CHAPTER 1

RESISTANCE MEASURING CIRCUITS

1.1 CLASSIFICATION OF RESISTANCE
Low Resistance
Resistance having value 1Ω or below are kept under this category.
Medium Resistance:
This category includes Resistance from 1Ω to 0.1 MΩ.
High Resistance:
Resistance of the order of 0.1 MΩ and above is classified as High
resistance.

1.2 DIFFERENT METHODS USED FOR MEASUREMENT OF RESISTANCE

 For Low resistance measurement :

1) Ammeter –Voltmeter method

2) Kelvin’s double bridge method

3) Potentiometer method

 For Medium resistance measurement :

1) Ammeter –Voltmeter method

2) substitution method

3) Wheatstone bridge method

4) Ohmmeter method

 For High resistance measurement :

1) Direct deflection method

2) Loss of charge method

3) Mega ohm bridge method

4) Megger
 1.3 Basic ohm meter
 The ohm meter is a convenient direct reading device for measurement of
resistance these are a wide field of application for this instrument in
determining the approximate value of resistance .
 An ohm meter is useful for determining the approximate resistance of
circuit components such as heater elements or machine field coils,
measuring and sorting of resistors used in electronic circuits, checking for
continuity of circuits
 The diagram shown in this slide is basic ohmmeter . It consist potential coil
(p) connected in series with a high resistance across the supply and current
coil (c) is connected in series with the unknown resistance X across the
supply.
 The current in the coil P is constant irrespective of the resistance to be
measured while the current in the coil C depends upon the value of the
resistance to be measured. A magnetic needle which is pivoted at a point of
intersection of the axis of two coils and carries a pointer.

1.4 Working of basic ohm meter

 When current flows in coil P and C both exert magnetic forces on the
magnetic needle and the pointer occupies a position of equilibrium

 Since the coil C tends to rotate the needle in the clock wise direction
while the magnetic force of coil P tends to rotate the needle in the anti clock
wise direction.

 If X is extremely high say infinity , then no current flows in C and so the

needle align itself along the axis of P, which position on the scale is marked
infinity.
 If X is zero when the current in the coil C is so large compared to that of
P that the needle aligns along the axis of C which position of the pointer on
the scale correspond to zero

 The intermediate positions of the pointer indicate different resistance

values which are marked in kilo ohms or megaohms.

1.5 Types of ohm meters

series type ohm meter

 It consists of basic d'Arsonval movement meter connected in parallel

with a shunting resistor R2. This parallel circuit is in series with
resistance R1 and a battery of emf E.

 The series circuit is connected to the terminals A and B of unknown

resistor Rx

R1 = current limiting resistor,

R2 = zero adjusting resistor,

E = emf of internal battery,

Rm= internal resistance of d'Arsonval movement

  When the unknown resistance Rx = 0 (terminals A and B shorted)
maximum current flows through the meter. Under this condition resistor R2
is adjusted until the basic movement meter indicates full scale current ltsd·
The full scale current position of the pointer is marked "0Ω" on the scale.
 Similarly when Rx is removed from circuit Rx =∞ (that is when terminal A
and B are open),the current in the meter drops to the zero and the
movement indicates zero current which is the marked ''∞''.
 Thus the meter will read infinite resistance at the zero current position
and zero resistance at full scale current position. Since zero resistance is
indicated when current in the meter is the maximum and hence the pointer
goes to the top mark.
 When the unknown resistance is inserted at terminal A, B the current
thro ugh the meter is reduced and hence pointer drops lower on the scale.
Therefore the meter has "O" at extreme right and "∞" at the extreme left.
 Intermediate scale marking may be placed on the scale by different
known values of the resistance Rx to the instrument.

Shunt type ohm meter

 It consists of battery in series with an adjustable resistor R 1 and a basic

d’ arsenal movement (meter). The unknown resistance is connected across
terminals A and B, parallel with the meter.
 In this case , it is necessary to have an OFF-ON switch to disconnect the
battery from the circuit when the instrument is not use. When the unknown
resistor Rx=0 Ω (A and B are shorted), the meter current is zero. If the
unknown resistor Rx=∞ (A and B are open), the current finds path only
through the meter and selecting a proper value for resistance R 1, the
pointer may be made to read full scale.
 The ohm meter therefore has a zero mark on the left hand side of the
scale (no current) and infinite mark on the right hand side of the scale (full
scale deflection current)
 Shunt type ohm meters are best suited for the measurements of low
value resistors.
1.6 Differences between series and shunt ohm meter
circuits
Series ohm meter Shunt ohm meter
 The unknown resistance is  The unknown resistance is
connected in series with the connected in shunt with the
basic meter basic meter

 This ohm meter has 0 at  This ohm meter has ∞ at

extreme right and ∞ at the extreme right and 0 at the
extreme left of the scale extreme left of the scale

 This meter is used to  This meter is used to measure

measure high resistance low resistance

 When the unknown  When the unknown resistance

resistance Rx =0 (terminals Rx =0 (terminals shorted ), the
shorted ), the meter shows meter shows 0 Ω on the scale.
∞ Ω on the scale.

 When the unknown

 When the unknown resistance
resistance Rx =∞ (terminals
Rx =∞ (terminals shorted ), the
shorted ), the meter shows
meter shows ∞Ω on the scale.
0Ω on the scale.

 The current in the meter

decreases with increasing  The current in the meter
the value of unknown decreases with decreasing the
resistance. value of unknown resistance.

 This meter read infinite  This meter read zero resistance

resistance at the zero at the zero current position and
current position and zero infinite resistance at full scale
resistance at full scale current position.
current position.
1.7 CONSTRUCTION OF MEGGER
The megger is a portable instrument used for the measurement of
high resistance and insulation resistance. Megger works on the
same principle that of “ ohm - meter “

 Deflecting & Control coil : Connected parallel to the generator,

mounted at right angle to each other and maintain polarities in such a
way to produced torque in opposite direction

 Permanent Magnets: Produce magnetic field to deflect pointer with

North-South pole magnet.

 Pointer : One end of the pointer connected with coil another end
deflects on scale from infinity to zero.

 Scale : A scale is provided in front-top of the megger from range 'zero

to 'infinity', enable us to read the value.

 D.C generator or Battery connection : Testing voltage is produced by

hand operated D.C generator for manual operated Megger. Battery/
electronic voltage charger is provided for automatic type Megger for
same purpose.
  Pressure coil resistance and Current coil resistance : Protect
instrument from any damage because of low external electrical
resistance under test.

1.8 WORKING OF MEGGER

Principle of working:
 The two terminals of the megger are connected to the terminals
under test, and the handle of the generator is rotated (by hand).
 The pointer then deflects over the calibrated scale. The scale is
marked ‘0’ to ‘∞’ interms of ohms, kilo-ohms and mega-ohms. From
the reading of the pointer, the insulation resistance thus measured.
OPERATION :
1. Let the testing terminals XY are open circuited:
 When the generator is started (rotated by hand), the voltage so
produced is applied across the coil A, and current flows through it, but
no current passes through the coil B.
 Thus develops a deflecting torque in coil A and causes the moving
element rotates, until the pointer shows ‘∞’ on the scale.
 This represents the resistance between the testing terminal is too
large for the instrument to measure.
2. Let the testing terminals XY are connected to a low resistance ( short-
circuited) :
 Then, a large, but limited current (limited by resistance R1) passes
through the deflecting coil B than the current through the coil A.
 Therefore the deflecting torque produced in the coil B over comes the
torque of the coil A, and causes the net or resultant torque in coil B
rotates the moving element (and hence the pointer) until the pointer
shows '0' (zero).
 This represents the resistance between the testing terminals is too
small for the instrument to measure.
 Usually zero is the first mark, and next marks are separated by 10 KΩ
on the scale. So megger is used essentially to measure high
 resistance only, since it is impossible to measure small resistance
accurately.
 It is actually employed as insulation tester.

Advantages :

(I) it is very robust. (ii) It is simple to operate.

(iii) It is independent (iv) It is portable

Uses : Megger can be used as :

(i) Continuity tester. (ii) Insulation tester.

Precautions :

(i) It should be handled very carefully, since it is a sensitive type of

instrument.

(ii) Megger should not be operated on a system, with power switched

on.
(iii) Always lead wires should be used which are free from leakage.

(iv) The two connecting leads should have electrical continuity.

1.9 MEASUREMENT OF EARTH RESISTANCE BY USING MEGGER (EARTH TESTER)

Earth tester is an instrument used for testing earth. It gives
resistance of earth in ohms directly. It has the following parts

1. Hand driven generator

2. Rotary current reverser
3. Synchronous rotary rectifier
4. Ohm-meter
1. Hand-driven Generator : It produces direct current voltage when the
handle is rotated.
2. Rotary Current Reverser : It is mounted on the same shaft of the
generator It is used to change the D.C. into A.C. supply as only
alternating current is used through soil for testing the earth.
 3.Synchronous Rotary Rectifier :The alternating current in the soil Will produce
an alternating potential drop in the soil.
But potential to be applied across the moving coil must be direct because
ohm meter is a moving coil instrument, so for changing the alternating
drop into direct drop , a synchronous rotary rectifier is also attached
on the same shaft.
4. Ohm-meter : It consists of two coils (current coil and potential coil) rnounted at
a fixed angle to each other on common axle. The current coil carries current
proportional to the current flowing in the test circuit, while the potential coil
carries current proportional to the potential across the resistance under test.
Since the deflection of the needle is proportional to the ratio of the current in two
coils, it gives resistance directly and so there is no controlling device.

Measurement of Earth Resistance Using Earth Megger

 The
value of the earth resistance is indicated by the instrument directly
when its handle is rotated at uniform speed.

1.10 POTENTIOMETERS
 The potentiometer is an instrument designed to measure an
unknown e.m.f. or potential difference by balancing method
with the help of a known potential difference (or e.m.f.)
produced by the flow of current in a network of a circuit of
known characteristics.
  Potentiometers are extensively used in measurements where
the precision required is higher than that can be obtained by
ordinary deflection instruments, or where it is important that
no current be drawn from the source under test, or where this
current must be limited to a small value.
 E.m.f's are measured directly with a potentiometer in terms of
the e.m.f. of a standard cell. By using a standard resistance
current can also be measured

Working Principle of Basic Potentiometer

The potentiometer works on the principle of opposing the unknown
e.m.f. by a known e.m.f. with negative terminals of the two e.m.f’s
connected together and also the positive terminals connected
together through a galvanometer as shown in Fig. 1.7

 Galvanometer gives no deflection if the two e.m.f’s are equal.

For determining the unknown e.m.f’s by the method described
above the known e.m.f. should be such that it can be varied to
 give a large numbers of known values but this arrangement
requires additional components.
 The alternative arrangement is to connect unknown e.m.f. in
parallel with a known e.m.f. and in opposition to a voltage
drop in the resistor, as shown in Fig. 1.8.
 In this arrangement it is very simple to vary the current in the
resistor and thus obtain, with very fine adjustment, any
desired value.

1.11 CONSTRUCTION OF BASIC POTENTIOMETER

 The simple potentiometer shown in Fig. 1.9 consists of a
German Silver Manganin wire (usually 1 m long) of uniform
cross sectional area and stretched between two terminals A
and D.
 The extremes A and D are connected to a battery 'B’ through a
variable resistance ‘R’. The positive terminal of battery is
connected to end A and negative terminal to end B. The
variable resistance 'R' is included in the circuit to enable the
current ‘i’ flowing in the slide wire A D to be adjusted as
required.

 The unknown emf and standard cell whose emfs are to be

compare can be joined with the galvanometer through a
selector switch S as shown in fig.
 First unknown emf is connected to the moving contact by
closing switch K the battery B supplies a current I in the circuit
 The moving contact is adjust to a point say J such that
potential difference between A and J due to current I is equal to the
flows through the galvanometer and hence no deflection in it.
 Let this length AJ be L1 . now unknown emf is replaced by the
standard cell and the contact J is again adjusted to give no
deflection in the galvanometer. Let this length AJ be L2 .

 Now if the voltage drop cm length of potentio meter wire is vo

volts then unknown emf cell E1 = vo * L1

unknown emf cell E2 = vo * L2

the ratio emf of the cells E1 & E2

E1 = vo * L1

E 2 = vo * L 2

1.12 WORKING OF BASIC POTENTIOMETER

 Standardization : The process of adjusting the working

current so as to match the voltage drop across a portion of sliding
wire against a standard reference source is known as
"Standardization“.
 The potentiometer is calibrated with the help of a standard
cell 'S'. The e.m.f. of standard cell is 1.0183 volts.
 The connection diagram for standardizing the potentiometer is
shown in Fig. 1.9. Point J is determined on the potentiometer wire
for no deflection in the galvanometer. If the length between A and
J for zero deflection in G is l cm, then voltage drop along A, J is
o

equal to v l which is equal to 1.0183 volts. Therefore, e.m.f. of the

o o

standard cell.

1.0183
vo = lo V/cm

 After standardizing, the position of rheostat 'R' in the battery

circuit should not be changed in any case.

1.13 MEASUREMENT OF UNKNOWN RESISTANCE USING

POTENTIOMETER
 A potentiometer is an instrument designed to measure an
unknown voltage by comparing it with a known voltage. In
addition to measurement of voltage, it is used for
measurement of current, power and resistance.
 The circuit of measurement of resistance with a potentiometer
is shown in Fig. 1.9. The unknown resistance R is connected in
series with a standard resistance S. The current ‘I’ through the
‘R’ and ‘S’ is controlled with the help of a rheostat. A Double
Pole Double Throw (DPDT) switch is used for connecting
resistance ‘R’ and ‘S’ to the potentiometer.
  The switch when put in position 1, 1', connects the unknown
resistance R to the potentiometer. Suppose, the reading of the
potentiometer is V , R

Then VR = IR ………….. (1)

 The switch when put in position 2, 2', connects the standard
resistor S to the potentiometer. Suppose, the reading of
potentiometer is V , S

Then V = IS
S ………….. (2)
From equations (1) and (2)
VR IR
VS
= IS

VR
R= VS xS

1.13 MEASUREMENT OF UNKNOWN RESISTANCE USIN

 Since, the value of standard resistance ‘S’ is accurately known,
the value of ‘R’ can also be accurately known.
 The accuracy of this method depends upon the assumption
that there is no change in the value of current when the two
different measurements are taken.
 Therefore, a stable d.c. supply is absolutely necessary.
1.14 APPLICATIONS OF POTENTIOMETER
1. Measurement of small e.m.f's (upto 1.5V (or) upto 2V for
simple potentiometer).
2. Comparison of e.m.f's of two cells.
3. Measurement of high e.m.f's (say 250 V and so).
4. For calibration of voltmeter and Ammeter.
5. In measurement of Resistance.
6. Measurement of power
7. For calibration of wattmeter.