Part I

Algebraic structures
1 Binary operations
De…nition 1 Let S be a nonempty set. A binary operation on S (or an internal
composition law on S) is any map : S S ! S, we usually write a b instead of
(a; b). We also say that S is equipped (endowed) with an internal composition
law.

Example 2

1. Addition and multiplication are binary operations on N; Q; R; Z; C.

2. Let S be a given set.

(a) Intersection, union and symmetrical di¤ erence are binary operations
on P(S):
(b) The composition of maps from S into S is a binary operation on S S :

3. Let S = Rn f1g. The operation de…ned by: 8x; y 2 S; x y = xy x y+2

is a binary operation on S.

De…nition 3 Let be a binary operation on a nonempty set S.

1. Operation is said to be commutative if

8x; y 2 S : x y = y x:

2. Operation is said to be associative if

8x; y; z 2 S : (x y) z = x (y z):

3. An element e 2 S is said to be neutral element if

8x 2 S : x e = e x = x:

4. We say that an element x in S admits a symmetric if

0 0 0
9x 2 S j x x = x x = e:
0
where e being the neutral element. In this case, x is called symmetric of
x or inverse of x:

1
 When S is provided with an associative binary operation, we can carry out
the operations in any order we like, as long as we respect the respective positions
of the elements in relation to each other, in other words, the composition of
three or more elements can be unambiguously de…ned, eliminating the need for
parentheses.

Example 4

1. The usual operation + and de…ned on N; Z; Q; R and C are associative

and commutative.
2. The binary operation de…ned on R by 8a; b 2 R ; a b = (a + b)2 is
commutative but not associative.
3. The binary operation de…ned by 8x; y 2 R : x y = jx + yj + 1 does not
admit a neutral element.
4. The neutral element of the usual addition in N; Z; Q; R and C is 0 and for
the multiplication is 1.
5. Let S be a nonempty set. The symmetrical di¤ erence is a binary operation
on P (S) which is commutative but not associative.
6. The neutral element in P(S) for any set S for the union is ; and S for
the intersection.
7. The neutral element in S = Rn f1g for the binary operation de…ned by
8x; y 2 S : x y = xy x y + 2 is 2.
8. In Z; Q; R and C; the symmetric element of an element x for the addition
is x.
9. In Q; R and C; the symmetric of an element x di¤ erent from zero for the
multiplication is x1 :

Theorem 5 Let be a binary operation on a nonempty set S: The neutral

element, if it exists, is unique.

Proof. Suppose that e1 and e2 are two neutral elements then e1 = e1 e2 = e2

then e1 = e2 :

Theorem 6 Let S be a set with an associative binary operation denoted and

admitting a neutral element e. The symmetric of an element x 2 S, if it exists
is unique.
0 00
Proof. Suppose x and x are two symmetric elements of x, consider the
0 00
element x (xx ): Given that the binary operation is associative we have from one
0 00 0 0 00 0 00
side that x (xx ) = x0 e = x : On the other side we have x (xx ) = (x x)x =
00 00 0 00
ex = x which gives x = x

2
2 Groups
The theory of groups goes back to the post Renaissance era especialy to La-
grange (1770) solutions of polynomials equations. The term "group" was …rst
used by Galois(1830) Group theory is widely used in chemistry, theoretical
physics and in many branches of mathematics.

De…nition 7 Let G be a nonempty set equipped with a binary operation . Then

G is said to be a group if

1. Operation is associative.
2. G contains a neutral element e with respect .
3. Any element of G possesses a symmetric with respect to .

A group G with a binary operation is denoted by (G; ). When there is

no ambiguity, it is denoted simply by G.
If the law is also commutative, we say that (G; ) is an abelian or com-
mutative group.

Example 8

1. (Z; +); (Q; +); (R; +) and (C; +) are abelian groups.
2. (Q ; ); (R ; ) and (C ; ) are abelian groups.
3. (f+1; 1g ; ) is an abelian group.
4. Let D be the set of decimal numbers. (D; +) is an abelian group. Recall
that a decimal number can be written as a fraction whose denominator is
a power of 10.
5. Let G be the set of bijective maps from E into E, and let denote the
composition of maps. Then (G; ) is a noncommutative group.

Some conventions

The notation (G; +) is called additive. In this case the symmetric element
of an element x 2 G is denoted x and for any n 2 Z we de…ne

8
>
> e if n = 0
>
> x+x+ +x if n > 0
< | {z }
nx = n tim es
>
> ( x) + ( x) + + ( x) if n < 0:
>
>
: | {z }
n tim es

3
 The notation (G; :) is called multiplicative. In this notation the symmetric
element of an element x 2 G is denoted x 1 and for any n 2 Z we de…ne

8
< e if n = 0
xn = x x x if n > 0
:
(x 1 ) (x 1 ) (x 1
) if n < 0:

I It is common to omit multiplication sign, provided that the use made of

this omission is su¢ ciently clear and does not cause ambiguity. So we
write ab instead of a b or a b:

When we adopt multiplicative notation, we easily prove that 8x; y 2 G; 8n; m 2

Z we have
1 1
1. (x ) = x:
1 1 1
2. (xy) =y x :
3. xn xm = xn+m .
4. (xn )m = xnm :
5. (xn ) 1
= (x 1 n
) :

Note that if a group G is commutative, one often writes the group law in

additive notation and we have analog results to the above ones.

2.1 Direct product of groups

Let G1 and G2 be two groups. The binary operation de…ned on G1 G2 =
f(x; y) j x 2 G1 ; y 2 G2 g by: (x1 ; y1 )(x2 ; y2 ) = (x1 x2 ; y1 y2 ) equips this set
with a group structure. Note that the identity element is (eG1 ; eG2 ), and
the inverse of an element (x; y) 2 G1 G2 is (x 1 ; y 1 ):
In a similar way, when G1 ; G2 ; :::; Gn are groups we de…ne a group struc-
ture on G1 G2 Gn via the binary operation de…ned as 8(x1 ; x2 ; :::; x); (y1 ; y2 ; :::; yn ) 2
G1 G2 Gn : (x1 ; x2 ; :::; x)(y1 ; y2 ; :::; yn ) = (x1 y1 ; x2 y2 ; :::; xn yn ):

Example 9 For any positive integer n; the Cartesian products Zn ; Qn ; Rn and

Cn are endowed with canonical group structures obtained from the structure of
group of (Z; +); (Q; +); (R; +) and (C; +) respectively.

4
2.2 Subgroups
De…nition 10 Let (G; :) be a group and H a subset of G. We say that H is a
subgroup of G if

1. H is nonempty.
2. 8x; y 2 H; xy 2 H (H is said to be stable under the binary operation ).
1
3. 8x 2 H; x 2 H:

It is easy to show that conditions 2) and 3) can be replaced by the condition:

8x; y 2 H; xy 1 2 H:
The previous de…nition is equivalent to say that the restriction to H of the
binary operation on G de…nes a binary operation on H, for which H is itself a
group.

Often, to show that a set equipped with a binary operation is a group, it is

easier to show that it is a subgroup of a known group.

Example 11

1. For any group (G; :); the sets G and feg are subgroups of G; called the
trivial subgroups.
2. (Z; +) is a subgroup of (Q; +) which is a subgroup of (R; +) which is a
subgroup of (C; +).
3. Let 2 R and H = f k j k 2 Zg : H is a subgroup of (R; +):
4. Let a 2 R :The set Ua = fan j n 2 Zg is a subgroup of the group (R ; ):
5. (]0; +1[ ; ) is a subgroup of (R ; ).
6. The set U = fz 2 C j jzj = 1g is a subgroup of the group (C ; ):
7. Let n 2 N :The set Un = fz 2 C j z n = 1g is a subgroup of the group U:

Theorem 12 Let H; K be two subgroups of (G; ). Then H \ K is a subgroup

of (G; ):

Proof. Suppose H and K are subgroups of G; then eG 2 H and eG 2 K so

eG 2 H \ K: If x; y 2 H \ K then x; y 2 H and x; y 2 K: Since H and K are
subgroups we have xy 1 2 H and xy 1 2 K; hence xy 1 2 H \ K: Then H \ K
is a subgroup of G.

I Beware that the union of two subgroups is not generally a subgroup.

Example 13 H1 = 2Z = f2k j k 2 Zg and H2 = 3Z = f3k j k 2 Zg are sub-

groups of Z but H1 [ H2 is not a subgroup of Z since 2; 3 2 H1 [ H2 but
2+3=52 = H1 [ H 2 :

5
Proposition 14 Let H; K be two subgroups of a group (G; ). Then H [ K is
a subgroup of (G; ) if and only if H K or K H.

Proof. Let H and K be subgroups of a group G. It is clear that if one subgroup

is contained in the other the union is a subgroup of G. Conversely, suppose H[K
is a subgroup of G and that H * K and K * H, that is, there exist x 2 H with
x2 = K and y 2 K with y 2 = H: Now we have xy 2 H [ K so that xy 2 H or
xy 2 K: If xy 2 H then we have x 1 xy = y 2 H; a contradiction. Similarly, if
xy 2 K then we have xyy 1 = x 2 K; a contradiction. Then necessarily H K
or K H:

Proposition 15 A subset H of Z is a subgroup of (Z; +) if and only if H =

nZ = fnk j k 2 Zg for some n 2 N:

Proof. Firstly, it is clear that for any n 2 Z; the subset nZ = fnk j k 2 Zg of

Z is a subgroup of Z:
Conversely, let H be a subgroup of (Z; +): If H = f0g, then H = 0Z. Now
assume H 6= f0g. Then 9x 2 H; x 6= 0: Since H is a subgroup, it contains at
least non-zero element of N. Put = H \ N: We have 6= f0g, is a part of
N; so it contains a smallest non-zero element, which we denote n. Let us show
that H = nZ. The stability by + assures us that nZ H . Let x 2 H, the
Euclidean algorithm guarantees the existence of (q; r) 2 Z f0; 1; :::; n 1g such
that x = qn + r; then r = x nq is again in H (thanks to stability), since n is
minimal, necessarily r = 0 so x 2 nZ. This concludes that H = nZ:

I Any subgroup of an abelian group is itself abelian. We will show later

in an example that a non-abelian group can contain abelian subgroups as
well as non-abelian subgroups.

2.3 Quotient group

Let (G; +) be an abelian group, and let H be a subgroup of G. The binary
relation < de…ned on G by

8x; y 2 G : x<y if and only if x y2H

is an equivalence relation. We denote the quotient set G=< by G=H.

We de…ne on G=H a binary operation as follows :

8x; y 2 G=H : x y = x + y.
Then (G; ) is a group called quotient group. Indeed, the associativity of
follows from the associativity of + in G: The neutral element is e where e is the
neutral element of G; and the symmetric element of an element x is x where
x is the symmetric of x in G.

6
Example 16 For any integer n we know that nZ is a subgroup of Z: Let < be
the equivalence relation, de…ned on Z by: x<y if and only if x y 2 nZ and x the
equivalence class of x 2 Z:The quotient set of Z by < is Z=< = f x j x 2 Zg =
f r j r 2 f0; 1; :::; n 1gg denoted by Z=nZ: It is clear that Z=nZ is …nite, its
cardinality equal to n: (Z=nZ; ) is a commutative group where is de…ned as
x y = x + y:

2.4 Group homomorphisms

0 0
De…nition 17 Let (G; ) and (G ; 4) be two groups and f : G ! G be a map.
f is called a (group) homomorphism, if

8a; b 2 G : f (a b) = f (a) 4 f (b):

Strictly speaking, we should always distinguish between the binary opera-

0
tions of G and G . However, the context generally makes the distinction clear,
without having to explicitly adopt di¤erent notations.
0
De…nition 18 Let f : G ! G be a group homomorphism.

1. f is called an isomorphism if f is bijective.

2. f is called a monomorphism if f is injective.
0
3. f is called an endomorphism if G = G :
4. f is called an epimorphism if f is surjective.
5. f is called an automorphism if f is a bijective endomorphism (G is equipped
with same binary operation):
0 0 0
We denote Hom(G; G ) the set of homomorphisms from G to G , Iso(G; G )
0
the set of homomorphisms from G to G , End(G) the set of endomorphisms of
0
G; Aut(G) the set of automorphisms of G, Epi(G; G ) the set of epimorphisms
0 0 0
from G to G , M on(G; G ) the set of monomorphisms from G to G .

Example 19
0 0
1. For any groups G; G the constant map f : G ! G de…ned by 8x 2 G;
f (x) = eG0 , is a homomorphism.
2. For every group G the identity map

IdG : G ! G
g 7 ! g

is an automorphism.

7
 3. Let G be a group and a 2 G. Then the map de…ned as

f: Z ! G
n 7 ! an

is a homomorphism from (Z; +) into (G; :):

4. The complex exponential map

f: C ! C
z 7 ! e2 iz

is a group homomorphism from (C; +) into (C ; ):

5. The map de…ned as
f: C ! R
z 7 ! jzj
is an epimorphism from (C ; ) into (R ; ):
6. For any element g in a group G the map h : G ! G de…ned as

h: G ! G
1
a 7 ! gag

is a group automomorphism (called the conjugation homomorphism):

0
Proposition 20 Let f : G ! G be a group homomorphism. We have

1. f (eG ) = eG0 :
2. f (xn ) = (f (x))n ; 8 x 2 G; 8n 2 Z:
0
1
3. If K is a subgroup of G ; then f (K) is a subgroup of G.
0
4. If H is a subgroup of G; then f (H) is a subgroup of G :
5. The kernel of f de…ned as ker f = fx 2 G j f (x) = eG0 g is a subgroup of
G:
n 0
o
6. The image of f de…ned as Im f = y 2 G j 9x 2 G; f (x) = y is a sub-
0
group of G :

Proof.
1. Since f is a homomorphism f (eG ) = f (eG eG ) = f (eG )f (eG ); the compo-
sition with (f (eG )) 1 gives f (eG ) = eG0 :

2. By induction on n when n is positive and on n when n is negative.

8
 0
3. Let K be a subgroup of G :We have eG0 2 K and f (eG ) = eG0 then
eG 2 f 1 (K): Let x; y 2 f 1 (K) then f (x), f (y) 2 K: Since K is a
subgroup
f (x)(f (y)) 1 = f (xy 1 ) 2 K
this gives
1 1
xy 2f (K):
1
We conclude that f (K) is a subgroup of G:
4. Suppose H a subgroup of G: Since eG 2 H then f (eG ) = eG0 2 f (H): Let
0 0 0 0
x ; y 2 f (H) so x = f (x) and y = f (y) for some x; y 2 H and we have
0
1 1 1
(y ) = (f (y)) = f (y ) according to 2). As f is a homomorphism
then 0 0
x (y ) 1 = f (x)f (y 1 ) = f (xy 1 )
and
1
f (xy ) 2 f (H)
because H is a subgroup and x; y 2 H: We conclude that f (H) is a
0
subgroup of G :
5. A direct consequence of (3):
6. A direct consequence of (4):

0
Proposition 21 A group homomorphism f : G ! G is injective if and only if
ker f = feG g :
0
Proof. Let f : G ! G be a group homomorphism. Assume f is injective.
Let x 2 ker f , then f (x) = eG0 = f (eG ); so x = eG by de…nition of injectivity,
then ker f = feG g. Conversely, suppose ker f = feG g. Let x and y be two
elements of G such that f (x) = f (y). We compose both sides of the last equation
with (f (y)) 1 , and using the property that (f (y)) 1 = f (y 1 ) we deduce that
f (xy 1 ) = eG0 , so xy 1 2 ker f . Now ker f = feG g, hence x = y and f is
injective.

Proposition 22
0
1. If f is a homomorphism from (G; :) into (G ; :) and g is a homomorphism
0 00
from (G ; :) into (G ; :) then g f is a homomorphism from (G; :) into
00
(G ; :):
0
1
2. If f : (G; :) ! (G ; :) is an isomorphism then so is its inverse f :
0
(G ; :) ! (G; :):

Proof.

9
 0
1. Let f a homomorphism from (G; ) into (G ; ) and g a homomorphism
0 00
from (G ; ) into (G ; :): Then for any x; y 2 G

(g f )(xy) = g(f (xy)) = g(f (x)f (y)) = g(f (x))g(f (y)) = (g f )(x)(g f )(y):
0 0
2. Suppose that f : G ! G is an isomorphism. Let h = f 1 : G ! G. We
know that h is bijective, so we just need to show that h is a homomorphism.
0
Let x; y 2 G . Put x = f (a) and y = f (b). Since f is a homomorphism
we have f (a)f (b) = f (ab), and so

h(xy) = h(f (a)f (b))

= h(f (ab))
= ab
= h(x)h(y):

Let G1 and G2 be two groups. The binary operation de…ned on G1 G2 =

f(x; y) j x 2 G1 ; y 2 G2 g by : (x1 ; y1 )(x2 ; y2 ) = (x1 x2 ; y1 y2 ) equips this
set with a group structure: Moreover, the two canonical projections

1 : G1 G2 ! G1
(x1 ; y1 ) 7 ! x1
and
2 : G1 G2 ! G2
(x1 ; y1 ) 7 ! y1
respectively induce group homomorphisms from (G1 G2 ; ) to (G1 ; ) and
(G2 ; ):

2.4.1 Cyclic groups

De…nition 23 A group G is said to be cyclic (or monogenous) if there exists
an element a 2 G : 8x 2 G; 9n 2 Z such that x = an : In other words, G = fan
j n 2 Zg:The element a is called a generator of G and we write G =< a > .

Let G be a cyclic group generated by a: If the binary operation of G is

denoted additively, G is written G = fna j n 2 Zg.

Example 24

1. (Z; +) is a cyclic group. Z =< +1 >=< 1>:

2. (5Z; +) is a cyclic group. 5Z =< +5 >=< 5>:
3. (Z=nZ; ) is a …nite cyclic group. Z=nZ =< 1 > :

10
 4. Let n 2 N : Un = fz 2 C j z n = 1g is a …nite cyclic group. Un =< 1 >;
2
where 1 = e n :

Let G be a group and a an element of G: The set H = fan j n 2 Zg is a

subgroup of G, this subgroup is commutative even G is not. We call it the
subgroup generated by a and we write H = hai :Two cases arise:
If for any n 2 Z we have an 6= e; we say that a is of in…nite order. In this
case H is in…nite and (Z; +) ! (H; ) is an isomorphism.
n 7 ! an
If there exists n 2 Z such that an = e; let m the least positive n sat-
isfying this property. m is called the order of a and H is …nite H =
0 0
e; a; a2 ; : : : ; am 1 and a` = a` if and only if ` ` 2 mZ. In this case
Z
( mZ ; ) ! (H; ) is an isomorphism.
k 7 ! ak

Here are some notes on cyclic groups:

Proposition 25
1
1. If a cyclic group is generated by a, then it is also generated by a .
2. Every cyclic group is abelian.
3. Every subgroup of a cyclic group is also cyclic.
1
4. If an in…nite cyclic group G is generated by a, then a and a are the only
generators of G:
Proof.
1. Let G = hai : Since a = (a 1 ) 1 then all the elements obtained as powers
of a can also be obtained as powers of a 1 :
2. If G is a cyclic group, then G = hai for some a 2 G: For any x; y 2 G we
have x = an and y = am for some n; m 2 Z; so
xy = an am = an+m = am+n = am an = yx
then the commutativity.
3. Let G = hai and H a subgroup of G. Every h 2 H can be written h = an
for some n 2 Z, let m be the smallest positive integer such that am 2 H:
Put am = h0 ; then H = hh0 i : Indeed, h0 2 H then all the powers of h0
are in H. Since H is a subgroup then hh0 i H:
Conversely, let t 2 H then t = a` for some ` 2 Z: The Euclidian division
of ` by m gives ` = mk + r with 0 r < m; we have a` 2 H and
mk ` mk r
a 2 H then a = a 2 H; since m is the smallest integer satisfying
the property necessarily r = 0 hence t = hk0 : So t 2 hh0 i then the inclusion
H hh0 i :

11
 4. Let G be a group of an in…nite order such that G = hai for some a 2 G:
From 1) we have also G = a 1 : Suppose that G is also generated by ak
0 0
for some k with k 6= 1: Then there exists k 2 N such that (ak )k = a
0
this gives akk 1 = e which leads to say that the element a is of …nite
order, say G is of …nite order. Contradiction.

2.4.2 Finite groups

Recall that a group G which, as a set, has only a …nite number of elements, is
called a …nite group. The number of elements is called the order of the group
G and is denoted jGj :
Theorem 26 (Lagrange) Let G be a …nite group. Then the order of any
subgroup of G divides the order of G.
Proof. Let H be a subgroup of a …nite group G. Consider the binary relation
on G de…ned as 8x; y 2 G : x<y if and only if x 1 y 2 H: It is easy to show
that < is an equivalence relation and since G is of …nite order, there is a …nite
number of classes. On one hand, for any a 2 G, the class of a denoted by aH is
aH = fah; h 2 Hg : On the other hand H is …nite and the map
H ! aH
t 7 ! at

is bijective then jaHj = jHj : Since the sets aH have the same order as H and
they form a partition of G, then the order of G is a the number of classes
multiplied by the order of jHj : This concludes then the order of H divides the
order of G:
Corollary 27 If G is a group of …nite order n, then the order of any a 2 G
divides the order of G.
Proof. Let ` be the order of a, which is the least positive integer, so a` = e:
Then we can say that the set H = a; a2 ; a3 ; : : : :; a` 1 ; a` = e is a subgroup.
Since the subgroup has order `, thus ` the order of a divides the order of the
group G.
Corollary 28 Let G be a …nite group of prime order p: Then
1. For any x 2 Gn feg we have G = hxi :
2. The only subgroups of G are feg and G:
Proof.
1. It is clear that if x 2 Gn feg then the order of hxi is di¤erent from 1 and
divides jGj = p: Since p is prime, then jhxij = jGj ; necessarily hxi = G:
In other words, G is cyclic generated by any element x 2 G with x 6= e.

12
 2. Since the order of a subgroup divides the order the group and jGj = p is
prime, the only subgroups of G are of order 1 and p which corresponds to
feg and G respectively.

Theorem 29 Let G be a …nite cyclic group of order n and G =< a >. Then
G =< ak > if and only if k < n and gcd(k; n) = 1.

Proof. Since G =< a > we have G = e; a; a2 ; :::; an 1 . Let k 2 Z and put

H = ak : It is clear that H = G if and only if a 2 H (since then H contains
all powers of a and therefore all elements of G). Let x 2 H, there exists u 2 Z
such that a = xku 2 H , that is there exists u 2 Z such that aku 1 = e 2 H,
there exists u 2 Z such that ku 1 = vn for some v 2 Z, which is equivalent to
the existence of u; v 2 Z such that ku + nv = 1. This last condition is equivalent
to gcd(k; n) = 1.

13