History of Kerala - Wikipedia

7/12/24, 5:39 PM History of Kerala - Wikipedia
History of Kerala
The term Kerala was first epigraphically recorded as Cheras (Keralaputra) in a 3rd-century BCE
rock inscription by the Mauryan emperor Ashoka of Magadha.[1] It was mentioned as one of four
independent kingdoms in southern India during Ashoka's time, the others being the Cholas,
Pandyas and Satyaputras.[2] The Cheras transformed Kerala into an international trade centre by
establishing trade relations across the Arabian Sea with all major Mediterranean and Red Sea ports
as well those of Eastern Africa and the Far East.[3] The dominion of Cheras was located in one of
the key routes of the ancient Indian Ocean trade. The early Cheras collapsed after repeated attacks
from the neighboring Cholas and Rashtrakutas.
In the 8th century, Adi Shankara was born in Kalady in central Kerala. He travelled extensively
across the Indian subcontinent founding institutions of the widely influential philosophy of
Advaita Vedanta. The Cheras regained control over Kerala in the 9th century until the kingdom
was dissolved in the 12th century, after which small autonomous chiefdoms, most notably the
Kingdom of Kozhikode, arose. The ports of Kozhikode and Kochi acted as major gateways to the
western coast of medieval South India for several foreign entities. These entities included the
Chinese, the Arabs, the Persians, various groups from Eastern Africa, various kingdoms from
Southeast Asia including the Malacca Sultanate,[4] and later on, the Europeans.[5]
In the 14th century, the Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics was founded by Madhava of
Sangamagrama in Tirur. Some of the contributions of the school included the discovery of the
infinite series and taylor series of some trigonometry functions.[6]
In 1498, with the help of Gujarati merchants, Portuguese traveler Vasco Da Gama established a sea
route to Kozhikode by sailing around the Cape of Good Hope, located in the southernmost region
of Africa. His navy raised Portuguese forts and even minor settlements, which marked the
beginning of European influences in India. European trading interests of the Dutch, French and
the British took center stage in Kerala.
In 1741, the Dutch were defeated by Travancore king Marthanda Varma. After this humiliating
defeat, Dutch military commanders were taken hostage by Marthanda Varma, and they were
forced to train the Travancore military with modern European weaponry. This resulted in
Travancore being able to defend itself from further European aggression. By the late 18th century,
most of the influence in Kerala came from the British. The British crown gained control over
Northern Kerala through the creation of the Malabar District. The British also allied with the
princely states of Travancore and Cochin in the southern part of the state.
When India declared independence in 1947, Travancore originally sought to establish itself as a
fully sovereign nation. However, an agreement was made by the then King of Travancore Chithira
Thirunal Balarama Varma to have Travancore join India, albeit after many rounds of negotiation.
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Kerala 1/32
The Malabar District and the Kingdom of Cochin were peacefully annexed into India without much
hassle. The state of Kerala was created in 1956 from the former state of Travancore-Cochin, the
Malabar district and the Kasaragod taluk of South Canara District of Madras state.[7]
Other names
The term Malabar has historically been used in foreign trade circles as a general name for
Kerala.[5] In earlier times, the term Malabar had also been used to denote Tulu Nadu and
Kanyakumari which lie contiguous to Kerala on the southwestern coast of India, in addition to the
modern state of Kerala.[8][9] The people of Malabar were known as Malabars. From the time of
Cosmas Indicopleustes (6th century CE) itself, the roman sailors used to call Kerala as Male. The
first element of the name, however, is attested already in the Topography written by Cosmas
Indicopleustes. This mentions a pepper emporium called Male, which clearly gave its name to
Malabar ('the country of Male'). The name Male is thought to come from the Dravidian word Mala
('hill').[10][11] Al-Biruni (AD 973–1048) must have been the first writer to call this state Malabar.[5]
Author[12] such as Al-Baladhuri mention Malabar ports in their works.[13] The Arab writers had
called this place Malibar, Manibar, Mulibar, and Munibar. Malabar is reminiscent of the word
Malanad which means the land of hills. According to William Logan, the word Malabar comes
from a combination of the Dravidian word Mala (hill) and the Persian/Arabic word Barr
(country/continent).[5][14]
Traditional sources
Mahabali
Perhaps the most famous festival of Kerala, Onam, is deeply
rooted in Kerala traditions. Onam is associated with the
legendary king Mahabali (Maveli), who according to tradition
and Puranas, ruled the Earth and several other planetary
systems from Kerala. His entire kingdom was then a land of
immense prosperity and happiness. However, Mahabali was
tricked into giving up his rule, and was thus overthrown by Parasurama, surrounded by settlers,
commanding Varuna to part the
Vamana (Thrikkakkarayappan), the fifth Avatar (earthly
seas and reveal Kerala.
incarnation) of Lord Vishnu. He was banished from the Earth
to rule over one of the netherworld (Patala) planets called
Sutala by Vamana. Mahabali comes back to visit Kerala every year on the occasion of Onam.[15]
Other texts
The oldest of all the Puranas, the Matsya Purana, sets the story of the Matsya Avatar (fish
incarnation) of Lord Vishnu, in the Western Ghats. The earliest Sanskrit text to mention Kerala by
name as Cherapadah is the Aitareya Aranyaka, a late Vedic work on philosophy.[16] It is also
mentioned in both the Ramayana and the Mahabharata.[17]
Parasurama
There are legends dealing with the origins of Kerala geographically and culturally. One such legend
is the retrieval of Kerala from the sea, by Parasurama, a warrior sage. It proclaims that
Parasurama, an Avatar of Mahavishnu, threw His battle axe into the sea. As a result, the land of
Kerala arose, and thus was reclaimed from the waters.[18]
Ophir
Ophir, a region mentioned in the Bible,[19] famous for its
wealth, is often identified with some coastal areas of Kerala.
According to legend, the King Solomon received a cargo from
Ophir every three years (1 Kings 10:22) which consisted of gold,
silver, sandalwood, pearls, ivory, apes, and peacocks.[20] A
Dictionary of the Bible by Sir William Smith, published in
1863,[21] notes the Hebrew word for parrot Thukki, derived Poovar is often identified with
from the Classical Tamil for peacock Thogkai and Cingalese Biblical Ophir.
Tokei, [22] joins other Classical Tamil words for ivory, cotton-
cloth and apes preserved in the Hebrew Bible. This theory of
Ophir's location in Tamilakam is further supported by other historians.[23][24][25][26] The most
likely location on the coast of Kerala conjectured to be Ophir is Poovar in Thiruvananthapuram
District (though some Indian scholars also suggest Beypore as possible location).[27][28] The Books
of Kings and Chronicles tell of a joint expedition to Ophir by King Solomon and the Tyrian king
Hiram I from Ezion-Geber, a port on the Red Sea, that brought back large amounts of gold,
precious stones and 'algum wood' and of a later failed expedition by king Jehoshaphat of Judah.[i]
The famous 'gold of Ophir' is referenced in several other books of the Hebrew Bible.[ii]
i. The first expedition is described in 1 Kings 9:28; 10:11; 1 Chronicles 29:4; 2 Chronicles 8:18;
9:10, the failed expedition of Jehoshaphat in 1 Kings 22:48
ii. Book of Job 22:24; 28:16; Psalms 45:9; Isaiah 13:12
Cheraman Perumal
The legend of Cheraman Perumals is the medieval tradition
associated with the Cheraman Perumal (literally the Chera
kings) of Kerala.[29] The Cheraman Perumals mentioned in the
A portrait of the sword of the
legend can be identified with the Chera Perumal rulers of Zamorins of Kozhikode, related with
medieval Kerala (c. 8th–12th century CE).[30] The validity of the legend of Cheraman Perumals.
the legend as a source of history once generated much debate
among South Indian historians.[31] The legend was used by
Kerala chiefdoms for the legitimation of their rule (most of the major chiefly houses in medieval
Kerala traced its origin back to the legendary allocation by the Perumal).[32][33] According to the
legend, Rayar, the overlord of the Cheraman Perumal in a country east of the Ghats, invaded
Kerala during the rule of the last Perumal. To drive back the invading forces the Perumal
summoned the militia of his chieftains (like Udaya Varman Kolathiri, Manichchan, and Vikkiran
of Eranad). The Cheraman Perumal was assured by the Eradis (chief of Eranad) that they would
take a fort established by the Rayar.[34] The battle lasted for three days and the Rayar eventually
evacuated his fort (and it was seized by the Perumal's troops).[34] Then the last Cheraman
Perumal divided Kerala or Chera kingdom among his chieftains and disappeared mysteriously.
The Kerala people never more heard any tidings of him.[29][32][33] The Eradis of Nediyiruppu, who
later came to be known as the Zamorins of Kozhikode, who were left out in cold during allocation
of the land, was granted the Cheraman Perumal's sword (with the permission to "die, and kill, and
seize").[33][34]
According to the Cheraman Juma Mosque and

some other narratives,[35][36] "Once a Cheraman
Perumal probably named Ravi Varma[36] was
walking with his queen in the palace, when he
witnessed the Splitting of the moon. Shocked by
this, he asked his astronomers to note down the
exact time of the splitting. Then, when some Arab
merchants visited his palace, he asked them about
this incident. Their answers led the King to Mecca,
where he met the Islamic prophet Muhammad and
Structure of the old mosque converted to Islam. Muhammad named him
Tajuddin or Thajuddin or Thiya-aj-Addan meaning
"crown of faith".[37][38][39] The king then wrote
letters to his kingdom to accept Islam and follow the teachings of Malik bin Deenar".[40][41][35] It is
assumed that the first recorded version of this legend is an Arabic manuscript of anonymous
authorship known as Qissat Shakarwati Farmad.[42] The 16th century Arabic work Tuhfat Ul
Mujahideen authored by Zainuddin Makhdoom II of Ponnani, as well as the medieval Malayalam
work Keralolpathi, also mention about the departure of last Cheraman Perumal of Kerala into
Mecca.[43][44]
Prehistory
A substantial portion of Kerala including the western
coastal lowland and the plains of midland may have
been under the sea in ancient times. Marine fossils
have been found in an area near Changanassery, thus
supporting the hypothesis.[45] Archaeological studies
have identified many Mesolithic, Neolithic and
A dolmen erected by Stone Age
Megalithic sites in the eastern highlands of Kerala
Neolithic people in (6,000 BCE) writings of
mainly centred around the eastern mountain ranges Marayur, Kerala, India. Edakkal Caves in
of Western Ghats.[46] Rock engravings in the Kerala.
Edakkal Caves, in Wayanad date back to the
Neolithic era around 6000 BCE.[47][48] These
findings have been classified into Laterite rock-cut caves (Chenkallara), Hood stones
(Kudakkallu), Hat stones (Toppikallu), Dolmenoid cists (Kalvrtham), Urn burials (Nannangadi)
and Menhirs (Pulachikallu). The studies point to the indigenous development of the ancient Kerala
society and its culture beginning from the Paleolithic age, and its continuity through Mesolithic,
Neolithic and Megalithic ages.[49] However, foreign cultural contacts have assisted this cultural
formation.[50] The studies suggest possible relationship with Indus Valley civilization during the
late Bronze Age and early Iron Age.[51]
Archaeological findings include dolmens of the Neolithic era in the Marayur area. They are locally
known as "muniyara", derived from muni (hermit or sage) and ara (dolmen).[52] Rock engravings
in the Edakkal Caves in Wayanad are thought to date from the early to late Neolithic eras around
5000 BCE.[47][53][54]
Historian M. R. Raghava Varier of the Kerala state archaeology department
identified a sign of "a man with jar cup" in the engravings, which is the most distinct motif of the
Indus valley civilisation.[51]
Classical period
Early ruling dynasties

Kerala's dominant rulers of the early historic period were the
Cheras, a Tamil dynasty with its headquarters located in
Vanchi.[55] The location of Vanchi is generally considered near
the ancient port city of Muziris in Kerala.[56][57] However,
Karur in modern Tamil Nadu is also pointed out as the location
of the capital city of Cheras.[58] Another view suggests the reign
of Cheras from multiple capitals.[47] The Chera kingdom
Muziris in the Tabula Peutingeriana,
consisted of a major part of modern Kerala and Kongunadu an itinerarium showing the road
which comprises western districts of modern Tamil Nadu like network in the Roman Empire.
[58][59]
Coimbatore and Salem. The region around Coimbatore
was ruled by the Cheras during Sangam period between c. 1st
and the 4th centuries CE and it served as the eastern entrance
to the Palakkad Gap, the principal trade route between the
Malabar Coast and Tamil Nadu.[60] Old Tamil works such as
Patiṟṟuppattu, Patiṉeṇmēlkaṇakku and Silappatikaram are
important sources that describe the Cheras from the early
centuries CE.[61] Together with the Cholas and Pandyas the
Cheras formed the Tamil triumvirate of the mūvēntar (Three
Crowned Kings). The Cheras ruled the western Malabar Coast, Ezhimala, the early historic
headquarters of Mushika dynasty,
the Cholas ruled in the eastern Coromandel Coast and the
which was succeeded by the
Pandyas in the south-central peninsula. The Cheras were
kingdom of Kolathunadu later.
mentioned as Ketalaputo (Keralaputra) on an inscribed edict of
emperor Ashoka of the Magadha Empire in the 3rd century
BCE,[2] as Cerobothra by the Greek Periplus of the Erythraean Sea and as Celebothras in the
Roman encyclopedia Natural History by Pliny the Elder. The Mushika kingdom existed in
northern Kerala, while the Ays ruled south of the Chera kingdom.[62]
Trade relations
The region of Kerala was possibly engaged in trading activities from the 3rd millennium BCE with
Arabs, Sumerians and Babylonians.[63] Phoenicians, Greeks, Egyptians, Romans, and Chinese
were attracted by a variety of commodities, especially spices and cotton fabrics.[64][65] Arabs and
Phoenicians were the first to enter Malabar Coast to trade Spices.[64] The Arabs on the coasts of
Yemen, Oman, and the Persian Gulf, must have made the first long voyage to Kerala and other
eastern countries.[64] They must have brought the Cinnamon of Kerala to the Middle East.[64] The
Greek historian Herodotus (5th century BCE) records that in his time the cinnamon spice industry
was monopolized by the Egyptians and the Phoenicians.[64]
Muziris, Tyndis, Naura, Berkarai, and Nelcynda were among

the principal trading port centres of the Chera kingdom.[66]
Megasthanes, the Greek ambassador to the court of Magadhan
king Chandragupta Maurya (4th century BCE) mentions
Muziris and a Pandyan trade centre. Pliny mentions Muziris as
India's first port of importance. According to him, Muziris
could be reached in 40 days from the Red Sea ports of Egypt
purely depending on the South west monsoon winds. Later, the
unknown author of the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea notes Names, routes and locations of the
that "both Muziris and Nelcynda are now busy places". There Periplus of the Erythraean Sea (1st
century CE).
were harbours of Naura near Kannur, Tyndis near Kozhikode,
and Barace near Alappuzha, which were also trading with
Rome and Palakkad pass (churam) facilitated migration and trade. Tyndis was a major center of
trade, next only to Muziris, between the Cheras and the Roman Empire.[67] Roman establishments
in the port cities of the region, such as a temple of Augustus and barracks for garrisoned Roman
soldiers, are marked in the Tabula Peutingeriana; the only surviving map of the Roman cursus
publicus.[68][69] Pliny the Elder (1st century CE) states that the port of Tyndis was located at the
northwestern border of Keprobotos (Chera dynasty).[70] The North Malabar region, which lies
north of the port at Tyndis, was ruled by the kingdom of Ezhimala during Sangam period.[5] The
port of Tyndis which was on the northern side of Muziris, as mentioned in Greco-Roman writings,
was somewhere near Kozhikode.[5] Its exact location is a matter of dispute.[5] The suggested
locations are Ponnani, Tanur, Beypore-Chaliyam-Kadalundi-Vallikkunnu, and Koyilandy.[5]
According to the Periplus of the Erythraean Sea, a region known as Limyrike began at Naura and
Tyndis. However the Ptolemy mentions only Tyndis as the Limyrike 's starting point. The region
probably ended at Kanyakumari; it thus roughly corresponds to the present-day Malabar Coast.
The value of Rome's annual trade with the region was estimated at around 50,000,000
sesterces.[71] He also mentions that the region was prone to pirates.[72] Cosmas Indicopleustes
mentioned that it was also a source of Malabar peppers.[73][74] Contemporary Tamil literature,
Puṟanāṉūṟu and Akanaṉūṟu, speak of the Roman vessels and the Roman gold that used to come to
the Kerala ports in search of Malabar pepper and other spices, which had enormous demand in the
West. The contact with Middle East and Romans might have given rise to small colonies of
Jews,Syrian Christians and Mappila Muslims in the chief harbour towns of Kerala.
Formation of a multicultural society

Buddhism and Jainism reached Kerala in this
early period. As in other parts of ancient India,
Buddhism and Jainism co-existed with early
Hindu beliefs during the first five centuries.
Merchants from West Asia and Southern
Europe established coastal posts and
settlements in Kerala.[75] Jews arrived in Kerala
as early as 573 BCE.[76][77] The Cochin Jews
believe that their ancestors came to the west
Silk Road map. The spice trade was mainly along the
coast of India as refugees following the water routes (blue).
destruction of Jerusalem in the first century
CE. Syrian Christians claim to be the
descendants of the converts of Saint Thomas the Apostle of Jesus Christ. Arabs also had trade links
with Kerala, starting before the 4th century BCE, as Herodotus (484–413 BCE) noted that goods
brought by Arabs from Kerala were sold to the Jews at Eden.[66] They intermarried with local
people, resulting in the formation of the Muslim Mappila community. In the 4th century, the
Knanaya Christians migrated from Persia and settled in southern Kodungallur.[78][79] Mappila was
an honorific title that had been assigned to respected visitors from abroad; and Jewish, Syrian
Christian, and Muslim immigration might account for later names of the respective communities:
Juda Mappilas, Muslim Mappilas, and Nasrani Mappilas.[80][81] According to the legends of these
communities, the earliest Christian churches,[82] mosque,[83] and synagogue (CE 1568)[84] in
India were built in Kerala. The combined number of Jews, Muslims, and Christians was relatively
small at this early stage. They co-existed harmoniously with each other and with local Hindu
society, aided by the commercial benefit from such association.[85]
Medieval and Early Modern periods
Political changes
Much of history of the region from the 6th to the 8th century is
obscure.[1] From the Kodungallur line of the Cheras rose the
Kulasekhara dynasty, which was established by Kulasekhara
Varman. At its zenith these Later Cheras ruled over a territory
comprising the whole of modern Kerala and a smaller part of
modern Tamil Nadu. During the early part of Kulasekhara
period, the southern region from Nagercoil to
Thiruvananthapuram was ruled by Ay kings, who lost their
power in the 10th century and thus the region became a part of
the Cheras.[87][88] Kerala witnessed a flourishing period of art,
literature, trade and the Bhakti movement of Hinduism.[89] A
Keralite identity, distinct from the Tamils, became
linguistically separate during this period.[90] The origin of Quilon Syrian copper plates granted
to Saint Thomas Christians. The
Malayalam calendar dates back to year 825 CE.[91][92][93] For
sixth plate has signatures of
the local administration, the empire was divided into provinces
witnesses to the grant in Arabic,
under the rule of Nair Chieftains known as Naduvazhis, with Middle Persian and Judeo-
each province comprising a number of Desams under the Persian.[86]
control of chieftains, called as Desavazhis. [89] The era
witnessed also a shift in political power, as Namboothiri
Brahmins gained political power.[94][95] As a result, many temples were constructed across Kerala,
which according to M. T. Narayanan "became cornerstones of the socio-economic society".[95]
Mamankam festival, which was the largest native festival, was held at Tirunavaya near
Kuttippuram, on the bank of river Bharathappuzha.[5] Athavanad, the headquarters of
Azhvanchery Thamprakkal, who were also considered as the supreme religious chief of the
Nambudiri Brahmins of Kerala, is also located near Tirunavaya.[5]
Sulaiman al-Tajir, a Persian merchant who visited Kerala during the reign of Sthanu Ravi Varma
(9th century CE), records that there was extensive trade between Kerala and China at that time,
based at the port of Kollam.[96] A number of foreign accounts have mentioned about the presence
of considerable Muslim population in the coastal towns. Arab writers such as Al-Masudi of
Baghdad (896–956 CE), Muhammad al-Idrisi (1100–1165 CE), Abulfeda (1273–1331 CE), and Al-
Dimashqi (1256–1327 CE) mention the Muslim communities in Kerala.[97] Some historians
assume that the Mappilas can be considered as the first native, settled Muslim community in South
Asia.[98][99]
The inhibitions, caused by a series of Chera-Chola wars in the 11th century, resulted in the decline
of foreign trade in Kerala ports. In addition, Portuguese invasions in the 15th century caused two
major religions, Buddhism and Jainism, to disappear from the land. It is known that the Menons
in the Malabar region of Kerala were originally strong believers of Jainism.[100] The social system
became fractured with divisions on caste lines.[101] The Kulasekhara dynasty was finally subjugated
in 1102 by the combined attack of the Pandyas and Cholas.[87] However, in the 14th century, Ravi
Varma Kulashekhara (1299–1314) of the southern Venad kingdom was able to establish a short-
lived supremacy over southern India. After his death, in the absence of strong central power, the
state was fractured into about thirty small warring principalities under Nair Chieftains; the most
powerful of them were the kingdom of Samuthiri in the north, Venad in the south and Kochi in the
middle.[102][103] The port at Kozhikode held the superior economic and political position in Kerala,
while Kollam (Quilon), Kochi, and Kannur (Cannanore) were commercially confined to secondary
roles.[104]
The Rise of Advaita

Adi Shankara (CE 789), one of the greatest Indian philosophers, is believed to be born in Kaladi in
Kerala, and consolidated the doctrine of advaita vedānta.[105][106] Shankara travelled across the
Indian subcontinent to propagate his philosophy through discourses and debates with other
thinkers. He is reputed to have founded four mathas ("monasteries"), which helped in the
historical development, revival and spread of Advaita Vedanta.[106] Adi Shankara is believed to be
the organiser of the Dashanami monastic order and the founder of the Shanmata tradition of
worship.
His works in Sanskrit concern themselves with establishing the doctrine of advaita (nondualism).
He also established the importance of monastic life as sanctioned in the Upanishads and Brahma
Sutra, in a time when the Mimamsa school established strict ritualism and ridiculed monasticism.
Shankara represented his works as elaborating on ideas found in the Upanishads, and he wrote
copious commentaries on the Vedic canon (Brahma Sutra, principal upanishads and Bhagavad
Gita) in support of his thesis. The main opponent in his work is the Mimamsa school of thought,
though he also offers arguments against the views of some other schools like Samkhya and certain
schools of Buddhism.[107][108][109] His activities in Kerala was little and no evidence of his
influence is noticed in the literature or other things in his lifetime in Kerala. Even though Sankara
was against all caste systems, in later years his name was used extensively by the Brahmins of
Kerala for establishing caste system in Kerala.
The Kingdom of Kozhikode

Historical records regarding the origin of the Samoothiri of Kozhikode is obscure. However, its
generally agreed that the Samoothiri were originally the Nair chieftains of Eralnadu region of the
Later Chera Kingdom and were known as the Eradis.[110] Eralnadu (Eranad) province was situated
in the northern parts of present-day Malappuram district and was landlocked by the Valluvanad
and Polanadu in the west. Legends such as Keralolpathi tell the establishment of a local ruling
family at Nediyiruppu, near present-day Kondotty by two young brothers belonging to the Eradi
clan. The brothers, Manikkan and Vikraman were the most trusted generals in the army of the
Cheras.[111][112]
M.G.S. Narayanan, an Indian historian, in his
book, Calicut: The City of Truth states that the Eradi was a
favourite of the last Later Chera king and granted him, as a
mark of favor, a small tract of land on the sea-coast in addition
to his hereditary possessions (Eralnadu province). Eradis
subsequently moved their capital to the coastal marshy lands
and established the kingdom of Kozhikode[note 1] They later
assumed the title of Samudrāthiri ("one who has the sea for his
border") and continued to rule from Kozhikode. Uru, a type of ship that was
historically used for maritime trade,
built at Beypore, Kozhikode.
Samoothiri allied with Muslim Arab and Chinese merchants
and used most of the wealth from Kozhikode to develop his
military power. They became the most powerful king in the
Malayalam speaking regions during the Middle Ages. In the
14th century, Kozhikode conquered large parts of central
Kerala following the seize of Tirunavaya from Valluvanad,
which was under the control of the king of Perumbadappu
Swaroopam. He was forced to shift his capital (c. CE 1405)
further south from Kodungallur to Kochi. In the 15th century,
Cochin was reduced in to a vassal state of Kozhikode. The ruler
of Kolathunadu (Kannur) had also came under the influence of
Zamorin by the end of the 15th century.[5]
A political map of India in 1320 CE.

Note that most of the present-day
state of Kerala had been under the
sovereignty of the Zamorin of
Calicut.
A panorama of port Kozhikode, shows several

At the peak of their reign, the Zamorins of
types of ships, shipbuilding, net fishing, dinghy
Kozhikode ruled over a region from Kollam
traffic and a rugged, sparsely populated interior
(Georg Braun and Frans Hogenberg's atlas (Quilon) in the south to Panthalayini Kollam
Civitates orbis terrarum, 1572).
(Koyilandy) in the north.[110][113] Ibn Battuta
(1342–1347), who visited the city of Kozhikode six
times, gives the earliest glimpses of life in the city. He describes Kozhikode as "one of the great
ports of the district of Malabar" where "merchants of all parts of the world are found". The king of
this place, he says, "shaves his chin just as the Haidari Fakeers of Rome do... The greater part of
the Muslim merchants of this place are so wealthy that one of them can purchase the whole
freightage of such vessels put here and fit-out others like them".[114] Ma Huan (1403 AD), the
Chinese sailor part of the Imperial Chinese fleet under Cheng Ho (Zheng He)[115] states the city as
a great emporium of trade frequented by merchants from around the world. He makes note of the
20 or 30 mosques built to cater to the religious needs of the Muslims, the unique system of
calculation by the merchants using their fingers and toes (followed to this day), and the matrilineal
system of succession. Abdur Razzak (1442–43), Niccolò de' Conti (1445), Afanasy Nikitin (1468–
74), Ludovico di Varthema (1503–1508), and Duarte Barbosa witnessed the city as one of the
major trading centres in the Indian subcontinent where traders from different parts of the world
could be seen.[116][117]
Vijayanagara Empire Influences

The king Deva Raya II (1424–1446) of the Vijayanagara Empire tried to conquer the present-day
state of Kerala in the 15th century but was not able to logistically do so.[118] He however accepted
the rule of the Zamorin of Kozhikode, as well as the ruler of Kollam around 1443.[110] Fernão
Nunes says that the Zamorin had to pay tribute to the king of Vijayanagara Empire.[118] As the
Vijayanagara power diminished over the next fifty years, the Zamorin of Kozhikode again rose to
prominence in Kerala. He built a fort at Ponnani in 1498.
The Kingdom of Venad

Venad was a kingdom in the south west tip of Kerala, which
acted as a buffer between Cheras and Pandyas. Until the end of
the 11th century, it was a small principality in the Ay Kingdom.
The Ays were the earliest ruling dynasty in southern Kerala,
who, at their zenith, ruled over a region from Nagercoil in the
south to Thiruvananthapuram in the north. Their capital was at
Kollam. A series of attacks by the Pandyas between the 7th and
8th centuries caused the decline of Ays although the dynasty
remained powerful until the beginning of the 10th century.[45]
When Ay power diminished, Venad became the southernmost Kollam, the capital of Venad, in the
principality of the Second Chera Kingdom[119] Invasion of 1700s.
Cholas into Venad caused the destruction of Kollam in 1096.

However, the Chera capital, Mahodayapuram, fell in the subsequent attack, which compelled the
Chera king, Rama varma Kulasekara, to shift his capital to Kollam.[120] Thus, Rama Varma
Kulasekara, the last king of Chera dynasty, is probably the founder of the Venad royal house, and
the title of Chera kings, Kulasekara, was thenceforth adopted by the rulers of Venad. The end of
Second Chera dynasty in the 12th century marks the independence of the Venad.[121] The Venadu
King then also was known as Venadu Mooppil Nayar.
In the second half of the 12th century, two branches of the Ay Dynasty: Thrippappur and Chirava,
merged into the Venad family and established the tradition of designating the ruler of Venad as
Chirava Moopan and the heir-apparent as Thrippappur Moopan. While Chrirava Moopan had his
residence at Kollam, the Thrippappur Moopan resided at his palace in Thrippappur, 9 miles
(14 km) north of Thiruvananthapuram, and was vested with the authority over the temples of
Venad kingdom, especially the Sri Padmanabhaswamy temple.[119]
The Legacy of Venad

The most powerful kingdom of Kerala during the era of European influences, Travancore, was
developed through the expansion of Venad by Mahahrajah Marthanda Varma, a member of the
Thrippappur branch of the Ay Dynasty who ascended to the throne in the early 18th century.
The Kingdom of Kolathunadu
The ancient kingdom of Ezhimala had jurisdiction over the North Malabar which consisted of two
Nadus (regions)- The coastal Poozhinadu and the hilly eastern Karkanadu. According to the works
of Sangam literature, Poozhinadu consisted much of the coastal belt between Mangalore and
Kozhikode.[122] Karkanadu consisted of Wayanad-Gudalur hilly region with parts of Kodagu
(Coorg).[123] It is said that Nannan, the most renowned ruler of Ezhimala dynasty, took refuge at
Wayanad hills in the 5th century CE when he was lost to Cheras, just before his execution in a
battle, according to the Sangam works.[123] Ezhimala kingdom was succeeded by Mushika dynasty
in the early medieval period, most possibly due to the migration of Tuluva Brahmins from Tulu
Nadu. The Mushika-vamsha Mahakavya, written by Athula in the 11th century, throws light on
the recorded past of the Mushika Royal Family up until that point.[124] The Indian anthropologist
Ayinapalli Aiyappan states that a powerful and warlike clan of the Bunt community of Tulu Nadu
was called Kola Bari and the Kolathiri Raja of Kolathunadu was a descendant of this clan.[125]
The kingdom of Kolathunadu, who were the descendants of

Mushika dynasty, at the peak of its power reportedly extended
from Netravati River (Mangalore) in the north[124] to
Korapuzha (Kozhikode) in the south with Arabian Sea on the
west and Kodagu hills on the eastern boundary, also including
the isolated islands of Lakshadweep in Arabian Sea.[122] An Old
Malayalam inscription (Ramanthali inscriptions), dated to
1075 CE, mentioning king Kunda Alupa, the ruler of Alupa
dynasty of Mangalore, can be found at Ezhimala near
Kannur.[126] The Arabic inscription on a copper slab within the
Madayi Mosque in Kannur records its foundation year as 1124 A portrait of Kannur, the largest city
CE. [127] In his book on travels (Il Milione), Marco Polo of North Malabar, drawn in 1572,
recounts his visit to the area in the mid 1290s. Other visitors from Georg Braun and Frans
Hogenberg's atlas Civitates orbis
included Faxian, the Buddhist pilgrim and Ibn Batuta, writer
terrarum, Volume I.
and historian of Tangiers. The Kolathunadu in the late
medieval period emerged into independent 10 principalities
i.e., Kadathanadu (Vadakara), Randathara or Poyanad (Dharmadom), Kottayam (Thalassery),
Nileshwaram, Iruvazhinadu (Panoor), Kurumbranad etc., under separate royal chieftains due to
the outcome of internal dissensions.[128] The Nileshwaram dynasty on the northernmost part of
Kolathiri dominion, were relatives to both Kolathunadu as well as the Zamorin of Calicut, in the
early medieval period.[129] The kingdom of Kumbla in the northernmost region of the modern state
of Kerala, who had jurisdiction over the Taluks of Manjeshwar and Kasaragod, and parts of
Mangalore in Southern Tulu Nadu, were also vassals to the kingdom of Kolathunadu until the
Carnatic conquests of the 15th century CE.[124]
According to Kerala Muslim tradition, the North Malabar

region was also home to several oldest mosques in the Indian
subcontinent. According to the Legend of Cheraman Perumals,
the first Indian mosque was built in 624 CE at Kodungallur
with the mandate of the last the ruler (the Cheraman Perumal)
of Chera dynasty, who left from Dharmadom near Kannur to
Mecca and converted to Islam during the lifetime of
Muhammad (c. 570–632).[130][131][98][132] According to Qissat
Kannur fort and Bay; a watercolor
by John Johnston (1795–1801). Shakarwati Farmad, the Masjids at Kodungallur, Kollam,
Madayi, Barkur, Mangalore, Kasaragod, Kannur, Dharmadam,
Panthalayani, and Chaliyam, were built during the era of Malik
Dinar, and they are among the oldest Masjids in the Indian subcontinent.[42] It is believed that
Malik Dinar died at Thalangara in Kasaragod town.[133] The Koyilandy Jumu'ah Mosque in the
erstwhile Kolathunadu contains an Old Malayalam inscription written in a mixture of Vatteluttu
and Grantha scripts which dates back to the 10th century CE.[134] It is a rare surviving document
recording patronage by a Hindu king (Bhaskara Ravi) to the Muslims of Kerala.[134]
The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics

The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics was a school
of mathematics and astronomy founded by Madhava of
Sangamagrama in Tirur in the 14th century. Among its
members were Parameshvara, Neelakanta Somayaji,
Jyeshtadeva, Achyuta Pisharati, Melpathur Narayana
Bhattathiri and Achyuta Panikkar. Some of the contributions of
the school included the discovery of the infinite series and
taylor series of some trigonometry functions.[6] The school
flourished between the 14th and 16th centuries.
The list of teachers at the Kerala
school of astronomy and
European trade and influences mathematics
The maritime spice trade

monopoly in the Indian Ocean
stayed with the Arabs during the
High and Late Middle Ages.
However, the dominance of
Middle East traders was
challenged in the European Age of
Discovery. After Vasco Da Gama's
arrival in Kappad Kozhikode in
1498, the Portuguese began to
A 1652 Map of India (Malabar Coast
is highlighted separately on the right dominate eastern shipping, and
side). the spice-trade in
particular. [135][136][137] Following
the discovery of sea route from
Europe to Malabar in 1498, the Portuguese began to expand their
influence between Ormus and the Malabar Coast and south to
Ceylon.[138][139]
Vasco da Gama landing in
Kerala.
Portuguese trade and influences
Vasco da Gama was sent by the King of Portugal Dom Manuel I and landed at Kozhikode in 1497–
1499.[140] The Samoothiri Maharaja of Kozhikode permitted the Portuguese to trade with his
subjects. Their trade in Kozhikode prospered with the establishment of a factory and fort in his
territory. However, Portuguese attacks on Arab properties in his jurisdiction provoked the
Samoothiri and finally led to conflict. The ruler of the Kingdom of Tanur, who was a vassal to the
Zamorin of Calicut, sided with the Portuguese, against his overlord at Kozhikode.[5] As a result, the
Kingdom of Tanur (Vettathunadu) became one of the earliest Portuguese Colonies in India. The
ruler of Tanur also sided with Cochin.[5] Many of the members of the royal family of Cochin in 16th
and 17th centuries were selected from Vettom.[5]

However, the
Tanur forces under the king fought for the Zamorin of Calicut
in the Battle of Cochin (1504).[128] However, the allegiance of
the Mappila merchants in Tanur region still stayed under the
Zamorin of Calicut.[141]
The Portuguese took

advantage of the rivalry
between the Samoothiri The path Vasco da Gama took to
and Rajah of Kochi – they reach Kozhikode (black line).
allied with Kochi and when
Francisco de Almeida was
appointed Viceroy of Portuguese India in 1505, he established
his headquarters at Kochi. During his reign, the Portuguese
The Mattancherry Palace at Kochi
was built and gifted by the
managed to dominate relations with Kochi and established a
Portuguese as a present to the number of fortresses along the Malabar Coast.[142]
Kingdom of Cochin around 1545. Nonetheless, the Portuguese suffered severe setbacks due to
attacks by Samoothiri Maharaja's forces, especially naval
attacks under the leadership of admirals of Kozhikode known
as Kunjali Marakkars, which compelled them to seek a treaty. The Kunjali Marakkars are credited
with organizing the first naval defense of the Indian coast.[143][144] Tuhfat Ul Mujahideen written
by Zainuddin Makhdoom II (born around 1532) of Ponnani in 16th-century CE is the first-ever
known book fully based on the history of Kerala, written by a Keralite.[16][145][146] It is written in
Arabic and contains pieces of information about the resistance put up by the navy of Kunjali
Marakkar alongside the Zamorin of Calicut from 1498 to 1583 against Portuguese attempts to
colonize Malabar coast.[146][16] Thunchaththu Ezhuthachan, who is considered as the father of
modern Malayalam literature, was born at Tirur (Vettathunadu) during Portuguese period.[5] The
medieval Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics that flourished between the 14th and 16th
centuries, was also primarily based in Vettathunadu (Tirur region)[147][148]
The St. Angelo Fort at Kannur was built by the Portuguese in

1505, which was later captured by Dutch and Arakkal
kingdom.[149] The Portuguese Cemetery, Kollam (after the
invasion of Dutch, it became Dutch Cemetery) of Tangasseri in
Kollam city was constructed in around 1519 as part of the
Portuguese invasion in the city. Buckingham Canal (a small
canal between Tangasseri Lighthouse and the cemetery) is
situated very close to the Portuguese Cemetery.[150][151] A
Bekal Fort at Kasaragod built in
group of pirates known as the Pirates of Tangasseri formerly 1650 CE by Shivappa Nayaka.
lived at the Cemetery.[152] The remnants of St. Thomas Fort
and Portuguese Cemetery still exist at Tangasseri. The Muslim
line of Ali Rajas of Arakkal kingdom, near Kannur, who were the vassals of the Kolathiri, ruled over
the Lakshadweep islands.[153] The Bekal Fort near Kasaragod, which is also largest fort in the state,
was built in 1650 by Shivappa Nayaka of Keladi.[154]
French port in Kerala - Mahe
The French East India Company constructed a fort on the site

of Mahé in 1724, in accordance with an accord concluded
between André Mollandin and Raja Vazhunnavar of Badagara
three years earlier. In 1741, Mahé de La Bourdonnais retook the
town after a period of occupation by the Marathas.
In 1761 the British captured Mahé, India, and the settlement

was handed over to the Rajah of Kadathanadu. The British
restored Mahé, India to the French as a part of the 1763 Treaty Mappila Bay harbour at Ayikkara,
Kannur. On one side, there is St.
of Paris. In 1779, the Anglo-French war broke out, resulting in
Angelo Fort (built in 1505) and on
the French loss of Mahé, India. In 1783, the British agreed to the other side is Arakkal palace.
restore to the French their settlements in India, and Mahé,
India was handed over to the French in 1785.[155]
Dutch trade and influences

In 1602, the Zamorin sent messages to Aceh promising the
Dutch a fort at Kozhikode if they would come and trade there.
Two factors, Hans de Wolff and Lafer, were sent on an Asian
ship from Aceh, but the two were captured by the chief of
Tanur, and handed over to the Portuguese.[156] A Dutch fleet
under Admiral Steven van der Hagen arrived at Kozhikode in A 1744 map of Malabar Coast
November 1604. It marked the beginning of the Dutch (Malabar coast is on the left side).
presence in Kerala and they concluded a treaty with Kozhikode
on 11 November 1604, which was also the first treaty that the
Dutch East India Company made with an Indian ruler.[5] By
this time the kingdom and the port of Kozhikode was much
reduced in importance.[156] The treaty provided for a mutual
alliance between the two to expel the Portuguese from Malabar.
In return the Dutch East India Company was given facilities for
trade at Kozhikode and Ponnani, including spacious
storehouses.[156]
The weakened Portuguese were ousted by the Dutch East India Bolgatty Palace, built in 1744 by
Company, who took advantage of continuing conflicts between Dutch Malabar, also acted as the
British Residency in Kochi.
Kozhikode and Kochi to gain control of the trade. In 1664, the
municipality of Fort Kochi was established by Dutch Malabar,
making it the first municipality in the Indian subcontinent, which got dissolved when the Dutch
authority got weaker in the 18th century.[157] The Dutch Malabar (1661–1795) in turn were
weakened by their constant battles with Marthanda Varma of the Travancore Royal Family, and
were defeated at the Battle of Colachel in 1741, resulting in the complete eclipse of Dutch power in
Malabar. The Treaty of Mavelikkara was signed by the Dutch and Travancore in 1753, according to
which the Dutch were compelled to detach from all political involvements in the region. In the
meantime, Marthanda Varma annexed many smaller northern kingdoms through military
conquests, resulting in the rise of Travancore to a position of pre-eminence in Kerala.[158]
Travancore became the most dominant state in Kerala by defeating the powerful Zamorin of
Kozhikode in the Battle of Purakkad in 1763.[159]

In 1757, to
check the invasion of the Zamorin, the Palakkad Raja sought
the help of Hyder Ali of Mysore. In 1766, Haider Ali of Mysore
defeated the Samoothiri of Kozhikode and absorbed Kozhikode
to his state.[110]
The Kingdom of Mysore and British influences

The arrival of British on
Dutch commander De Lannoy
Malabar Coast can be surrenders to Marthanda Varma at
traced back to the year the Battle of Colachel (1741).
1615, when a group under Depiction at Padmanabhapuram
the leadership of Captain Palace.
William Keeling arrived at
Kozhikode, using three
ships.[5] It was in these
ships that Sir Thomas Roe
went to visit Jahangir, the
fourth Mughal emperor, as
British envoy.[5] The island Kanakakkunnu Palace at
of Dharmadom near Thiruvananthapuram.
Kannur, along with Thiruvananthapuram became a
This map includes Kerala in the Thalassery, was ceded to major city on Malabar Coast after
Southwestern region. The Kingdoms the ruler Marthanda Varma annexed
the East India Company as
of Travancore and Cochin are seen all minor kingdoms up to Cochin to
early as 1734, which were
in yellow. form Travancore in the 18th century
claimed by all of the
CE.
Kolattu Rajas, Kottayam
Rajas, and Arakkal Bibi in the late medieval period, where the
British initiated a factory and English settlement following the
cession.[128][160]
The smaller princely states in northern and north-central parts

of Kerala (Malabar region) including Kolathunadu, Kottayam,
Kadathanadu, Kozhikode, Tanur, Valluvanad, and Palakkad
were unified under the rulers of Mysore and were made a part
of the larger Kingdom of Mysore in the latter half of the 18th
century CE. Hyder Ali and his successor, Tipu Sultan, came Ponnani harbour in the mid-1930s.
into conflict with the British, leading to the four Anglo-Mysore

wars fought across southern India. Tipu Sultan ceded Malabar
District to the British in 1792 as a result of the Third Anglo-Mysore War and the subsequent Treaty
of Seringapatam, and South Kanara, which included present-day Kasargod District, in 1799. The
British concluded treaties of subsidiary alliance with the rulers of Cochin (1791) and Travancore
(1795), and these became princely states of British India, maintaining local autonomy in return for
a fixed annual tribute to the British. Malabar and South Kanara districts were part of British
India's Madras Presidency.
Kerala Varma Pazhassi Raja (Kerul Varma Pyche Rajah, Cotiote Rajah) (1753–1805) was the
Prince Regent and the de facto ruler of the Kingdom of Kottayam in Malabar, India between 1774
and 1805. He led the Pychy Rebellion (Wynaad Insurrection, Coiote War) against the English East
India Company. He is popularly known as Kerala Simham (Lion of Kerala). The municipalities of
Kozhikode, Palakkad, Fort Kochi, Kannur, and Thalassery, were founded on 1 November
1866[161][162][163][164] of the British Indian Empire, making them the first modern municipalities in
the state of Kerala.
Organised expressions of discontent with British rule were not uncommon in Kerala. Initially the
British had to suffer local resistance against their rule under the leadership of Kerala Varma
Pazhassi Raja, who had popular support in Thalassery-Wayanad region.[165] Other uprisings of
note include the rebellion by Velu Thampi Dalawa and the Punnapra-Vayalar revolt of 1946. The
Malabar Special Police was formed by the colonial government in 1884 headquartered at
Malappuram.[166] There were major revolts in Kerala during the independence movement in the
20th century; most notable among them is the 1921 Malabar Rebellion and the social struggles in
Travancore. In the Malabar Rebellion, Mappila Muslims of Malabar rebelled against the British
Raj.[167] The Battle of Pookkottur adorns an important role in the rebellion.[168] Some social
struggles against caste inequalities also erupted in the early decades of the 20th century, leading to
the 1936 Temple Entry Proclamation that opened Hindu temples in Travancore to all castes.[169]
Kerala also witnessed several social reforms movements directed at the eradication of social evils
such as untouchability among the Hindus, pioneered by reformists like Sri Narayana Guru,
Ayyankali and Chattambiswami among others. The non-violent and largely peaceful Vaikom
Satyagraha of 1924 was instrumental in securing entry to the public roads adjacent to the Vaikom
temple for people belonging to untouchable castes.
The Kingdom of Travancore

The Kingdom of Travancore was a kingdom in Central and Southern Kerala that existed from
ancient times until 1949. Until the reign of Marthanda Varma, the kingdom was known as Venad.
In the 11th century, Venad became a vassal of the Chola Empire. In the 16th century, Venad
became a vassal of the Vijayanagara Empire. In the late 18th century, Travancore made an alliance
with the British Empire and later became a British Protectorate.
Details of Chithira Thirunal's Rule and Reforms

The last ruling king of Travancore was Chithira Thirunal Balarama
Varma, who reigned from 1931 to 1949. "His reign marked
revolutionary progress in the fields of education, defence, economy
and society as a whole."[170] He made the famous Temple Entry
Proclamation on 12 November 1936, which opened all the Kshetrams
(Hindu temples in Kerala) in Travancore to all Hindus, a privilege
reserved to only upper-caste Hindus till then. This act won him
praise from across India, most notably from Mahatma Gandhi. The
first public transport system (Thiruvananthapuram–Mavelikkara)
and telecommunication system (Thiruvananthapuram Palace–
Mavelikkara Palace) were launched during the reign of Sree Chithira
Thirunal. He also started the industrialisation of the state, enhancing
A portrait of Chithira Thirunal
the role of the public sector. He introduced heavy industry in the
Balarama Varma, the last
ruling king of Travancore.
State and established giant public sector undertakings. As many as
twenty industries were established, mostly for utilizing the local raw
materials such as rubber, ceramics, and minerals. A majority of the
premier industries running in Kerala even today, were established by Sree Chithira Thirunal. He
patronized musicians, artists, dancers, and Vedic scholars. Sree Chithira Thirunal appointed, for
the first time, an Art Advisor to the Government, G. H. Cousins. He also established a new form of
University Training Corps, viz. Labour Corps, preceding the N.C.C., in the educational institutions.
The expenses of the university were to be met fully by the Government. Sree Chithira Thirunal also
built a palace named Kowdiar Palace, finished in 1934, which was previously an old Naluektu,
given by Sree Moolam Thirunal to his mother Sethu Parvathi Bayi in 1915.[171][172][173]
Controversial Policies of C.P. Ramaswami Iyer

However, his Prime Minister, C. P. Ramaswami Iyer, was unpopular
among the communists of Travancore. The tension between the
Communists and Sir C.P. Ramaswami Iyer led to minor riots in
various places of the country. In one such riot in Punnapra-Vayalar
in 1946, the Communist rioters established their own government in
the area. This was put down by the Travancore Army and Navy.
Attempted Independence of Travancore as a fully

sovereign nation
The Prime Minister issued a statement in June 1947 that Travancore
would remain as an independent country instead of joining the
A memorial of the Punnapra
Indian Union; subsequently, an attempt was made on the life of Sir Vayalar Uprising in the village
C.P. Ramaswamy Iyer, following which he resigned and left for of Kalarcode, which is
Madras, to be succeeded by Sri P.G.N. Unnithan. According to situated close to Alappuzha.
witnesses such as K.Aiyappan Pillai, constitutional adviser to the
Maharaja and historians like A. Sreedhara Menon, the rioters and
mob-attacks had no bearing on the decision of the Maharaja.[174][175]
Annexation into the Republic of India

After several rounds of discussions and negotiations between Sree Chithira Thirunal and V.P.
Menon, the King agreed that the Kingdom should accede to the Indian Union in 1949. On 1 July
1949 the Kingdom of Travancore was merged with the Kingdom of Cochin and the short-lived state
of Travancore-Kochi was formed.[176]
Republic of India era
Formation of the state of Kerala

The two kingdoms of Travancore and Cochin joined the Union of India after independence in 1947.
On 1 July 1949, the two states were merged to form Travancore-Cochin. On 1 January 1950,
Travancore-Cochin was recognised as a state. The Madras Presidency was reorganised to form
Madras State in 1947.
On 1 November 1956, the state of Kerala was formed by the States Reorganisation Act merging the
Malabar District (excluding the islands of Lakshadweep), Travancore-Cochin (excluding four
southern taluks, which were merged with Tamil Nadu), and the taluk of Kasargod, South
Kanara[177][178] with Thiruvananthapuram as the capital. In 1957, elections for the new Kerala
Legislative Assembly were held, and a reformist, Communist-

led government came to power, under E. M. S.
Namboodiripad.[178] It was one of the earliest communist
governments to be democratically elected to power, second
only to San Marino. It initiated pioneering land reforms,
aiming to lowering of rural poverty in Kerala. However, these
reforms were largely non-effective to mark a greater change in
the society as these changes were not effected to a large extent.
Lakhs of farms were owned by large establishments, companies
and estate owners. They were not affected by this move and
this was considered as a treachery as these companies and
estates were formed while Travancore was a vassal state of
Britain. Two things were the real reason for the reduction of
poverty in Kerala one was the policy for wide scale education
and second was the overseas migration for labour to Middle
A map of Kerala. East and other countries.[179][180]
Liberation struggle
The Government of Kerala refused to nationalise the large estates but did provide reforms to
protect manual labourers and farm workers, and invited capitalists to set up industry. Much more
controversial was an effort to impose state control on private schools, such as those run by the
Christians and the NSS, which enrolled 40% of the students. The Christians, NSS, Namputhiris,
and the Congress Party protested, with demonstrations numbering in the tens and hundreds of
thousands of people. The government controlled the police, which made 150,000 arrests (often the
same people arrested time and again), and used 248 lathi charges to beat back the demonstrators,
killing twenty. The opposition called on Prime Minister Jawaharlal Nehru to seize control of the
state government. Nehru was reluctant but when his daughter Indira Gandhi, the national head of
the Congress Party, joined in, he finally did so. New elections in 1959 cost the Communists most of
their seats and Congress resumed control.[181]
Coalition politics
Later in 1967–82 Kerala elected a series of leftist coalition governments; the most stable was that
led by Achutha Menon from 1969 to 1977.[182]
From 1967 to 1970, Kunnikkal Narayanan led a Naxalite movement in Kerala. The theoretical
difference in the communist party, i.e. CPM is the part of the uprising of Naxalbari movement in
Bengal which leads to the formation of CPI(ML) in India. Due to ideological differences the CPI-
ML split into several groups. Some groups choose to participate peacefully in electoralism, while
some choose to aim for violent revolution. The violence alienated public opinion.[183]
The political alliance have strongly stabilised in such a manner that, with rare exceptions, most of
the coalition partners stick their loyalty to the alliance. As a result, to this, ever since 1979, the
power has been clearly alternating between these two fronts without any change. Politics in Kerala
is characterised by continually shifting alliances, party mergers and splits, factionalism within the
coalitions and within political parties, and numerous splinter groups.[184]
Modern politics in Kerala is dominated by two political fronts: the Communist-led Left Democratic
Front (LDF) and the Indian National Congress-led United Democratic Front (UDF) since the late
1970s. These two parties have alternating in power since 1982. Most of the major political parties
in Kerala, except for the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), belong to one or the other of these two
alliances, often shifting allegiances a number of time.[184] As of the 2021 Kerala Legislative
Assembly election, the LDF has a majority in the state assembly seats (99/140).
See also
Culture of Kerala
Economy of Kerala
Geography of Kerala
Cuisine of Kerala
Notes
1. To corroborate his assertion that Eradi was in fact a favourite of the last Later Chera, M.G.S.
cites a stone inscription discovered at Kollam in southern Kerala. It refers to "Nalu Taliyum,
Ayiram, Arunurruvarum, Eranadu Vazhkai Manavikiraman, mutalayulla Samathararum" – "The
four Councillors, The Thousand, The Six Hundred, along with Mana Vikrama-the Governor of
Eralnadu and other Feudatories." M.G.S. indicates that Kozhikode lay in fact beyond and not
within the kingdom of Polanadu and there was no need of any kind of military movements for
Kozhikode.
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Further reading
Arun, Shoba (2017). Development and Gender Capital in India: Change, Continuity and
Conflict in Kerala. London, UK: Routledge. ISBN 978-1-13822-196-3.
Bayly, Susan (April 1984). "Hindu Kingship and the Origin of Community: Religion, State and
Society in Kerala, 1750–1850". Modern Asian Studies. 18 (2): 177–213.
doi:10.1017/S0026749X00014402 (https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026749X00014402).
Bijukumar, V. (2019). "Radicalised civil society and protracted political actions in Kerala (India):
a socio-political narrative". Asian Ethnicity. 20 (4): 503–521.
doi:10.1080/14631369.2019.1601005 (https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14631369.2019.1601005).
Bose, Satheese Chandra; Varughese, Shiju Sam, eds. (2015). Kerala Modernity: Ideas,
Spaces and Practices in Transition (https://web.archive.org/web/20150102071757/http://www.o
rientblackswan.com/display.asp?categoryID=0&isbn=978-8-1-250-5722-2). Hyderabad: Orient
Blackswan. ISBN 978-9-38639-265-7. Archived from the original (http://www.orientblackswan.c
om/display.asp?categoryID=0&isbn=978-81-2505-722-2) on 2 January 2015.
Dale, Stephen F. (1990). "Trade, Conversion and the Growth of the Islamic Community of
Kerala, South India". Studia Islamica (71): 155–175. doi:10.2307/1595642 (https://doi.org/10.2
307%2F1595642). JSTOR 1595642 (https://www.jstor.org/stable/1595642).
Dale, Stephen F. (December 1973). "Communal Relations in Pre-Modern India: 16th Century
Kerala". Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient. 16 (2/3): 319–327.
doi:10.1163/156852073X00184 (https://doi.org/10.1163%2F156852073X00184).
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7/12/24, 5:39 PM History of Kerala - Wikipedia

According to the Cheraman Juma Mosque and

Early ruling dynasties

Muziris, Tyndis, Naura, Berkarai, and Nelcynda were among

Formation of a multicultural society

Medieval and Early Modern periods

The Rise of Advaita

The Kingdom of Kozhikode

A political map of India in 1320 CE.

A panorama of port Kozhikode, shows several

Vijayanagara Empire Influences

The Kingdom of Venad

Cholas into Venad caused the destruction of Kollam in 1096.

The Legacy of Venad

The Kingdom of Kolathunadu

The kingdom of Kolathunadu, who were the descendants of

According to Kerala Muslim tradition, the North Malabar

The Kerala school of astronomy and mathematics

The maritime spice trade

and 17th centuries were selected from Vettom.[5]

The Portuguese took

The St. Angelo Fort at Kannur was built by the Portuguese in

French port in Kerala - Mahe

The French East India Company constructed a fort on the site

In 1761 the British captured Mahé, India, and the settlement

Dutch trade and influences

Kozhikode in the Battle of Purakkad in 1763.[159]

The Kingdom of Mysore and British influences

The smaller princely states in northern and north-central parts

into conflict with the British, leading to the four Anglo-Mysore

The Kingdom of Travancore

Details of Chithira Thirunal's Rule and Reforms

Controversial Policies of C.P. Ramaswami Iyer

Attempted Independence of Travancore as a fully

Annexation into the Republic of India

Republic of India era

Formation of the state of Kerala

Legislative Assembly were held, and a reformist, Communist-

8. Sturrock, J. (1894). Madras District Manuals – South Canara (Volume I) (https://archive.org/det

27. Sreedhara Menon, A. (2007). A Survey of Kerala History (https://books.google.com/books?id=F

47. Kapoor, Subodh (2002). The Indian Encyclopaedia (https://books.google.com/books?id=gxIpYt

64. Sreedhara Menon, A. (2007). A Survey of Kerala History (https://books.google.com/books?id=F

100. "The Buddhist History of Kerala" (https://web.archive.org/web/20010321010740/http://www.ker

120. Sreedhara Menon, A. (2007). A Survey of Kerala History (https://books.google.com/books?id=F

152. "A brief history of Tangasseri" (https://web.archive.org/web/20131122170529/http://rotarytangas

the original (https://pdfs.semanticscholar.org/bb69/0ec821cbf616d266feb7bf9146808c7d6246.

Historiography and memory

People's History. 5 (1): 13–31. doi:10.1177/2348448918759852 (https://doi.org/10.1177%2F23

Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_Kerala&oldid=1228456406"

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