasts in lithology, or rock type. Such layers can occur both vertically– in layering or
bedding of varying rock types.
Lithology:
The lithology of a rock unit is a description of its physical characteristics visible at outcrop, in
hand or core samples or with low magnification microscopy, such as color, texture, grain size, or
composition.
2) Biostratigraphy:
Biostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy which focuses on correlating and assigning

relative ages of rock strata by using the fossil assemblages contained within them.
Out crop:

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• Outcrops do not cover everywhere on the surface of the earth, these are mostly covered
with a thick and thin layer called alluvium or most common language as soil.
rock”.
Strike :

Dip:
horizontal plane.
True Dip:
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Apparent Dip:
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UNIT-IV
EARTH QUAKES
DEFINITION:
• A sudden violent shaking of the ground, typically causing great destruction, as a result of
movements within the earth's crust or volcanic action.
• A sudden release of energy in the earth's crust or upper mantle, usually caused by movement
along a fault plane or by volcanic activity and resulting in the generation of seismic waves which
can be destructive.
Seismic Waves
• Seismic waves are waves of energy that travel through the Earth's layers, and are a result of
an earthquake, explosion, or a volcano that gives out low-frequency acoustic energy.
• Seismic waves are studied by geophysicists called seismologists. Seismic wave fields are
recorded by a seismometer, hydrophone (in water), or accelerometer.ncy acoustic energy.
• The propagation velocity of the waves depends on density and elasticity of the medium.
• Velocity tends to increase with depth and ranges from approximately 2 to 8 km/s in the
Earth's crust, up to 13 km/s in the deep mantle.
CLASSIFICATION AND CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKE:
Based on depth of their origin, earthquake is described as shallow or intermediate or

Deep.
• Earthquake with a focus depth less than 60km are called shallow earthquake.
• If the depth more than 60km but less than 300km, they are called Intermediate
earthquake.
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• Which have focus depth more than 300km, they are called Deep earthquake.
Based on the causes responsible for their occurrence, earthquakes are described as
Tectonic or non Tectonic.
• Tectonic earthquake are exclusively due to internal causes, due to disturbances or

adjustments of geological formations taking place in the earth’s interior, they are less
frequent, but more intensive and hence more destructive in nature.
• The Non Tectonic earthquake on the other hand, is generally due to external or surfacial
causes. This type of earthquake is very frequent, but minor in intensity and generaly not
destructive in nature.
Types:
Among the many types of seismic waves, one can make a broad distinction between body
waves and surface waves.
• Body waves travel through the interior of the Earth.
• Surface waves travel across the surface. Surface waves decay more slowly with distance than
do body waves, which travel in three dimensions.
Includes Primary and Secondary waves:
Primary waves (P-wave):
• Primary waves are compressional waves that are longitudinal in nature. P waves are pressure
waves that travel faster than other waves through the earth to arrive at seismograph stations
first, hence the name "Primary".
• These waves can travel through any type of material, including fluids, and can travel at nearly
twice the speed of S waves. In air, they take the form of sound waves, hence they travel at the
speed of sound. Typical speeds are 330 m/s in air, 1450 m/s in water and about 5000 m/s in
granite.
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Secondary waves(S-Waves):
• Secondary waves (S-waves) are shear waves that are transverse in nature. Following an
earthquake event, S-waves arrive at seismograph stations after the faster-moving P-waves.
• S-waves can travel only through solids, as fluids (liquids and gases) do not support shear
stresses. S-waves are slower than P-waves, and speeds are typically around 60% of that of P-
waves in any given material.
SEISMIC BELTS AND SHIELD AREAS:
• Seismic belts are those places where earthquakes occur frequently. Shield areas are those
places where earthquakes occur either rarely or very mildly.
• Occurrence of an earthquake in a place is an indication of underground instability there.
• Statistics have revealed that nearly 50% of earthquakes have occurred along mountain ridges
and 40% of earthquakes along steep coasts.
• The study of recorded earthquakes shows that they take place on land most frequently along
two well-defined seismic belts.
1. Circum Pacific Belt which accounts for 68% of earthquake occurrence.
2. Mediterranean belt accounts 21% of earthquake which extends east-west from Portugal,
Himalayas and Burma with a branch through Tibet and China.
RICHETER SCALE:
• The Richter magnitude scale (also Richter scale) assigns a magnitude number to
quantify the energy released by an earthquake.
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• The Richter scale, developed in the 1930s, is a base-10 logarithmic scale, which defines
magnitude as the logarithm of the ratio of the amplitude of the seismic waves to an arbitrary,
minor amplitude.
• In 1935, the seismologists Charles Francis Richter and Beno Gutenberg, of the California
Institute of Technology, developed the (future) Richter magnitude scale, specifically for
measuring earthquakes in a given area of study.
• The Richter scale was succeeded in the 1970s by the Moment Magnitude Scale (MMS). This
is now the scale used by the United States Geological Survey to estimate magnitudes for all
modern large earthquakes.
• An Earthquake of magnitude 5 may cause damage within radius of 8km, but that of magnitude 7
may cause damage in a radius of 80km, and that of 8 over a radius of 250km.
CONSTRUCTION OF BUILDINGS IN SEISMIC AREAS-
PRECAUTIONARY MEASURES:
• Buildings should be Founded on hard bedrock only and never on loose soils or Fractured rocks,
this is because lose ground settles due to earthquake vibrations.
• Buildings situated in cuttings on hill slides, near sheet slopes always suffer more when an
earthquake occurs.
• For large Buildings, raft types of foundations are desirable. Square foundations are
more stable.
• Different parts of a building should be well tied together so that the whole structure behaves
like a single unit to the Vibrations.
• Only rich cement mortar and reinforced concrete should be used.
• Buildings with irregular shapes with wings, Verandas, Porches and all structures should
be avoided.
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• Buildings should have RCC roofs and they should be designed not to yield to lateral stress.
• Resonance is the important factor, If the period of vibration of a structure is the same as that of
the foundation rock it will collapse because of the resonance effect.
CIVIL ENGINEERING CONSIDERATIONS IN SEISMIC AREAS:
• Seismic areas are the places which experience earthquakes frequently.
• Therefore constructions in seismic and a seismic areas differ in terms of their design.
• So a civil engineer should only think of making his constructions immune to earthquakes.
It is possible to find the difficulties by predicting some crucial factors:
a. The exact place of earthquake occurrence.
b. II.The duration of the earthquake.
c. III.The direction of movement of the ground at the time of earthquake.
BASICS OF A DAM:
a. In a way ,the success of dam is not only related to its own safety and stability but also
depends on the success of associated reservoirs.
b. If in a dam construction the dam stands firmly and the reservoir leaks , then the dam is to be
treated as a failure because the purpose for which it has been constructed has not been served.
c. Therefore care is needed in construction of dam and reservoir.
36
The important geological considerations in the selection of dam site are as follows:
The geological considerations are :
1. Narrow river valley
2. Occurrence of bed rock at a shallow depth
3. Competent rocks to offer a stable foundations
BEDROCK AT SHALLOW DEPTH
a. To ensure the stability and safety of a dam, the dam has to rest on very strong and very
stable rocks(i.e bedrock).
b. If the bedrock is available at shallow depth then the cost for the foundation of dam is less.
c. If in any case the bedrock is at greater depth then the cost is high as it needs lot of excavation
and concrete filling.
d. Therefore to ensure the bedrock has actually reached bores should be drilled for 20’ or more
through the rocks.
e. Competent rocks for safe foundation.
f. If igneous rocks occur at the site selected for dam, then they will offer a safe foundation.
g. If sedimentary rocks occur like shale, poorly cemented sandstones and limestone then they
shall naturally be undesirable to serve as foundation rocks.
h. In metamorphic rocks the rocks like marbles, like quartzites can bear a granulose
structure and they are not porous and permeable, therefore metamorphic rocks are
unsuitable for dam sites.
i.
37
DAMS AND RESERVOIRS AND THEIR
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
DAMS
• A dam is a barrier that impounds water or underground streams.
• Generate electric power.
• Manage or prevent water flow into specific land regions.
• Evenly distributed between locations.
BENEFITS OF DAMS
1. Power generation
2. Water supply
3. Stabilize water flow / irrigation
4. Flood prevention
5. Land reclamation
6. Recreation and aquatic beauty
7. Navigation
DISADVANTAGES OF DAMS
1. Seepage and evaporation
2. Groundwater table effects
3. Sedimentation behind dams
4. Erosion downstream by sediment-starved waters
5. Clogging of rivers by side-canyon floods
38
RESERVOIR
The dams constructed across the rivers create artificial lakes which are known as reservoirs.
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF DAMS
1. Biological, chemical and physical properties of rivers
2. Blocks fish migrations
3. Traps sediments
4. Changes in temperature, chemical composition, dissolved oxygen levels and the physical
properties of a reservoir are often not suitable to the aquatic plants and animals.
5. Reservoirs often host non-native and invasive species (e.g. snails, algae, predatory fish)
6. Species in the area
7. Water quality
8. Fertility of the land
9. Problems of pollution
10. Social impacts
11. Soil Erosion
12. Species Extinction
13. Spread of Disease
39
CHANGES TO EARTH'S ROTATION
Nasa geophysicist Dr. Benjamin Fong Chao found evidence that large dams cause
changes to the earth's rotation, because of the shift of water weight from oceans to reservoirs.
Because of the number of dams which have been built, the Earth's daily rotation has apparently
sped up by eight-millionths of a second since the 1950s. Chao said it is the first time human
activity has been shown to have a measurable effect on the Earth's motion.
EXAMPLES OF GEO HAZARDS
Geo hazard includes :
1. Earthquakes
2. Landslides
3. Tsunamis
4. Avalanches
5. Floods
6. Volcanoes
EARTHQUAKES
a. Earthquake is a sudden vibration that occurs on the surface of the earth with a release of large
amount of energy.
b. The point of originating of earthquake is known as focus or hypocenter
c. The point on the earth’s surface which lies vertically above the focus is known as
epicentre.
Classification of earthquakes
Based on their mode of origin :
Earthquakes occurring due to surface causes due to volcanic causes due to tectonic causes.
40
Based on depth of focus:
a. Shallow focus earthquakes(<55km)
b. Intermediate focus earthquakes(55-300km)
c. Deep focus earthquakes(300-650km)
CAUSES OF EARTHQUAKES
Earthquakes occur due to:
1. Tsunamis
2. Occurrence of landslides
3. Avalanches
4. Volcanic eruptions
5. Man-made explosions
6. Meteorites
LANDSLIDES
If a mass of earth or rock moves along a definite zone or surface the failure is called
as Landslide.
The foremost force responsible for the occurrence of landslide is due to the action of
gravity.
CAUSES OF LANDSLIDES
Natural causes
1. Due to ground water pressure
2. Due to melting of glaciers and heavy rainfall
3. Due to volcanic eruptions.
41

Human causes
1. Due to heavy machinery equipments and traffic flow.
2. Blasting of rocks weakens the stability of slope
TSUNAMI
1. A Tsunami is a giant wave (or series of waves) created by an undersea earthquake,

volcanic eruption and landslide.
2. Tsunamis are often called as tidal waves but this is not accurate description because tides have
little effect on giant tsunami waves.
VOLCANOES
A Volcano is a vent (hole) in the earth’s crust through which lava, steam, ashes and etc., are
expelled.
AVALANCHES
1. An Avalanche is any amount of snow sliding down a mountainside.
2. Another term for avalanche is snow slide.
FLOODS
A Flood is an overflow of water that submerges the land which is usually dry.
EFFECTS OF GEOHAZARDS
1. A great loss of plant, human and animal life.
2. Destruction and damage to the buildings.
3. Disruption of civic facilities like electricity, water, telephones.
4. Loss of communication such as road, rail, water and air transportation.
5. Increase in infectious diseases due to the pollution created by this hazards.
42
WATER TIGHTNESS AND INFLUENCING FACTORS WATER-
TIGHTNESS:
It is the process which is implemented after the effect of weathering in order to preventing the
leakage of water through fractured rock and bed rocks which are located below the surface and
covered with loose soil.
a.
If the dam is constructed without proper water-tightening, the impounded water in the
reservoir covers large area and percolates over it.
b.
Due to higher level of the water in reservoir, hydrostatic pressure is formed, which makes the
leakage of water more effective on sides and floor of the reservoir.
INFLUENCING FACTORS:
1.
Buried river channels
2.
Influence of rock type
3.
Influence of geological structures
4.
Scope of preventing leakage
5.
Influence of water table.
GEOLOGICAL FACTORS EFFECTING WATERTIGHTNESS CONTENTS:
1. Water tightness introduction
2. Factors affecting water tightness
3. Factors affecting life of a reservoir
43
WATER TIGHTNESS:
Water at the site of reservoir and dam tends to percolate to underground through fractures and
voids, this leakage may results in decrease in water level at reservoir so a reservoir must be made with
sufficient water tightness.
• Factors effecting water tightness
• Buried river channel
• Types of rocks
• Geological structures
• Water table
• Presence of impermeable of permeable layer on the surface
BURIED RIVER CHANNEL:
This is generally present as a glaciers below the surfaces it may not decrease the water tightness.
ROCK TYPE:
• Generally faults and fractures present in igneous and metamorphic rocks so rock used in
construction of reservoir should have less fractures
• Geological structures, water table and some other factors may not have much effect as
above.
44
ELECTRICAL METHODS
INDEX :
• Electro resistivity method.
• Electromagnetic method.
• Self potential method.
ELECTRO RESISTIVITY METHOD:
• The formation of electrical resistivites of sub-surface differ from one another if they are
homogenous.
• These resistivities are studied by means of resistivity method.
• They are two types of resistivity investigations
1) Profiling
2) Sounding
ELECTRO MAGNETIC METHOD :
In the principles of electromagnetic field an alternating magnetic field is formed in ground with
help of an appropriate source. The formed electromagnetic field induces eddy currents in conductive
ore bodies in sub-surface and these produces secondary electromagnetic fields. The magnetic element
of secondary electromagnetic field is examined at surface to find underground ore deposits.
45
Important electromagnetic methods are
1) Dip angle method
2) Enslin method
3) Sling ram method
4) Sandburg method.
5) Turram method.
SELF POTENTIAL METHOD :
Self potential method is also known as spontaneous polarization method which is based on
electrical potentials naturally present in earth. Pyrite , Pyrhotieans sulphideores which indicates
spontaneous polarization. Apart from these graphite produces strong SP method.
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRO RESSISTIVITY METHODS :
• In the exploration of ground water.
• Exploration of petroleum.
• Finding highly conductive bodies such as sulphide ore bodies and graphite.
ADVANTAGES OF ELECTRO MAGNETIC METHOD :
• Finding ore deposits.
• Exploration of soil.
• Ground water studies where overburden is of high resistivity.
46
GROUND SUBSIDENCE
INTRODUCTION:
• Small scale vertical movements
• Causing substantial economic losses and societal disruption
• Human induced and natural
• Occurring on time-scales of a few decades
SUBSIDENCE AND UPLIFT:
• Subsidence: The lowering of the land surface due to

Creation of cavities in solid rock by mining, combustion of coal or dissolution of
soluble material

The removal of fluids (water or oil) from the pore spaces of unconsolidated
or poorly consolidated sediments
• Uplift: changed land conditions due to expansive soils
SUBSIDENCE:
• Underground mining is the most widespread cause of subsidence by direct removal
• Removal causing changes in local or regional groundwater system either by natural or

anthropogenic causes
ADVANTAGE SOF SELF POTENTIAL METHOD:
• Exploration of economic mineral deposits.
• Finding areas of corrosion.
• In bore holes of investigation.
47
DAMS
Dam is a solid barrier constructed at a suitable location across a river valley to store flowing
water and used for
• Hydropower
• Irrigation
• Water for domestic consumption
• For drought and flood control
• Other additional utilization is to develop fisheries
TYPES OF DAMS
There are four types of dams. They are
• Arch dam
• Gravity dam
• Buttress dam
• Earth dam
ARCH DAM:
• This type of dams are concrete dams which are curved or convex upstream in plan. It is
dependent upon the arch action for its strength.
• Arch dam is thinner and requires less material for construction compared to other dams.
• Arch dams are built across narrow deep river gorges.
48
GRAVITY DAM
• Gravity dams are the dams which resist the horizontal thrust of water entirely by their
own weight
• they use their weight to hold back the water in the reservoir
• Made of earth or rock fill or concrete
BUTTRESS DAM
• Buttress dams are dams in which the face is held up by a series of supports.
• Buttress dams can take many forms – the face may be flat or curved.
• Usually buttress dams are made of concrete and may be reinforced with steel bars.
EARTH DAMS
• Earth dams are trapezoidal in shape
• Earth dams are constructed where the foundation rocks are weak to support
• Earth dams are relatively smaller in height and broad at the base
• They are mainly built with clay, sand and gravel. Hence they are also known as Earth
fill dam or Rock fill dam
49
DEFINITION:
can be destructive.
Seismic Waves

Deep.
earthquake.
50

Types:
granite.
51
RICHETER SCALE:
52
minor amplitude.
earthquake occurs.
more stable.
be avoided.
53
d. II.The duration of the earthquake.
e. III.The direction of movement of the ground at the time of earthquake.
BASICS OF A DAM:
d. In a way ,the success of dam is not only related to its own safety and stability but also
e. If in a dam construction the dam stands firmly and the reservoir leaks , then the dam is to be
f. Therefore care is needed in construction of dam and reservoir.
54
j. To ensure the stability and safety of a dam, the dam has to rest on very strong and very
k. If the bedrock is available at shallow depth then the cost for the foundation of dam is less.
l. If in any case the bedrock is at greater depth then the cost is high as it needs lot of excavation
m. Therefore to ensure the bedrock has actually reached bores should be drilled for 20’ or more
through the rocks.
n. Competent rocks for safe foundation.
o. If igneous rocks occur at the site selected for dam, then they will offer a safe foundation.
p. If sedimentary rocks occur like shale, poorly cemented sandstones and limestone then they
q. In metamorphic rocks the rocks like marbles, like quartzites can bear a granulose
r.
55
DAMS
BENEFITS OF DAMS
8. Power generation
9. Water supply
11. Flood prevention
12. Land reclamation
14. Navigation
56
RESERVOIR
16. Traps sediments
20. Water quality
23. Social impacts
24. Soil Erosion
57
7. Earthquakes
8. Landslides
9. Tsunamis
10. Avalanches
11. Floods
12. Volcanoes
EARTHQUAKES
d. Earthquake is a sudden vibration that occurs on the surface of the earth with a release of large
amount of energy.
e. The point of originating of earthquake is known as focus or hypocenter
f. The point on the earth’s surface which lies vertically above the focus is known as
epicentre.
58
d. Shallow focus earthquakes(<55km)
e. Intermediate focus earthquakes(55-300km)
f. Deep focus earthquakes(300-650km)
7. Tsunamis
9. Avalanches
12. Meteorites
LANDSLIDES
as Landslide.
gravity.
Natural causes
59

Human causes
TSUNAMI

VOLCANOES
expelled.
AVALANCHES
FLOODS
60
TIGHTNESS:
c.
d.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
61
WATER TIGHTNESS:
• Types of rocks
• Water table
ROCK TYPE:
above.
62
ELECTRICAL METHODS
INDEX :
homogenous.
1) Profiling
2) Sounding
63
6) Dip angle method
7) Enslin method
8) Sling ram method
9) Sandburg method.
10) Turram method.
64
GROUND SUBSIDENCE
INTRODUCTION:

soluble material

SUBSIDENCE:

65
FOLDS
DEFINITION:
• Folds are one of the most common geological structures found in rocks. When a set of
horizontal layers are subjected to compressive forces, they bend either upwards or
downwards.
• The bends noticed in rocks are called folds.
• Folds are described variously as wavy or arch or curvy types founds in rocks.
• In terms of nature too, folds may occur as single local bends or may occur repeatedly and
intricately folded according to the tectonic history of the region.
Types of FOLDS:
Based on different principles, the folds are variously classified on:
4. Symmetrical character.
5. Upward or downward bend.
6. Occurrence of plunge.
6. Bed thickness
7. Behaviour of the fold pattern.
66
Anticline and Syncline:
• When beds are bent upwards, the resulting fold is called Anticline. This fold is convex upwards.
• (Anti= Opposite, Cline= Inclination)
• Syncline is just opposite to anticline on its nature, when the beds are bent downwards the
resulting fold is called Syncline.
Symmetrical and Asymmetrical folds:
• When the axial plane divides a fold into two equal halves in such a way that one half is the
mirror image of another, then such fold is called Symmetrical fold.
• If the two halves are not mirror images, then the fold is called Asymmetrical fold. IF the
compressive forces responsible for folding are not of the same magnitude, asymmetrical folds
are formed.
• Open and Closed Folds
• Similar and Parallel Folds
67
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY
STRATIGRAPHY:
(stratification).

68
Application of stratigraphy was by William Smith in the 1790s and early 1800s.
Smith, known as the "Father of English geology“.
Lithostratigraphy, or lithologic stratigraphy, provides the most obvious visible layering. It deals with
the physical contrasts in lithology, or rock type. Such layers can occur both vertically– in layering or
bedding of varying rock types.
Lithology:
The lithology of a rock unit is a description of its physical characteristics visible at outcrop, in
hand or core samples or with low magnification microscopy, such as color, texture, grain size, or
composition.
2) Biostratigraphy:
Biostratigraphy is the branch of stratigraphy which focuses on correlating and assigning

relative ages of rock strata by using the fossil assemblages contained within them.
Out crop:

69
• Outcrops do not cover everywhere on the surface of the earth, these are mostly covered
with a thick and thin layer called alluvium or most common language as soil.
rock”.
Strike :

Dip:
horizontal plane.
True Dip:
70
Apparent Dip:
71
UNIT-V
TUNNELS
DEFINITION:
can be destructive.
Seismic Waves

Deep.
earthquake.
72

Types:
granite.
73
RICHETER SCALE:
74
minor amplitude.
earthquake occurs.
more stable.
be avoided.
75
f. II.The duration of the earthquake.
g. III.The direction of movement of the ground at the time of earthquake.
BASICS OF A DAM:
g. In a way ,the success of dam is not only related to its own safety and stability but also
h. If in a dam construction the dam stands firmly and the reservoir leaks , then the dam is to be
i. Therefore care is needed in construction of dam and reservoir.
76
s. To ensure the stability and safety of a dam, the dam has to rest on very strong and very
t. If the bedrock is available at shallow depth then the cost for the foundation of dam is less.
u. If in any case the bedrock is at greater depth then the cost is high as it needs lot of excavation
v. Therefore to ensure the bedrock has actually reached bores should be drilled for 20’ or more
through the rocks.
w. Competent rocks for safe foundation.
x. If igneous rocks occur at the site selected for dam, then they will offer a safe foundation.
y. If sedimentary rocks occur like shale, poorly cemented sandstones and limestone then they
z. In metamorphic rocks the rocks like marbles, like quartzites can bear a granulose
77
DAMS
BENEFITS OF DAMS
15. Power generation
16. Water supply
21. Navigation
78
RESERVOIR
29. Traps sediments
33. Water quality
36. Social impacts
37. Soil Erosion
79
13. Earthquakes
14. Landslides
15. Tsunamis
16. Avalanches
17. Floods
18. Volcanoes
EARTHQUAKES
g. Earthquake is a sudden vibration that occurs on the surface of the earth with a release of large
amount of energy.
h. The point of originating of earthquake is known as focus or hypocenter
i. The point on the earth’s surface which lies vertically above the focus is known as
epicentre.
80
g. Shallow focus earthquakes(<55km)
h. Intermediate focus earthquakes(55-300km)
i. Deep focus earthquakes(300-650km)
13. Tsunamis
15. Avalanches
18. Meteorites
LANDSLIDES
as Landslide.
gravity.
Natural causes
81

Human causes
TSUNAMI

VOLCANOES
expelled.
AVALANCHES
FLOODS
82
TIGHTNESS:
e.
f.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
83
WATER TIGHTNESS:
• Types of rocks
• Water table
ROCK TYPE:
above.
84
ELECTRICAL METHODS
INDEX :
homogenous.
1) Profiling
2) Sounding
85
11)Dip angle method
12) Enslin method
13) Sling ram method
14) Sandburg method.
15) Turram method.
86
GROUND SUBSIDENCE
INTRODUCTION:

soluble material

SUBSIDENCE:

87
DAMS
water and used for
• Hydropower
• Irrigation
TYPES OF DAMS
• Arch dam
• Gravity dam
• Buttress dam
• Earth dam
ARCH DAM:
88
GRAVITY DAM
own weight
BUTTRESS DAM
EARTH DAMS
89
RICHETER SCALE:
90
minor amplitude.
earthquake occurs.
more stable.
be avoided.
91
h. II.The duration of the earthquake.
i. III.The direction of movement of the ground at the time of earthquake.
BASICS OF A DAM:
j. In a way ,the success of dam is not only related to its own safety and stability but also
k. If in a dam construction the dam stands firmly and the reservoir leaks , then the dam is to be
l. Therefore care is needed in construction of dam and reservoir.
92
aa. To ensure the stability and safety of a dam, the dam has to rest on very strong and very
bb. If the bedrock is available at shallow depth then the cost for the foundation of dam is less.
cc. If in any case the bedrock is at greater depth then the cost is high as it needs lot of excavation
dd. Therefore to ensure the bedrock has actually reached bores should be drilled for 20’ or more
through the rocks.
ee. Competent rocks for safe foundation.
ff. If igneous rocks occur at the site selected for dam, then they will offer a safe foundation.
gg. If sedimentary rocks occur like shale, poorly cemented sandstones and limestone then they
hh. In metamorphic rocks the rocks like marbles, like quartzites can bear a granulose
93
DAMS
BENEFITS OF DAMS
22. Power generation
23. Water supply
28. Navigation
94
RESERVOIR
42. Traps sediments
46. Water quality
49. Social impacts
50. Soil Erosion
95
19. Earthquakes
20. Landslides
21. Tsunamis
22. Avalanches
23. Floods
24. Volcanoes
EARTHQUAKES
j. Earthquake is a sudden vibration that occurs on the surface of the earth with a release of large
amount of energy.
k. The point of originating of earthquake is known as focus or hypocenter
l. The point on the earth’s surface which lies vertically above the focus is known as
epicentre.
96
j. Shallow focus earthquakes(<55km)
k. Intermediate focus earthquakes(55-300km)
l. Deep focus earthquakes(300-650km)
19. Tsunamis
21. Avalanches
24. Meteorites
LANDSLIDES
as Landslide.
gravity.
Natural causes
97

Human causes
TSUNAMI

VOLCANOES
expelled.
AVALANCHES
FLOODS
98
TIGHTNESS:
g.
h.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
99
WATER TIGHTNESS:
• Types of rocks
• Water table
ROCK TYPE:
above.
100
ELECTRICAL METHODS
INDEX :
homogenous.
1) Profiling
2) Sounding
101
16)Dip angle method
17) Enslin method
18) Sling ram method
19) Sandburg method.
20) Turram method.
102
GROUND SUBSIDENCE
INTRODUCTION:

soluble material

SUBSIDENCE:

103
DAMS
water and used for
• Hydropower
• Irrigation
TYPES OF DAMS
• Arch dam
• Gravity dam
• Buttress dam
• Earth dam
ARCH DAM:
104
GRAVITY DAM
own weight
BUTTRESS DAM
EARTH DAMS
105

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J.B.

INSTITUTE OF ENGINEERING AND TECHNOLOGY

Prepared & Compiled by

b. The geological features of a district.

c. The geological features of a planetary body.

The importance of geology in civil engineering may briefly as follows:

a. Geology provides a systematic knowledge of construction material, its occurrence,

(from the Greek language : petra-"rock" and logos- "study")

a. Igneous, metamorphic, and sedimentary.

c. The primary goal of structural geology is to use measurements of present-day rock

b. There are two types of weathering: mechanical and chemical.

• Minerals are broadly grouped into

a) The rock forming minerals and

In civil engineering practice, it is important to have knowledge of the important

• The study of minerals is called mineralogy.

• The silicate minerals compose over 90% of the Earth's crust.

• Minerals are distinguished by various chemical and physical properties.

• When crystallization of this type takes place in water, we call it freezing.

• Mineralogy is a subject of geology specializing in the scientific study of chemistry, crystal

a. In geology, rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of one or more minerals or

b. For example, the common rock granite is a combination of

a. Crystallization is also a chemical solid–liquid separation technique, in which mass

b. In chemical engineering crystallization occurs in a crystallizer.

Dykes and sills:

Structure and texture of igneous rocks:

aholocrystalline texture, in which all the rock material is crystallized.

• Also depends on the shape of the crystals of the component minerals.

Structure and texture of Sedimenatry rocks:

Physical Properties of Calcite

Diaphaneity transparent to translucent

Cleavage perfect, rhombohedral, three directions

Specific Gravity 2.7

rhombohedral cleavage, powdered form effervesces weakly in dilute HCl, curved

Crystal System hexagonal

Streak red to reddish brown

Luster metallic, submetallic, earthy

Specific Gravity 5.0 to 5.3

Crystal System trigonal

Diagnostic Properties conchoidal fracture, glassy luster, hardness

Crystal System hexagonal

Physical Properties of Chromite

Mohs Hardness 5.5 to 6

Specific Gravity 4.0 to 5.1 (variable)

Crystal System isometric

Uses an ore of chromium

Diaphaneity transparent to translucent

Cleavage four directions of perfect cleavage

Specific Gravity 3.2

Diagnostic Properties cleavage, hardness, specific gravity, color

Crystal System isometric

Numerous uses in the metallurgical, ceramics and chemical industries. A source of

Color brass yellow - often tarnished to dull brass

Streak greenish black to brownish black

Mohs Hardness 6 to 6.5

Specific Gravity 4.9 to 5.2

Diagnostic Properties color, hardness, brittle, greenish black streak

Crystal System isometric

Texture and structure of metamorphic rocks:

• Which leads to an ordered arrangement of the mineral Grains?