MAHARASHTRA STATE BOARD OF

TECHNICAL EDUCATION

The Shetkari Shikshan Mandal’s

BHIVARABAI SAWANT COLLEGE OF
ENGINEERING& RESEARCH, POLYTECHNIC,
NARHE, PUNE -41

MICRO PROJECT
Academic Year: 2021-22

TITLE OF PROJECT

ELECTRICAL TRANSDUCERS

Program: Electrical Engineering Program Code: EE-4I

Course: Industrial Measurement Course Code: 22420

1
 MAHARASHTRA STATE
BOARD OF TECHNICAL EDUCATION

Certificate
This is to certify that the student
Enrollment Exam
Sr. No. Name of Student
Number Seat No.
01 Sumit Rajendra Kadam 2016060168 204312

02 Ankur Pratap Dinesh Singh 2116060054 204355

03 Nitish Kumar 2016060234 204335

04 Uzair Moheen Qureshi 2016060225 204332

of Fourth Semester of Diploma in Electrical Engineering of Institute, TSSM’s

BSCOER POLYTECHNIC (Institute Code: 1606) has completed the Micro
Project Electrical Transducers satisfactorily in Subject –Industrial
Measurement (22420) for the Academic Year 2021-2022 as prescribed in the
curriculum.

Date: ……………….. Place: NARHE

Subject Teacher Head of the Department Principal

Seal

2
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The success and final outcome of this report required a lot of guidance and assistance
from many people and we are extremely privileged to have got this all along the completion
of my report. All that we have done is only due to such supervision and assistance and we
would not forget to thank them.
We are extremely thankful to our Project guide Prof. Shinare S. B. and Head of
Electrical Engineering Department Prof. Bugade S. A. who took keep interest on our
project work and guided us all along, till the completion of our report work by providing
all the necessary information for developing a good system and for providing such a nice
support and guidance, although he had busy schedule managing the corporate affairs.
We would not forget to remember Principal of College Prof. Kande S. S. for their
encouragement and more over for their timely support and guidance till the completion of
our report work.
We are thankful to and fortunate enough to get constant encouragement, support and
guidance from all Teaching staffs of Electrical Engineering Department which helped
us in successfully completing our report work. Also, we would like to extend our sincere
esteems to all staff in laboratory for their timely support.

3
 GROUP DETAILS

Sr. No. Name of group members Roll No. Enrollment No. Seat No.

1 Sumit Rajendra Kadam 11 2016060168 204312

2 Nitish Kumar 37 2016060234 204355

3 Ankur Pratap Dinesh Singh 59 2116060054 204335

4 Uzair Moheen Qureshi 33 2016060225 204332

Name of Guide
Prof. Shinare S. B.

4
 INDEX

SR. NO. CONTENT PAGE NO.

1 ABSTRACT 6

2 INTRODUCTION 7

3 CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCERS 8

4 CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCER 9

5 RESISTIVE TRANSDUCER 10

6. INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCER 11

7. VOLTAGE AND CURRENT TRANSDUCER 12

8. ACTIVE TRANSDUCER 13

LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFIRENTIAL 14

9.
TRANSFORMER

10. POTENTIOMETER 16

11. CONCLUSION 17

5
 1. ABSTRACT

In this Micro project of Electrical Transducers, we are going to do a brief study of what electrical
transducers are and how they are constructed. And their working system. We are also going to look over
how they contribute in Engineering and working of mechanics. It is a really important component of
Electrics as it helps to convert physical, mechanical or optical quantity into electrical voltage/current proportional
to the input measured. The project is divided into multiple parts where we will brief over what electrical
transducer are, and how they work.

6
 2. INTRODUCTION
What is Electrical transducer?
A device which converts a physical quantity into the
proportional electrical signal is called a transducer. The
electrical signal produced may be a voltage, current or
frequency. A transducer uses many effects to produce such
conversion. The process of transforming signal from one
form to other is called transduction. A transducer is also
called pick up. The transduction element transforms the
output of the sensor to an electrical output

7
 3. CLASSIFICATION OF TRANSDUCER

The transducer consisting of two important and closely related parts

▪ Sensing or Detection Element: A detector or a sensing element is

that part of a transducer which responds to a physical phenomenon

or a change in physical phenomenon. The response of sensing
element must be closely related to physical phenomenon.
▪ Transduction Element: The output of the sensing element is

passed on to the transduction element. This element is responsible

for converting the non-electrical signal into its proportional
electrical signal. There may be cases when the transduction element
performs the action of both transduction and sensing. The best
example of such a transducer is a thermocouple. A thermocouple is
used to generate a voltage corresponding to the heat that is
generated at the junction of two dissimilar metals.

8
 4. CAPACITIVE TRANSDUCERS

1. Variable capacitance pressure gage - Principle of operation: Distance

between two parallel plates is varied by an externally applied force
Applications: Measurement of Displacement, pressure.
2. Capacitor microphone Principle of operation: Sound pressure varies
the capacitance between a fixed plate and a movable diaphragm.
Applications: Speech, music, noise.
3. Dielectric gauge Principle of operation: Variation in capacitance by
changes in the dielectric. Applications: Liquid level, thickness A
capacitor consists of two conductors (plates) that are electrically isolated
from one another by a nonconductor (dielectric). When the two
conductors are at different potentials (voltages), the system is capable of
storing an electric charge. The storage capability of a capacitor is
measured in farads. The principle of operation of capacitive transducers
is based upon the equation for capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor.

CAPACITANCE C = Εa/d

9
 5. RESISTIVE TRANSDUCERS

1.Resistance Strain Gauge – The change in value of resistance of metal semi-

conductor due to elongation or compression is known by the measurement of
torque, displacement or force
2. Resistance Thermometer – The change in resistance of metal wire due to
the change in temperature known by the measurement of temperature.
3. Resistance Hygrometer – The change in the resistance of conductive strip
due to the change of moisture content is known by the value of its
corresponding humidity.
4. Hot Wire Meter – The change in resistance of a heating element due to
convection cooling of a flow of gas is known by its corresponding gas flow
or pressure.
5. Photoconductive Cell – The change in resistance of a cell due to a
corresponding change in light flux is known by its corresponding light
intensity.
6. Thermistor – The change in resistance of a semi-conductor that has a
negative co-efficient of resistance is known by its corresponding measure of
temperature.
7. Potentiometer Type – The change in resistance of a potentiometer reading
10
due to the movement of the slider as a part of an external force applied is
known by its corresponding pressure or displacement.
• Resistive transducers are those transducers in which the resistance change
due to the change in some physical phenomenon.
• The resistance of a metal conductor is expressed by a simple equation.
R = ρL/A Where
R = resistance of conductor in Ω
L = length of conductor in m
A = cross sectional area of conductor in m2
ρ = resistivity of conductor material in Ω-m

6. INDUCTIVE TRANSDUCERS

1. Magnetic circuit transducer Principle of operation: Self-inductance or mutual

inductance of ac-excited coil is varied by changes in the magnetic circuit.
Applications: Pressure, displacement
2. Reluctance pickup Principle of operation: Reluctance of the magnetic circuit is
varied by changing the position of the iron core of a coil. Applications: Pressure,
displacement, vibration, position
3. Differential transformer Principle of operation: The differential voltage of two
secondary windings of a transformer is varied by positioning the magnetic core
through an externally applied force. Applications: Pressure, force, displacement,
position
4. Eddy current gage Principle of operation: Inductance of a coil is varied by the
proximity of an eddy current plate. Applications: Displacement, thickness
5. Magnetostriction gauge Principle of operation: Magnetic properties are varied
by pressure and stress. Applications: Force, pressure, sound

• When a force is applied to the ferromagnetic armature, the air gap changes,
varying the reluctance of the magnetic circuit.
• Applied force is measure as change of inductance in the coil.
11
• Can measure both static and dynamic changes.

Inductive transducer

7. VOLTAGE AND CURRENT TRANSDUCER

1. Hall effect pickup Principle of operation: A potential difference is

generated across a semiconductor plate (germanium) when magnetic
flux interacts with an applied current. Applications: Magnetic flux,
current
2. Ionization chamber Principle of operation: Electron flow induced by
ionization of gas due to radioactive radiation. Applications: Particle
counting, radiation
3. Photo emissive cell Principle of operation: Electron emission due to
incident radiation on photo emissive surface. Applications: Light and
radiation
4. Photomultiplier tube Principle of operation: Secondary electron
emission due to incident radiation on photosensitive cathode.

Applications: Light and radiation, photo-sensitive relays

12
 8. ACTIVE TRANSDUCER

They do not require an external power, and produce an analog voltage or current
when stimulated by some physical form of energy.
1. Thermocouple and thermopile Principle of operation: An emf is generated
across the junction of two dissimilar metals or semiconductors when that junction
is heated. Applications: Temperature, heat flow, radiation.
2. Moving-coil generator Principle of operation: Motion of a coil in a magnetic
field generates a voltage. Applications: Velocity. Vibration
3. Piezoelectric pickup an emf is generated when an external force is applied to
certain crystalline materials, such as quartz Sound, vibration. acceleration,
pressure changes
4. Photovoltaic cell Principle of operation: A voltage is generated in a
semiconductor junction device when radiant energy stimulates the cell
Applications: Light meter, solar cell

• Primary Transducers and Secondary Transducers Bourden tube acting as a

13
primary detector senses the pressure and converts the pressure into a
displacement of its free end. The displacement of the free end moves the core of a
linear variable differential transformer (LVDT) which produces an output
voltage.

• Analog Transducers These transducers convert the input quantity into an analog
output which is a continuous function of time. ◦ Strain Gauge ◦LVDT ◦
Thermocouple ◦ Thermistor

• Digital Transducers These transducers convert the input quantity into an

electrical output which is in the form of pulses. ◦ Glass Scale can be read
optically by means of a light source, an optical system and photocells

• Transducers and Inverse Transducers A Transducer can be broadly defined as a

device which converts a nonelectrical quantity into an electrical quantity. Ex: -
Resistive, inductive and capacitive transducers -An inverse transducer is defined
as a device which converts an electrical quantity into a non-electrical quantity.
Ex: - Piezoelectric crystals

9. LINEAR VARIABLE DIFFERENTIAL

TRANSFORMER (LVDT)

14
When an externally applied force moves the core to the left-hand position, more magnetic
flux links the left-hand coil than the righthand coil. The emf induced in the left-hand coil,
ES], is therefore larger than the induced emf of the right-hand [oil, Es2' The magnitude of the
output voltage is then equal to the difference between the two secondary voltages and it is in
phase with the voltage of the left-hand coil

Construction of LVDT Main Features of Construction is as,

• The transformer consists of a primary winding P and two secondary winding S1 and S2 wound on a
cylindrical former (which is hollow in nature and will contain core).
• Both the secondary windings have equal number of turns and are identically placed on the either side
of primary winding • The primary winding is connected to an AC source which produces a flux in the air
gap and voltages are induced in secondary windings.
• A movable soft iron core is placed inside the former and displacement to be measured is connected to
the iron core.
• The iron core is generally of high permeability which helps in reducing harmonics and high sensitivity
• The LVDT is placed inside a stainless-steel housing because it will provide electrostatic and
electromagnetic shielding. • The both the secondary windings are connected in such a way that resulted
output is the difference of the voltages of two windings.

Principle of Operation and Working

As the primary is connected to an AC source so alternating current and voltages are
produced in the secondary of the LVDT. The output in secondary S1 is e1 and in the
15
secondary S2 is e2. So the differential output is, out = e1 -e2 This equation explains the
principle of Operation of LVDT. Now three cases arise according to the locations of core
which explains the working of LVDT are discussed below as,
• CASE I When the core is at null position (for no displacement) When the core is at null
position then the flux linking with both the secondary windings is equal so the induced emf is
equal in both the windings. So for no displacement the value of output out is zero as e1 and
e2 both are equal. So it shows that no displacement took place.
• CASE II When the core is moved to upward of null position (For displacement to the
upward of reference point) In the this case the flux linking with secondary winding S1 is
more as compared to flux linking with S2. Due to this e1 will be more as that of e2. Due to
this output voltage out is positive.
• CASE III When the core is moved to downward of Null position (for displacement to the
downward of reference point) In this case magnitude of e2 will be more as that of e1. Due to
this output out will be negative and shows the output to downward of reference point.

Advantages of LVDT
• High Range - The LVDTs have a very high range for measurement of displacement. They
can used for measurement of displacements ranging from 1.25mm to 250mm
• No Frictional Losses - As the core moves inside a hollow former so there is no loss of
displacement input as frictional loss so it makes LVDT as very accurate device.
• High Input and High Sensitivity - The output of LVDT is so high that it doesn't need any
amplification. The transducer possesses a high sensitivity which is typically about 40V/mm.
• Low Hysteresis - LVDTs show a low hysteresis and hence repeatability is excellent under
all conditions
• Low Power Consumption - The power is about 1W which is very as compared to other
transducers.
• Direct Conversion to Electrical Signals - They convert the linear displacement to electrical
voltage which are easy to process

Disadvantages of LVDT
• LVDT is sensitive to stray magnetic fields so they always require a setup to protect them
from stray magnetic fields.
• They are affected by vibrations and temperature. It is concluded that they are advantageous
as compared than any other inductive transducers.

10. POTENTIOMETER
16
How Potentiometer Works
A potentiometer is a resistive sensor used to measure linear displacements as
well as rotary motion. In a potentiometer an electrically conductive wiper slides
across a fixed resistive element. A voltage is applied across the resistive element.
Thus a voltage divider circuit is formed. The output voltage (Vout) is measured
as shown in the figure below. The output voltage is proportional to the distance
travelled

The important parameters while selecting a potentiometer are

•Operating temperature
•Shock and vibration
•Humidity
•Contamination and seals
•life cycle
•dither

17
 11. CONCLUSION

The sensor and the transducer both are the

physical devices used for measuring the physical
quantities like temperature, displacement, heat,
etc. which are difficult to measure.

18
 WEEKLY PROGRESS REPORT
MICRO PROJECT

SIGNATURE
SR.NO. WEEK ACTIVITY PERFORMED DATE
OF GUIDE

1 1st Discussion and finalization of topic

2 2nd Preparation and submission of Abstract

3 3rd Collection of Data

4 4th Discussion and outline of Content

5 5th Formulation of Content

6 6th Editing and proof Reading of Content

7 7th Compilation of Report and Presentation

8 8th Seminar / Viva

9 9th Final submission of Micro Project

Sign of the student Sign of the faculty

19
 ANEEXURE II

Evaluation Sheet for the Micro Project

Academic Year: 2021-22 Name of the Faculty: Prof. Shinare

Course: INDUSTRIAL MEASUREMENT Course code: 22420
Semester: IV

Title of the project: CURRENT TRANSFORMER (C.T.)

CO’s addressed by the Micro Project:

Major Learning outcomes achieved by students by doing the Project:

(a) Practical Outcome

PO1:

PO2:

PO3:

PO7:

(b) Unit Outcomes in cognitive Domain

(c) Outcomes in affective Domain

Select the relevant transducer for measuring various parameters.

20
 Marks out of 4
Marks out of 6
for performance
Roll for performance Total out
Student Name in oral/
No. in group activity of 10
presentation
(D5 Col. 8)
(D5 Col. 9)

11 SUMIT RAJENDRA KADAM

37 NITISH KUMAR

ANKUR PRATAP DINESH

59
SINGH

33 UZAIR MOHEEN QURESHI

(Signature of Faculty)
Prof. Shinare S.B

21