SIGNAL DEGRADATION (DISTORTION) IN OPTICAL FIBERS:

4.0 INTRODUCTION

In optical communication systems, the signal degradation is one of the most important
properties of an optical fiber, and it is the key distance limiting parameters in fiber
optical transmission. Signal degradation includes power attenuation, pulse
broadening, and fiber nonlinearities. When a signal pulse travels on an optical fiber it
goes on broadening due to dispersion and goes on reducing in amplitude due to
attenuation. After certain distance, the pulse shape is completely distorted not to
resemble with the original pulse shape. In general, the signals get distorted on an
optical fiber because different frequency components undergo different attenuation
and different delays. In the case of attenuation, the intensity of light pulse decreases as
the pulses travel along the length of the fiber. The attenuation reduces the intensity of
signal, but it does not change the time duration of a pulse propagating through the
fiber. The pulse remains in its temporal interval. Attenuation determines the
maximum distance an optical signal can be transmitted before the receiver is unable to
detect it. Whereas dispersion (Inter-symbol interference) limits the available
bandwidth (Bandwidth determines the number of bits of information transmitted in a
given time period). This refers to the broadening of optical pulses as they propagate
along the fiber. As pulses broaden, they tend to interfere with adjacent pulses; this
limits the maximum achievable data rate. As bit rates are increasing dispersion is
becoming a critical aspect of most optical systems.

There are basically four mechanisms, which are responsible for degradation in optical
signal as it travels down the fiber. These are:

(i) Attenuation

(ii) Dispersion

(iii) Fiber nonlinearities (Discussed in chapter 5)

(iv) Noise and jitter

Figure 4.1 shows transmission effects in optical fiber with the help of eye diagram.
 Figure 4.1

4.1 ATTENUATION

One of the most critical factors that determine optical fiber applicability in
communication systems is signal attenuation (or fiber losses or signal loss). Optical
fibers had losses of the order of 1000 dB/km in the earlier days of its manufacturing
and were progressively reduced to 4 dB/km. This was the time when optical fiber
became commercially viable. Today the attenuation is of the order of 0. 2 dB/km and
optical fiber systems have got wider recognition in the field of communications. The
attenuation decides the maximum repeater- less distance of an optical communication
system. More the attenuation than after a certain length it will be difficult for the
detector to recognize input optical pulses which will result in communication failure
or degradation in Bit Error Rate (BER). If attenuation is high than more number of
repeaters is required in a communication link either 3R generators (electronics) or
optical amplifiers (optical) to regenerate the signal identical to the input signal. Figure
4.2 shows an example of conventional Time Division Multiplex (TDM) system and a
Dense Wavelength Division Multiplexing (DWDM) system. In TDM systems,
repeaters are required every 40-km distance and total numbers of regenerators are 32,
where as in DWDM systems 4 optical amplifiers (Repeater) are needed at every 120-
km distance. It can be concluded that more number of repeaters will result in huge
system cost, complexity and installation and maintenance cost of the communication
system. It may also be noted that Optical amplifiers are more suitable as regenerators
as they can simultaneously amplify many wavelengths and they can cover more
distances, in this example 120 km of length. But there is a limitation that after every
2500 km of optical regeneration, electronic regeneration (3 R) becomes a compulsory
requirement.

Attenuation is the reduction or loss of optical power as light travels through an optical
fiber. The longer the fiber is and the farther the light has to travel, the more the optical
signal is attenuated. (Consequently, attenuation is measured and reported in decibels
per kilometer (dB/km), also known as the attenuation coefficient or attenuation rate.

Attenuation varies depending on the fiber type and the operating wavelength (See
figure 4.3). For silica-based optical fibers, single-mode fibers have lower attenuation
than multimode fibers. And generally speaking, the higher (or longer) the wavelength,
the lower the attenuation. This is true over the typical 800 - 1600 nm operating

Figure 4.2
wavelength range for conventional datacom and telecom optical fibers. Single-mode
fibers usually operate in the 1310 nm or 1550 nm regions, where attenuation is lowest.
(Lowest attenuation in silica fibers is at 1550 nm wavelength, the third window) This
makes single-mode fibers the best choice for long distance communications.
Multimode fibers operate primarily at 850 nm and sometimes at 1300 nm. Multimode
fibers are designed for short distance use; the higher attenuation at 850 nm is offset
using more affordable optical sources (the lower the wavelength, the less expensive
the optics).

Source: Fiber Optic WIKI Blog

Figure 4.3

Attenuation in an optical fiber is caused by absorption, scattering, and bending losses.

Attenuation is the loss of optical power as light travels along the fiber. Signal
attenuation is defined as the ratio of optical input power (P i) to the optical output
power (Po). Optical input power is the power injected into the fiber from an optical
source. Optical output power is the power received at the fiber end or optical detector.
The following equation defines signal attenuation as a unit of length:

Attenuation = (10/L) log 10 (Pi/P0)

Signal attenuation is a log relationship. Length (L) is expressed in kilometers.
Therefore, the unit of attenuation is decibels/kilometer (dB/km).

4.1.1 Major reasons of attenuation in optical fibers:

Attenuation is mainly because of absorption, scattering and due to bending losses.

Table 4.1 Describe in detail the major reasons of attenuation phenomenon taking
place in optical fibers.

Table 4.1

4.1.2 TYPES OF ATTENUATION IN OPTICAL FIBERS:

 Material absorption loss: caused by the fiber itself or by impurities in the

fiber materials, such as water and metals.

 Scattering loss: intrinsic loss mechanism caused by the interaction of photons

with the glass itself. Due to structural imperfections in the optical waveguide.

 Bending loss- loss induced by physical stress on the fiber. It originates from
perturbation (both microscopic and macroscopic) of the fiber geometry.

Other causes of attenuation in optical fibers:

  Back reflections—Caused by reflections at fiber ends, like connectors

 Fiber splices—Caused by poor alignment or dirt

 Mechanical connections—Physical gaps between fibers

(Refer Chapter 10 coupler and connectors for above three mechanisms)

 Fresnel reflection

4.1.3 Material Absorption

Occurs when impurities, such as metal particles or moisture, are trapped in the glass.
These cause attenuation at specific wavelengths by absorbing the light at that
wavelength and dissipating it in the form of heat energy.

Material Absorption is caused by three different mechanisms:

(i) Extrinsic Absorption:

Due to impurities in fiber material from transition metal ions and particularly from
OH ions with absorption peak at wavelengths 400 nm, 725 m and 950 nm.
The dominant absorption factor in silica fibers is the presence of minute quantities of
impurities in the fiber material. (See figure 4.4).
These impurities include:
 OH (water) ions dissolved in the glass.
 Transition metal ions, such as iron, copper, and vanadium.

Figure 4.4
 (ii) Intrinsic absorption:
Electronic absorption band (UV region) and atomic bond vibration band (IR region)
in basic SiO2

Figure 4.5

Intrinsic absorption is associated with the basic fiber material i.e., pure SiO2. Figure
4.5 explains this phenomenon. Figure 4.6 (a) & (b) shows attenuation spectrum for
pure silica glass.
Figure 4.6 (a)
 Figure 4.6 (b)

(iii) Absorption by Atomic defects:

Atomic defects are imperfections in the atomic structure of the fiber material
e.g., Missing molecules, high density clusters of atom groups, and oxygen defects in
the glass structure. Absorption losses arising from these defects are negligible
compared with intrinsic and Extrinsic (impurity) absorption. But can be significant it
the fiber is exposed to ionization radiations.

4.1.4 ZERO WATER PEAK (ZWP) FIBERS

Now a days zero-water peak fiber (All Wave Fibers) also manufactured where peak in
E band is completely removed, they are suitable for metro (coarse wavelength
division multiplexing (CWDM)) and for Access networks (last mile connectivity).
See Figure 4.7. Zero Water Peak (ZWP or All Wave) fibers, eliminate the loss in the
water peak and further lower the loss across the entire spectrum. This supports the
exponential bandwidth growth occurring in all networks today. As a result, ZWP fiber
has up to 22 percent lower loss at the 1383 nm water peak and superior performance
in the entire 1360 - 1460 nm band as compared to standard SMF G652.D fiber.
 Figure 4.7

4.1.5 Scattering

Scattering (often referred to as Rayleigh scattering) is the reflection of lesser amounts

of light in all directions as it travels down the fiber. Rayleigh scattering results from
random heterogeneities that are small in size compared with the wavelength. Rayleigh
scattering is the main loss mechanism between the ultraviolet and infrared regions,
some of this light escapes out of the core, while some travels back toward the source
(this backscattered light is what an Optical Time Domain Reflectometer, or OTDR,
"sees"). Some scattering is caused by miniscule variations in the composition and
density of the optical glass material itself; this represents the theoretical lower limit of
attenuation. Additional variations in density and concentration - and therefore, more
scattering - are caused by the dopants used in the core glass to change the refractive
index of several types of fibers. Fibers with increased dopant concentration exhibit
more scattering and greater attenuation than fibers with less dopant in the core. That is
why multimode fibers with their higher level of dopant in the core, have higher
attenuation than single-mode fibers. Figure 4.8 shows Rayleigh scattering in an
optical fiber. Scattering decreases dramatically with increasing wavelength. Rayleigh
scattering results in attenuation (dB/km)  1/4.
Forward light scattering (Raman Scattering) and backward light scattering (Brillouin
Scattering) are two additional scattering phenomena that can occur in optical fibers
under high power conditions.

Figure 4.8: As light scatter in all direction, the part that returns to the source (about
0.0001%) is called back scatter.

4.1.6 Mie scattering

If the size of the defect in the core is greater than one-tenth of the wavelength of light,
the scattering mechanism is called Mie scattering. Mie scattering, caused by these
large defects in the fiber core, scatters light out of the fiber core. However, in
commercial fibers, the effects of Mie scattering are insignificant. Optical fibers are
manufactured with very few large atomic defects. This scattering can be reduced by
carefully removing imperfections from the glass material, carefully controlling the
quality and cleanliness of the manufacturing process, and keeping Δ relatively large.
4.1.7 Bending losses in optical fibers:
Optical fibers are recognized as the superior medium for delivering high bandwidth
communications signals over long distances. The key attribute that enables this
performance is very low attenuation i.e., signal experience very little power loss as
they propagate along the length of the optical fiber. It is critical that the fibers’
inherent low attenuation be preserved in service. Several extrinsic effects can increase
the fibers attenuation. A critical effect is bending the fiber from straight axis. Bending
is one of the primary causes for increase in attenuation in optical fibers and can be
divided in two types of mechanisms:
Macro bending and micro bending. For macro bending losses the bend radius is
much larger than the fiber diameter whereas micro bending losses are caused by more
local bending of the optical fiber.
4.1.8 Macro bending
 A sharp bend in a fiber can cause significant losses as well as the possibility of
mechanical failure. Macro bending of an optical fiber is the attenuation associated
with bending or wrapping the fiber. Light can ‘leak out’ of a fiber when the fiber is
bent: as the bend becomes more acute, more light leaks out. This mechanism is shown
in Figure 4.9. When the fiber bent from a straight deployment, some of the guided
light is refracted out of the fiber.
Macro bending is commonly modeled as a tilt in the refractive index profile based on
the radius of curvature of the fiber bend it is given as

2n 21
R
Nc2 (r,) = n2 (r) + r cos

Where Nc2 (r,) is a modified local refractive index depending upon the fiber
bend radius. Figure 4.10 shows the effect of different fiber bend radii on the effective
refractive index profile. It was interpreted that the effective index of refraction
observed by the optical power changes with the bend radius, allowing signal power to
leak out of the core, which increases the fiber attenuation.

Figure 4.9
For a given optical fiber, the attenuation increase depends on the radius of bend, the
number of bends (or length under bend) and the wavelength of signal. Figure 4.11
shows effect of macro & micro bending losses due to operating wavelength. It is a
typical example for DFF fiber whose zero dispersion is at 1.3188 µm wavelength

Figure 4.10

Figure 4.11

4.1.9 SMF fiber parameter and Attributes affecting macro bending:

Bending of the fiber also affects the reliability of a fiber as bending gives a
mechanical stress in the glass. Thus, in designing a system with optical fibers one has
to consider both the optical and the mechanical performance of the fiber. The problem
of macro bend loss is largely in the hands of the installer

4.1.10 Mode field diameter (MFD):

One important fiber parameter, the mode field diameter (MFD), is a measure of the
size of the light spot traveling down the fiber. When the fiber is bent the different part
of the mode has to travel different distances due to the curvature of the fiber. But this
is not possible as the speed of light is the same unless the mode partly moves into the
cladding

Figure 4.12

with lower refractive index and higher speed of light. When the mode moves out from
the core and into the cladding, the fiber starts to lose optical power. Light wave
suffers sever loss due to radiation of the evanescent field in the cladding region. As
the radius of the curvature decreases, the loss increases exponentially until it reaches
at a certain critical radius. For any radius a bit smaller than this point, the losses
suddenly become extremely large. Higher order modes radiate away faster than lower
order modes. (See figure 4.12)

However, the situation can be improved by reducing the MFD.

Reducing the MFD gives a very strong reduction of the loss due to bending. But as
wavelength increases MFD increases as shown in figure 4.13 and, also figure 4.14
shows MFD vs. wavelength for three types of fibers.

Figure 4.13

Figure 4.14
4.1.11 Cut-off wavelength

Another important fiber parameter is the cutoff wavelength (λ c). A fiber is single
mode above and multi-mode below the cutoff wavelength. Just above the cutoff
wavelength the (only) mode is strongly bound and not easily disturbed by bending. At
longer wavelengths, the mode is less strongly bound, the MFD start to grow and the
result is larger bend loss.

It is thus advantageous to have a cutoff wavelength that is as high as possible, but still
lower than the operational wavelength.

Bend loss model:

The macro bend loss of a fiber depends on the mode field diameter (MFD) and cut-off
wavelength, and can be calculated from the so-called MAC number defined as the
ratio of the MFD and the cutoff wavelength.

MFD
λc
MAC = m/m

A small MAC number gives low bend sensitivity and this is obtained by a small MFD
and a high cutoff wavelength as discussed.

Recommendations for low bend loss:

1. Choose a high NA fiber giving a small MFD. Fibers with NA-values0.16 and
0.24 are available. But a too small MFD gives coupling loss.

2. Choose a cutoff wavelength that is close to (but still lower than), the
operational wavelength of the system.

3. If the points above are followed and a very small bend diameter gives
acceptable loss, then consider the strength of the fiber. The smaller the bend diameter,
the shorter is the lifetime of the fiber.

4.1.12 Micro bending loss

Micro bending attenuation of an optical fiber relates to the light signal loss associated
with lateral stress along the length of the fiber. The loss is due to the coupling from
the fiber's guided fundamental mode to lossy higher-order radiation modes. Mode
coupling occurs when fibers suffer small random bends along the fiber axis. This
random bending is usually caused by external mechanical stresses against the cable
material that compress the fiber. The result is random, high-frequency perturbations to
the fiber (see figure 4.15)

Figure 4.15

Lateral stresses can be caused by pressure induced by manufacturing or installation or

by temperature induced dimensional changes in cabling materials that cause
undesirable fiber-fiber, or fiber-cable material interactions. These interactions can
give rise to random microscopic bends or curvatures of < l mm radius that create very
small displacements of the fiber core from the fiber axis. (See figure 4.16)
 Figure 4.16

Micro bending effects can be seen at all the commonly used wavelengths in SMF
(1310, 1550, and 1625 nm), whereas macro bending effects are seen predominantly at
1550 and 1625 nm. Figure 4.17 typical attenuation vs. wavelength graph of standard
SMF for micro bending, macro bending loss.
 Figure 4.17

4.1.13 Fresnel Reflection:

When a ray of light strikes a change of refractive index and is approaching at an angle
close to the normal, most of the light passes straight through. A very small proportion
is reflected back off the boundary. We are most concerned about this loss when
considering the light leaving the end of the fiber as shown in Figure 4.18. At this
point, we have a sudden transition between the refractive index of the core and that of
the surrounding air. The effect happens in the other direction as well. The same small
proportion of light attempting to enter the fiber is reflected out . The actual proportion
of the light is determined by the amount by which the refractive index changes at the
boundary and is given by the formula:

Reflected Power = [n1-n2/n1+n2]2

96% of the incident light power penetrates the boundary and the other 4% is reflected.
This reflected power represents a loss of 0.177 dB.

Figure 4.18
4.1.14 making use of Fresnel reflection:

The return of the Fresnel reflection from the end of a fiber gives us a convenient and
accurate method of measuring its length. Imagine a situation in which we have a drum
of optical fiber cable marked 5 km. Does the drum actually contain 5 km? or 4.5 km?
Or is it in five separate lengths of 1 km? It is inconvenient; to say the least, to uncoil
and measure all fiber as it is delivered. The solution is to make use of Fresnel
reflection that will occur from the far end. We send a short pulse of light along the
fiber and wait for the reflection to bounce back. Since we can calculate how fast the
light is traveling and can measure the time interval, the length is easily established.
This magic is performed for us by an instrument called an optical time domain
reflectometer (OTDR),

4.2 DISPERSION

Dispersion means data pulse broadening at the output of optical fiber. In digital
communication, information is encoded in the form of light pulses and then these light
pulses are transmitted from transmitter to the receiver. The larger the number of
pulses that can be sent per unit time and still be resolvable at the receiver end, the
larger is the information carrying capacity of the optical system. However, when the
light pulses travel down the fiber, the pulses spread out or get broadened and this
phenomenon is called pulse dispersion. Pulse dispersion limits the available
bandwidth of the optical system. As bit rate increasing dispersion is becoming a
critical aspect of most optical systems.

Pulse dispersion is one of the two most crucial factors that limit a fiber’s capacity
(The other is fiber’s losses). It is one of the major reasons for signal degradation in
optical fiber systems. Figure 4.19 shows the effect of pulse dispersion in optical
fibers. It may be noted that higher bit rates and shorter pulses are less robust to
dispersion. It’s explained in figure 4.20, & 4.21 shows a practical example of
dispersion. Figure 4.22 shows dispersion vs. bit rate.
Figure 4.19
Figure 4.20

Figure 4.21
 Figure 4.22

How far the data can go with dispersion? The distance can be calculated with
following formula:

specification of Transponder ( ps/nm )

coefficient of dispersion of fiber (ps/nm*km )
Distance (km) =

Example: A laser signal with dispersion tolerance of 3400 ps/nm is sent across a
standard signal mode fiber (SMF) which has a coefficient of dispersion of 17
ps/nm*km. Calculate the distance that data will reach at maximum bandwidth.

3400 ps/nm
17 ps/nm*km
L=

L = 200 km at maximum BW. Infect lower speeds travel farther.

Total dispersion in optical fibers takes place due to various phenomenon’s.

Figure 4.23 shows dispersion hierarchy for dispersion in optical fibers.

 Figure 4.23

Both Inter modal and intra modal (chromatic dispersion) are present in multimode
fibers whereas graded index fibers have minimum inter modal dispersion. Single
mode fibers are more affected by Intra modal dispersion and polarization mode
dispersion (PMD). Figure 4.24 describes three types of dispersion in optical fibers.
 Figure 4.24

4.3 DISPERSION (PULSE DISTORTION):

 Limits the information carrying capacity of a fiber

 Measure of bandwidth,limits transmitted data rate and distance of optical pulse
 Pulse broadening of an optical pulse resulting in intersymbol interference at
receiver end
 Types- Inter modal and Intra modal Dispersion

4.3.1 Inter modal Dispersion

 The term “Inter-modal” consists of two terms “inter” and “modal”. “inter”
means “within different” and “modal” term comes from mode (mode means
path followed by the light). Therefore, intermodal dispersion means the
dispersion between the different modes of the fiber. Therefore this dispersion
can not occur in mono-mode fibers. Thus it can only occur in multi-mode
fibers.

 Intermodal or modal dispersion causes the input light pulse to spread.

The input light pulse is made up of a group of modes. As the modes propagate
along the fiber, light energy distributed among the modes is delayed by
different amounts. The pulse spreads because each mode propagates along the
fiber at different speeds. Since modes travel in different directions, some
 modes travel longer distances. Modal dispersion occurs because each mode
travels a different distance over the same time span

 Different modes travel at different rates

 As the length of the fiber increases, modal dispersion increases.
Modal dispersion is the dominant source of dispersion in multimode fibers. Modal
dispersion does not exist in single mode fibers. Single mode fibers propagate only the
fundamental mode. Therefore, single mode fibers exhibit the lowest amount of total
dispersion. Single mode fibers also exhibit the highest possible bandwidth.

4.3.2 Intra modal Dispersion (See figure 4.25)

 The term “Intra-modal” consists of two terms “intra” and “modal”.
“intra” means “within same” and “modal” term comes from mode
(mode means path followed by the light). Therefore, intramodal
dispersion means the dispersion between the same modes of the fiber.
Therefore this dispersion can occur both in mono-mode fibers as well
as in multi-mode fibers.
Intramodal dispersion occurs because different colors of light travel through different
materials and different waveguide structures at different speeds ,it is Pulse spread
within a single mode. This is also known as group velocity dispersion (GVD).
 Since intramodal dispersion depends on wavelength, its effect on
signal distortion increases with spectral width.

Figure 4.25 gives example of intra modal dispersion.

  Intramodal Dispersion Types-

 (i) Material , and

 (ii) wave guide dispersion

4.3.3 Material dispersion

 Pulse spread caused by variation of refractive index of the fiber core material
as a function of wave length. Material dispersion occurs because the
spreading of a light pulse is dependent on the wavelengths' interaction with the
refractive index of the fiber core. Different wavelengths travel at different
speeds in the fiber material. Different wavelengths of a light pulse that enter a
fiber at one time exit the fiber at different times. Material dispersion is a
function of the source spectral width. The spectral width specifies the range of
wavelengths that can propagate in the fiber.
 Pulse spread due to finite spectral emission width of an optical source
 Wavelength dependent and increases with increase in spectral width of the
source
 Material dispersion is less at longer wavelengths.
4.3.4 Wave guide dispersion
 SMF confines only 80% of optical energy.20% of optical power propagating
in the cladding travels faster than light confined to the core resulting in pulse
spread
 Waveguide dispersion occurs because the mode propagation constant is a
function of the size of the fiber's core relative to the wavelength of operation.
In multimode fibers, waveguide dispersion and material dispersion are basically
separate properties. Multimode waveguide dispersion is generally small compared to
material dispersion. Waveguide dispersion is usually neglected.

However, in single mode fibers, material and waveguide dispersion are interrelated.

The total dispersion present in single mode fibers may be minimized by trading
material and waveguide properties depending on the wavelength of operation.

4.3.5 More on Inter modal dispersion (Modal dispersion):

It causes the input light pulses to spread. The input light pulse is made up of a group
of modes. As the modes propagate along the fiber, optical energy is distributed among
the modes by different amounts. The pulse spreads because each mode propagates
along the fiber at different speeds. Since modes travel in different directions, some
modes may travel longer distances. This condition causes light pulse to spread. As the
length of the fiber increases, modal dispersion also increases. Modal dispersion is a
dominant source of dispersion in multimode fibers. But it’s minimum in graded index
multimode fibers. Inter modal dispersion doesn’t exist in single mode fibers.

Single mode fibers propagate only the fundamental mode. Therefore, single mode
fibers exhibit the lowest amount of total dispersion. Single mode fibers also exhibit
the highest possible bandwidth.

The intermodal dispersion is given as

Dinter≈ n1 (NA)/n2 C 4.2

The unit of intermodal dispersion is ps/km. The magnitude of intermodal dispersion is

much larger compared to chromatic (Intra modal) dispersion. Therefore, chromatic
dispersion is neglected while calculating the dispersion in multi-mode fibers. Figure

4.26 explains the modal dispersion in step index multimode fibers.

 Figure 4.26

4.3.6 Step Index Intermodal dispersion analysis: calculation of pulse spread

figure 4.27

Let, Transmission Distance = L

Tmax = Transmission time for extreme meriodional Ray

Tmin = Transmission time for axial Ray

Delay difference St = Tmax – Tmin. 4.3

 Distance L Ln 1
Velocity (c/n 1 ) c
Where, Tmin = = = 4.4

To find Tmax, let us realize that the extreme meriodional ray travelled a distance h but
only travelled a distance d toward the fiber end (d < h). So if the fiber length is L,
Then the actual distance travelled is:

h.L
d
4.5

L /cosθ
c /n1
Also, Tmax = 4.6

 Tmax = Ln1/ c cosө 4.7

Using snells law at core cladding interface

n2
n1
Sinc = = cosө 4.8

 Tmax = Ln12/c n2 4.9

 Delay difference st = Tmax – Tmin

2
Ln 1 n1
St = −L
c n2 c

=
c n2[ ]
Ln1 n 1 −1

=
c [
Ln1 n 1−n2
n2 ]
Ln1 Δ
c
St = 4.10
 n1 −n2
n2
Where,  = 4.11

L(NA )2
2 cn 1
In terms of numerical Aperture (NA): St = 4.12

Thus, to have a smaller dispersion, one must have a smaller NA, which of course
reduces the acceptance angle and hence the light-gathering power.

For graded index fibers:

LΔ2 n1
c.8
St GI = = L (NA) 4/8n13c 4.13

4.3.7 Dispersion in single mode fibers:

Intra modal dispersion also known as chromatic dispersion is negligible in multimode

fibers. But chromatic dispersion and polarization mode dispersion (PMD) are main
signal degradation phenomena in case of single mode fibers.

Chromatic Dispersion (CD):

Chromatic or Intra modal dispersion is due to material dispersion and wave guide
dispersion in single mode optical fibers. When white light is passed through a prism it
gives colored spectrum of light which is the demonstration of chromatic dispersion.
(See figure 4.28) As shown in figure 4.29 chromatic dispersion (CD) is a sum of
material and waveguide dispersion.

Figure 28

Chromatic dispersion (CD) is an important fiber parameter which limits transmission

capacity when bit rate increases especially with long distance optically amplified
links.CD is the property of the medium (optical fiber) that makes different light
wavelengths to propagate at different speeds as they travel in it.
 Figure 4.29

Chromatic dispersion consists of two parts: material dispersion and waveguide

dispersion.

Δtchromatic = Δtmaterial + Δtwaveguide 4.14

When considering the total dispersion from different causes, we can approximate the
total dispersion by Δttot.

Δttot = [(Δt1)2+ (Δt2)2+---------- (Δtn) 2]1/2 4.15

The refractive index of optical fiber and thereby speed of light in the fiber, is a
function of the wavelength of light. In fiber based systems, an optical fiber, comprised
of a core
and cladding with differing refractive index materials, inevitably causes some
wavelengths of light to travel slower or faster than other. The result is pulse
spreading, or dispersion, of the on-off light pulses that convey digital information.

Figure 4.30 describes the chromatic dispersion phenomenon in single mode fibers. In
DWDM transmission system, pulse spreading can impair transmission quality as it
extends into adjacent bit periods, resulting in poor reception of signal. CD is dominant
signal mechanism in single mode fibers.

Figure 4.30

4.3.8 Material Dispersion

Material dispersion is caused by the velocity of light (or the refractive index of fiber)
being a function of wavelength. Each wavelength takes different amount of time to
propagate the same path. In fact, variation of refractive index takes place in a given
material, glass in this case, over wavelength, looking at the graph (figure 4.31), The
variation of the index of refraction over the entire spectrum covered by fiber optics
may seem small, only a few percent, but when you are dealing with very high-speed
pulses over very long distances it can add up.

Figure 4.31
Every source i.e., LED or Laser has a finite spectral width i.e., every source emits a
range of frequencies or wave- lengths, when these frequencies interact with optical
fiber for every frequency the refractive index of glass changes therefore speed of the
light (due to various wavelengths) changes resulting in dispersion or pulse spread.
Figure 4.32 describe this phenomenon.

Figure 4.32

 Material dispersion sometimes called intra modal or color dispersion.

 Spectral width can be defined as r.m.s value or a FWHM value.

Spectral width of the source Laser/LED accommodates many frequencies. Typical

LED spectral width is 75-125 nm wide and transmits more wavelengths of
frequencies whereas conventional laser’s spectral width is 2-5nm and emits fewer
frequencies or wavelengths. Hence for reducing material dispersion, lasers that to
single frequency lasers are most suitable, since in such case amount of material
dispersion will be minimum, Good laser sources have a narrow spectral width, putting
out light within a 1 nanometer (nm) range (a nanometer is .000000001 meter). So, the
light output from a 1550 nm laser will be within a range of 1549.5 and 1550.5 nm.
See figure 4.33.
Figure: 4.33 Laser source will produce far less spectral dispersion or intra modal
dispersion than an LED source since it is nearly monochromatic

LED Sources are used for shorter distances, where higher chromatic dispersion is
manageable. The bottom line is that chromatic dispersion becomes a major
consideration and must be accounted for when developing or deploying fiber optic
systems for use in telecommunications, cable TV, or other high speed optical
networks.

4.3.9 Negative and positive CD

Chromatic dispersion can be positive or negative. Generally, negative dispersion is

used for dispersion compensation (As dispersion compensating fiber (DCF)). Figure
4.34 (a) describe positive and negative chromatic dispersion.
 Figure 4.34 (a)

4.3.9.1 Normal (negative) Dispersion Regime:

The normal dispersion regime is represented in figure 4.34 (a) at the left of the point
where the line crosses the zero-dispersion point. In this region, the long wavelengths
travel faster than the short ones! Thus, after travelling on a fiber, wavelengths at the
red end of the pulse spectrum will arrive first. This is called a positive chirp!

The use of the terms “red end” and “blue end” here requires some explanation. (See
figure 4.34 (b)) Any wavelength longer than about 700 nm is either visible red or
infra-red. Thus, all of the wavelengths in question can be considered “red”.
However, it is very useful to identify the shorter wavelength (higher frequency) end of
a pulse spectrum as the “blue end” and the longer wavelength (lower frequency) end
as the “red end”.

4.3.9.2 Anomalous Dispersion Regime:

This is represented by the section of the figure 4.34 (a) to the right of the zero-
crossing point. Here, the short wavelengths (blue end of the spectrum) travel faster
than the long wavelengths (red end). After travel on a fibre the shorter wavelengths
will arrive first. This is considered as negative chirp.

Figure 4.34 (b)

 Figure 4.35 Dispersion slope variations

4.3.9.3 Dispersion slope

The dispersion slope (s) describes the amount of change in CD as a function of

wavelength. It’s expressed in units of ps/ (nm2 km). Lower dispersion slopes result
in fewer dispersion changes throughout the wavelength and thus CD remains constant
as a function of wavelength. For high-speed multichannel DWDM optical networks,
lower dispersion slopes enable more uniform, optimal performance across the
DWDM wavelength. (See figure 4.35)

4.3.10 Waveguide dispersion

Waveguide dispersion results from the propagation constant of a mode (its group
velocity) being a function of a/ , a is fibers core radius,  is light’s vacuum
wavelength). Waveguide dispersion is negligible in multimode fibers and in single -
mode fibers operated at wavelength below 1 nm. However, it becomes important for
single mode fibers operated in and above 1.27 nm. Another reason for waveguide
dispersion is the variation in group velocity of different wavelength components of
light caused primarily by the mode field diameter (MFD), or the diameter of light

Figure 36

beam within the wavelength of a single mode fiber. As a result, the light traveling
down the fiber actually travels in an area that exceeds the diameter of the core, which
is called Mode Field Diameter (MFD). Thus, part of the light is traveling in the
geometric core of the fiber and part is traveling in the cladding (known as evanescent
field). Since core refractive index is higher than the cladding refractive index, the
light in the cladding travels faster than the light in the core. This results in pulse
dispersion in SM optical fiber. Longer wavelengths have larger mode field diameter
(MFD) so they suffer more waveguide dispersion. Figure 4.36, 4.37 & 4.38 describes
waveguide dispersion conditions.

 Waveguide Dispersion:

 Caused by the wavelength dependence of distribution of energy for the

fundamental mode in the fiber.
 Mainly a problem for SMF fibers, in MMF fibers mode penetration in the
cladding is very small relatively.
 As wavelength increases an increasing portion of the mode energy propagates
in the cladding.
 But the cladding refractive index is lower thus faster propagation.
 Thus, for a spectral width time delay difference develops (Dispersion).

Figure 4.37
 Figure 4.38

4.3.11 Zero dispersion wavelength (0)

The wavelength at which material and wavelength dispersion cancels each other and
total dispersion becomes zero is called zero dispersion wavelength. At this
wavelength fiber has maximum information capacity or Bandwidth. For single mode
fibers (SMF) zero dispersion wavelength is at 1310 nm region (see figure 4.37). It is
possible to shift material and waveguide dispersion in such a way to produce zero
dispersion anywhere within 1300 nm to 1650nm operating window.

To combat chromatic dispersion there are many ways as given:

4.3.12 Combating Chromatic Dispersion:

 Use DSF and NZDSF fibers (G.653 and G.655)

 Use Dispersion compensating fibers(DCF)
 Use Fiber Bragg gratings
 Transmitters with narrow spectral width
  Soliton Transmission
 Duo binary signal (Electrical method)
 In coherent communication use of digital signal processing (DSP) technique
4.3.13 Chromatic dispersion and optical transmission:

CD induced pulse broadening:

Optical pulses travel in a fiber within a spectrum of wavelengths, typically around a

central wavelength. As we know, this propagation speed depends on the refractive
index and the CD, wavelengths travel at different speeds. Wavelengths traveling
faster arrive earlier than those traveling slower, resulting in a temporal broadening of
the initial pulse.

For low data rate signals, the amount of CD doesn’t broaden the pulses to that extent
that pulse overlapping can take place i.e., dispersion doesn’t impact so much for
proper discrimination of each bit. But with higher data rate input, the pulses are
shorter and densely packed. When dispersion occurs, pulses spreads and overlapping
of pulses takes place resulting in Inter Symbol Interference (ISI). Figure 4.39 shows
schematic of pulse overlap according to data rate.
 Figure 4.39

4.3.14 Effect of signal bandwidth and Modulation format.

The modulation format used to encode the digital information onto the optical signal
can significantly impact the tolerance of the signal to CD experienced during
transmission, With the conventional encoding of digital information on to the
amplitude of optical signal e.g., non-return to zero (NRZ), both the optical bandwidth
of signal and the width of the optical pulses are directly related to the data rate of the
signal. For higher data rates, the pulses are shorter and spaced closer together with a
wider optical spectrum. Figure 4.40 shows effect of bit rate on pulse width and
intervals.

Figure 4.40

The impact of CD induced pulse broadening becomes increasingly significant at

higher data rates, as densely packed optical pulses results in overlapping into an
adjacent bit. Also, due to wider spectrum, these pulses comprise a greater range of
wavelength components, which travel at different speeds, therefore, experience
greater pulse broadening.
These two effects, closer pulses and wider optical spectrum, decrease the optical
signal’s tolerance for CD by a factor of four when data rate is doubled (assuming a
constant modulation format). Increasing the bit rate by a factor of 4 reduces tolerance
to CD by factor of 16. Typically, formats and methods that result in signals with
greater tolerance for CD are used for higher bit rate to avoid dispersion impairments.

Modal dispersion is the dominant source of dispersion in multimode fibers. Modal

dispersion does not exist in single mode fibers. Single mode fibers propagate only the
fundamental mode. Therefore, single mode fibers exhibit the lowest amount of total
dispersion. Single mode fibers also exhibit the highest possible bandwidth.
Conventionally, amplitude modulation formats, such as NRZ and RZ, have been used
at 2.5 and 10 Gb/s data rates. Modulations formats such as duobinary and dual
polarization quadrature phase shift keying (DPQPSK) are more robust against the
impact of CD and are used at 10, 40 and 100 GB/s data rates to overcome dispersion
impairments. Table 4.2 gives transmission impairment sensitivity at different data rate
(including CD sensitivity).

Table 4.2

Transmission impairment sensitivity

10Gbps 40Gbps 100Gbps

CD Sensitivity 1 x16 x100

PMD Sensitivity 1 x4 x10

OSNR (Optical Signal 1 +6dB +10dB

to Noise Ratio)
Requirement

Optical Band Pass 1 x4 x10

Sensitivity

Sensitivity to Fiber 1 x4 x10

Nonlinearity
4.3.15 Digital data formats

Figure 4.41 Describe RZ & NRZ format.

Figure 4.41

NRZ Format:

 Optical pulse occupies the entire bit slot

 Optical power does not drop to zero between successive 1 bits
 Pulses in an NRZ bit stream do not have the same width
 Pulse width varies depending on the bit pattern
 Main advantage: Signal bandwidth is smaller than the RZ format by about a
factor of 2
  This is the reason why the NRZ format is used whenever bandwidth should be
economized as much as possible
 NRZ format cannot tolerate even a relative small amount of pulse broadening

since the transmission impairments sensitivity are proportional to the symbol rate
(baud rate), not the bit rate, advanced modulation techniques are implemented to
improve spectral efficiency which will also results in lowering of some of the fiber
transmission impairments. Once we achieve highest bit rate on all possible channels
and channels are spaced as close as possible, the only way to continue to increase the
capacity of an optical fiber system is to increase the modulation efficiency of the fiber
system. Modulation efficiency is typically expressed as a ratio of bit to symbol rate or
bits / baud.

For example, NRZ transmits one bit for every symbol, hence it has a modulation
efficiency of 1. Table 4.3 compares different modulation techniques and their
modulation efficiencies.

100GbE Modulation Modulation Efficiency Effective Baud rate

Techniques Bits/baud (Symbol rate)
NRZ OOK 1 100 G
DPSK 1 100 G
QPSK 2 50 G
DPSK 3 ASK 2.5 40 G
PM QPSK 4 25 G*
Table 4.3
*For 100G data rate only 25 G is transmitted.

4.3.16 Modulation techniques for achieving higher data rates and compensation
of high CD and nonlinear effects

 The most popular modulation technique evolving now a days is Polarization

Mode (PM) Quadrature Phase shift Keying (QPSK) technique for higher
capacity as shown in Figure 4.42 (a) and (b).
 Utilizing PM technique results in halves the symbol rate but at the cost of
doubling the number of components.

 PM QPSK (DP QPSK) technique results in ¼ the symbol rate but at the cost of
4 times the number of components.
Figures 4.42 (a) describe the dual polarization ( combination of two independent
optical signals of exactly same frequency but with orthogonal polarization). These
signals are obtained from a single transmit laser and each signal is modulated to carry
half of the data payload ,Figure 4.42 (b) discribe the QPSK Modulation method and
final baud rate.
 (a) dual polarization

(b) QPSK modulation

Figure 4.42 (a) and (b)

Figure 4.43 shows PM(or DP) QPSK modulation format.

 Figure 4.43 PMQPSK modulation format

With this method, it is possible to compensate for extremely high CD tolerance in a

standard single mode fiber (SMF). This is a very important benefit since at every 6
km of transmission fiber 1 km of compensating fiber is needed, resulting in
eliminating the need of compensating fiber and reducing transmit time by
approximately 16% and reduces attenuation. This method, finally results in fast
response of optical networks resulting in enhancing the response time of remote cloud
computers where every millisecond counts. Since dual polarization would result in

half the bit rate and QPSK would again result in half the bit rate, hence, throughput
 Figure 4.44

depends on symbol rate rather than bit rate. This implies that the problem of sending

high bit rate signals through existing electronic routers can be now resolved (See
figure 4.44)

Similarly, combining it with coherent detection of 100 GbE transmissions for carrying
out digital signal processing (DSP) results in increasing the receiver sensitivity which
does not reduce the symbol rate but increases the receiver sensitivity which helps in
overcoming the losses due to impairments.

In case of PMQPSK modulation format instead to phase lock the local oscillator at
optical frequencies, the new techniques uses a control loop to rapidly scan the local
oscillator frequency back and forth near the frequency of the incoming laser signal.
This senses the phase of the incoming signal, and generates the information needed to
decode the input signal and separate the two polarization states. This approach results
in best signal to noise ratio tolerance for 100 Gbit/s. Such high speeds require
electronic dispersion compensation, using digital signal processors (DSP’s) to analyze
the received signal and remove dispersion effects.

In case of DPQPSK (PMQPSK) constellation diagram as shown in Figure 4.42 (b), it

can be seen clearly that QPSK system represents four states in real and imaginary
portion of x and y axis. The waveform shows that these states can be obtained at
+135o , +45o , -135o and -45o on x-y real and imaginary plot. When this scheme is
combined with dual polarization transmission method then it will result in actual ¼ bit
rate, i.e., instead of 100G, the system will transmit only one fourth of the bit rate and
some additional FEC (forward error correction) bits. The only problem is that instead
of one set of equipment, we would require 4 sets of end equipment to handle the 100
G bit rate systems

As far as coherent receiver technology is concerned, it is now well matured

technology and was earlier used in microwave receiver systems. In this technology, a
laser (local oscillator of the same input optical frequency/wavelength) generates the
same frequency as that of the signal and this local oscillator compares the incoming
signal and the 4 outputs of I & Q channels are given for digital signal processing by
this method. Major impairments like optical signal to noise ratio (OSNR) and PMD
are compensated. It also improves the receiver sensitivity. Figure 4.45 shows block
diagram of a transmitter module and figure 4.46 gives details of DQPSK receiver
module.

Figure 4.45
 Figure 4.46

4.3.17 DIGITAL SIGNAL PROCESSING (DSP) FOR DPQPSK (PMQPSK)

MODULATION:

The ability to process the received optical signal in the digital domain will represent
one of the biggest differentiators for commercial coherent DWDM implementations,
like for DP QPSK modulation. In such implementations, the DSP performs three
critical functions

(i) Chromatic Dispersion compensation (CD)

The DSP can compensate for any amount of chromatic dispersion that would be found
in real fibers. This opens the possibility of removing dispersion compensating fiber
(DCF) from routes that use coherent detection. In fact, coherent systems work better
for the links without DCFs. This is because higher chromatic dispersion will help to
offset nonlinear effects such as self-phase modulation (SPM), cross phase modulation
(XPM) and four- wave mixing (FWM), and thereby increasing the effective reach of
the signal. Chromatic dispersion changes slowly and the dispersion compensation can
be done at low speed within the DSP. Correction of chromatic dispersion-today up to
± 70,000 ps/nm (about 3,500 km of G.652 fiber) and future: up to ± 250,000 ps/nm
(OK for transoceanic cable systems)

(ii) Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD) compensation:

After CD compensation, the DSP compensates for dynamic Jones rotation (where the
polarization state of the signal has changed on its journey along the fiber) and PMD.
Once again, it has been shown that a high-quality DSP algorithm is able to
compensate for even the highest levels of practical PMD observed in fibers today.
PMD transients are faster than CD variations hence PMD compensation is done at
medium speed, of the order of a few KHz. PMD compensation is up to 30 ps.
 (iii) Intradyne Carrier Recovery

In modern optical coherent detection, the preferred form of signal mixing is known as
intradyne detection, in which a free running local oscillator is used. Carrier recovery
between the receive signal and the local oscillator is performed digitally in the DSP.
In an intradyne implementation, the DSP can track local oscillator phase noise for
both the transmitter and the local oscillator laser by performing carrier recovery. This
carrier recovery process has the highest speed of all the demodulation functions in the
DSP.

These three functions with an indication of their performance requirement are shown
in figure 4.47. Rx and Ry represent two received polarization states of the signal.

Verizon has already switched on to a 100 Gbit/s link running 893 km between Paris
and Frankfurt. This link is already carrying live 10 Gbit/s traffic at other wavelengths.

Figure 4.47
4.3.18 ADVANCED MODULTION BENEFITS:

 Phase-based modulation is generally more tolerant of fiber impairments.

 We can put more bits per symbol.

 Magnitude of fiber impairments scale with square of symbol rate.
 Phase-based modulation allows us to use coherent detection
 Advanced digital signal processing is then possible.
 The result is that 100G waves have the same, or even better reach than 10G
IM-DD (Intensity modulated – Direct detection).

Figure 4.48 gives various advanced modulation formats details.

As shown in figure 4.48 PM-16 QAM gives channel data rate of 200G. Two carriers
can be combined to build a 400 G signal named DC (dual carrier) PM-16 QAM (with
50 GHz channel spacing). An example of implementation is depicted in figure 4.49.
The line capacity will reach to 17.6 Tbit/s but the reach will reduce. In this example
multiplexing of 200G waves on the standard 50 GHz grid takes place.
Figure 4.48

Figure 4.49
As spectral efficiently increases i.e., PMQPSK to PM 8QAM to PM 16QAM but the
amount of optical power that can be transmitted before incurring non-linear penalties
i.e., self-phase modulation, cross phase modulation and four- wave mixing (FWM)) ,
the optical reach decreases but due to higher and higher spectral efficiency the data
rate increases,

Information bit rate (b/s)

[Spectral efficiency, SE (b/s/Hz) = -------------------------------------------

Total Bandwidth consumed (Hz)

(80ʎ×100 Gb/s)/4000GHz = 2b/s/Hz

(2*×80ʎ×400Gb/s)/4000GHz = 8b/s/Hz

C band is about 4000GHz

*Dual polarization

Table4.4 shows that by 2020 for 100Tb/s capacity spectral efficiency equal to

20 are needed.

Table4.4: Spectral Efficiency (SE)

1990 2000 2010 2020

2.5 to 10 Gbps 10 Gbps 100Gbps 1 Tbps
Channel rate Channel rate PMQPSK, Channel rate
Channel rate
8,16,40 channels 100 channels 80 channels 100 channels
20-160 Gbps 1 Tbps 8 Tbps 100 Tbps
capacity capacity capacity Capacity
SE= .025-.05 SE=0.2 SE=2.0 SE= 20
History History Planned Needed
Also as Channel spacing decreases number of transmitted channels increases and
spectral efficiency increases. (See Table 4.5)

Table 4.5: Spectral efficiency

C band: 1530-1570 nm

CHANNEL SPACING NUMBER OF SPECTRAL

CHANNELS EFFICIENCY @ 100
Gbps , bits/s/Hz
200 GHz = 1.6 nm 25 0.5
100 GHz = 0.8 nm 50 1
50 GHz = 0.4 nm 100 2
12.5 GHz = 0.1 nm 400 8

4.4 Laser chirp:

A phenomenon where wavelength of emitted light changes during modulation. Chirp

arises from direct modulation (on/off) of laser source. During the process of turning
on and off a laser or some external modulators, the output wavelength of the signal
gradually shifts slightly in wavelength as the output power increases and decreases.
 Figure 4.50

This causes a frequency chirp that gives the laser an even wider optical spectrum, as it
introduces additional wavelength components on the leading and trailing edges of the
pulse. If these components are oriented such that the chromatic dispersion (CD)
causes those at the leading edge of the pulse to travel faster and those at the trailing
edge to travel slower, the pulse will broaden more rapidly. Therefore, the signal will
have a weaker tolerance for CD. Figure 4.50 shows the electrical response of a chirp
signal.

Laser chirp can have two separate detrimental outcomes in a typical optical
transmission system:

(i) The chirp can interact with fiber CD to create a power penalty, which
ultimately limits the number of channels or the distance over which the signal can
propagate in today’s WDM systems.

(ii) Chirp can broaden the transmitted spectrum as discussed above limiting the
channel spacing by interfering with adjacent channels even in a short – haul, ultra –
dense WDM environment.

Chirp penalty is defined as the additional signal to noise ratio (SNR) required at the
receiver (due to laser chirp) to maintain a specified bit error ratio (BER) in a system

of specified dispersion. Figure 4.51 describe the chirp phenomenon. A strong chirp
significantly reduces the fiber transmission distance; moderate chirp, however, is
highly beneficial both for the detected power and maximum transmission distance
 Figure 4.51

4.5 Dispersion Compensation

As mentioned earlier, the dispersion characteristics of a fiber can be manipulated by

the materials and design of the fiber. A length of dispersion compensation fiber can be
added to a link, usually at a repeater (optical amplifier) that reverses the CD of the
fiber span before it. Such fibers tend to have high loss and bend sensitivity, so
alternatively a dispersion compensator made from a specialized component called a
Bragg grating can be used.

One of the properties of silica fibers is that as a light pulse that has undergone a
certain amount of negative dispersion can essentially correct itself by traveling
through a medium that has an equivalent amount of positive dispersion. This is the
function that dispersion compensating modules perform in optical links by
introducing, in-line, an opposite dispersion medium to that of the fiber.

Dispersion management refers to the process of designing the fiber and compensating
elements in the transmission path to keep the total dispersion to a small number.
Figures 4.52 describe the methods of dispersion compensation. Typically, dispersion
compensating elements are placed every 100 km or so.
 Figure 4.52

Figure 4.53 shows the performance of a fiber path that has alternating lengths of (+D)
NZ-DSF and (-d) NZ-DSF every 20 km. The first 20 km length of fiber is (+D) NZ-
DSF, so the dispersion increases over that length to 60 ps/nm. The next 20 km length
of fiber is (-D) NZ-DSF type, so the dispersion gradually decreases back to zero. This
pattern repeats two more times. At the end of the 120-km fiber path, the dispersion
has returned to near zero.

DISPERSION IN A COMPENSATED NZ-DSF FIBER PATH

Figure 4.53

In the reality in most applications is that the fiber is already in place and odds are that
the fiber is NDSF type. More than 80% of all single-mode fiber worldwide is NDSF
type. In these cases, a more common means of controlling dispersion is the use of
DCM (Dispersion Compensating Modules) placed at periodic intervals. DCM's are
usually one of two types. The first type is DCF or Dispersion Compensating Fiber.
This is simply a spool of a special type of fiber that has very large negative
dispersion. Typically, DCF dispersion can be in the range of -80 ps/(nm-km), so a 20-
km length of DCF can compensate for the dispersion in a 100-km length of NDSF.
Typically, DCFs have a dispersion coefficient four to eight times that of standard
single mode fiber. However, this level of dispersion is achieved by reducing the
diameter of the fiber core, which in turn increases the fiber transmission loss as well
as limits the levels of optical power that can effectively be transmitted through the
fiber without inducing other distortions, so called “non-linear” effects which can be
especially harmful in Coherent networks..
The second type of DCM is a FBG (Fiber Bragg Grating) type. Here, a series of
FBG's or one very long FBG is written into tens of meter length of fiber to perform
the dispersion compensation. Both types of DCM's have relatively high insertion loss.
A 60-km compensator may exhibit 6 dB of loss or more. Because of this, DCM's are
usually co-located with EDFA's. Often, they are used with a special type of EDFA
(Erbium doped fiber amplifiers) that has mid-stage access. This type of EDFA has
two gain states. The DCM is placed between the gain stages so that the effect of the
large insertion loss of the DCM has no significant impact on the system performance.
(See figure 4.54, 4.55).

Figure 4.54
Figure 4.55 Introduces larger delays at shorter wavelengths whereas CD
introduces Larger delays for longer wavelengths: exactly opposite

4.5.1 Fiber Bragg Grating:

Dispersion management utilizing FBGs is based on the introduction of wavelength

specific time delays using a precisely chirped fiber grating which can be tailored to
mimic the dispersion characteristics of the fiber or span intended for compensation.
By combining such a FBG with a standard optical circulator, a highly effective
dispersion compensation module (DCM) can be realized. ( See figure 4.55).

FBG-DCMs are small, low loss devices and since they just consist of a couple of
decimeters or meters of fiber, not tens or hundreds of kilometers as with fiber based
dispersion compensation, the non-linear effects are negligible even at extreme optical
power levels. FBG-DCMs also have the ability to provide both negative and positive
dispersion by simply changing the grating chirp compared with fiber based dispersion
compensation, which requires the use of totally different fiber types. A graphical
illustration of an FBG is shown in Figure 4.56.
 Figure 4.56

An FBG is a reflective device composed of an optical fiber that contains a modulation

of its core refractive index over a certain length. The grating reflects light propagating
through the fiber when its wavelength corresponds to the modulation periodicity. In a
chirped FBG, the periodicity of the induced index modulation varies along the
grating’s length. As the grating period varies along the axis, the different wavelengths
are reflected by different portions of the grating and accordingly are delayed by
different amounts of time. The net effect is a compression of the input pulse that can
be tailored to compensate for the chromatic dispersion accumulated along the fiber
link. Table 4.6 compares DCF and FBG.

Table 4.6: DCF vs FBG

Technology Advantage Disadvantage

DCF 1) Simple construction, highly 1) Usually DCF has a small
reliable. core size which may make it prone
2) Provides continuous compensation to certain types of nonlinearities.
over a wide range of optical wavelengths 2) For 100 to 120 km of SMF fiber
(i.e. Does not require precise laser dispersion compensation based on
wavelengths.) DCF has insertion loss of about 10
dB.
3) DCF has a loss that is
approximately linear with the
compensated length
FBG 1) Potentially lower insertion loss.
About 3 to 4 dB for same span length
2) Loss is more or less constant in FBGs
3) FBG-DCM can withstand high optical
power

4.6 Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)

Polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD) is a fundamental problem that can limit
distances and data rates in a single-mode optical fiber system. PMD is a time varying
quantity that degrades system bandwidth and is costly to mitigate. It affects network
reliability and is becoming more evident as network speed increases. The impact of
PMD was first noticed in CATV transmissions due to the sensitive nature of the
analog signal. But as networks migrate to higher speeds, the effect becomes more
apparent, to the point where it is now affecting some short haul (metro) transmissions.
And as bit rates continue to increase, the impact on the reliability, reach, and
bandwidth of single-mode fiber optic systems will be more pronounced. Further
complicating matters, PMD is a random, statistically based phenomenon and is often
measured improperly.

PMD is caused by local birefringence in the fiber, which may arise from a
combination of material and waveguide birefringence. If a fiber exhibits different
indexes of refraction (IOR) based on the polarization state (rotational orientation with
respect to the fiber axis) of the transmission signal, then this fiber is said to be
birefringent. The differing IORs lead to differing velocities of propagation of the
modes. The figure 4.57 explains polarization in optical fibers due to EM waves.
Polarization mode dispersion or PMD is defined as the temporal spreading of the
transmission signal pulses due to this birefringence.

When light travels down a single-mode fiber toward the receiver, the "single mode" is
actually made up of two modes associated with the principle states of polarization in
the fiber. In a perfect fiber these two modes travel at the same speed, but in real fibers
asymmetries and imperfections can cause the modes to have different propagation
speeds. This effect, known as birefringence, is proportional to the difference in the
refractive indexes of the two principle states. As this polarization evolves along the
length of a single-mode fiber, it can spread the pulse enough to make it overlap with
other pulses or change its own shape until it is undetectable at the receiver.

 Light is an electromagnetic wave

 It can be decomposed in two polarizations, Ey(t) and Ex(t)
 Both polarizations are orthogonal to each other (at 90°to each other)
 Also, orthogonal to the direction of propagation
 Normally represented as arrows for simplicity

Figure 4.57
The amount of pulse spreading caused by the difference in speeds of the principal
modes is called differential group delay (DGD), measured in picoseconds (10 -12
seconds). Small variations along the optical fiber can affect DGD, and may even
cause the light to switch randomly between the two polarization states as it propagates

down the fiber. Consequently, DGD can vary with time and wavelength. The PMD
coefficient is a length normalized statistical average of the DGD values that can be
used by system designers to help ensure the reliability of the system. In addition to
fiber geometry, PMD also is created by external forces such as bends, twists, and
stress. The external causes can be time dependent, especially when the fiber is cabled
and deployed in a network. Here, the fiber is subjected to time-varying stresses due to
temperature changes, cable configuration and/or mechanical vibrations (like trucks or
trains passing nearby), making compensation difficult. See figure 4.58 for reasons of
PMD and Figures 4.59 explains PMD phenomenon.

Figure 4.58 Reasons for PMD

 Figure 4.59

 DGD scales linearly with fiber length

 Over a length of fiber the two polarization states travel at different speeds
 The states become unsynchronized
 Result is that signal energy reaches the fiber end at different point of time
 This causes pulse spreading or dispersion
 PMD is important over 40 Gbps
 ITU-T recommendation: PMD should be less than 0.1 times the bit period

Figure 4.60 gives details of PMD limits and figure 4.61 describe how to combat
PMD.
Figure 60
 Figure 4.61

4.6.1 CONTROLLING PMD BY MANUFACTURING PROCESS

A patented OFS technology creates a "spin" within the fiber during the draw process.
This built-in spin reduces birefringence by mixing the light between the two
polarizations, which enables the fiber to exhibit ultra-low PMD. In this process, an
oscillating sheave imparts spin to the fiber at the base of the draw tower. The spin
then propagates upward to the neck-down region where the molten glass is spun first
one way and then the other. As the glass cools, the spin is "locked in" to the fiber.
The angle of the spin and the rate of oscillation can be varied to impart different end-
use characteristics. (See figure 4.62)
 Figure 4.62

4.7 BANDWIDTH (BW) OF AN OPTICAL FIBER

BW is defined as the width of the frequency range that can be transmitted by an

optical fiber. Bandwidth measures the data-carrying capacity of an optical fiber and is
expressed as the product of the data frequency and the distance traveled (MHz-km or
GHz-km typically). Because the effect of dispersion increases with the length of the
fiber, a fiber transmission system is often characterized by its bandwidth–distance
product. This value is a product of bandwidth and distance because there is a trade-off
between the bandwidth of the signal and the distance it can be carried. For example, a
common multi-mode fiber with bandwidth–distance product of 500 MHz-km could
carry a 500 MHz signal for 1 km or a 1000 MHz signal for 0.5 km.

As the length of the cable increases, the modal dispersion increases (increasing the
pulse widths at the end of the cable and therefore increasing the degree of inter-
symbol interference), which effectively decreases the maximum data transmission
rate.
The primary limit on bandwidth is pulse broadening, which results from modal and
chromatic dispersion of the fiber. Typical values for several types of fiber are given in
table 4.7.

Table 4.7

FIBER TYPE BANDWIDTH

SMF FIBER 100 GHz-KM
GRADED INDEX MM FIBER 500MHz-km AT 1300 nm
160 MHz-km AT 850 nm
STEP INDEX MM FIBER 20 MHz-km

 BW gets smaller as fiber length increases

 High NA fibers have lower BWs e.g. Plastic fiber has high NA, therefore poor
BW
 Lowering NA to improve BW makes source coupling more difficult as the
acceptance angle decreases

4.8 The Eye Diagram

The eye diagram is a useful tool for the qualitative analysis of signal used in digital
transmission. It provides at-a-glance evaluation of system performance and can offer
insight into the nature of channel imperfections. Careful analysis of this visual display
can give the user a first-order approximation of signal-to-noise, clock timing jitter and
skew. Eye diagrams reveal the impact of ISI and noise. Eye diagram can also give an
estimate of achievable BER. The following aspects of eye are important:

 The vertical eye opening indicates the amount of difference in signal level that
is present to indicate the difference between one-bits and zero-bits. The bigger
the difference the easier it is to discriminate between one and zero. Of course,
this is affected significantly by noise in the system.
  The horizontal eye opening indicates the amount of jitter present in the signal.
The wider the eye opening is on this axis the less problem we are likely to
have with jitter.
 The thickness of the band of signals at the zero-crossing point is also a good
measure of jitter in the signal. However, you need to be careful here as the
sweep is usually triggered from the receiver PLL and variations here are as
much an indicator of the quality of the PLL as they are of the signal itself!
 The best indication of signal “goodness” is just the size of the eye opening
itself. The larger it is the easier it will be to detect the signal and the lower will
be the error rate. When the eye is nearly closed it will be very difficult or
impossible to derive meaningful data from the signal.
Figures 4.63,4.64,4.65, & 4.66 explains importance of eye diagram in detail. Figure

4.67 shows example of jitter.

Figure 4.63
Figure 4.64
Figure 4.65

Figure 4.66
 Figure 4.67

4.9 Bit Error Rate

BER is a key parameter that is used in assessing systems that transmit digital data
from one location to another. When data is transmitted over a data link, there is a
possibility of errors being introduced into the system. If errors are introduced into the
data, then the integrity of the system may be compromised. As a result, it is necessary
to assess the performance of the system, and bit error rate, BER, provides an ideal
way in which this can be achieved.

Unlike many other forms of assessment, bit error rate, BER assesses the full end to
end performance of a system including the transmitter, receiver and the medium
between the two. In this way, bit error rate (BER) enables the actual performance of a
system in operation to be tested, rather than testing the component parts and hoping
that they will operate satisfactorily when in place.

A bit error rate is defined as the rate at which errors occur in a transmission system.
This can be directly translated into the number of errors that occur in a string of a
stated number of bits. The definition of bit error rate can be translated into a simple
formula:

Bit Error Rate, BER = Number of Errors/ Total numbers of bits sent
Hence, Bit Error Rate is the number of bit errors that occur within the space of one
second. This measurement is one of the prime considerations in determining signal
quality. The higher the data transmission rate the greater the standard. A DS-1 signal
is considered acceptable with a BER of 10, -6 but an OC-3 signal requires a BER of no
more than 10-12. In telecommunication transmission, the bit error rate (BER) is the
percentage of bits that have errors relative to the total number of bits received in a
transmission, usually expressed as ten to a negative power. For example, a
transmission might have a BER of 10 to the minus 6, meaning that, out of 1,000,000
bits transmitted, one bit was in error. The BER is an indication of how often data has
to be retransmitted because of an error. Too high a BER may indicate that a
slower rate would actually improve overall transmission time for a given amount of
transmitted data since the BER might be reduced, lowering the number of packets that
had to be resent. A BERT (bit error rate test or tester) is a procedure or device that
measures the BER for a given transmission.

For fiber optic systems, bit errors mainly result from imperfections in the components
used to make the link. These include the optical driver, receiver, connectors and the
fiber itself. Bit errors may also be introduced as a result of optical dispersion and
attenuation that may be present. Also, noise may be introduced in the optical receiver
itself. Typically, these may be photodiodes and amplifiers which need to respond to
very small changes and as a result there may be high noise levels present.

QUIZ TIME: 4

1. Explain the difference between absorption and scattering processes as they

determine the attenuation of optical power propagating in the fibers. Explain
the mechanism involved.
2. What are intermodal and intramodal dispersion?
3. Explain attenuation in optical fibers.
4. Explain dispersion in optical fibers.
5. Explain dispersion compensation techniques in optical fibers.
6. What is fiber birefringence?
7. What is Intra Modal Dispersion?
8. What are the causes of intra modal dispersion?
9. What is material dispersion?
10. What is waveguide dispersion?
11. What is pulse broadening?
12. What is polarization Mode Dispersion (PMD)?
13. Define dispersion shifted fiber.
14. Define dispersion flattening?
15. What is effective cut-off wavelength?
16. Write a note on scattering losses.
17. What is Rayleigh scattering?
18. What is intramodal dispersion?
19. . Mention the losses responsible for attenuation in optical fibers.
20. What do you mean by extrinsic absorption?
21. Define microscopic bending?
22. Define macroscopic bending?
23. What is meant by inter symbol interference (ISI)?
24. . What is meant by bit error rate?
25. . What are those four mechanisms which are responsible for degradation in
optical signal as it travels down the fiber?
26. What is eye diagram?
27. What do you understand by dispersion slope?
28. What is zero dispersion wavelength (ʎ0)?
29.