THEME 6

BHAKTI-SUFI TRADITIONS
CHANGES IN RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND DEVOTIONAL TEXTS
(C. EIGHTH TO EIGHTEENTH CENTURY)
________________________________________________________
❖ INTRODUCTION
➢ This chapter deals with the religious beliefs which occurred during 8th to
18th century. Historian used many sources to know the changes of
religious traditions.
❖ TEXTUAL RECORD
➢ The Compositions attributed to poet saints. These were compiled by
disciples or devotees generally after the death of saints.
➢ Hagiographies or biographies of saints written by their followers.
➢ The sculptures of many saints and the devotions by the many kingdoms
also provide the sources to know about the famous saints.
❖ CHALLENGES TO USE THESE SOURCES-
➢ The generations of devotees tended to elaborate on the original message.
➢ They occasionally modified or even abandoned some of the ideas that
appeared problematic or irrelevant in different political , social and
cultural context.
➢ Hagiographies or biographies of saints may not be literally accurate.
❖ A MOSAIC OF RELIGIOUS BELIEFS AND PRCTICES
➢ During this period, a large number of gods and goddesses in sculpture as
well as in texts appeared.
➢ This indicated the continued and extended worship of the major deities
such as Vishnu, Shiva and the goddesses, visualized in a variety of forms.
Integration of cults and great and little traditions, disseminating
Brahmanical ideas.
❖ THE INTEGRATION OF CULTS
➢ Historians who have tried to understand these developments suggest that
there were at least two processes at work.
➢ One was a process of disseminating Brahmanical ideas. This was
exemplified by the composition, compilation and preservation of Puranic

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 texts in simple Sanskrit verse .They were meant to be accessible to
women and Shudras who were excluded from Vedic learning.
➢ There was a second process at work that of the Brahmanas accepting and
reworking the beliefs and practices of other social categories also. This
was known as great and little traditions. (by sociologist –Robert
Redfield)
➢ Through an example we can say that a local deity, in Puri Odisha) whose
image was and continues to be made of wood by local tribal (little
tradition) specialists, was recognized as a form of Vishnu. These local
deities were often incorporated within the puranic frame work by
providing them with an identity as a wife of the principal male deities-
sometimes they were equated with Lakshmi, the wife of Vishnu.(Great
Traditions)
❖ TANTRIC WORSHIP
➢ The forms of worship often associated with goddess were classified as
Tantric.
➢ Tantric worship was wide spread in the subcontinent. It was open to
women and men.
➢ Those who followed Tantric rejected the caste and class within the ritual
context.
➢ Many of these ideas influenced Shaivism and the Buddhism, especially in
eastern, northern and southern part of this sub-continent.
❖ CONFLICTS THAT AROSE DURING THIS TIME
➢ During this time the principles deities are Brahma, Vishnu, Shiva which
have very little reference in puranic traditions.
➢ The principles deities of Vedic pantheon Agni, Indra and Soma become
marginal figures.
➢ However, in spite of these discrepancies the Vedas continued to be
revered as authoritative.
➢ There were conflicts between those who followed the Vedic tradition and
those who practiced the Tantric way of worshipping deities.
➢ Those who valued Vedic tradition often condemned the practices that
went beyond the performance of sacrifices and chanting of mantras.
➢ On the other hand, those who engaged in Tantric practices ignored the
authority of the Vedas.

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 ➢ The devotees often tended to project their deity either Vishnu or shiva
but the relation with other tradition like Jains or Buddhism were often
fraught with tension
❖ EARLY BHAKTI TRADITIONS
Saguna (with attributes) Nirguna (without attributes).
Ø Saguna included the Ø Nirguna bhakti on the other hand
bhakti traditions that focused on was worship of an abstract form of
the worship of specific deities such god.
as Shiva, Vishnu and his avatars Ø Examples- Kabir Panthi, Sufi
(incarnations) and forms of the Saint, Yogi, Nathpanthi,
goddess or Devi. Madari,Kanlandar
Ø Examples –Alwar, Nayanars,
Virashaiva

❖ THE ALVARS AND NAYANARS OF TAMIL NADU

➢ During the sixth century, some of the Bhakti movements in south India
were led by the Alvars and the Nayanars.
➢ The literal meaning of the Alvars is those who are immersed in devotion
to Vishnu.
➢ The meaning of the word Nayanars is those who were devotees of Shiva.
➢ They travelled from place to place singing hymns in Tamil in praise of
their gods.
➢ During their travels the Alvars and Nayanars identified certain shrines as
abodes of their chosen deities.
➢ Later big temples were built at those places and developed as pilgrimage
centre’s.
➢ According to some historians, the Alvars and the Nayanars started a
movement of protest against the caste system and the Brahmanas and
attempted to reform the system.
➢ The devotees came from the different social backgrounds such as
artisans, cultivators and even from the caste that were considered
“untouchable”
➢ The saint –poets the Alvars and the Nayanars were opposed to Buddhism
and Jainism.
➢ This hostility is well marked in their compositions particularly of the
Nayanars.
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❖ DIFFERENCE IN ALVARS AND NAYANARS
BASE ALWARS NAYANARS
Devotees Vishnu Shiva
No of saints 12 63
Compositions Nalayira Tevaram
Divyaprabbandham(Tamil
Veda)
Saints Tondaradippodi Appar, Sambandars,
Sundarar
Female saints Andal, Karaikkal Ammaiyar

❖ RELATION WITH THE STATE

➢ From the 2nd half of the first millennium Buddhism and Jainism was
supported byPallavas and pandays.
➢ In theis new Bhakti tradition saints opposed the Jainism and Buddhism
➢ The Chola rulers supported the bhakti traditions and built temples for
Shiva and Vishnu.
➢ Some of the magnificent temples for Shiva such as temples in
Chidambaram, Thanjavur and Gangaikondacholpuram were constructed
under their patronage.
➢ The Chola rulers-built temples often to claim divine support and
proclaim their own power and status and adorned those temples with
stone and metal sculpture to represent the visions of the popular saints.
➢ They made the spectacular representations of Shiva in bronze sculpture.
➢ The Chola kings introduced the singing of Tamil Shaiva hymns under
royal patronage, taking the initiative to collect and organize them into a
text (Tevaram).
➢ According to Inscriptional evidence, the Chola king Parantaka I had
constructed the metal images of Appar,Sambandar and Sundarar in a
Shiva temple.
➢ These were carried in procession during the festivals of these saints.
❖ THE VIRASHAIVA TRADITION IN KARNATAKA

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 ➢ During the twelfth century, In Karnataka the Virashaiva movement was
started by a Brahmana named Basavanna (1106-68).
➢ He was a Jaina and a minister in the court of a Chalukya king.
➢ His followers were known as Virashaivas(heroes of Shiva) or
Lingayats(wearers of the linga)
➢ LINGAYATS AND THEIR BELIEF
▪ Lingayats are an important community even today. They worship
Shiva in the form of linga.
▪ They wear a small linga in a silver case over the left shoulder.
▪ Jangama or wandering monks are revered.
▪ Lingayats believe that after death, the devotee will be united with
Shiva and will not return to this world.
▪ Therefore, they do not practice funerary rites such as cremation as
prescribed in the Dharmashastras. Instead, they ceremonially bury
their dead body.
➢ CHALLENGE TO THE CASTE SYSTE
▪ The Lingayats challenged the idea of caste and the “pollution”
attributed to some groups by Brahmanas.
▪ They also questioned the theory of rebirth.
▪ So that a number of followers who were marginalized within the
Brahmanical social order also attracted to this bhakti tradition.
▪ The Lingayats also practiced certain approvals that were rejected by
the Dharmashastras such as post-puberty marriage and the remarriage
of wodows.
▪ Our knowledge about the Virashaiva tradition is came from vachanas
(literally,sayings)composed in kannada by those who joined the
movement.
❖ RELIGIOUS FERMENT IN NORTH INDIA
➢ Like in south India, in this time Bhakti movement also spread in north
India. Though historian did not find any compositions in north India till
14 centuries.
➢ According to historians, in north India in this period several Rajput states
emerged and in most of these states Brahmanas occupied important place
by performing rituals. So, there was no attempt to question their position
directly.

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 ➢ At the same time there were other religious leaders who were out of the
orthodox Brahmanical systems, and were gaining ground.
➢ These included the Naths,Jogis and Siddhas. Many of them came from
artisanal groups such as weavers who were well organized. They become
powerful due to increasing urban centers and long distance trade.
➢ These religious leaders questioned the authority of the Vedas and
expressed them in local language. In spite of their popularity, they were
unable to win the support of the ruling elites.
➢ Turkish conquest culminated in the establishment of the Delhi Sultanate.
➢ The power of many Rajput rulers was thus undermined and also of the
Brahmanas who were associated with those kingdoms.
➢ The coming of the Sufis was a significant part of these developments.

❖ NEW STRANDS IN THE FABRIC- ISLAMIC TRADITION

➢ Indian subcontinent was connected with the central Asia by land routs so
after 11th century many Arab merchants, trades and invader started to
enter in the north west part of India.
❖ FAITH OF RULERS AND THEIR SUBJECTS
➢ In 711 AD an Arab General, Muhammed bin qasim conquered Sind and
make it as a part of the caliph’s domain. Later, during the thirteenth
century the Turks and Afghans established the Delhi Sultanate.
➢ Sultanates were also formed in the Deccan and other parts of the
subcontinent. Islam was recognized as the religion of several areas. This
continued with the establishment of the Mughal Empire.
➢ Muslim rulers were to be guided by the Ulama, which were expected to
ensure that they ruled according to the Sahri’a.
Ulma-The scholars of Islamic studies, who perform various religious,
juridical and teaching functions to preserve the Islamic traditions.
Shari’a –the lawa which govern the muslim community.It includes
Quran-Holy book
Hadis-Traditions of prophet
Qiyas-Reasoning by analogy
Ijma-Consensus of the community.

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 ➢ The category of zimmi was developed. The Zimmi means “protected”
and is derived from the Arabic word zimma, protection. It was developed
for peoples who followed revealed scriptures, such as the Jews and
Christians, and lived under muslim rule. They paid a tax called jizya and
received protection from muslims. In India this status was extended to
Hindus as well.
➢ In general, rulers often adopted a flexible policy towards their subjects.
➢ For example, several rulers gave land endowments and granted tax
exemptions to Hindu, Jaina, Zoroastrian, Christian and Jewish religious
institutions. They also showed respect and devotion towards non-Muslim
religious
❖ THE POPULAR PRACTICE OF ISLAM
➢ All those who adopted Islam have the similarity in their practice. They
follow the five pillars of the faith.
➢ The five pillars of faith in Islam
▪ There is one God, Allah, and Prophet Muhammad is his messenger
(shahada)
▪ Offering prayers five times a day (namaz/salat)
▪ Giving alms (zakat)
▪ Fasting during the month of Ramzan (sawam)
▪ Performing the pilgrimage to Mecca(hajj)
➢ However in spite of this similarity there were so many diversities
occurred in their tradition due to sectarian affiliations and local
customary practices.
➢ Muslim communities were divided into two main sects –shi’a (Believe
that Ali will be successor of prophet) and sunni (Believe that Abu Bakr
will be).
➢ There were many branches of shi’a and sunni in this sub continent like
Khojahs ismailis,
▪ Khojah, a branch of Isamailis (Shia sect) adopted the indigenous
literary geners to disseminating the ideas of Quran.
▪ They used devotional poem in Punjabi, Multani,
Sindhi,Kachchi,Hindi, Gujarati known as –Ginan (Knowledge) in
special ragas during daily prayers.

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 ▪ Arab muslim traders who settled in Malabar coast(Kerala) not only
adopted the local language Malayalam but local customes as matriliny
and matrilocal residence.
❖ ARCHITECTURE OF MOSQUES.
➢ The complex of a universal faith with local traditions also found in
architecture of mosques.
➢ Some architectural features of mosques are universal such as face toward
Mecca and the placement of the mihrab (prayer niche) and the minbar
(pulpit).
➢ However there were variations found in roof or building materials.
▪ Shah Hamdan Mosque of Srinagar built by kashmiri wooden(Jewel in
the crown)
▪ Atiya mosques , Bangladesh built with bricks.
▪ Mosque in Kerala Shikhara like roof

❖ NAME OF COMMUNITIES
➢ Today we often use the term Hindu or Muslim for these communities but
the historian find out from inscriptions and Sanskrit text that this term
was not used for these people till 14 century.
➢ Instead these term people were identifies by their region as Turkish for
Turushka, Tajika for Tajikistan or Parshika for Persia.
➢ Sometime Turks or Aghan were referred as Shakas and Yavans(Greeks)
➢ A term Mlechchha also used for these migrants which means they did not
follow the norms of caste system and spoke different language instead of
Sanskrit.
➢ Hindu term was not used for the religion as we saw that it was used for
the people who live near the river Sind.
❖ THE GROWTH OF SUFISM
➢ The groups of religious minded people were called as Sufis in Islam. It is
an English word. The word used for Sufism in Islam is Tasawwuf.
➢ The term sufi were defined by many ways by historians-
▪ It is derived from suf meaning wool, refer the course woolen clothes
worn by Sufis.
▪ Some told that it is derived from safa mens purity

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 ▪ It may also derived from suffa, the platform outside the prophet
mosques, where followers assembled to learn about faith.
➢ They were critical of the dogmatic definitions and scholastic methods of
interpreting the Quran.
➢ They emphasized on seeking salvation through intense devotion and love
for God by following his command.
➢ They emphasized interpretation of Quran on the basis of personal
experience.
❖ KHANQAHS
➢ Khanqahs or hospices were the religious places where sufi saints teach
their followers and held the practices. The control of Khanqahs was
under a pir ,saikh or murshid. He performed various duties as-
➢ Duties of Pir or Saikh or Murshid
▪ He enrolled his disciples (murids) and appointed a successor (Khalifa
▪ He established rules for spiritual conduct and interaction between
persons and the master.
❖ SILSILAS
➢ Silsila literally meaning a chain signifies a continuous link between
master and disciple, stretching as an unbroken spiritual genealogy to the
Prophet Muhammad.
➢ Through this channel the spiritual power and blessing transmitted to
devotees.
➢ Sufi silsilas began to appear in different parts of the Islamic world around
the twelfth century.
❖ DARGAH
➢ Dargah is a Persian term. Its meaning is tomb-shrine. When the sheikh
died, his tomb shrine became the center of devotion for his followers.
➢ This encouraged the practice of pilgrimage or ziyarat to his grave,
particularly on his death anniversary or urs
➢ It was believed that, after death the soul of sheikh get united with the soul
of Allah.
➢ People sought their blessings to attain material and spiritual benefits.
Thus evolved the cult of the sheikh revered as wali.

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❖ BA-SHARIA AND BE-SHARIA SUFIS
BA-SHARIA BE-SHARIA
1.Ba sharia were those Sufis who 1.Be-sharia Sufis were those who
adhere with the Shariat ignored shariat
2. They organized themselves 2.They boycott the khanqahs and
around Khanqahs. took mendicancy and observed
celibacy
3.They were called as saikh or 3. They were known by different
wali. names-Qaladars, Madaris,
Malangs, Haidaris etc.
NAMES OF SILSILAS-
SR NAMES OF FOUNDER
NO SILSILA
1 QADIRI Saikh abdul qadir jilani
2 Chisti On the name of place , which is in
central Afghanistan
3 Nakshbandi Founder Bahauddin naqshband
Bukhari
4 Suharwardiyya Diya al din abunajib as suhrawardi

❖ THE CHISHTIS SILSILA IN THE SUBCONTINENT

➢ Chishtis were the most influential group among the silsila in India.
➢ Life in the Chishti khanqah
▪ The khanqah was the centre of social life. It comprised several small
rooms and a big hall where inmates and visitors lived and prayed.
▪ The Shaikh lived in a small room on the roof of the hall where he met
visitors in the morning and evening.
▪ There was an open kitchen (langar).From morning till evening people
from all walks of life, came to seek the blessings from the Shaikh in
various matters.
▪ Other visitors included poets such as Amir Hasan Sijzi and Amir
Khusru and the court historian Ziyauddin Barani and all of them wrote
about the Shaikh.
▪ Different practices were adopted by the Chishtis in their kanqah as
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 • Bowing before the Shaikh
• Offering water to visitors
• Shaving the heads of initiates
• Yogic exercises
❖ Major Teachers of the Chisti Silsila
Sr Sufi Teacher year of LOCATION
no birth
1 Shaikh Muinuddin 1235 Ajmer (Rajasthan)
Sijzi
2 Khwaja Qutbuddin 1235 Delhi
Bakhtiyar Kaki
3 Saikh Fariduddin 1265 Ajodhan(Pakistan)
Ganj I Shakr
4 Shaikh 1325 Delhi
Nizamuddin
Auliya
5 Shaikh Nasiruddin 1356 Delhi
Chiragh-I

➢ Most famous sufi teacher in India ,Shaikh Nizamuddin appointed his

disciple to set up hospices in various parts of the sub continent. In this
way they came in touch with the people which led to the popularization
of chishti practices, teachings and also the fame of Shaikh.

❖ CHISHTI DEVOTIONALISM: ZIYARAT AND QAWWALI

➢ Pilgrimage on the tombs of Sufi saints is called as Ziyarat in all over the
Muslim world. This practice is an occasion for seeking the Sufi’s
spiritual grace (barakat).
➢ For more than seven centuries people from different walks of life
expressed their devotion at the dargahs of the five great Chishti saints.
➢ The use of music and dance including mystical chants performed by
specially trained musicians or qawwals to evoke divine ecstasy is also
part of ziyarat.

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 ➢ The Sufis remember God either by reciting the zikr(the Divine Names)or
evoking His presence through sama or performance of mystical music
known as qawwali.
❖ DARGAH OF KHWAJA MUINUDDIN
➢ The most popular dargah in India was of Khwaja Muinuddin, popularly
known as “Gharib Nawaz” (comforter of the poor).The dargah became so
popular because of the following reasons.
➢ The austerity and piety of the Shaik, greatness of his spiritual successors
and the patronage of royal visitors.
➢ Location of Ajmer was another factor for its popularity. As it was located
on the trade route connecting Delhi and Gujarat, it attracted number of
travellers.
➢ Muhammad bin Tughlaq was the first Sultan to visit this dargah. And the
construction of tomb was funded by Sultan Ghiyasuddin Khalji of
Malwa.
➢ Akbar, the Mughal emperor visited dargah at Ajmer fourteen times in his
life and these visits were aimed at seeking blessings for new conquests,
fulfilling his of vows and to get sons.
➢ Many of his wishes were soon fulfilled and thus as an offering:
▪ He gave generous gifts on each visit.
▪ He offered a huge cauldron to facilitate cooking for pilgrims.
▪ He even got a mosque constructed within the dargah
❖ LANGUAGES AND COMMUNICATION
➢ By the various local languages sufi tradition become popular in different
region. They also influenced by the various Bhakti tradition.
➢ The Chishtis composed their poems in several languages. The Chishtis
used Hindavi or Persian language.
➢ Some Sufis such as Baba Farid composed poetry in local language. Some
Sufis composed long poems or masnavis to express ideas of divine love
using human love as an allegory. For example-Padmavat composed by
Malik Muhammad Jayasi, the romance of Padmini and Ratensen, king of
Chittor.
➢ Sufi poetry was composed in the Dakhani language around the Bijapur
and Karnataka region. Women while performing household chores like
grinding grain and spinning sang these poems.

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 ➢ Other poems were in the form of lurinama(lullabies) or wedding
songs(shadinama).The Sufis of this region were inspired by the kannada
vachanas of the Lingayats and the Marathi abhangs of the saints of
Pandharpur.
➢ By this medium Islam gradually gained a place in the village of the
Deccan.
❖ SUFIS AND THE STATE
➢ The chishtis tradition was austere, maintaining a distance from worldly
power but it did not isolate political power.
➢ The Sufis accepted unsolicited grants and donations from the political
elites. The sultans set up charitable trusts (auqaf) as endowments for
hospices and granted tax-free land (inam).
➢ The chishtis accepted donations in cash and kind and used for their
immediate requirements such as food, clothes, living quarters and ritual
necessities such as sama. The moral high status of the Sufis attracted
people from all walks of life.
➢ The kings wished to secure their support by paying respect to the Sufis.
➢ Kings simply did not need to show their association with Sufis and also
required legitimating for them.
➢ When the Turks set up the Delhi Sultanate, Sufis resisted the insistence
of the ulama on imposing shari’a as state law because they anticipated
opposition from their subjects.
➢ The sultans also came to depend on the sufis to interpret the Sahri’a.It
was believed that Auliya could intercede with god to improve the
material and spiritual conditions of the people. As a result, kings got the
shrines of the Sufis near built near their tombs.
➢ However there were instances of conflict between the Sultans and the
sufis.
▪ To assert their authority both expected certain rituals performed such
as prostration and kissing of the feet etc.
▪ Sufi saikh was addressed with high sounding titles. For example
Nizamuddin Auliya addressed as Sultan-ul-mashaikh by their
disciples.

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❖ NEW DEVOTIONAL PATHS: DIALOGUE AND DISSENT IN
NORTH INDIA
➢ During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries, many important figures
become popular-
▪ Kabir das
▪ Guru Nanak Dev
▪ Mira Bai
❖ ABOUT KABIR DAS
➢ We know very little about the life of Kabir Das. It was belived that he
was born in Hindu family and brought up bu Muslim Julha family. Their
compositions were compiled by their followers after his death.
➢ Hagiographies within the Vaishnava tradition suggest that he was
initiated into bhakti by a guru, Ramananda. The poems of Kabir used
words guru and satguru but do not mention the name of any specific
guru.Historians pointed out that it is very difficult to establish that
Ramananda and Kabir were contemporaries.
➢ Composition of Kabir Das
▪ The Kabir Bijak is preserved by the Kabirpanth (the path or sect of
Kabir) in Varanasi and in Uttar Pradesh.
▪ The Kabir Granthavali is associated with the Dadupanth in Rajasthan
and many of his compositions are found in the Adi Granth Sahib.
▪ Kabir’s poems have survived in several languages and dialects and
sometimes with special language of nirguna poets (the sant bhasha)
and others known as ulatbansi (upside-down sayings)
➢ Teachings of Kabir
▪ Kabir tried to describe the Ultimate Reality including Islam.
According to him the Ultimate Reality was Allah, Khuda, Hazrat and
Pir. He also used certain Vedic terms such as Brahman and Atman.
▪ He also used some yogic traditional terms such as shabda (sound) or
shunya (emptiness).Some poems of Kabir expressed conflicting and
diverse ideas.
▪ Some poems attacked Hindu polytheism and idol worship and others
use sufi concept of zikr and ishq(love) to express the Hindu practice of
nam-simaran (remembrance of God’s name).

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 ▪ Historians have tried to analyse the language, style and content of
these poems. Debates about whether Kabir was a Hindu or a Muslim
by birth are well reflected in hagiographies.
❖ BABA GURU NANAK\
➢ Baba Guru Nanak was born in a village called Nankana Sahib near Ravi
in Punjab in 1469.
➢ He trained to be an accountant and studied Persian.He was married at a
young age but he spent most of his time among sufis and bhaktas.He also
travelled widely.
➢ Teachings of Guru Nanak
▪ His teachings are well reflected in his hymns. These hymns suggest
that he advocated a form of nirguna bhakti.He rejected sacrifices,
ritual baths, image worship and the scriptures of Hindus and Muslims.
▪ According to him, the Absolute or ‘rab’ had no gender or form. He
proposed a simple way to connect to the Divine by remembering the
Divine Name.
▪ He expressed his ideas through hymns called “shabad” in Punjabi, the
language of the region and sang with different ragas.
▪ He organized his followers into a community. He set up rules for
congregational worship (sangat). He appointed one of his disciples,
Angad, to succeed him as the preceptor (guru).Guru Nanak did not
want to establish a new religion.
▪ After his death, his followers consolidated their own practices to form
a distinct community.
▪ The fifth guru, Guru Arjun compiled Guru Nanak”s hymns along with
those of his four successors and other religious poets like Baba Farid,
Ravidas and Kabir in the Adi Granth Sahib. These hymns called
“gurbani” are composed in various languages.
▪ The tenth Guru, Guru Gobind Singh, included the compositions of the
ninth guru; Guru Tegh Bahadur.This scripture was called the Guru
Grantha Sahib. Guru Gobind Singh also laid the foundation of the
Khalsa Panth (army of the pure).He also defined its five symbols:
• Uncut hair,
• A dagger,
• A pair of shorts,
• A comb and
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 • A steel bangle.
▪ It was under the leadership of Guru Gobind Singh that the community
became a socio-religious and military force.
❖ MIRABAI, THE DEVOTEE PRINCESS
➢ Mirabai was the best known woman poet within the bhakti tradition.
➢ She was a Rajput princess from Merta in Marwar.
➢ She was married to a prince of the Sisodia clan of Mewar against he
wishes. She defied her husband and not submit to the traditional role of
wife and mother.
➢ She recognized Krishna, the avatar of Vishnu as her lover. Her in-laws
tried to poison her, but she escaped and lived as wandering singer
composing songs with intense expressions of emotion.
➢ Teachings of Meera bai
▪ Her most famous preceptor was Raidas; a leather worker. It shows her
defiance of the norms of caste society.
▪ She had donned the white robes of a window or the saffron robe of the
renouncer. Although she did not attract a sect or group of followers,
she has been recognized as a source of inspiration for centuries.
▪ We get information about her from the bhajans attributed to her.
❖ SHANKARADEV
➢ In the late fifteenth century, Shankaradeva emerged as one of the leading
proponents of Vaishnavism in Assam.
➢ His teachings, often known as the Bhagavati dharma because they were
based on the Bhagavad Gita and the Bhagavata Purana,
➢ He emphasised the need for naam kirtan, recitation of the names of the
lord in sat sanga or congregations of pious devotees.
➢ He also encouraged the establishment of satra or monasteries for the
transmission of spiritual knowledge, and naam ghar or prayer halls.
➢ Many of these institutions and practices continue to flourish in the
region. His major compositions include the Kirtana-ghosha.
❖ RECONSTRUCTING HISTORIES OF RELIGIOUS TRADITIONS
➢ Historians used a variety of sources to reconstruct histories of religious
traditions. These include stupas, monasteries, and temples.
➢ Historians also draw on textual sources including devotional literature
and hagiographies. These sources enable historians to understand certain
religious beliefs and practices.
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 ➢ They range from the simple direct language of the vachanas of
Basavanna to the ornate language of the farman of the Mughal emperors.
➢ Understanding each type of text requires different skills. Historians have
to acquire familiarity with several languages and to be aware of the
subtle variations in style that characterize each type.
❖ Major religious teachers
c. 500-800 Appar, Sambandar, Sundaramurti Tamil Nadu
c. 800-900 Nammalvar, Manikkavachakar, Tamil Nadu
Andal, Tondaradippodi
c.1000- Al Hujwiri, Data Ganj Bakhsh Punjab
1100
Ramanujacharya Tamil Nadu
c.1100- Basavanna Karnataka
1200
c.1200- Jnanadeva, Muktabai Maharashtra;
1300
Khwaja Muinuddin Rajasthan
Chishti
Bahauddin Zakariyya and Punjab
Fariduddin Ganj-I shakar
Qutbuddin Bakhtiyar Kaki Delhi
c.1300- Lal ded Kashmir
1400
Lal Shahbaz Qalandar in Sind
Nizamuddin Auliya Delhi
Ramananda Uttar Pradesh
Chokhamela Maharashtra
Sharafuddin Yahya Maneri Bihar
1400-1500 Kabir, Raidas, Surdas, Baba Guru in Uttar Pradesh;
Nanak

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 Vallabhacharya in Gujarat; Punjab
Abdullah Shattari in Gwalior
Muhammad Shah Alam Gujarat;
Mir Sayyid Muhammad Gesu Gulbarga,
Daraz
Tukaram Maharashtra
Shankaradeva Assam;
1500-1600 Sri Chaitanya Bengal;
Shaikh Abdul Quddus in Gangohi,
Malik Muhammad Jaisi, Tulsidas Uttar Pradesh
Mirabai Rajasthan
1600-1700 Shaikh Ahmad Sirhindi Haryana
Miyan Mir Punjab

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