VOL. 23, NO.

1, 2024, 18-30
elektrika.utm.my
ISSN 0128-4428

Indoor Positioning Based Ranging: A Review and

Literature Survey of UWB and Li-Fi Technologies
Ammar Fahem1, Rashidah Arsat1*, ⁠ Muhammad Ariff Baharudin1, Nurul Mu’azzah Abdul Latiff1, and
Abbas Albaidhani2
1
Faculty of Electrical Engineering, Universiti Teknologi Malaysia, 81310 UTM Skudai, Johor, Malaysia.
2
Air Navigation Academy General Company of Air Navigation Service Baghdad, Iraq.
*
Corresponding author: [email protected]

Abstract: Why IPS (Indoor Positioning Systems)? This issue is one of the most challenging things to solve in wireless
localization due to the lack of a Global Positioning System (GPS) and the existence of distinctive radio propagation
characteristics. Although there are different localization options available, the accuracy of localization cannot satisfy
customers' requirements. Positioning algorithms could be grouped into two groups, including range-based and range-free
techniques. Before actually putting a localization technique into practice, the accuracy of those techniques is of the utmost
importance. Range-based methods can often attain great accuracy with the help of specialized hardware, and this accuracy can
be dependent on either the distances between nodes or the angles between them. In this paper, a comparison of different
strategies utilized for positioning is presented, as well as an analysis of the pros and cons associated with supporting
technologies for each strategy. A literature survey of the recent IPS technologies range-based with focuses on Ultra-Wide Band
(UWB) and Light Fidelity (Li-Fi) is presented with significant recommendations. This literature considered the accuracy,
complexity, scalability, cost, latency, deployment, and usability, as well as strengths, shortcomings, approaches, and issues
determined by each work. This paper highlights the most recent research gaps and reviews the most promising findings, with
recommendations to the reader and researcher, in UWB and Li-Fi indoor positioning systems over the last five years based on
range-based techniques. In addition, this paper serves as a guide that discusses all of the measures that may be utilized in the
process of evaluating localization technologies, and it could be considered a roadmap for existing and new researchers to
identify and characterize suitable technologies for creating innovative systems and apps via stand-alone range-based
positioning.

Keywords: IPS, localization, range-based, localization, IoT, indoor positioning

© 2024 Penerbit UTM Press. All rights reserved
Article History: received 8 January 2023; accepted 17 January 2024; published 28 April 2024.

information is an essential component of the majority of

1. INTRODUCTION IOT apps. In addition to this, more recent advances in
There has been a recent uptick in interest in having technology are able to provide numerous alternatives to
localization-based services made available to consumers guarantee that the data includes location information for
all over the world. The majority of mobile and wireless IoT (Internet of Things) solutions.
networks necessitate the use of localization as an essential The GPS [4] is the satellite-based localization system
component. For instance, wireless sensor networks are that is utilized most frequently in outdoor environments.
frequently set up in an ad-hoc manner, which implies that However, the GPS does have some restrictions when used
the precise positions of the sensors are not determined in in enclosed spaces like buildings. This is owing to the fact
advance [1]. The process of obtaining information that the GPS device suffers significant power loss when
regarding various reference points within a predetermined used indoors as a result of signal attenuation caused by a
area is referred to as localization or position. This variety of building materials [5] or that the GPS signals
information can be used to establish where tracked items will be suppressed in the deeper parts of the interior [6]. To
are located. In other words, it is an attempt to determine address these challenges in an indoor environment, a
the position of movable or fixed devices (such as number of different solutions that make use of a variety of
smartphones, unmanned vehicles, navigation, drones, technologies have been proposed. Examples of these
patient monitoring, and emergency response systems, technologies include ultra-wideband (UWB) [7], ZigBee
watches, beacons, and vehicles) by utilizing specific fixed [8,9], radio frequency identification (RFID) [10], wireless
nodes and mobile computing devices [1-3]. Additionally, fidelity (Wi-Fi) [11], Bluetooth [12], frequency
the information on the location could be utilized in a modulation (FM) [13], and cellular networks (including
variety of services such as navigation, tracking, LTE and 5G) [14–16], wearable devices, and inertial
monitoring, and so on. At the moment, location sensors [17]. In addition, some hybrid strategies combine

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the positive aspects of two or more technologies in order Parking System [28]. (6) Firefighters work under
to improve the accuracy of indoor localization [18]. dangerous conditions, such as dust, smoke, and fires [29].
Positioning accuracy, scalability, precision, cost, (7) Management of Intelligent and Location-Based
dependability, complexity, seamlessness, power Resources [30]. (8) Access control is determined by the
efficiency, scalability, and security are among the most user's location, which gives users permission to access
crucial evaluation indicators to consider when deciding on resources according to that location [31]. (9) Navigation in
choosing a localization approach and technology. Due to Shopping Centre [32]. (10) Inventory and asset tracking in
the fact that indoor positioning is one of the most the warehouse [33,34]. (12) identification of interior items,
complicated issues in localization, it has attracted the such as doors [35]. The main contributions presented in
attention of a large number of researchers from both the this paper are:
private sector and academic institutions. The numerous 1) This work offers a systematic review of the many
properties of localization systems, such as their network localization technologies, approaches, algorithms, and
architecture, computational technique, use of anchors, and strategies that have been suggested, with a focus on
capacity to manage mobility (whether it be the anchors or indoor ranged-based localization.
the mobile targets), can be used to further differentiate or 2) The survey illustrates several localization metrics and
classify these systems. On the other hand, localization criteria in addition to comparisons between all of IPs
algorithms will generally fall into one of two categories: aspects in terms of performance and strong and weak
range-based or range-free. Taking readings of a signal points.
allows range-based localization methods (like GPS and 3) The IPS challenges and difficulties that researchers in
other forms of cellular-based location) to achieve great this field encounter are highlighted in an effort to
precision but at the expense of implementation and shorten their journey.
computational complexity. On the other hand, range-free 4) Finally, this study is a roadmap for existing and new
localization techniques (such as simple cell-based researchers to identify and characterize suitable
localization) can deliver a less precise position (but maybe technologies for creating innovative systems and apps
"good enough" for specific purposes) with a far less via stand-alone ranged-based positioning.
complex implementation. The location of a node is
determined in a range-based method by comparing it to the The rest of the paper is organized as follows: Section 2
sites of other nodes that are close by. Before attempting to discusses the most often employed radio frequency range-
identify the location of the mystery node, it is necessary to based localization parameters. Section 3 presents a brief
take accurate measurements of the distance or angle (range review of common positioning algorithms. Recent
information) between the nodes. It is possible to achieve advances in UWB and Li-Fi positioning technology
this goal with the help of the Received Signal Strength literature are stated in Section 4. Section 5 contains an
Indicator (RSSI) [19], the Time of Flight (TOF) [20], the analytical critique based on the recent literature survey.
Time of Arrival (ToA) [21], the Time Difference of Arrival The recommendations and conclusion of the paper are
(TDoA) [22], and the Angle of Arrival (AoA) [23]. Range- presented as a final discussion in sections 6 and 7,
based localization is a costly option, but in the meantime, respectively.
it provides accurate information about the positions of
sensor nodes. This expense is a result of the supplementary 2. RF RANGE-BASED LOCALIZATION
equipment that is necessary for the measurement, with PARAMETERS
increased energy consumption due to these hardware There are several methods that can be used indoors and
measures. On the other hand, range-free approaches do not outdoors to pinpoint the precise location of moving or
take into account the various strategies for range stationary objects. When these methods depend on
measuring [24]. multiple technologies or a merging of different
One of the primary motivations for preparing this work technologies, they are able to improve localization
is that the majority of people spend a significant amount of precision by a larger margin [36]. Numerous
time each day in a variety of interior environments for a measurements are used in these methods to identify the
variety of reasons; the identification of locations becomes precise location of unknown targets. The most important
an attractive research field for the sake of tools for localizing wireless signals are the received signal
emergency, security, and safety measures. In light of this, strength indicator (RSSI), the time of arrival (TOA), and
the reason for carrying out this survey is to study the angle of arrival (AOA/DOA). The Time Difference of
the localization perspective in terms of utilizing numerous Arrival (TDOA), Round Trip Time (RTT), Angle
strategies and technologies within the context of the era of Difference of Arrival (ADOA), Phase Difference of
the IoT. The IoT provides positioning-based applications Arrival (PDOA), Phase of Arrival (POA), Channel State
that affect nearly every facet of human life. For instance, Information (CSI), and Received Signal Quality (RSQ) are
(1) fall detection in the healthcare system would enable also used for positioning and tracking in indoors. The
rapid assistance to be provided in the event that an old or aforementioned techniques could be used to estimate the
disabled people were to fall [17]. (2) automobile accident error distance bias by determining whether the propagation
detection [25], (3) An interactive and technologically channel is line-of-sight or non-line-of-sight. Also, to
advanced museum [26]. (4) Real-Time Surveillance of obtain an accurate or enhanced distance utilized for precise
Vehicle Parking Lots and Autonomous Payment [27]. (5) positioning methods and tracking techniques.
Estimation of available parking spots using the Smart

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In the following subsections, the most frequently used

radio frequency range-based localization parameters will
be discussed.

2.1 RSSI-Based Techniques

The RSSI, or received signal strength indicator, is a
standardized method that is commonly described by a
single chip vendor [37]. In order to estimate the distance
between an object and the node without resorting to
complex calculations, RSSI is a commonly used metric.
The signal strength deficit between two nodes is used to
calculate the distance between them. For this technique to
accurately estimate a distance, as few as two nodes are
needed. The RSSI-based algorithm can outperform
competing approaches because it relies solely on the
strength of the received signal and does not call for any
additional hardware or time synchronization. Figure 1. RSSI radio propagation technique
Both range-based and range-free methodologies can
incorporate the RSSI technique in some capacity. The first
2.1.1. Fingerprinting-Based Technique
method is a path loss model-based RSSI, which is the most
common form. Second, constructing a map in accordance Any rise in the total number of BSs will result in higher
with the physical regulations governing the wireless signal costs associated with localization [41]. Here, to arrive at an
is an integral part of the propagation model. The range- estimate of the current position, the system utilizes the
based method may identify the object's exact location by measurements of the current signal strength taken during
employing trilateration, min-max, and maximum the online stage and then compares those measurements
likelihood algorithms. However, the clarity and with the dataset obtained during the offline phase. The idea
adaptability of the surroundings are reduced while using behind RSSI is to establish a connection that is one-to-one
this method. The latter strategy involves making use of a between the signal strength of the BSs and the device that
fingerprinting database, also known as a radio map, to is being targeted. The Received Signal Strength Indicator
accomplish localization [38]. The fingerprinting method (RSSI) levels will rise to a higher value whenever there is
has a greater rate of accuracy and can be utilized in a a shorter distance between the transmitter and the receiver.
variety of different indoor settings. RSSI measurement can Due to multipath, however, the RSSI distance margin is
result in an error due to indoor environmental impacts. The not constantly linear, especially in enclosed environments
actual conditions found inside buildings include a number [42]. For RSSI detection and measurement, only a WLAN
of obstructions that interfere with the propagation of radio [39], UWB [43], Zigbee [44], Bluetooth [45], or Infrared
signals [39]. Noise and multipath effects can significantly [46] detector is needed. Wireless LAN positioning is
reduce RSSI's accuracy for localization [40]. This is helpful because it's cheap and always available without
because RSSI is susceptible to both of these effects. In human intervention. Diffraction, reflection, and scattering
addition to this, there is a line-of-sight (LOS) issue may impact signal strength in indoor propagation, a
between the two nodes, which can have a massive effect challenge for fingerprinting-based IPS. This simple
on errors. However, the accuracy of the RSSI computation positioning method requires a large dataset and can be
can be improved by radio signal propagation analyzing affected by environmental changes. Due to these changes,
and calibrating. Radio signal strength indicator (RSSI) the dataset must be updated periodically, which takes time,
techniques are shown in Figure 1. effort, and money [47]. Interference from other devices,
like microwave ovens and Bluetooth devices, may affect
positioning accuracy. Since RSSI systems don't require
timings, it's possible to create a highly reliable system.
Further, synchronization between devices is
unnecessary. So, their superiority at shorter ranges means
they sacrifice precision at longer distances. However,
training and complex matching algorithms are required for
localization. Shadowing, low Signal to Noise Ratio (SNR),
and NLOS propagation are also threats to RSSI [48].
Utilizing algorithmic machine learning is time-consuming
[49], complex [50], and requires storage and computing
power [51]. Many machine learning algorithms have been
proposed to predict a real-time indoor location with
acceptable accuracy. Some need a lot of training data. This
increases training time and memory complexity.

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2.1.2. RSSI Radio Propagation Technique extracted features, estimate the target device’s position
The range between a mobile device and a set of base [56]. Vision-based localization approaches make use of 3D
stations (BSs) or wireless access points (WAPs) is cameras, omnidirectional cameras, or built-in smartphone
determined using received signal strength indicator (RSSI) cameras to extract data from indoor environments. In
measurements in conjunction with a modelling technique Vision-Based methodology, image processing algorithms
to calculate the distance. As shown in Figure 3, should be applied in the process of feature extraction.
the trilateration method could be used to calculate the Matching and clustering algorithms have been utilized as
estimated target device's position in relation to the known well in the vision-based positioning and navigation
position of fixed stations. It is one of the cheapest and systems in addition to feature extraction techniques. Even
easiest to manage implementations, and it has the though DL technologies have recently been added to
drawback of not providing very excellent classical ones in computer vision-based navigation
precision, around 2–4 meters of location error, because systems [57]. On the other hand, in addition to using
RSSI observations fluctuate due to variations in the testbed matching methods to estimate indoor positions, computer
vicinity or multipath fading [52]. vision-based systems of navigation utilize Ego-Motion-
In the RSSI-based signal propagation method, all that's based location estimation algorithms as well [58]. The
required is a prior understanding of the relevant Ego-Motion approach determines where the camera is in
environment (which may be established offline) in order to location to its surroundings.
estimate the path loss factor. In spite of this, most
2.4 Angle-Based Method (Angulation)
researchers ran into difficulties when trying to measure the
distance between BSs/WAPs and the target device by In the context of Angle of Arrival (AoA), angulation is a
calculating the path of loss exponent, signal propagation directing method for identifying the desired object by
parameters, and deployment area conditions. To estimate evaluating the angles of stationary stations relative to the
how far away a target device is from base stations and geographic North Pole [59]. As shown in Figure 4, AOA
wireless access points (WAPs), Equation (1) could be used is one type of triangulation method that uses angles
[53]: obtained from transmitters at known locations to figure out
the position of targets. The angulation method makes use
𝑅𝑆𝑆ᵢ₀−𝑅𝑆𝑆ᵢ of antennas with directional features [60]. The AOA
( ) (1)
𝑑ᵢ = 𝑑₀ ∗ 10 10∗ᶯᵢ calculates the target device's and fixed stations' directions.
AOA measurements indicate the angle at which a
where di is the distance between the target objects and the target gets signals from multiple base stations at a known
base station. The predicted calibrated distance, at zero location [61]. AOA requires two stationary stations to
distance, is illustrated with d0. The RSSI value for the d0 predict a 2D position. Three or more stationary stations are
is present with RSSi0. RSSI is the measured signal power needed to improve position estimates. Direction-finding
for the received BSs/WAPs signals, and the requires highly directional antennas or antennas array [62].
calculated/calibrated path loss exponent for the received Figure 4. illustrates the Angulation-based localization
base station signals is denoted by ηi . measuring setup. Equation (2) calculates the target location
from two or more fixed station directions. To locate the
2.2 Channel State Information (CSI) object, two angles between the fixed stations' direction to
Channel state information utilization represents a more the target and the North Pole are needed, together with a
advanced strategy than the path attenuate method, which is range measurement when measuring the distance between
also frequently employed in the work that is currently two displays [63–65].
being done in research (CSI). In addition to this, one of the
consequences of the constraints imposed by the RSS-based y. tan A2 − X 2
y= , x = y. tan A1 (2)
technique is the utilization of (CSI). The status per each tan A2 − tan A1
channel as it is affected by power decay, scattering, fading,
delay distortion, and the multi-path impact with distance
can be reflected by CSI [54]. CSI is responsible for where (x1, y1) and (x1, y2) are coordinate values of the
collecting channel measures that indicate amplitudes and Base station1 and Base station positions respectively. θ1
phases at the subcarrier level [55]. Even in the case when and θ2 are the AOAs for the received base station signals,
there is no line of sight between the Base stations and the and (x, y) is the coordinate values of the position of the
targets, the CSI can produce a more accurate calculation of unknown device. AOA-based strategies have a number
the distance that separates the two. However, in order to of limitations, including (1) Employing more antennae to
deliver CSI, specialized sets of hardware equipment measure angles to improve system accuracy, which raises
known as network interface cards are required. implementation costs. (2) Multipath and NLOS signal
propagation difficulties plague AOA-based techniques. (3)
2.3 Vision-Based Technique (VBT) Reflections from objects and walls complicate AOA
By extracting scene attributes from images and videos measurements, especially inside [66]. These factors can
without taking electromagnetic signals into account, the modify the direction of signal arrival, reducing the
vision-based localization method can be considered as one accuracy of AOA-based indoor localization systems.
scene analysis type. After that, through the comparison of
online measurements or the features with the closest

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dimensional space, four reference nodes are required.

Distance measurements (𝑑𝑎 , 𝑑𝑏 , 𝑑𝑐 ) in two-
dimensional are related to a receiver (x, y) and sender
𝑥𝑎 , 𝑦𝑎 , 𝑥𝑏 , 𝑦𝑏 , 𝑥𝑐 , 𝑦𝑐 coordinates by Equation (4) [70].

𝑑𝑖 = (𝑥ᵢ − 𝑥)2 + (𝑦ᵢ − 𝑦)2 𝑖 = 𝑎, 𝑏, 𝑐 (4)

Figure 5 depicts a three-point ToA-based

location estimate. The x symbol (bright green) in the
figure's centre indicates the receiver node. The red dashed
circles illustrate the ideal scenario, with correct distance
calculations and a single junction site. Due to measurement
inaccuracies, these three circles with estimated distances
rarely cross. Blue dashed circles illustrate. In this scenario,
the object's location is estimated utilizing the dark green x-
Figure 2. Angulation-based localization measuring setup. shaped intersection.
Synchronization of transmitter and receiver devices is
crucial for accurate placement when using ToA
2.5 Time-Based Technique techniques. Because radio frequency (RF) signals travel at
The time of arrival (TOA) of a Radio signal, and perhaps such a high rate of speed, even a microsecond's delay in
the time of transmission (TOT), is monitored in order to synchronization can result in a 300-meter error in location
calculate the range between nodes in a network using a estimation, and other considerations, such as the variability
technique known as time-based methods. These strategies of time spent processing received signals, could further
have the potential for high-precision locating without the amplify the prediction error.
requirement for mapping, and they could either substitute
or enhance the existing RSSI methods. Even though they
are challenging due to the fast speed at which the signals
are propagated, they have the potential for great accuracy
positioning. There is a lot of potential in using time-based
techniques. Despite this, there are still a lot of unsolved
scientific problems. A concise explanation of the most
often employed methods and approaches in time-based
localization is provided in the following subsections.

2.5.1 Arrival Time (ToA)/Flight Time (ToF)

The ToA approach takes into account the amount of time
it takes for radio waves to travel between the transmitting
and receiving nodes [67]. Calculating the distance between
two points can be done by calculating the amount of time
it takes for a signal to travel between them, presuming that
the speed at which a signal travels is both constant and
known. ToA relies on a one-way measurement of
propagation time, which necessitates a precisely Figure 3. ToA-based location measurement.
synchronized clock at both the sending and receiving
nodes. Specifically, this method is employed in GPS-based
2.5.2 Round-Trip ToF (RTT/RTToF) and Two-Way ToA
positioning. ToA-based computations are given in
(TW-ToA)
Equation (3) [68]. While Treceived and Ttransmitted
represent the times at which the signal was received and For the purpose of range prediction, many systems also
sent,dToA represents the distance between the transmitter make utilization of the RTT of flight method. RTT is the
and receiver nodes. Figure 5 depicts the simplest position amount of time, measured in milliseconds, that is needed
measuring system based on the ToA. GPS satellites use for a data packet to be transferred from an access point
atomic clocks for synchronization and transmit a radio (AP) to a target, in addition to the amount of time that is
signal about their position and time [69]. required for an AP to obtain a response packet from the
target [71]. ToA techniques necessitate the exact
synchronization of nodes. Round-trip delay between the
𝑑𝑇𝑂𝐴= 𝑇𝑟 𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑣𝑒𝑑−𝑇 𝑡𝑟 𝑎 𝑛 𝑠𝑚 𝑖𝑡𝑡𝑒𝑑 ∗𝐶 (3) receiver and transmitter nodes is used by TW-ToA or
RTToF techniques to do away with the need for a
synchronized clock. TW-ToA-based positioning has the
Theoretically, in 2-dimensional, three reference nodes drawback of requiring bidirectional communication
are sufficient for node position prediction, whereas, in 3- between devices and consuming more power. The data

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request is sent from the sending node to the receiving node, between each signal, the destination node is able to make
which is then tasked with responding. The period of the estimates regarding their respective distances. Calculating
transmission in its entirety is captured here. Additionally, the position of the receiver node requires the utilization of
the processing time (Tp ) is recorded by the receiver node two nonlinear equations, each of which has two variables.
(time between package receive and send). One-way arrival This method requires additional processing in comparison
time is calculated by subtracting time consumption from to ToA. Equations (6) and (7) display the TDoA
the full-time utilizing Equation (5) [72]. The stages calculations for three base stations and one unidentified
involved in TW-ToA are outlined in Figure 6. node.

𝑇𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 − 𝑇𝑃 △ 𝑑𝐵𝐴 = 𝑥𝑏 − 𝑥 2 + (𝑦𝑏 − 𝑦)2

𝑑 𝑇𝑊−𝑇𝑂𝐴 = ∗𝐶 (5)
2 − 𝑥𝑎 − 𝑥 2 + (𝑦𝑎 − 𝑦)2
= 𝐶 ∗△ 𝑡𝐵𝐴 (6)
where (d) is the true separation of the base station from the
target device and (c) is the velocity of light. Obstacles like
△ 𝑑𝐶𝐴 = 𝑥𝑐 − 𝑥 2 + (𝑦𝑐 − 𝑦)2
walls, roofs, and doors can lead to multipath fading and
imprecise RTT measurements in an indoor setting. In − 𝑥𝑎 − 𝑥 2 + (𝑦𝑎 − 𝑦)2
recent years, scientists have found a way to remedy this by = 𝐶 ∗△ 𝑡𝐶𝐴 (7)
stabilizing the gap between the transmitter and receiver by
either signal path analysis or statistical correction.
Nonetheless, there are a number of confounding factors The latter of TDoA makes use of a variety of
that affect RTT during transmission/reception [73]. This communication methods that have varying speeds of
consists of (1) noise as a result of the LOS/NLOS propagation, such as radio waves and sound waves. In such
circumstance, (2) measurement inaccuracies as a result of a circumstance, because radio waves travel at the speed of
non-reception, and (3) distortions as a result of signal light and sound waves travel considerably more slowly,
latency. Moreover, processing, queuing, and codec delays there is a certain disparity between the amounts of time it
all play a role in elevating or decreasing the RTT takes for the messages to travel the same distances. This is
measurement. It is common practice to assume that these due to the fact that radio waves travel at the speed of light.
variables remain constant between any two Figure 9 depicts this plan in its entirety. It's important to
communicating nodes (access point and target objects). keep in mind that this strategy places unique constraints on
The latency in TOA is calculated using both the target and the range of each signal and that different types of waves
the BS clocks, while in RTT, just the target's clock is demand specialized equipment. [77]. consequently, the
utilized to compile the transmitted and arrival times. The TDOA methodology's drawbacks in the first TDoA
necessity for the target device and BSs to keep their clocks method are comparable to those in the TOA approach. For
synchronized is diminished as a result of this benefit to TDOA to work, the time at all fixed stations must be
RTT [74]. This strategy has the issue of requiring distance synchronized. As opposed to this, clock synchronization
computations from many Base stations, which might cause between the target and fixed stations is necessary for the
latencies in Location-Based Services (LBS) systems in TOA strategy [78]. Both TDOA and TOA depend on the
which the targeted devices move quickly. The latency in precision of the clocks used by the nodes to determine the
TOA is calculated using both the target and the BS clocks, exact position. Multipath, noise, and interference all have
while in RTT, just the target's clock is utilized to compile an effect on both TDOA and TOA. Additionally, they are
the transmitted and arrival times [75]. challenging to execute in a low-bandwidth setting.
Furthermore, they are favoured only in locations with a
2.5.3 Difference in Flight Time (TDoF) / Difference in straight line of sight (LOS), such as open spaces or a big
Arrival Time (TDoF) one. The second approach raises the possibility of
The TDoA/TDoF approach relies on a combination of two transmission mistakes due to the unique properties of the
distinct types of measurements. The first technique individual waves involved.
involves determining the delay in the transmission of a
signal from a single node to three or more receivers. The
transmitter and receiver are not required to be in sync with
one another, like in TW-ToA, but synchronisation is
needed for the nodes on the periphery, as shown in [76].
The timing difference between two synchronised signals is
what the receiver node uses to calculate the distances.
Compared to the ToA method, this approach is a little bit
more sophisticated; however, it has the potential to yield
more reliable predictions. In Figure 7, an example of the
first kind of TDoA approach. The messages or data are
being synchronously sent by the middle nodes, and the
destination node doesn't have any idea how long the
transmission will last. By evaluating the timing differences

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initial steps involve making distance or angle estimates

between unknown and known nodes. In the second stage,
utilization of the collected information is to identify the
precise position of each node. A localization system's
major component is the last one, which uses position data
to locate an exact location [79].
Proximity and triangulation are the two classic location
algorithms. The location of an object in IPS could be
estimated using a number of techniques, including
fingerprinting, PDR, and hybrid methods. Multiple
localization techniques can be broken down into four
categories: multilateration, signal strength,
multiangulation, and hybrid [80]. These geometrical
methods are the simplest and most straightforward
techniques. Their purpose is to estimate the location of
Figure 4. Two-way ranging-ToA network nodes based on their geometry (as the geometry
of triangles). Trilateration, Multilateration, Triangulation,
and Min-max are the most popular and significant range-
based localization, among these strategies [81-85].

4. METHODOLOGY
In this review paper, Google Scholar and IEEE Xplore
have been utilized to conduct a scoping review. The search
method in these bibliometric databases has been done
according to the title of the article, and keywords, utilized
technology, methodology, and outcome. Thereafter, the
studies related to range-based indoor positioning systems
focusing on the most promising high-accuracy
technologies (UWB and Li-Fi) are identified.

5. THE STATE OF ART ON POSITIONING

ALGORITHMS AND TECHNIQUES
In this section, a literature survey of the recent IPS is
introduced by investigating the most promising
Figure 5. First type of TDoA scheme.
technologies by focusing on the UWB and Li-Fi indoor
positioning technologies range-based. Also, this literature
is based on considering the distinct positioning technology
metrics such as accuracy, complexity, scalability, cost,
latency, deployment, and usability. Furthermore, the
strengths and weaknesses, as well as methodologies and
problem statements of each work, are determined. In this
context, a brief summary of the aforementioned illustration
of the related survey works is shown in Table 1, which
illustrates the objective of each article and a brief analysis.

Figure 6. The second type of TDoA scheme.

3. POSITIONING ALGORITHMS
The localization procedure could be broken down into
three distinct phases: (i) distance estimation using the
chosen strategy, (ii) calculating where the target is, and
(iii) pinpointing its location using that information. The

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Table 1. The objective with a brief analysis of each article through the literature.
Ref. Techno Time Cost Ener Complexit Accuracy Channel Research Critique
logy gy y

[86] Li-Fi ---- √ ----- ----- ----- LOS This system is implemented in simulation and real experiments with
low-cost commodity components. The obtained positioning error of less
than 30cm of 95% from the tested volume. The experiment coverage
area is (4m×4m×1m).
[87] Li-Fi ----- ----- ----- ----- √ LOS The created system is implemented in simulation and real experiments.
The acquired positioning accuracy is about 8 cm at the edges. This
technique requires strict synchronization between the Li-Fi
infrastructure. Also, this system can best be realized using a distributed
multiple-input multiple-output (D-MIMO) architecture with clock
frequency up to 1 GHz zed. The experiment Coverage Area for
Simulations is (6m×5m×10m) and in the lab experiment is
(1mx1mx2m).
[88] Li-Fi ----- ----- ----- √ ----- LOS This approach is implemented in real experiments on experiment
coverage area over a path length of 32 cm at a total duration of
approximately 52 s with a handoff at an average speed of 0.6 cm/s to the
target receiver. This system is applicable for approximate positioning
applications. Also, this approach lacks the accuracy percentage
positioning. Furthermore, it is affected by the increase in background
light intensity.
[89] Li-Fi ----- ----- ----- ----- √ LOS This system is implemented in simulation only along with a test area
over (5 m×5m× 6m). The obtained 3D positioning errors of about 18.62
cm in 95% of test points.
[90] Li-Fi ----- ----- ----- ----- √ LOS The created system is implemented in real experiments in a test area over
(8m×3.8m×2.6m). The positioning error variance is above 50cm with
trilateration (only three transmitters) and 27cm with multilateration
(more than three transmitters).
[91] Li-Fi ----- ----- ----- ----- √ LOS Only simulation is implemented in this system in an experiment
and coverage area over (5m×5m×3m). The localization error ranged from
NLOS 40cm to 133 (according to FOV=65 deg and FOV >70 deg, respectively.
In the typical situation with high-power transmitters (P=1w) and a large
FOV receiver (FOV=65 deg) in a low-reflectivity (0.01) room can
achieve about 6cm localization accuracy.
[92] UWB ----- ----- ----- ----- √ LOS In simulation and real experiments, this system is implemented. The
experiment coverage area for simulation is (10m×10m, 50m×50m, and
100m×100m) and for a real experiment is (9m×9m). The acquired
positioning accuracy is roughly 5 cm.
[93] UWB ----- ----- ----- ----- √ LOS This system is implemented in real experiments. It requires a high offline
and lab cost, even if the surveying area is tiny. Also, it needed more
NLOS computation or execution time. The experiment coverage area is over 80
𝑚2 residential apartments with four rooms, a hallway, and a 10-cm-thick
wall. This approach is better than the traditional fingerprinting-based
approach (C-KNN) in localization with an error margin from 3 to 25cm
relative to using five fingerprint database densities.
[94] UWB ----- ----- ----- ----- √ LOS This approach is implemented in real experiments with a test area over
and a corridor less than 5m. The LDA with SVM algorithms takes more
NLOS computation and execution time than a traditional method. At 500 and
700 measured data, the average identification accuracy of 92% for the
case using SVM in the anechoic chamber and almost 100% for Fisher’s
discriminant combined with SVM for the corridor scenario, compared
with conventional approaches.
[95] UWB ----- √ ----- ----- ----- LOS This system is implemented in simulation, and real experiments consider
LOS only. The experiment coverage area is over (7mx7m), which is a
significantly small area compared with the present UWB works. The
positioning accuracy of less than 40 cm with a 9-cm standard deviation
under various static mobile node deployments, with Simulation
positioning errors of fewer than 10 cm. This acquired result is far from
typical, especially with UWB technology.
[96] UWB ----- ----- ----- ----- √ LOS Only simulation is implemented in this approach in a test area over
(15m×15m). The issue with this approach is that it is a complex metric
in terms of matrix operation and needs a significant time to install. The
acquired positioning error of around 25 cm2 of MSE.

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6. AN ANALYTICAL CRITIQUE This paper has profound implications for future studies
and prospects determination related to the indoor
Based on the aforementioned literature survey and Table
positioning system ranged-based and presented significant
1, we can clearly claim that the UWB technology is good
recommendations that the reader and researchers can
for LOS and NLOS propagation channels. While the UWB
benefit from them. Also, this work makes it easy for
is a promising option for long-range indoor situations, it
academics and researchers to realize the most common
suffers in NLOS channels and will require NLOS
challenges, strengths, and weaknesses as well as
identification and mitigation, which are hard challenges.
methodologies and problems statement of recent
The Li-Fi technology could be implemented in a LOS
promising technologies
environment for only a short range. In turn, to have long-
range Li-Fi, a handover process should be implanted to
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