MODULE 3

Harmonic indices (CF, DF, THD, TDD, TIF, DIN, C – message weights), Displacement andtotal power
factor.
Overview of power quality standards: IEEE 519, IEEE 1433 and IEC 61000
Power quality Monitoring: Objectives and measurement issues, different monitoringinstruments –
Power quality analyzer, harmonic spectrum analyzer, flicker meters

HARMONIC INDICES LIST OUT MAJOR HARMONIC INDICES

1. HARMONIC FACTOR (HF) or INDIVIDUAL L HARMONIC DISTORTION (IHD)
• It is defined as the ratio of rms value of the individual harmonics component expressed in
percentage of the fundamental component:
• The harmonic factor (HF) of the hth harmonic,which is a measure of the individual
harmonic contribution,is defined as

2. TOTAL HARMONIC DISTORTION (THD)

• The most common harmonic index used to indicate the harmonic content of a distorted
waveform with a single number is the total harmonic distortion (THD).
• It is the ratio between the RMS value of sum of harmonics to the RMS value of the
fundamental. THD an be used to describe voltage or current distortion and is
calculated as follows:

ANJUMOL C S.AP IN EEE TOCH INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

 • A commonly cited value of 5 % is often used as a dividing line between a high and low
distortion level.
• It can provide a good idea of how much extra heat will be realized when distorted voltage
is applies across a resistive load.
• It can give an idea about the additional losses caused by the current flowing through a
conductor.

Main Advantages Of THD Are

_ It is commonly used for a quick measure of distortion;

_ It can be easily calculated.

Disadvantages Of THD are

_It does not provide amplitude information;

3. TOTAL DEMAND DISTORTION

• Harmonic distortion is most meaningful when monitored at the point of common coupling
(PCC) —
• . The total demand distortion is based on the demand current, IL, over the monitoring
period:
• This term is similar toTHD except that the distortion is expressed as apercentage of some
rated or maximum value (e.g.,load current magnitude), rather than as a percentageof the
fundamental current:

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4. TELEPHONE INFLUENCE FACTOR (TIF)

• The telephone influence factor (TIF), is widely used in the United States and Canada,
determines the influence of power systems harmonics on telecommunication systems.
• TIF is defined as the ratio of the square root of the sum of the squares of the weighted
root-mean-square values of all the harmonic components to the root-mean-square
value (unweighted) of the entire wave .

• TIF weighting factors,=ωh,

5. C-MESSAGE WEIGHTS

• The C-message weighted index is very similar to the TIF except that the weights Ci are
used in place of wh

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6. V. T AND I. T PRODUCTS

• The THD, TFF and TIF indices do not provide information about the amplitude of the
voltage (or current) to which they relate.
• The IT and VT (or kVT) products incorporate that information.
• In these products the voltages or currents of the power transmission line are represented
by a single voltage or current obtained by weighting each harmonic voltage or current with
the corresponding factor of the system

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 • I.T product . The inductive influence expressed in terms of the product of its root-mean-
square magnitude (I) , in amperes , times its telephone influence factor (TIF) \

•
• . The VT product incorporates Inductive influence expressed in terms of the product of the
product of its root-mcan-squarc magnitude , in kilovolts , times its telephone influence
factor (TIF). .

•
• Vn is the single frequency r.m.s. line-to-line voltage at harmonic n, N is the maximum
harmonic order to be considered and Wn = Cn 5 nf0 isTIF weighting at harmonic n.
7. K FACTOR
• This is a useful index intended to follow the capability of distribution and special
application transformers in industry to operate within specified thermal limits in harmonic
environments.
• These are transformers designed to operate at lower flux densities than conventional
designs to allow for the additional flux produced by (largely the third) harmonic
currents,Eddy current or circulating current loss in core, strip winding,interleaving winding
• The formula used to calculate the Kfactor is as follows:

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8. DISTORTION INDEX (DIN)
• The distortion index (DIN) is commonly used in standards and specifications outside North
America.
• It is also used in Canada and is defined as

SOLVED PROBLEMS

√4 2 +22 +1.52 +12

THD= =4.23%
114

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 1.

2. Find the total harmonic distortion of thewaving having magnitude of fundamental

component unity and 3rd,5th '7th and 9ft harmonics ,reciprocal of harmonic
number.Also find DIN factor and IHD
3. Find the total and individual harmonic distortion of a voltage with following harmonic
components: Fundamental=308V, 3rd harmonic=30V 5th harmonic=16V, 7th
harmonic=9V 9th harmonic=4V

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POWER QUALITY MONITORING
Introduction
• Power quality monitoring is the process of gathering, analyzing, and interpreting raw
measurement data into useful information.
• The process of gathering data is usually carried out by continuous measurement of voltage
and current over an extended period.
• The process of analysis and interpretation uses advances in signal processing and artificial
intelligence fields have made it possible to design and implement intelligent systems to
automatically analyze and interpret raw data into useful information with minimum human
intervention.

Need/BENEFITS OF PQ Monitoring
• Helps to identify the cause of power system disturbances.
• Helps to identify problem conditions before they cause interruptions or disturbances,in
some cases.
• PQ monitoring facilities include
✓ computer networking and telecommunication facilities,
✓ semiconductor and electronics manufacturing facilities,
✓ biotechnology and pharmaceutical laboratories, and
✓ financial data-processing centers.

• It is an essential analytical tool used in order to improve the availability of power.

• Monitoring can help to identify power quality problems and minimize losses in the
production process and increase plant productivity.
• Monitoring is an essential component of the customer care process for his business

• Major benefits are

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BLOCK DIAGRAM OF POWER QUALITY MONITORING

WORKING
• The sensor and transducer uses Hall-effect sensors ,voltage sensors and current sensors
• The sensors outputs are small amplitude voltage signals.
• They can be used to measure the power system phase to neutral voltages (van, vbn and
vcn), neutral to ground voltage (vng), phase currents (ia, ib and ic), and neutral current (in).
• These sensors convert the values of the measured voltage or current in small amplitude
voltage signals. Furthermore, they isolate these signals from the power system potentials,
allowing a safe operation of the developed monitoring system
• The digital data acquisition system uses a standard data acquisition board for the PCI bus
• Instruments used for permanent monitoring are able to communicate through network cards or modems
with centralized monitoring systems, which control the monitoring instruments and download the recorded
data from them
• The core of any centralized monitoring system is a database, which stores the acquired power quality data.
A communication process collects the data from the monitors and stores them in the database.
• The user interface is carried out by a reporting system, which can automatically generate disturbance
reports, inform the user (customer or utility) bymeans of Web-based Internet applications
or transfer data to other information systems
• The monitoring system software was developed within the LabVIEW graphic
programming environment.
• The acquired information can be visualized both in tables and/or through charts. It is also
possible to generate reports in HTML (HyperText Markup Language) format.
• These reports can be sent directly to a printer, embedded in other Windows applications,
or can be accessed through the Internet, using a web browser

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COMMON OBJECTIVES OF POWER QUALITY MONITORING
1. Monitoring To Characterize System Performance.
• This is the most general requirement. A power producer need to understand its system
performance and then match that system performance with the needs of customers.
• By understanding the normal power quality performance of a system, a provider can
quickly identify problems and can offer information to its customers to help them
match their sensitive equipment’s characteristics with realistic power quality
characteristics.

2. Monitoring To Characterize Specific Problems.

• Many power quality service departments or plant managers solve problems by
performing short-term monitoring at specific customer sites or at difficult loads.
• This is a reactive mode of power quality monitoring, but it frequently identifies the
cause of equipment incompatibility, which is the first step to a solution.

3. Monitoring As Part Of An Enhanced Power Quality Service.

• Many power producers are currently considering additional services to offer
customers.
• One of these services would be to offer differentiated levels of power quality to
match the needs of specific customers.
• A provider and customer can together achieve this goal by modifying the power
system or by installing equipment within the customer’s premises.

4. Monitoring As Part Of Predictive Or Just-In-Time Maintenance.

• Power quality data gathered over time can be analyzed to provide information relating
to specific equipment performance
• For example, a repetitive arcing fault from an underground cable may signify
impending cable failure, or repetitive capacitor-switching restrikes may signify
impending failure on the capacitor-switching device.
• Equipment maintenance can be quickly ordered to avoid catastrophic failure, thus
preventing major power quality disturbances which ultimately will impact overall power
quality performance.

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 POWER QUALITY MONITORING CONSIDERATIONS
• Steps for PQ monitoring include

1. Monitoring as part of a facility site survey

2. Determining what to monitor
3. Choosing monitoring locations
4. Options for permanent power quality monitoring equipment
5. Disturbance monitor connections
6. Setting monitor thresholds
7. Quantities and duration to measure
8. Finding the source of a disturbance

1. Monitoring as part of a facility site survey

• Site surveys are performed to evaluate concerns for power quality and equipment
performance throughout a facility.
• The survey will include inspection of wiring and grounding concerns, equipment
connections, and the voltage and current characteristics throughout the facility.
• This information is summarized here.
1. Nature of the problems (data loss, nuisance trips, component failures, control system
malfunctions, etc.)
2. Characteristics of the sensitive equipment experiencing problems (equipment design
information or at least application guide information)
3. The times at which problems occur
4. Coincident problems or known operations (e.g., capacitor switching) that occur at the same
time
5. Possible sources of power quality variations within the facility (motor starting, capacitor
switching, power electronic equipment operation, arcing equipment, etc.)
6. Existing power conditioning equipment being used
7. Electrical system data (one-line diagrams, transformer sizes and impedances, load
information, capacitor information, cable data, etc.)

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2. Determining what to monitor
• Important disturbances in Power .Systems, can range from lightning strokes to long-term
over voltages
• The methods for characterizing the quality of ac power are important for the monitoring
requirements.
• Voltage sags can be characterized with a plot of the rms voltage versus time.Outages can
be defined simply by a time duration
• Extensive monitoring of all the different types of power quality variations at many
locations may be rather costly in terms of hardware, communications charges, data
management, and report preparation.
• Hence, the priorities for monitoring should be determined based on the objectives of
the effort..

3. Choosing monitoring locations

• it is very important that the monitoring locations be selected carefully based on the
monitoring objectives.
• One monitor was located near the substation, and two additional sites were selected
randomly
• The substation monitoring is important because it is the PCC (point of commoncoupling)
for most RMS voltage variations.
• When a monitoring project involves characterizing specific powerquality problems that are
experienced by customers, the monitoring locations should be at actual customer service
entrance or to locate the monitors as close as possible to the equipment affected by power
quality variations.
• Locate the monitors as close as possible to the equipment affected by power
qualityvariations
• Monitoring at customer service entrance locations has the additional advantage of reduced
transducer costs.
• In addition, it provides indications of the origin of the disturbances,i.e., the utility or the
customer side of the meter.
• A good compromise approach is to monitor at the substation and at selected customer
service entrance locations. The substation is important because it is the PCC for most
rms voltage variations.

4. Options for permanent power quality monitoring equipment

•Some of the categories of equipment that can be incorporated into an overall monitoring
system include the following:
❖ Digital fault recorders (DFRs).
• These may already be in place at many substations.

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 • DFR will typically trigger on fault events and record the voltage and current
waveforms that characterize the event.
• This makes them valuable for characterizing rms disturbances, such as voltage sags,
during power system faults.
• DFRs also offer periodic waveform capture for calculating harmonic distortion
levels.

❖ Smart relays and other IEDs.

• Many types of substation equipment may have the capability to be an intelligent
electronic device (IED) with monitoring capability.
• Manufacturers of devices like relays and re closers that monitor the current anyway
are adding on the capability to record disturbances and make the information
available to an overall monitoring system controller.
• These devices can be located on the feeder circuits as well as at the substation,
• called as intelligent relays (eg: GE Alstom-Feeder management relay) which can
monitor V,I,Freq,Phase, phase angle, phase sequence etc.

❖ Voltage recorders.
• Power providers use a variety of voltage recorders to monitor steady-state voltage
variations on distribution systems.
• Typically, the voltage recorder provides a trend that gives the maximum, minimum,
and average voltage within a specified sampling window.
• With this type of sampling, the recorder can characterize a voltage sag magnitude
adequately.
• However, it will not provide the duration with a resolution less than 2 s.
❖ In-plant power monitors.
• It is now common for monitoring systems in industrial facilities to have some
power quality capabilities.
• These monitors, particularly those located at the service entrance, can be used as
part of a utility monitoring program.
• Capabilities usually include wave shape capture for evaluation of harmonic
distortion levels, voltage profiles for steady-state rms variations
• It is not common for these instruments to have transient monitoring capabilities.

5. Disturbance monitor connections

• The recommended practice is to provide input power to the monitor from a circuit other
than the circuit to be monitored.
• Some manufacturers include input filters and/or surge suppressors on their power
supplies

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 • The grounding of the power disturbance monitor is an important consideration.The
disturbance monitor will have a ground connection forthe signal to be monitored and a
ground connection for the power supply of the instrument.
• For safety reasons, both of these ground terminals should be connected to earth ground.
•

6. Setting monitor thresholds

• Disturbance monitors are designed to detect conditions that are abnormal.Therefore, it is
necessary to define the range of conditions that can be considered normal.
• Some disturbance monitors have preselected (default) thresholds that can be used as a
starting point.
• The threshold level set for overvoltage is >1.1pu (250v)
• The best approach for selecting thresholds is to match them with the specifications of the
equipment that is affected.

7. Quantities and duration to measure

• Sometimes, when characterizing system disturbances, it is sufficient to monitor only the
voltage signals. For instance, the voltages provide information about the quality of power
.transients and voltage sags that may affect customer equipment.
• Also, Current measurements are used to characterize the generation of harmonics by
nonlinear loads on the system.
• The duration of monitoring depends on the monitoring objectives.
• For instance, if the objective is to solve problems that are caused by voltage sags, then
monitoring may be required for a significant length of time because system faults are
probably rare.
• If the problem involves capacitor switching, it may be possible to characterize the
conditions over the period of a couple days.
• Harmonic distortion problems and flicker problems should be characterized over a period
of at least 1 week to get a picture of how the load changes and how system variations
may affect these levels.

8. Finding the source of a disturbance or Evaluation of result

• The first step in identifying the source of a disturbance is to correlate the disturbance
waveform with possible causes
• Once a category for the cause has been determined (e.g., load switching,capacitor
switching, remote fault condition, recloser operation),the identification becomes more
straightforward.
.

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POWER QUALITY MEASUREMENT EQUIPMENT
• are test equipment designed to monitor and measure electrical power parameters to avoid
power quality disturbances
• FACTORS THAT SHOULD BE CONSIDERED WHEN SELECTING THE
INSTRUMENT.
• Some of the more important factors include
■ Number of channels (voltage and/or current)
■ Temperature specifications of the instrument
■ Ruggedness of the instrument
■ Input voltage range (e.g., 0 to 600 V)
■ Power requirements
■ Ability to measure three-phase voltages
■ Input isolation (isolation between input channels and from eachinput to ground)
■ Ability to measure currents
■ Housing of the instrument (portable, rack-mount, etc.)
■ Ease of use (user interface, graphics capability, etc.)
■ Documentation
■ Communication capability (modem, network interface)
■ Analysis software

• Conventional power quality analyzers are classified in one of the following categories

➢ Wiring and grounding test devices

➢ Multimeters
➢ Oscilloscopes
➢ Disturbance analyzers
➢ Harmonic analyzers and spectrum analyzers
➢ Flicker meters
➢ Energy monitors

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Wiring and grounding testers
• Many power quality problems reported by end users are caused by problems with wiring
and/or grounding within the facility.
• These problems can be identified by visual inspection of wiring, connections, and panel
boxes and also with special test devices for detecting wiring and grounding problems.
• Important capabilities for a wiring and grounding test device include
■ Detection of isolated ground shorts and neutral-ground bonds
■ Ground impedance and neutral impedance measurement or indication
■ Detection of open grounds, open neutrals, or open hot wires
■ Detection of hot/neutral reversals or neutral/ground reversals
• These test devices can be quite simple and provide an excellent initial test for circuit
integrity.
• Many problems can be detected without the requirement for detailed monitoring using
expensive instrumentation.

Multimeters
• After initial tests of wiring integrity, it may also be necessary to make quick checks of the
voltage and/or current levels within a facility.
• Overloading of circuits, undervoltage and overvoltage problems, and unbalances between
circuits can be detected in this manner.
• These measurements just require a simple multimeter.
• The most important factor to consider when selecting and using a multimeter is the method
of calculation used in the meter.
• bThe three most common methods are
1. Peak method. Assuming the signal to be a sinusoid, the meter reads the peak of the signal and
divides the result by 1.414 (square rootof 2) to obtain the rms.
2. Averaging method. The meter determines the average value of a rectified signal. For a clean
sinusoidal signal (signal containing only one frequency), this average value is related to the rms
value by a constant.
3. True rms. The rms value of a signal is a measure of the heating that will result if the voltage is
impressed across a resistive load.

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DIGITAL CAMERAS
• Photographs are extremely useful for documentation purposes.
• Those conducting the measurements often get distracted trying to get instruments to
function properly and tests coordinated.
• They are rushed and fail to write down certain key data that later turn out to be important.
Unfortunately, human memory is unreliable when there are dozens of measurement details
to remember.
• The modern digital camera has become an indispendable tool when taking field
measurements. It is a simple matter to take photographs to document the tests.
• The photographer can immediately tell if the shot failed and retake it with a different
exposure.
• Typical items to record photographically during field measurements include
1. Nameplates of transformers, motors, etc.
2. Instrumentation setups
3. Transducer and probe connections
4. Key waveform displays from instruments
5. Substations, switchgear arrangements, arrester positions, etc.
6. Dimensions of key electrical components such as cable lengths

OSCILLOSCOPES
• An oscilloscope is valuable when performing real-time tests.
• Looking at the voltage and current waveforms can provide much information about what
is happening, even without performing detailed harmonic analysis on the waveforms.
• One can get the magnitudes of the voltages and currents, look for obvious distortion, and
detect any major variations in the signals.
• There are numerous makes and models of oscilloscopes to choose from.
• A digital oscilloscope with data storage is valuable because the waveform can be saved
and analyzed.
• Oscilloscopes in this category often also have waveform analysis capability (energy
calculation, spectrum analysis).
• In addition, the digital oscilloscopes can usually be obtained with communications so that
waveform data can be uploaded to a personal computer for additional analysis with a
software package.
• The latest developments in oscilloscopes are hand-held instruments with the capability to
display waveforms as well as performing some signal processing.
• These are quite useful for power quality investigations because they are very portable and
can be operated like a voltohm meter (VOM), but yield much more information.
• These are ideal for initial plant surveys.
•

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 .

POWER-QUALITY ANALYZERS
• typical power quality meters/analyzers and analyzers have the following functionalities:
■ Data logging—capturing waveforms in real-time for later display
■ The ability to trigger on power-quality events such as sags, swells, or transients
■ Calculation of power-quality metrics such as total harmonic distortion in real-time
■ Spectrum analysis
■ Inputs for high-voltage probes and high-current probes

POWER LINE DISTURBANCE ANALYZERS

• Disturbance analyzers and disturbance monitors provide measurements similar to
oscilloscopes and display information specifically needed to analyze powerquality
disturbances.
• They measure, store, and display a wide range of disturbances from voltage sags to voltage
swells, as well as short term transients.
• Whether installed permanently or temporarily, they measure and record disturbances. They
capture the waveform and store it magnetically on a hard drive and display it graphically
on paper,
• Users have several choices of the method for retrieving information from disturbance
analyzers. They can retrieve the waveform at the site of the meter via a floppy disk or
remotely by a modem and a telephone line.
• There are basically two categories of these devices:

1. Conventional analyzers
• can summarize events with specific informationsuch as overvoltage and
undervoltage magnitudes, sags andsurge magnitude and duration, transient
magnitude and duration,etc.

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 2. Graphics-based analyzers
• Can save and print the actual waveform along with the descriptive information which would
be generated by one of the conventional analyzers
• It is often difficult to determine the characteristics of a disturbance or a transient from the
summary information available from conventional disturbance analyzers
• For instance, an oscillatory transient cannot be effectively described by a peak and a
duration. Therefore, it need waveform capture capability of a graphics-based disturbance
analyzer for detailed analysis of a power quality problem
• However, a simple conventional disturbance monitor can be valuable for initial checks at
a problem location

SPECTRUM ANALYZER / HARMONIC SPECTRUM ANALYZER

• Harmonic analyzers are simple instruments used for measuring and recording harmonics

There are basically three categories of instruments to consider for harmonic analysis:
1. Simple meters.
• It may sometimes be necessary to make a quick check of harmonic levels at a
problem location. A simple, portable meter for this purpose is ideal.
• There are now several hand-held instruments of this type on the market. Each
instrument has advantages and disadvantages in its operation and design.
• These devices generally use microprocessor-based circuitry to perform the
necessary calculations to determine individual harmonics up to the 50th harmonic,
as well as the rms, the THD, and the telephone influence factor (TIF).

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 • Some of these devices can calculate harmonic powers (magnitudes and angles) and
can upload stored waveforms and calculated data to a personal computer.
2. General-purpose spectrum analyzers.
• Instruments in this category are designed to perform spectrum analysis on
waveforms for a wide variety of applications. They are general signal analysis
instruments.
• The advantage of these instruments is that they have very powerful capabilities for
a reasonable price since they are designed for a broader market than just power
system applications.
• The disadvantage is that they are not designed specifically for sampling power
frequency waveforms and, therefore, must be used carefully to assure accurate
harmonic analysis. There are a wide variety of instruments in this category.

3. Special-purpose power system harmonic analyzers.

• Besides the general-purpose spectrum analyzers just described, there are also a
number of instruments and devices that have been designed specifically for power
system harmonic analysis.
• These are based on the FFT with sampling rates specifically designed for
determining harmonic components in power signals.
• They can generally be left in the field and include communications capability for
remote monitoring.

EXPLAIN THE WORKING OF SPECTRUM ANALYZER WITH NEAT BLOCK

DIAGRAM

OVERVIEW
FFT Fast Fourier Transforms is to calculate the frequency spectrum of the time domain signal.
The signal must be digitized in the time domain and then an FFT algorithm is performed to get
the spectrum.

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Structure
The basic structure of an FFT spectrum analyzer is show in figure 1
1. Input signal first passes through a variable attenuator to provide a proper amplitude
range
2. Then the signal is low-pass filtered to remove undesirable high-frequency content
which is beyond the frequency range of the instrument
3. The waveform is sampled and converted to digital form by the combination of the
sampler circuit and the analog-to-digital converter
5. The microprocessor (or other digital circuitry) receives the sampled waveform,
computes the spectrum of the waveform using the FFT, and writes the results on the display
6. FFT analyzer: The data from the sampler is in the time domain but it is converted into
the frequency domain by the FFT analyzer. This is then able to further process the data using
digital signal processing techniques to analyze and process the data so that it can then be
passed to the display to give the required display
7. Display the result on the screen

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FLICKER METERS
Flicker is the name given to changing light intensity caused by fluctuations in the voltage.
It is also defined as the sensation experienced by human visual system when subjected to
luminance variations It is the second most common power quality problem causing both irritation
and possible medical consequences to users exposed to its effects.
FLICKER METERS.
• A flicker meter is essentially a device that demodulates the flicker signal, weights it
according to established “flicker curves,” and performs statistical analysis on the processed
data.
• The IEC flicker meter consists of five blocks, which are shown in Fig. The main function
of flicker meter is to provide assessment of the flicker perception caused by voltage
fluctuations.
• Therefore, the flickermeter should be designed to have the capability of transforming the
input voltage fluctuations into an output parameter proportionally related to flicker
perception.
• This is done by simulating the process of physiological visual perception, which is the
lamp–eye–brain chain.

• Generally, these meters can be divided up into three sections.

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Block 1: Voltage Adapting Circuit

• Block 1 of the flicker meter contains a voltage scaling circuit that accepts the supply
voltageas an input and derives the relative voltage change.
• This is performed by adjusting the gain of the block to the average of the input voltage with
a time constant
• The input voltage adapter, which scales the input half-cycle RMS voltage to an internal
reference value

.
• The primary function of this block is to allow flicker measurements be expressed as a
percent ratio and become independent of the input voltage level.

Block2. Square Law or Quadratic Demodulator

• Flicker is caused by the voltage fluctuation superimposed on the 50 or 60 Hz wave.
• The purpose of the demodulating block is to recover this modulating signal from the
sinusoidal Carrier
• Among the possible methods for demodulating the signal, a Square demodulator is used
in the IEC flickermeter
• Block 2 of the flicker meter is a quadratic demodulator, which squares the scaled input in
order to separate the voltage fluctuation (modulating signal) from the main voltage signal.
•

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 • To gain a better understanding of the operation of a quadratic demodulator, typically an example
of a sinusoidal voltage modulated by a sinusoidal voltage fluctuation is proposed.

• This type of signal is expressed as follows

Out put of square law demodulator

• This process simulates the behavior of an incandescent lamp. In other words, the objective
of this block is to recapture the modulating signals while at the same time suppress the
mains frequency carrier signal.

Block 3. Demodulator and Weighting Filters

• Block 3 of the IEC flicker meter consists of three cascaded filters that serve to filter out
components that have frequencies higher than that of the supply voltage and the DC
component, produced from the square law demodulator.
• It also functions to weight the input signal according to the incandescent lamp eye-brain
response.
• These filters are:

a. Demodulator Filters
• First-order high-pass (cutoff frequency = 0.05 Hz)
• Sixth-order low-pass Butterworth (cutoff frequency = 35 Hz)
b. Weighting Filter
• Band-pass filter (models the frequency-selective behavior of the human eye)

The basic transfer function for the weighting filter is shown below.

Note: s is the Laplace complex variable

Block 4. Nonlinear Variance Estimator

• Block 4 completes the eye-brain response model, as it consists of a squaring multiplier and
low pass filter.

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 • The voltage signal is squared to simulate the nonlinear eye-brain response, while the sliding
mean filter averages the signal to simulate the short-term storage effect of the brain.
• The output of this block is an instantaneous signal proportionally related to the visual
sensation of flicker
• This is precisely the purpose of the flickermeter - to provide a measurement method that
would relate voltage fluctuations to units of visual sensation.

Block 5. Statistical Evaluation

• This part models human irritability due to flicker stimulation.

• Block 5 performs the statistical classification of the instantaneous flicker sensation, which
is the output of Block 4.
• This output is categorized within an adequate number of classes.
• Then, a probability density function is created based upon each class, and from this a
cumulative distribution function can be formed.

• Subsequently, a number of points from the cumulative distribution function are selected to
calculate the short-term flicker severity (PST), as well as the long-term flicker severity
(PLT).

ANJUMOL C S.AP IN EEE TOCH INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Flicker Severity

Flicker level evaluation can be classified into short-term and long-term flicker severity.

a. Short-term Flicker Severity (PST)

This is based upon an observation period of 10 minutes, allowing evaluation of
disturbances with a short duty cycle or those that generate continuous fluctuations. PST can be
calculated using the equation shown:

Short-term Flicker Severity

where the percentages

• P0.1, P1s, P3s, P10s, P50s are the flicker levels that are exceeded 0.1, 1.0, 3.0, 10.0, and 50.0
percent of the time.
• These values are taken from the cumulative distribution function.
• A PST of 1.0 unit on block 5 output represents irritable flicker.

b. Long-term Flicker Severity (PLT)

• On the other hand, the need for long-term assessment of flicker severity happens if the duty
cycle is long or variable.
• PLT is derived from PST as shown below.

Long-term Flicker Severity

• The number of PST readings (N) is determined by the duty cycle of the flicker-producing
load, in order to capture one duty cycle of the fluctuating load.

ANJUMOL C S.AP IN EEE TOCH INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

IEEE guide lines, standards and recommended practices
• Organizations responsible for developing power quality standards include the following:
1. Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE)
2. American National Standards Institute (ANSI)
3. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
4. Electric Power Research Institute (EPRI)
5. International Electro-technical Commission (IEC) etc. 
NEED OF PQ STANDARD
• Purpose of power quality standards is to protect utility and end user equipment from failing
or mis-operating when the voltage, current, or frequency deviates from normal.
• Power quality standards provide this protection by setting measurable limits as to how far
the voltage, current, or frequency can deviate from normal.
• By setting these limits, PQ standards help utilities and their customers gain agreement as
to what are acceptable and unacceptable levels of service.
• IEEE Standards are publications that provide acceptable design practice.
• There are 2 standards:
• IEEE Standard 519: defining acceptable power quality
• IEEE Standard 519 (denoted IEEE Std. 519-1992) is titled “IEEE Recommended Practices
and Requirements for Harmonic Control in Electrical Power Systems.”
• IEEE Standard 1159: relating to the measurement of power-quality “events”
• The basic themes of IEEE Standard 519 are twofold. First, the utility has the responsibility
to produce good quality voltage sine waves. Secondly, end-usecustomers have the
responsibility to limit the harmonic currents their circuitsdraw from the line.

Overview of power quality standards: IEEE 519,

• A commonly used and very important standard is IEEE 519-2022 (previous versions IEEE
519-1992 and IEEE 519-2014).
• The standard, among other things, puts two requirements on harmonics; and absolute
maximum THDU level, and a variable maximum TDD level.
• All limits are applied to the Point of Common Coupling (PCC), which is the interface
between utility (sometimes called operator) and consumer

ANJUMOL C S.AP IN EEE TOCH INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

 • IEEE 519-2022 establishes goals for the design of electrical systems that include linear
loads and nonlinear loads.
• The standard describes the voltage and current waveforms that exist throughout the
system, specifies waveform distortion goals for the system designer, and details the
interface between sources and loads.
• The voltage and current distortion limits in IEEE 519-2022 apply at the user point of
common coupling (PCC) to overall installation containing harmonics.

IEEE 1433
P1433 - A standard glossary of power quality terminology

IEC 61000
IEC Power Quality Standards IEC 61000 Series, Electromagnetic Compatibility (EMC) defines
for the following:
Part 1: Definition and Methodology 61000-1-X: Dealing with fundamental definition, etc.
Part 2: Environment 61000-2-X, deals with the characteristics of the environment will be supplied,
and its compatibility levels.
Part 3: Limits 61000-3-X, define the permissible emission that can be generated by the equipment
connected.
Part 4: Tests and measurements 61000-4-X, Testing and measurement techniques provide detailed
guidelines for measurement equipment.

ANJUMOL C S.AP IN EEE TOCH INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY

Part 5: Installation and mitigation 61000-5-X, provide guidelines for cabling of electrical and
electronics systems, etc. They also describe protection concepts from high-altitude nuclear
explosions.
Part 6: Generic immunity and emission 61000-6-X, defining immunity and emission levels
required for equipment in general categories or for specific types of equipment.

ANJUMOL C S.AP IN EEE TOCH INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY