Carnegie Mellon

Processes and Multitasking

15-213/15-513: Introduction to Computer Systems
18th Lecture, June 25, 2024

Instructors:
Brian Railing

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Today
 Processes
 System Calls
 Process Control
 Shells

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Earliest days: One batch job at a time

IBM 704 at Langley Research Center (NASA), 1957

https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=6455009
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How can many people share one

computer efficiently?

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Multiprocessing
Memory Memory Memory
Stack Stack Stack
Heap Heap Heap
Data Data … Data
Code Code Code

CPU CPU CPU

Registers Registers Registers

 Computer runs many processes simultaneously

▪ Applications for one or more users
Web browsers, email clients, editors, …
▪
▪ Background tasks
▪ Monitoring network & I/O devices

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Multiprocessing Example

 Running program “top” on hammerheadshark

▪ System has 425 “tasks”, 7 of which are active
▪ Identified by Process ID (PID), user account, command name
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Processes
 Definition: A process is an instance of a running Memory
program. Stack
▪ One of the most profound ideas in computer science Heap
▪ Not the same as “program” or “processor” Data
Code

 Process provides each program with two key CPU

abstractions: Registers
▪ Private address space
Each program seems to have exclusive use of main
▪
memory.
▪ Provided by kernel mechanism called virtual memory
▪ Logical control flow
▪ Each program seems to have exclusive use of the CPU
▪ Provided by kernel mechanism called context switching

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Control Flow
 Processors do only one thing:
▪ From startup to shutdown, each CPU core simply reads and executes
a sequence of machine instructions, one at a time *
▪ This sequence is the CPU’s control flow (or flow of control)

Physical control flow

<startup>
inst1
inst2
Time
inst3
…
instn * many modern CPUs execute
<shutdown> several instructions at once
and/or out of program order, but
this is invisible to the programmer
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Context Switching
 Processes are managed by a shared chunk of memory-
resident OS code called the kernel
▪ Important: the kernel is not a separate process, but rather runs as part
of some existing process.
 Control flow passes from one process to another via a
context switch
Process A Process B

user code

kernel code context switch

Time user code

kernel code context switch

user code

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Context Switching (Uniprocessor)

Memory
Stack Stack Stack
Heap Heap Heap
Data Data … Data
Code Code Code
Saved Saved
registers registers

CPU
Registers

 Single processor executes multiple processes concurrently

▪ Process executions interleaved (multitasking)
▪ Address spaces managed by virtual memory system (like last week)
▪ Register values for nonexecuting processes saved in memory
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Context Switching (Uniprocessor)

Memory
Stack Stack Stack
Heap Heap Heap
Data Data … Data
Code Code Code
Saved Saved Saved
registers registers registers

CPU
Registers

 Save current registers in memory

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Context Switching (Uniprocessor)

Memory
Stack Stack Stack
Heap Heap Heap
Data Data … Data
Code Code Code
Saved Saved Saved
registers registers registers

CPU
Registers

 Schedule next process for execution

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Context Switching (Uniprocessor)

Memory
Stack Stack Stack
Heap Heap Heap
Data Data … Data
Code Code Code
Saved Saved Saved
registers registers registers

CPU
Registers

 Load saved registers and switch address space (context switch)

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Context Switching (Multicore)

Memory
Stack Stack Stack
Heap Heap Heap
Data Data … Data
Code Code Code
Saved
registers

CPU CPU  Multicore processors

Registers Registers ▪ Multiple CPUs on single chip
▪ Share main memory (and some caches)
▪ Each can execute a separate process
▪ Scheduling of processors onto cores
done by kernel

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User View of Concurrent Processes

 Two processes run concurrently (are concurrent) if their
execution overlaps in time
 Otherwise, they are sequential
 Appears as if concurrent processes run in parallel with
each other
▪ This means they can interfere with each other
(more on that in a couple weeks)
A and B
concurrent
Process A Process B Process C
A and C
concurrent
Time
B and C
sequential

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Traditional (Uniprocessor) Reality

 Only one process runs at a time
 A and B execution is interleaved, not truly concurrent
 Similarly for A and C
 Still possible for A and B / A and C to interfere with each
other

Process A Process B Process C

Time

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How does the kernel take control?

 The CPU executes instructions in sequence
 We don’t write “now run kernel code” in our programs…
▪ Or do we??

Physical control flow

<startup>
<kernel entry>
inst1
insta
inst2
Time instb
inst
syscall
3
instc
…
…
instn
<kernel exit>
<shutdown>

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Today
 Processes
 System Calls
 Process Control
 Shells

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System Calls
 Whenever a program wants to
// fopen.c
cause an effect outside its own FILE *fopen(const char *fname,
const char *mode) {
process, it must ask the kernel int flags = mode2flags(mode);
for help if (!flags) return NULL;
int fd = open(fname, flags,
 Examples: DEFPERMS);
if (fd == -1) return NULL;
▪ Read/write files return fdopen(fd, mode);
}
▪ Get current time
// open.S
▪ Allocate RAM (sbrk) .global open
▪ Create new processes open:
mov $SYS_open, %eax
syscall
cmp $SYS_error_thresh, %rax
ja __syscall_error
ret

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All the system calls

accept fanotify_init getresuid llistxattr nfsservctl recvmmsg set_mempolicy_home_node sync_file_range
accept4 fanotify_mark getrlimit lookup_dcookie open_by_handle_at recvmsg set_robust_list sync_file_range2
acct fchdir getrusage lremovexattr open_tree remap_file_pages set_tid_address syncfs
add_key fchmod getsid lsetxattr openat removexattr setdomainname sysinfo
adjtimex fchmodat getsockname madvise openat2 renameat setfsgid syslog
bind fchown getsockopt mbind perf_event_open renameat2 setfsuid tee
bpf fchownat gettid membarrier personality request_key setgid tgkill
brk fdatasync gettimeofday memfd_create pidfd_getfd restart_syscall setgroups timer_create
capget fgetxattr getuid memfd_secret pidfd_open rseq sethostname timer_delete
capset finit_module getxattr migrate_pages pidfd_send_signal rt_sigaction setitimer timer_getoverrun
chdir flistxattr init_module mincore pipe2 rt_sigpending setns timer_gettime
chroot flock inotify_add_watch mkdirat pivot_root rt_sigprocmask setpgid timer_settime
clock_adjtime fremovexattr inotify_init1 mknodat pkey_alloc rt_sigqueueinfo setpriority timerfd_create
clock_getres fsconfig inotify_rm_watch mlock pkey_free rt_sigreturn setregid timerfd_gettime
clock_gettime fsetxattr io_cancel mlock2 pkey_mprotect rt_sigsuspend setresgid timerfd_settime
clock_nanosleep fsmount io_destroy mlockall ppoll rt_sigtimedwait setresuid times
clock_settime fsopen io_getevents mount prctl rt_tgsigqueueinfo setreuid tkill
clone fspick io_pgetevents mount_setattr pread64 sched_get_priority_max setrlimit umask
clone3 fsync io_setup move_mount preadv sched_get_priority_min setsid umount2
close futex io_submit move_pages preadv2 sched_getaffinity setsockopt uname
close_range futex_waitv io_uring_enter mprotect prlimit64 sched_getattr settimeofday unlinkat
connect get_mempolicy io_uring_register mq_getsetattr process_madvise sched_getparam setuid unshare
copy_file_range get_robust_list io_uring_setup mq_notify process_mrelease sched_getscheduler setxattr userfaultfd
delete_module getcpu ioctl mq_open process_vm_readv sched_rr_get_interval shmat utimensat
dup getcwd ioprio_get mq_timedreceive process_vm_writev sched_setaffinity shmctl vhangup
dup3 getdents64 ioprio_set mq_timedsend pselect6 sched_setattr shmdt vmsplice
epoll_create1 getegid kcmp mq_unlink ptrace sched_setparam shmget wait4
epoll_ctl geteuid kexec_file_load mremap pwrite64 sched_setscheduler shutdown waitid
epoll_pwait getgid kexec_load msgctl pwritev sched_yield sigaltstack write
epoll_pwait2 getgroups keyctl msgget pwritev2 seccomp signalfd4 writev
eventfd2 getitimer kill msgrcv quotactl semctl socket
execve getpeername landlock_add_rule msgsnd quotactl_fd semget socketpair
execveat getpgid landlock_create_ruleset msync read semop splice
exit getpid landlock_restrict_self munlock readahead semtimedop statx
exit_group getppid lgetxattr munlockall readlinkat sendmmsg swapoff
faccessat getpriority linkat munmap readv sendmsg swapon
faccessat2 getrandom listen name_to_handle_at reboot sendto symlinkat
fallocate getresgid listxattr nanosleep recvfrom set_mempolicy sync

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System Call Error Handling

 Almost all system-level operations can fail
▪ Only exception is the handful of functions that return void
▪ You must explicitly check for failure
 On error, most system-level functions return −1 and set
global variable errno to indicate cause.
 Example:

pid_t pid = fork();

if (pid == -1) {
fprintf(stderr, "fork error: %s\n", strerror(errno));
exit(1);
}

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Error-reporting functions
 Can simplify somewhat using an error-reporting function:
void unix_error(char *msg) /* Unix-style error */
{
fprintf(stderr, "%s: %s\n", msg, strerror(errno));
exit(1);
}

pid_t pid = fork(); Note: csapp.c exits with 0.

if (pid == -1)
unix_error("fork error");

 Not always appropriate to exit when something goes

wrong.

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Error-handling Wrappers
 We simplify the code we present to you even further by
using Stevens1-style error-handling wrappers:
pid_t Fork(void)
{
pid_t pid = fork();

if (pid == -1)
unix_error("Fork error");
return pid;
}

pid = Fork(); // Only returns if successful

 NOT what you generally want to do in a real application

1e.g., in “UNIX Network Programming: The sockets networking API“ W. Richard Stevens

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Today
 Processes
 System Calls
 Process Control
 Shells

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Obtaining Process IDs

 pid_t getpid(void)
▪ Returns PID of current process

 pid_t getppid(void)
▪ Returns PID of parent process

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Process States
At any time, each process is either:
 Running
▪ Process is either executing instructions, or it could be executing
instructions if there were enough CPU cores.
 Blocked / Sleeping
▪ Process cannot execute any more instructions until some external
event happens (usually I/O).
 Stopped
▪ Process has been prevented from executing by user action
(control-Z).
 Terminated / Zombie
▪ Process is finished. Parent process has not yet been notified.

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Terminating Processes
 Process becomes terminated for one of three reasons:
▪ Receiving a signal whose default action is to terminate (next lecture)
▪ Returning from the main routine
▪ Calling the exit function

 void exit(int status)

▪ Terminates with an exit status of status
▪ Convention: normal return status is 0, nonzero on error
▪ Another way to explicitly set the exit status is to return an integer value
from the main routine

 exit is called once but never returns.

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Creating Processes
 Parent process creates a new running child process by
calling fork

 int fork(void)
▪ Returns 0 to the child process, child’s PID to parent process
▪ Child is almost identical to parent:
▪ Child get an identical (but separate) copy of the parent’s virtual
address space.
▪ Child gets identical copies of the parent’s open file descriptors
▪ Child has a different PID than the parent

 fork is interesting (and often confusing) because

it is called once but returns twice

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Conceptual View of fork

Memory Memory
parent child
Stack Stack Stack
Heap ➔ Heap Heap
Data Data Data
Code Code Code
Saved Saved Saved
registers registers registers

CPU CPU
Registers Registers

 Make complete copy of execution state

▪ Designate one as parent and one as child
▪ Resume execution of parent or child
▪ (Optimization: Use copy-on-write to avoid copying RAM)
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fork Example
int main(int argc, char** argv)  Call once, return twice
{
pid_t pid;
 Concurrent execution
int x = 1; ▪ Can’t predict execution
order of parent and child
pid = Fork();
if (pid == 0) { /* Child */
printf("child : x=%d\n", ++x);
return 0;
}

/* Parent */
printf("parent: x=%d\n", --x);
return 0;
} fork.c

linux> ./fork linux> ./fork linux> ./fork linux> ./fork

parent: x=0 child : x=2 parent: x=0 parent: x=0
child : x=2 parent: x=0 child : x=2 child : x=2

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fork Example  Call once, return twice

int main(int argc, char** argv)
{  Concurrent execution
pid_t pid; ▪ Can’t predict execution
int x = 1;
order of parent and child
pid = Fork();  Duplicate but separate
if (pid == 0) { /* Child */
printf("child : x=%d\n", ++x); address space
return 0; ▪ x has a value of 1 when
}
fork returns in parent and
/* Parent */ child
printf("parent: x=%d\n", --x); ▪ Subsequent changes to x
return 0;
}
are independent
 Shared open files
▪ stdout is the same in
linux> ./fork
parent: x=0 both parent and child
child : x=2

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Modeling fork with Process Graphs

 A process graph is a useful tool for capturing the partial
ordering of statements in a concurrent program:
▪ Each vertex is the execution of a statement
▪ a -> b means a happens before b
▪ Edges can be labeled with current value of variables
▪ printf vertices can be labeled with output
▪ Each graph begins with a vertex with no inedges
 Any topological sort of the graph corresponds to a feasible
total ordering.
▪ Total ordering of vertices where all edges point from left to right

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Process Graph Example

int main(int argc, char** argv)
{
pid_t pid;
int x = 1;
child: x=2
pid = Fork(); Child
printf exit
if (pid == 0) { /* Child */
printf("child : x=%d\n", ++x); x==1 parent: x=0
Parent
return 0; main fork printf exit
}

/* Parent */
printf("parent: x=%d\n", --x);
return 0;
} fork.c

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Interpreting Process Graphs

 Original graph:
child: x=2
printf exit
x==1 parent: x=0
main for printf exit
k
Feasible total ordering:
 Relabled graph:
e f
a b e c f d

a b c d
Feasible or Infeasible?

a b f c e d
Infeasible: not a topological sort
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fork Example: Two consecutive forks

Bye
void fork2() printf
{ L1 Bye
printf("L0\n"); printf fork printf
fork(); Bye
printf("L1\n"); printf
fork();
printf("Bye\n"); L0 L1 Bye
} forks.c printf fork printf fork printf

Feasible output: Infeasible output:

L0 L0
L1 Bye
Bye L1
Bye Bye
L1 L1
Bye Bye
Bye Bye
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fork Example: Nested forks in parent

void fork4()
{
printf("L0\n"); Bye Bye
if (fork() != 0) { printf printf
printf("L1\n"); L0 L1 L2 Bye
if (fork() != 0) { printf fork printf fork printf printf
printf("L2\n");
}
}
printf("Bye\n");
} forks.c Feasible or Infeasible? Feasible or Infeasible?
L0 L0
Bye L1
L1 Bye
Bye Bye
Bye L2
L2 Bye
Infeasible Feasible
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fork Example: Nested forks in children

void fork5()
{ L2 Bye
printf("L0\n"); printf printf
if (fork() == 0) { L1 Bye
printf("L1\n"); printf fork printf
if (fork() == 0) { L0 Bye
printf("L2\n"); printf fork printf
}
}
printf("Bye\n");
} forks.c Feasible or Infeasible? Feasible or Infeasible?
L0 L0
Bye Bye
L1 L1
Bye L2
Bye Bye
L2 Bye
Infeasible Feasible
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Reaping Child Processes

 Idea
▪ When process terminates, it still consumes system resources
Examples: Exit status, various OS tables
▪
▪ Called a “zombie”
▪ Living corpse, half alive and half dead

 Reaping
▪ Performed by parent on terminated child (using wait or waitpid)
▪ Parent is given exit status information
▪ Kernel then deletes zombie child process
 What if parent doesn’t reap?
▪ If any parent terminates without reaping a child, then the orphaned
child should be reaped by init process (pid == 1)
▪ Unless it was init that terminated! Then need to reboot…
▪ So, only need explicit reaping in long-running processes
▪ e.g., shells and servers
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void fork7() {
Zombie if (fork() == 0) {
/* Child */

Example printf("Terminating Child, PID = %d\n", getpid());

exit(0);
} else {
printf("Running Parent, PID = %d\n", getpid());
while (1)
; /* Infinite loop */
linux> ./forks 7 & }
[1] 6639 } forks.c
Running Parent, PID = 6639
Terminating Child, PID = 6640
linux> ps
PID TTY TIME CMD
6585 ttyp9 00:00:00 tcsh
6639 ttyp9 00:00:03 forks
 ps shows child process as
6640 ttyp9 00:00:00 forks <defunct> “defunct” (i.e., a zombie)
6641 ttyp9 00:00:00 ps
linux> kill 6639
[1] Terminated  Killing parent allows child to
linux> ps be reaped by init
PID TTY TIME CMD
6585 ttyp9 00:00:00 tcsh
6642 ttyp9 00:00:00 ps

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void fork8()
Non- {
if (fork() == 0) {
terminating /* Child */
printf("Running Child, PID = %d\n",

Child Example getpid());

while (1)
; /* Infinite loop */
} else {
printf("Terminating Parent, PID = %d\n",
getpid());
exit(0);
}
linux> ./forks 8
} forks.c
Terminating Parent, PID = 6675
Running Child, PID = 6676  Child process still active even
linux> ps though parent has terminated
PID TTY TIME CMD
6585 ttyp9 00:00:00 tcsh
6676 ttyp9 00:00:06 forks  Must kill child explicitly, or else will
6677 ttyp9 00:00:00 ps
keep running indefinitely
linux> kill 6676
linux> ps
PID TTY TIME CMD
6585 ttyp9 00:00:00 tcsh
6678 ttyp9 00:00:00 ps
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wait: Synchronizing with Children

 Parent reaps a child with one of these system calls:
 pid_t wait(int *status)
▪ Suspends current process until one of its children terminates
▪ Returns PID of child, records exit status in status

 pid_t waitpid(pid_t pid, int *status,

int options)
▪ More flexible version of wait:
▪ Can wait for a specific child or group of children
▪ Can be told to return immediately if there are no children to reap

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wait: Synchronizing with Children

void fork9() {
int child_status;
HC exit
if (fork() == 0) { printf
printf("HC: hello from child\n");
exit(0);
CT
} else {
HP Bye
printf("HP: hello from parent\n");
wait(&child_status); fork printf wait printf
printf("CT: child has terminated\n");
}
printf("Bye\n");
} forks.c

Feasible output(s):
output: Infeasible output:
HC HP HP
HP HC CT
CT CT Bye
Bye Bye HC
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wait: Status codes

 Return value of wait is the pid of the child process that
terminated
 If status != NULL, then the integer it points to will be
set to a value that indicates the exit status
▪ More information than the value passed to exit
▪ Must be decoded, using macros defined in sys/wait.h
▪ WIFEXITED, WEXITSTATUS, WIFSIGNALED, WTERMSIG,
WIFSTOPPED, WSTOPSIG, WIFCONTINUED
▪ See textbook for details

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Another wait Example

 If multiple children completed, will take in arbitrary order
 Can use macros WIFEXITED and WEXITSTATUS to get information about
exit status
void fork10() {
pid_t pid[N];
int i, child_status;

for (i = 0; i < N; i++)

if ((pid[i] = fork()) == 0) {
exit(100+i); /* Child */
}
for (i = 0; i < N; i++) { /* Parent */
pid_t wpid = wait(&child_status);
if (WIFEXITED(child_status))
printf("Child %d terminated with exit status %d\n",
wpid, WEXITSTATUS(child_status));
else
printf("Child %d terminate abnormally\n", wpid);
}
} forks.c
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waitpid: Waiting for a Specific Process

 pid_t waitpid(pid_t pid, int *status, int options)
▪ Suspends current process until specific process terminates
▪ Various options (see textbook)
void fork11() {
pid_t pid[N];
int i;
int child_status;

for (i = 0; i < N; i++)

if ((pid[i] = fork()) == 0)
exit(100+i); /* Child */
for (i = N-1; i >= 0; i--) {
pid_t wpid = waitpid(pid[i], &child_status, 0);
if (WIFEXITED(child_status))
printf("Child %d terminated with exit status %d\n",
wpid, WEXITSTATUS(child_status));
else
printf("Child %d terminate abnormally\n", wpid);
}
} forks.c
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execve: Loading and Running Programs

 int execve(char *filename, char *argv[], char *envp[])
 Loads and runs in the current process:
▪ Executable file filename
Can be object file or script file beginning with #!interpreter
▪
(e.g., #!/bin/bash)
▪ …with argument list argv
▪ By convention argv[0]==filename
▪ …and environment variable list envp
▪ “name=value” strings (e.g., USER=droh)
▪ getenv, putenv, printenv

 Overwrites code, data, and stack

▪ Retains PID, open files and signal context
 Called once and never returns
▪ …except if there is an error
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 Carnegie Mellon

execve Example
 Execute "/bin/ls –lt /usr/include" in child process
using current environment:
envp[n] = NULL
envp[n-1] "PWD=/usr/droh"
…
envp[0] "USER=droh"
environ
myargv[argc] = NULL
(argc == 3) myargv[2] "/usr/include"
myargv[1] "-lt"
myargv myargv[0] "/bin/ls"

if ((pid = Fork()) == 0) { /* Child runs program */

if (execve(myargv[0], myargv, environ) < 0) {
printf("%s: %s\n", myargv[0], strerror(errno));
exit(1);
}
}
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 47
 Carnegie Mellon

Null-terminated Bottom of stack

Structure of environment variable strings

Null-terminated
the stack when command-line arg strings

a new program envp[n] == NULL

starts envp[n-1]
...
environ
(global var)
envp[0]
argv[argc] = NULL envp
argv[argc-1] (in %rdx)
...
argv argv[0]
(in %rsi)

argc Stack frame for

(in %rdi) libc_start_main
Top of stack
Future stack frame for
main

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 Carnegie Mellon

execve and process memory layout

User stack Private, demand-zero  To load and run a new
program a.out in the
current process using
execve:
libc.so
.data Memory mapped region
Shared, file-backed
 Free vm_area_struct’s
.text for shared libraries and page tables for old areas

 Create vm_area_struct’s
and page tables for new
Runtime heap (via malloc) Private, demand-zero areas
▪ Programs and initialized data
Uninitialized data (.bss) Private, demand-zero backed by object files.
a.out ▪ .bss and stack backed by
.data Initialized data (.data) anonymous files.
Private, file-backed
.text Program text (.text)
 Set PC to entry point in
0 .text
▪ Linux will fault in code and
data pages as needed.
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 49
 Carnegie Mellon

Quiz

https://canvas.cmu.edu/courses/40739/quizzes/123420

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 Carnegie Mellon

Today
 Processes
 System Calls
 Process Control
 Shells

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 Carnegie Mellon

Shell Programs
 A shell is an application program that runs programs on behalf
of the user
▪ sh Original Unix shell (Stephen Bourne, AT&T Bell Labs, 1977)
▪ csh/tcsh BSD Unix C shell
▪ bash “Bourne-Again” Shell (default Linux shell)

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 Carnegie Mellon

Shell Programs
 Simple shell
▪ Described in the textbook, starting at p. 753
▪ Implementation of a very elementary shell
▪ Purpose
▪ Understand what happens when you type commands
▪ Understand use and operation of process control operations

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 Carnegie Mellon

Simple Shell Example

linux> ./shellex
> /bin/ls -l csapp.c Must give full pathnames for programs
-rw-r--r-- 1 bryant users 23053 Jun 15 2015 csapp.c
> /bin/ps
PID TTY TIME CMD
31542 pts/2 00:00:01 tcsh
32017 pts/2 00:00:00 shellex
32019 pts/2 00:00:00 ps
> /bin/sleep 10 & Run program in background
32031 /bin/sleep 10 &
> /bin/ps
PID TTY TIME CMD
31542 pts/2 00:00:01 tcsh
32024 pts/2 00:00:00 emacs
32030 pts/2 00:00:00 shellex
32031 pts/2 00:00:00 sleep Sleep is running
32033 pts/2 00:00:00 ps in background
> quit

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 Carnegie Mellon

Simple Shell Implementation

 Basic loop
▪ Read line from command line
▪ Execute the requested operation
▪ Built-in command (only one implemented is quit)
▪ Load and execute program from file

int main(int argc, char** argv)

{ Execution is a
char cmdline[MAXLINE]; /* command line */ sequence of
while (1) { read/evaluate
/* read */ steps
printf("> ");
fgets(cmdline, MAXLINE, stdin);
if (feof(stdin))
exit(0);

/* evaluate */
eval(cmdline);
}
... shellex.c
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition 55
 Carnegie Mellon

Simple Shell eval Function

void eval(char *cmdline)
{
char *argv[MAXARGS]; /* Argument list execve() */
char buf[MAXLINE]; /* Holds modified command line */
int bg; /* Should the job run in bg or fg? */
pid_t pid; /* Process id */
strcpy(buf, cmdline);
bg = parseline(buf, argv);
if (argv[0] == NULL)
return; /* Ignore empty lines */
parseline will parse ‘buf’ into
if (!builtin_command(argv)) {
if ((pid = Fork()) == 0) { ‘argv’ and return whether or not
/* Child runs user job */
if (execve(argv[0], argv, environ) < 0) {
input line ended in ‘&’
printf("%s: Command not found.\n", argv[0]);
exit(0);
}
}
/* Parent waits for foreground job to terminate */
if (!bg) {
int status;
if (waitpid(pid, &status, 0) < 0)
unix_error("waitfg: waitpid error");
}
else
printf("%d %s", pid, cmdline);
}
return;
}
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition
shellex.c 56
 Carnegie Mellon

Simple Shell eval Function

void eval(char *cmdline)
{
char *argv[MAXARGS]; /* Argument list execve() */
char buf[MAXLINE]; /* Holds modified command line */
int bg; /* Should the job run in bg or fg? */
pid_t pid; /* Process id */
strcpy(buf, cmdline);
bg = parseline(buf, argv);
if (argv[0] == NULL)
return; /* Ignore empty lines */ Ignore empty lines.
if (!builtin_command(argv)) {
if ((pid = Fork()) == 0) { /* Child runs user job */
if (execve(argv[0], argv, environ) < 0) {
printf("%s: Command not found.\n", argv[0]);
exit(0);
}
}
/* Parent waits for foreground job to terminate */
if (!bg) {
int status;
if (waitpid(pid, &status, 0) < 0)
unix_error("waitfg: waitpid error");
}
else
printf("%d %s", pid, cmdline);
}
return;
}
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition
shellex.c 57
 Carnegie Mellon

Simple Shell eval Function

void eval(char *cmdline)
{
char *argv[MAXARGS]; /* Argument list execve() */
char buf[MAXLINE]; /* Holds modified command line */
int bg; /* Should the job run in bg or fg? */
pid_t pid; /* Process id */
strcpy(buf, cmdline);
bg = parseline(buf, argv);
if (argv[0] == NULL)
return; /* Ignore empty lines */
if (!builtin_command(argv)) {
if ((pid = Fork()) == 0) { /* Child runs user job */
if (execve(argv[0], argv, environ) < 0) {
printf("%s: Command not found.\n", argv[0]);
exit(0);
}
} If it is a ‘built in’ command, then handle it
/*
if
here in
Parent waits for foreground
(!bg) {
this program.
job Otherwise
to terminate */
int status; fork/exec the program specified in argv[0]
if (waitpid(pid, &status, 0) < 0)
unix_error("waitfg: waitpid error");
}
else
printf("%d %s", pid, cmdline);
}
return;
}
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition
shellex.c 58
 Carnegie Mellon

Simple Shell eval Function

void eval(char *cmdline)
{
char *argv[MAXARGS]; /* Argument list execve() */
char buf[MAXLINE]; /* Holds modified command line */
int bg; /* Should the job run in bg or fg? */
pid_t pid; /* Process id */
strcpy(buf, cmdline);
bg = parseline(buf, argv);
if (argv[0] == NULL)
return; /* Ignore empty lines */
if (!builtin_command(argv)) {
if ((pid = fork()) == 0) { /* Child runs user job */
if (execve(argv[0], argv, environ) < 0) {
printf("%s: Command not found.\n", argv[0]);
exit(0);
}
} Create child
/* Parent waits for foreground job to terminate */
if (!bg) {
int status;
if (waitpid(pid, &status, 0) < 0)
unix_error("waitfg: waitpid error");
}
else
printf("%d %s", pid, cmdline);
}
return;
}
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition
shellex.c 59
 Carnegie Mellon

Simple Shell eval Function

void eval(char *cmdline)
{
char *argv[MAXARGS]; /* Argument list execve() */
char buf[MAXLINE]; /* Holds modified command line */
int bg; /* Should the job run in bg or fg? */
pid_t pid; /* Process id */
strcpy(buf, cmdline);
bg = parseline(buf, argv);
if (argv[0] == NULL)
return; /* Ignore empty lines */
if (!builtin_command(argv)) {
if ((pid = fork()) == 0) { /* Child runs user job */
execve(argv[0], argv, environ);
// If we get here, execve failed.
printf("%s: %s\n", argv[0], strerror(errno));
exit(127);
}
/* Parent waits for foreground job to terminate */
if (!bg) {
int status;
if (waitpid(pid, &status, 0) < 0)
unix_error("waitfg: waitpid error");
}
else
Start argv[0].
}
printf("%d %s", pid, cmdline); execve only returns on error.
return;
}

Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition

shellex.c 60
 Carnegie Mellon

Simple Shell eval Function

void eval(char *cmdline)
{
char *argv[MAXARGS]; /* Argument list execve() */
char buf[MAXLINE]; /* Holds modified command line */
int bg; /* Should the job run in bg or fg? */
pid_t pid; /* Process id */
strcpy(buf, cmdline);
bg = parseline(buf, argv);
if (argv[0] == NULL)
return; /* Ignore empty lines */
if (!builtin_command(argv)) {
if ((pid = fork()) == 0) { /* Child runs user job */
execve(argv[0], argv, environ);
// If we get here, execve failed.
printf("%s: %s\n", argv[0], strerror(errno));
exit(127);
}
/* Parent waits for foreground job to terminate */
if (!bg) {
int status;
if (waitpid(pid, &status, 0) < 0)
unix_error("waitfg: waitpid error");
}
else
printf("%d %s", pid, cmdline);
If running child in
}
return;
foreground, wait until it is
} done.
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition
shellex.c 61
 Carnegie Mellon

Simple Shell eval Function

void eval(char *cmdline)
{
char *argv[MAXARGS]; /* Argument list execve() */
char buf[MAXLINE]; /* Holds modified command line */
int bg; /* Should the job run in bg or fg? */
pid_t pid; /* Process id */
strcpy(buf, cmdline);
bg = parseline(buf, argv);
if (argv[0] == NULL)
return; /* Ignore empty lines */
if (!builtin_command(argv)) {
if ((pid = fork()) == 0) { /* Child runs user job */
execve(argv[0], argv, environ);
// If we get here, execve failed.
printf("%s: %s\n", argv[0], strerror(errno));
exit(127);
}
/* Parent waits for foreground job to terminate */
if (!bg) {
int status;
if (waitpid(pid, &status, 0) < 0)
If running child in
}
unix_error("waitfg: waitpid error"); background, print pid
else
printf("%d %s\n", pid, cmdline);
and continue doing
}
return;
other stuff.
}
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition
shellex.c 62
 Carnegie Mellon

Simple Shell eval Function

void eval(char *cmdline)
{
char *argv[MAXARGS]; /* Argument list execve() */
char buf[MAXLINE]; /* Holds modified command line */
int bg; /* Should the job run in bg or fg? */
pid_t pid; /* Process id */
strcpy(buf, cmdline);
bg = parseline(buf, argv);
if (argv[0] == NULL)
return; /* Ignore empty lines */
if (!builtin_command(argv)) {
if ((pid = fork()) == 0) { /* Child runs user job */
execve(argv[0], argv, environ);
// If we get here, execve failed.
printf("%s: %s\n", argv[0], strerror(errno));
exit(127);
}
/* Parent waits for foreground job to terminate */
if (!bg) {
int status;
if (waitpid(pid, &status, 0) < 0)
unix_error("waitfg: waitpid error"); Oops. There is a
}
else
printf("%d %s", pid, cmdline);
problem with
}
return; this code.
}
Bryant and O’Hallaron, Computer Systems: A Programmer’s Perspective, Third Edition
shellex.c 63
 Carnegie Mellon

Problem with Simple Shell Example

 Shell designed to run indefinitely
▪ Should not accumulate unneeded resources
▪ Memory
▪ Child processes
▪ File descriptors
 Our example shell correctly waits for and reaps foreground
jobs

 But what about background jobs?

▪ Will become zombies when they terminate
▪ Will never be reaped because shell (typically) will not terminate
▪ Could run the entire computer out of memory
▪ More likely, run out of PIDs

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 Carnegie Mellon

Summary
 Processes
▪ At any given time, system has multiple active processes
▪ Only one can execute at a time on any single core
▪ Each process appears to have total control of
processor + private memory space

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 Carnegie Mellon

Summary (cont.)
 Spawning processes
▪ Call fork
▪ One call, two returns
 Process completion
▪ Call exit
▪ One call, no return
 Reaping and waiting for processes
▪ Call wait or waitpid
 Loading and running programs
▪ Call execve (or variant)
▪ One call, (normally) no return

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