SQL SERVER

-----------

1.SQL ( Structured query language )

2.Def:It is a collection of pre defined commands, Operators, concepts, clauses,
objects and Built in functions.
3.It is the own language of any data base.
4.It is used to communicate with any database.
5.By using this language we can write english like statements, called QUERIES.
6.We will write these queries in any client tool and execute them,then we will get
result from database.

Data :
------
Data is nothing but a collection of facts & figures .

Ex:
---
list of customers,student marks.......

information :
-------------
an information is processed data.
or
(converting un-organized data into organized format is called information.)
Which is Collected Together and Stored in Separate Place for Future
Analysis/Reporting Purpose.

Ex :
invoice of customer,marks sheet...

Database:
---------
DataBase is a collection of related data.That related data is organised,so that it
can be easily Accessed,Managed and Updated.

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In Older Days---> Record Books -------> It is not possible to store the data
for longer peiod

Ex: I stared a Business from last 3 years

I have maintain 1 year 1 book , like 2021,2022,2023,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,

In Later Days ---> Flat File like (Excel,csv,Google Sheet)--->It is not possible
to store the huge volumes of data

Now a days ---> Data Base Software Systems

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Types of DataBase SoftWare Systems
----------------------------------
1.DBMS
2.RDBMS

These are used store Data(it is like Memory)

DBMS(Data Base Management System)

---------------------------------

DBMS is Software Which is used to store the DATA and allows the users to
define,create ,maintain and control the access to the DataBase

Note : In DBMS Software it is not Possible to create the Relationships B/W the Two
tables

RDBMS(Ralational Data Base Management System)

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RDBMS is a Software which is used to Store the Data and Allows the Users to
Define,create,Maintain and Control the Access to the DataBase

Note : In RDBMS Software it is Possible to create the Relationships B/W the Two
tables

in rdbms data stored in multiple tables,each table have set of columns and
rows

SQL databases :-

SQL SERVER microsoft

ORACLE oracle
DB2 ibm
MySQL
POSTGRESQL postgresql forum development

NoSQL databases :-

MongoDB
cassandra

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=> SQL SERVER is a rdbms (relational database management system) product from
microsoft which is used to create and to manage database.

=> SQL SERVER used for db development and administration.

Development Administration

creating tables installation of sql server

creating views creating database
 creating synonyms creating logins
creating sequences db backup & restore
creating indexes db export & import
creating stored procedures db upgrdation & migration
creating stored functions db mirroring & replication
creating triggers performance tuning
writing queries

SOFTWARES
SQL SERVER 2012 / 2014 / 2016 / 2017 / 2019 EE EDITION / DEVLOPER EDITION
SQL SERVER MANAGEMENT STUDIO [SSMS]

EDITIONS
ENTERPRISE EDITION, ENTERPRISE EVALUATION EDITION
DEVLOPER EDITION
BI EDITION, WEB EDITION
EXPRESS EDITION

versions of sql server :-

-------------------------

version year

SQL SERVER 1.1 1991

SQL SERVER 4.2 1993
SQL SERVER 6.0 1995
SQL SERVER 6.5 1996
SQL SERVER 7.0 1998
SQL SERVER 2000 2000
SQL SERVER 2005 2005
SQL SERVER 2008 2008
SQL SERVER 2012 2012
SQL SERVER 2014 2014
SQL SERVER 2016 2016
SQL SERVER 2017 2017
SQL SERVER 2019 2019

sql server 2016 :-

1 polybase
2 json
3 temporal table to save data changes.
4 dynamic data masking and row level security

sql server 2017 :-

1 identity cache
2 New String functions
3 Automatic Tuning

sql server 2019 :-

1 Read, write, and process big data from Transact-SQL

2 Easily combine and analyze high-value relational data with high-volume big data.
3 Query external data sources.
4 Store big data in HDFS managed by SQL Server.
5 Query data from multiple external data sources through the cluster.
SQL SERVER INSTALLATION
-----------------------
1. SQL SERVER SOFTWARE ==> SQL SERVER 2017 [DEVLOPER EDITION]
2. SQL SERVER MANAGEMENT STUDIO
3. WINRAR SOFTWARE FOR UNZIP THE DOWNLOADED FOLDER [www.filehippo.com]

Q. HOW MANY TIMES WE CAN INSTALL SQL SERVER ON A SINGLE OS ?

A. 50 TIMES ON A SINGLE OS
EACH INSTALLATION OF SQL SERVER IS CALLED INSTANCE
DEFAULT INSTANCE (1)
SERVER NAME : <MACHINE-NAME>
SERVER NAME : TALENT-PC
NAMED INSTANCE (49)
SERVER NAME : <MACHINE-NAME>\<INSTANCE-NAME>
TALENT-PC\SQL_SERVER_OCT

SQL SERVER COMPONENTS

SQL SERVER DATABASE ENGINE
SSIS ENGINE : INTEGRATION SERVICES
SSAS ENGINE : ANALYSIS SERVICES
SSRS ENGINE : REPORTING SERVICES

SERVICE : A COMMUNICATION PATH BETWEEN OS AND SQL SERVER APPLICATION

SQL SERVER REQUIRES MULTIPLE SERVICES BASED ON COMPONENTS

SQL SERVER DATABASE ENGINE
SQL SERVER SERVICE
SQL SERVER AGENT
FULL TEXT SEARCH SERVICE
SSIS ENGINE : INTEGRATION SERVICES
SQL SERVER INTEGRATION SERVICES SERVICE
SSAS ENGINE : ANALYSIS SERVICES
SQL SERVER ANALYSIS SERVICES SERVICE
SSRS ENGINE : REPORTING SERVICES
SQL SERVER REPORTING SERVICES SERVICE

AUTHENTICATION : A COMMUNICATION PATH B/W SQL SERVER APPLICATION AND END USERS

WINDOWS AUTHENTICATION : VALID WINDOWS USER CAN HAVE PERMISSION

SQL AUTHENTICATION : SQL SERVER CAN STORE ITS ACCESS INFO.

VERIFICATION OF SQL SERVER :

START --> ALL PROGRAMS --> SQL SERVER 2017 TOOLS --> SQL SERVER MANAGEMENT STUDIO

SERVER TYPE : DATABASE ENGINE

SERVER NAME : TALENT-PC\SQL_SERVER_OCT
AUTHENTICATION : WINDOWS AUTHENTICATION

CONNECT
NOTE : DURING INSTALLATION, A SET OF FIVE SYSTEM DATABASES ARE AUTO CREATED

1. MASTER
CONTROLS USER CONNECTIONS TO THE SERVER
2. MODEL
THIS DATABASE IS LIKE TEMPLATE FOR NEW DATABASES WHICH WE CREATE ON SERVER
3. MSDB
THIS DATABASE IS USED BY DBAs FOR REPAIRS, AUDITS, TROUBLESHOOTING, JOBS,
EMAILS ETC
4. TEMPDB
THIS DATABASE IS USED BY DEVLOPERS FOR QUERY OPERATIONS AND TEMPORARY DATA
STORAGE
5. RESOURCES
HIDDEN. READ-ONLY DATABASE
CONTROLS ALL ABOVE DATABASES

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client/server architecture :-
-----------------------------

1 SERVER
2 CLIENT

SERVER :-
----------

=> server is a system where sql server software is installed and running
=> inside the server sql server manages databases
=> sql server recieves requests from client and process the requests

CLIENT :-
-------

=> client is a sytem where users can

1 connects to server
2 submit requests to server
3 recieves response from server

client tool :-

SSMS (sql server management studio)

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SQL
SQL------->Structured Query Language or sequel

Def : SQL is a Structured Query Language which is specially Designed to

Communicate with the DataBases
it is programing Laguage,it is used to interact with relational database or
RDBMS.

=> user communicates with sql server by sending commands called queries.
 => a query is a command / instruction submitted to sql server to perform some
operation over db

Note : SQL is not a Case Sensitive Language

SQL software will acts as a Backend Tool which is used to develop the Backend
Applications and to store the datain the form of Table

SQL is originally introduced by IBM and initial name of this lang was SEQUEL
and later it is renamed to SQL.

SQL-----> Developed ----> IBM--->1972--->DBMS Product

MS SQL Server

Def : SQL Server is a Structured Query Language which is specially Designed to

Communicate with the DataBases

SQL Server---->Developed ----> MicroSoft --->1989----> RDBMS Product

MS SQL Server---> ANSI SQL + T-SQL (ANSI-American National Standard

Institutes )

T-SQL

T-SQL : Transact SQL

T-SQL --> Developed -->Microsoft --->1989----->OORDBMS(Obeject oriented)

T-SQL is a programing Language

it is used to build the logics to get the client requriments

SQL server can be either installed on your computer with windows or linux os

MS Office - SQL SERVER

Excel file - DATABASE
Sheet contains data - TABLES CONTAIN DATA

=> SQL is common to all relational databases.

SQL SERVER ORACLE MYSQL POSTGRESQL DB2

SQL SQL SQL SQL SQL

how to connect to sql server :-

-------------------------------

=> to connect to sql server open SSMS and enter following details
 server type :- db engine
server name :- WINCTRL-F9B3VH5\SQLEXPRESS
authentication :- sql server authentication
login :- SA (system admin)
password :- 123

*WHAT ARE THE TYPES OF DATABASES ?

1. OLTP : ONLINE TRANSACTION PROCESSING DATABASES(LIVE DATA, CURRENT DATA, BUSINESS
DATA)
2. DWH : DATA WAREHOUSING DATABASES (TO STORE HISTORICAL DATA, INACTIVE DATA)
3. OLAP : ONLINE ANALYTICAL PROCESSING DATABASES (TO STORE BIG DATA FOR ANALYSIS /
FORECASTS)
4. HTAP : HYBRID TRANSACTIONAL & ANALYTICAL DATABASES (1 + 2 + 3)

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=> based on operations over db SQL is categorized into following Sub-Languages.

=> SQL is divided into 5 types of Sub Languages based on nature of commands.

DDL (DATA DEFINITION LANGUAGE)

DML (DATA MANIPULATION LANG)
DRL (DATA RETRIEVAL LANG)
TCL (TRANSACTION CONTROL LANG)
DCL (DATA CONTROL LANG)

1) DDL ( data definition language ) commands:

Used to create or change or delete any data base objects

CREATE ALTER DROP

TRUNCATE RENAME

2) DML ( data manipulation language )COMMANDS

Used to enter new data/ changing old data / deleting the data
from table.

INSERT UPDATE DELETE

3) DRL/DQL ( data retreival/Query language) Command

SELECT ( logical command )

4) DCL ( DATA CONTROL LANGUAGE ) COMMANDS

Used to control the access of data base objects .

These commands are used by DBA ( database administrator )

GRANT REVOKE

5) TCL ( TRANSACTION CONTROL LANGUAGE )COMMANDS

Used to save or cancel the actions made on table data.

COMMIT ROLLBACK SAVEPOINT

SQL

DDL DML DRL TCL DCL

create insert select commit grant
alter update rollback revoke
drop delete save transaction
truncate merge

empid ename sal data definition / metadata

100 a 9000 data

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CREATE DATABASE:
---------------
The CREATE DATABASE statement is used to create a new SQL database.

Tip: Make sure you have admin privilege before creating any database.
Once a database is created, you can check it in the list of databases with the
following SQL command: SHOW DATABASES;

How to Create Data Base:

-----------------------
we can create DataBase in two Ways
1.Through Graphical
2.Through Command

Through Graphical
-----------------
1.First Connect To server
2.in object explorer select Databases,Right Click On Databases
3.Select New DataBase and give your DataBase Name
Enter Database Name :- DB7PM
4.Click On Ok.

=> a New Database is created with following two files

1 DATA FILE (.MDF) MDF => master data file

2 LOG FILE (.LDF) LDF => log data file

=> Data File stores data and Log file stores operations

Name Type Size Autoextend path

DB7PM DATA 8MB 64MB C:\Program Files\Microsoft SQL Server\
MSSQL14.SQLEXPRESS\MSSQL\DATA\
DB7PM_LOG LOG 8MB 64MB C:\Program Files\Microsoft SQL Server\
MSSQL14.SQLEXPRESS\MSSQL\DATA\
Through Command
---------------
=> open master database and execute the following command

Syntax: Create Database DataBase_Name;

Ex : Create database mydatabase;
CREATE DATABASE SALESDB;

Drop Database:
--------------
The DROP DATABASE statement is used to drop an existing SQL database.

Cannot drop database "database1" because it is currently in use.

Note:we can select another database to drop curent Database.same database is not
possible.

Syntax:
----------
DROP DATABASE databasename;

Example:
-------------
DROP DATABASE testDB;
DROP DATABASE testDB1,testDB2,testDB3;

Rename the Database:

--------------------

Syntax1:
alter database Old_database_name
modify name=New_Database_Name;

Example:
alter database database1
modify name=sampledb;

Example:Using Stored Procedure

sp_renamedb 'sampledb','sample';--Using Stored Procedure Rename the Database

sp_renamedb 'sample','sampledb';--Using Stored Procedure Rename the Database

BACKUP DATABASE for SQL Server

------------------------------
The BACKUP DATABASE statement is used in SQL Server to create a full back up of an
existing SQL database.

Syntax:
-------
BACKUP DATABASE databasename
TO DISK = 'filepath';

Example:
-------
BACKUP DATABASE testDB
TO DISK = 'D:\backups\testDB.bak';

The SQL BACKUP WITH DIFFERENTIAL Statement

A differential back up only backs up the parts of the database that have changed
since the last full database backup.

Syntax:
----------
BACKUP DATABASE databasename
TO DISK = 'filepath'
WITH DIFFERENTIAL;

Tip: Always back up the database to a different drive than the actual database.
Then, if you get a disk crash, you will not lose your backup file along with the
database.

The following SQL statement creates a differential back up of the database

"testDB":

Example:
-------------
BACKUP DATABASE testDB
TO DISK = 'D:\backups\testDB.bak'
WITH DIFFERENTIAL;

Tip: A differential back up reduces the back up time (since only the changes are
backed up).

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Datatypes in SQL SERVER :-

---------------------------

=> a datatype specifies

1 type of the data allowed

2 amount of memory should be allocated

DATATYPES
 CHAR INTEGER FLOAT CURRENCY DATE
BINARY

ASCII UNICODE tinyint decimal(p,s) smallmoney date

binary
char nchar smallint money time
varbinary
varchar nvarchar int datetime
varbinary(max)
varchar(max) nvarchar(max) bigint

char(size) :-
-------------

=> allows character data upto 8000 chars

=> recommeded for fixed length char columns

EX :- NAME CHAR(10)

SACHIN----
wasted

RAVI------
wasted

=> in char datatype extra bytes are wasted , so char is not recommended for
variable
length fields and it is recommended for fixed length fields.

STATE_CODE CHAR(2)

AP
TS
MH
UP

COUNTRY_CODE CHAR(3)

IND
USA

VARCHAR(SIZE) :-
-----------------

=> allows character data upto 8000 chars

=> recommended for variable length fields

ex :- NAME VARCHAR(10)

SACHIN----
released

RAVI------
released

=> in varchar extra bytes are releases so varchar is recommended for variable
length fields

VARCHAR(MAX) :-
 ---------------

=> allows character data upto 2GB

NOTE :- CHAR/VARCHAR/VARCHAR(MAX) allows ascii characters (256 chars) that

includes
a-z,A-Z,0-9,special chars i.e. CHAR/VARCHAR/VARCHAR(MAX) allows
alphanumeric
data.

PANNO CHAR(10)
PASSWORD VARCHAR(12)
EMAILID VARCHAR(20)

NCHAR/NVARCHAR/NVARCHAR(MAX) :-
--------------------------------

=> allows unicode characters (65536 chars) that includes ascii chars & characters
belongs to different languages.

Integer Types :-
-----------------

=> integer types allows exact numbers i.e. numbers without decimal places

TINYINT 1 BYTE 0 TO 255

SMALLINT 2 BYTES -32768 TO 32767
INT 4 BYTES -2,147,483,648 to 2,147,483,647
BIGINT 8 BYTES -9,223,372,036,854,775,808 to 9,223,372,036,854,775,807

ex :- AGE TINYINT
EMPID SMALLINT
AADHARNO BIGINT

DECIMAL(P,S) :-

=> allows real numbers i.e. numbers with decimal part.

P => precision => total no of digits allowed

S => scale => no of digits allowed after decimal

ex :- SALARY DECIMAL(7,2)

5000
5000.50
50000.50
500000.50 => not accepted

5000.507 => accepted => 5000.51

5000.503 => accepted => 5000.50

CURRENCY TYPES :-
-----------------

=> currency types are used for fields related to money

 SMALLMONEY 4 BYTES - 214,748.3648 to 214,748.3647
MONEY 8 BYTES -922,337,203,685,477.5808 to
922,337,203,685,477.5807

EX :- SALARY SMALLMONEY
BALANCE MONEY

DATE & TIME :-

-------------

DATE => allows only dates

TIME => allows only time
DATETIME => allows date & time

=> default date format in sql server is yyyy-mm-dd

=> default time format in sql server is hh:mi:ss

ex :- DOB DATE

1995-10-15

LOGIN TIME

10:00:00

TXNDATE DATETIME

2021-07-24 11:00:00

BINARY TYPES :-
---------------

=> binary types allows binary data that includes audio,video,images

binary
varbinary
varbinary(max)

binary :-
----------

=> allows binary data upto 8000 bytes

=> extra bytes are wasted

ex :- PHOTO BINARY(5000)

varbinary :-
------------

=> allows binary data upto 8000 bytes

=> extra bytes are released

ex :- PHOTO VARBINARY(5000)

varbinary(MAX) :-
-----------------

=> allows binary data upto 2GB.

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DDL commands :- (Data Definition Language)

--------------- ----------------------------

create
alter
drop
truncate

=> DDL commands acts on table structure that includes columns,datatype and size

CREATE TABLE Statement:

----------------------
The CREATE TABLE statement is used to create a new table in a database.

How to Create Table:

-------------------
we can create DataBase in two Ways
1.Through Command
2.Through Graphical

Through Graphical
-----------------
1.First Connect To server
2.Select your Databases
3.Expand your Database
4.right click on table and select New
5.select Table
6.Enter Coloumns Names and Data Types
7.Click On Save and it will Ask Table Name and enter Table Name
4.Click On Ok.

Through Command:
---------------
First select your DataBase.
Click On New Query

Syntax:

CREATE TABLE <TABNAME>

(
COLNAME DATATYPE(SIZE),
COLNAME DATATYPE(SIZE),
COLNAME DATATYPE(SIZE),
----------------

)
 Rules :-
---------

1 tabname should start with alphabet

2 tabname should not contain spaces & special chars but allows _,#,$
3 tabname can be upto max 128 chars
4 table can have upto 1024 columns
5 table can have unlimited rows

emp123 valid
123emp invalid
emp 123 invalid
emp*123 invalid
emp_123 valid

Example :-

create table with following structure ?

EMP
EMPID ENAME JOB SAL AGE HIREDATE

CREATE TABLE EMP

(
EMPID SMALLINT,
ENAME VARCHAR(10),
JOB VARCHAR(10),
SAL SMALLMONEY,
AGE TINYINT,
HIREDATE DATE
)

CREATE TABLE Persons

(
PersonID int,
LastName varchar(255),
FirstName varchar(255),
Address varchar(255),
City varchar(255)
);

=> above command creates table structure that includes columns,datatype & size

SP_HELP :- command to see the structure of the table

SP => stored procedure

syn :- SP_HELP <TABNAME>

Ex :- SP_HELP EMP

EMPID smallint no 2
ENAME varchar no 10
JOB varchar no 10
SAL smallmoney no 4
 AGE tinyint no 1
HIREDATE date no 3

ALTER command :-
----------------

=> command used to modify the table structure

=> using ALTER command we can

1 add column
2 drop column
3 modify a column
1 changing size
2 changing datatype

-->Adding new columns------------------ADD

-->Deleting existed columns------------DROP COLUMN
-->Changing column name ---------------RENAME COLUMN
-->Changing size /datatype-------------MODIFY
-->Change table name-------------------RENAME TO

Adding a column :-
------------------
To add a column in a table, use the following

Syntax:
-------
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD column_name datatype;

Alter Table <table_name>

ADD
(
<col_1> datatype(size),
<col_2> datatype(size),
---
---
);

=> add column AGE to emp table ?

ALTER TABLE emp

ADD age TINYINT

=>add column gender and mobile number

alter table cust

add
(
gender char,
mobile number(10)
 );

NOTE :- after adding column ,by default the new column is filled with NULLs , so
to insert data into this new column use update command.

UPDATE emp SET age = 60 WHERE empno=7369

Droping column :-
----------------
To delete a column in a table

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP COLUMN column_name;

=> drop column age from emp table ?

ALTER TABLE emp

DROP COLUMN age

=> delete customer id column

alter table cust

drop column cid;

Modifyig a column :-
--------------------
To change the data type of a column in a table

syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ALTER COLUMN column_name datatype;

=> increase the size of ename to 20 ?

ALTER TABLE emp

ALTER COLUMN ename VARCHAR(20)

=> decrease size of ename to 10 ?

ALTER TABLE emp

ALTER COLUMN ename VARCHAR(10)

ALTER TABLE emp

ALTER COLUMN ename VARCHAR(5) => ERROR because some names contains
more than 5 chars
=> change the datatype of sal column to money ?

ALTER TABLE emp

ALTER COLUMN sal MONEY

ALTER TABLE emp

ALTER COLUMN empno TINYINT => ERROR because values in empno column
not in tinyint range
=>Change the datatype of DOB date to Year?

ALTER TABLE Persons

ADD DateOfBirth date;
 ALTER TABLE Persons
ALTER COLUMN DateOfBirth year;

=>Changing table name

syn:
alter table <table_name>
RENAME TO <new table name>;

DROP command :-
------------------

=> command used to remove the table from database.

=> drop command drops table structure with data.

SYN :- DROP TABLE <tabname>

EX :- DROP TABLE EMP

TRUNCATE command :-
-------------------

=> deletes all the data from table but keeps structure.
=> will empty the table.
=> it cannot deletes the partial data from a table.
=> Here the deletion is permanent .
=> we cannot get back deleted data.
=> releases memory allocated for table.
=> when we issue truncate command sql server goes to db and releases all the pages
allocated for table , when pages are released , data stored in pages are also
deleted.

syn :- TRUNCATE TABLE <tabname>

ex :- TRUNCATE TABLE student

DROP VS DELETE VS TRUNCATE :-

------------------------------

DROP DELETE TRUNCATE

1 DDL command DML command DDL command

2 drops structure deletes only data deletes only data

with data but not structure but not structure

DELETE VS TRUNCATE :-
---------------------

DELETE TRUNCATE

1 DML command DDL command

2 can delte specific row/rows deletes only all rows but

cant' delete specific rows

3 where cond can be used with delete where cond cannot be used with
truncate
 4 deletes row-by-row deletes all rows at a time

5 slower faster

6 will not release memory releases memory

7 will not reset identity will reset identity

SP_RENAME :-

=> used to change tablename or column name

SP_RENAME 'old name','new name'

=> rename table EMP to EMPLOYEES ?

SP_RENAME 'EMP','EMPLOYEES'

=> rename column comm to bonus ?

SP_RENAME 'EMPLOYEES.COMM','BONUS'

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DML (Data Manipulation Language) commands :-

--------------------------------------------

INSERT
UPDATE
DELETE
MERGE

TABLE = STRUCTURE(COLUMNS) + DATA(ROWS)

DDL DML

=> all DML commands acts on table data

=> in SQL SERVER all commands are implicitly saved.
=> to turn off this auto save execute the following command

SET IMPLICIT_TRANSACTIONS ON

=> after executing above command every operation should be explicitly saved.
=> to save the operation execute COMMIT command
=> to cancel the operation execute ROLLBACK command.

INSERTING DATA INTO TABLE :-

---------------------------

=> insert command is used to insert data into table

=> using insert command we can insert
 1 single row
2 multiple rows

inserting single row :-

-----------------------

syn :- INSERT INTO <tabname> VALUES(v1,v2,v3,---)

ex :- INSERT INTO emp VALUES(100,'sachin','clerk',6000,40,'2021-01-01')

INSERT INTO emp VALUES(101,'vijay','manager',8000,35,GETDATE())

inserting multiple rows :-

---------------------------

INSERT INTO emp VALUES(102,'ravi','analyst',10000,40,'2020-10-05'),

(103,'ajay','clerk',5000,30,GETDATE())

inserting nulls :-
-------------------

=> a NULL means blank or empty

=> it is not equal to 0 or space
=> nulls can be inserted in two ways

method 1 :-

INSERT INTO emp VALUES(104,'satish',NULL,6000,NULL,GETDATE())

method 2 :-

INSERT INTO emp(empid,ename,job,hiredate)

VALUES(105,'vinod','analyst',GETDATE())

=> remaining two fields sal,age filled with nulls

Displaying Data :-
------------------

=> "SELECT" command is used to display data from table.

=> using SELECT command we can display all columns or specific columns
=> using SELECT command we can display all rows or specific rows

syn :- SELECT columns/* FROM tabname

FROM clause => used to specify tablename

SELECT clause => used to specify columns
* => all columns

SQL = ENGLISH

queries = sentences

clauses = words

=> display all the data from emp table ?

SELECT * FROM emp

 => display employee names and salaries ?

SELECT ename,sal FROM emp

=> display names ,jobs and hiredate ?

SELECT ename,job,sal FROM emp

UPDATE command :-
-----------------

=> command used to modify the data in a table.

=> we can update all rows or specific rows
=> we can update all columns or specific columns

syn :- UPDATE tabname

SET colname = VALUE , colname = value,-----------
[WHERE condition]

=> update all employees comm with 500 ?

UPDATE emp SET comm = 500

=> update employee comm with 500 whose empno=7369 ?

UPDATE emp SET comm=500 WHERE empno=7369

=> update employees comm to 500 whose comm = null ?

UPDATE emp SET comm=500 WHERE comm IS NULL

=>update employees comm to 500 and sal to 50000 whose empno to 4584

Update emp SET comm=500 and sal=50000 WHERE empno=7369

=> increment sal by 20% and comm by 10% those working as salesman and joined in
1981 year ?

UPDATE emp
SET sal=sal+(sal*20/100),comm=comm+(comm*10/100)
WHERE job='SALESMAN'
AND
hiredate LIKE '1981%'

DELETE command :-
------------------

=> command used to delete row/rows from table

=> we can delete all rows or specific rows

syn :- DELETE FROM <tabname> [WHERE cond]

=> delete all rows from emp table ?

DELETE FROM emp

 => delete employees joined in 1980 year ?

DELETE FROM emp WHERE hiredate LIKE '1980%'

=> delete employee whose empno=7844 ?

DELETE FROM emp WHERE empno=7844

=> delete employees not earning comm ?

DELETE FROM emp WHERE comm IS NULL

--------------------------------------------------------------
****************************************-------------------------------------------
--------------------

Operators in SQL SERVER :- an operator is a special symbol or resureved word.

---------------------------

1 Arithmetic Operators => + - * / %

2 Relational Operators => > >= < <= = <>
3 Logical Operators => AND OR NOT
4 Special Operators => BETWEEN
IN
LIKE
IS
ANY
ALL
EXISTS
PIVOT

5 Set Operators => UNION

UNION ALL
INTERSECT
EXCEPT

WHERE clause :-
----------------
=>The Where clause is used to filter the Records.
=> used to get specific row/rows from table based on a condition

Syntax:
SELECT columns
FROM tabname
WHERE condition

condition :-

COLNAME OPERATOR VALUE

Note:
1.for text values required single Quotes
2.for numeric values should not be in Quotes

OPERATOR must be any relational operator like > >= < <= = <>

=> if condition = true row is selected

 => if condition = false row is not selected

=> display employee details whose empid=103 ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE empid=103

=> display employee details whose name = vijay ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename='vijay'

=> display employee details earning more than 8000 ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal > 8000

=> display employee details joined after 2020 ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE hiredate > 2020 => ERROR

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE hiredate > '2020-12-31'

compound condition :-
---------------------

=> multiple conditions combined with AND / OR operators is called compound

condition

WHERE COND1 AND COND2 RESULT

T T T
T F F
F T F
F F F

WHERE COND1 OR COND2 RESULT

T T T
T F T
F T T
F F F

=> display list of employee working as clerk,manager ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job='clerk' OR job='manager'

=> display employees whose empid=100,103,105 ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE empid=100 OR empid=103 OR empid=105

=> display employees working as clerk and earning more than 5000 ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job='clerk' AND sal>5000

=> display employees age between 30 and 40 ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE age>=30 AND age<=40

=> display employees joined in 2020 year ?

 SELECT * FROM emp WHERE hiredate >= '2020-01-01' AND hiredate <= '2020-12-31'

scenario :-

CREATE TABLE student

(
sno tinyint,
sname varchar(10),
s1 tinyint,
s2 tinyint,
s3 tinyint
)

INSERT INTO student VALUES(1,'A',80,90,70),(2,'B',30,60,50)

STUDENT
SNO SNAME S1 S2 S3
1 A 80 90 70
2 B 30 60 50

=> display list of students who are passed ?

SELECT * FROM student WHERE s1>=35 AND s2>=35 AND s3>=35

=> display list of students who are failed ?

SELECT * FROM student WHERE s1<35 OR s2<35 OR s3<35

IN operator :-
---------------

=> use IN operator for list comparision.

WHERE COLNAME = V1,V2,V3 => INVALID

WHERE COLNAME IN (V1,V2,V3,--) (WHERE COL=V1 OR COL=V2 OR COL=V3)

WHERE COLNAME NOT IN (V1,V2,V3,---)

=> display employees working as clerk,manager ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job IN ('clerk','manager')

=> display employees whose empid=100,103,105 ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE empid IN (100,103,105)

=> display employees not working as clerk,manager ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job NOT IN ('clerk','manager')

BETWEEN OPERATOR :-
-------------------
 => use BETWEEN for range comparision

10,20,30,40,50 LIST

1O TO 50 RANGE

syn :- WHERE COLNAME BETWEEN V1 AND V2 (WHERE COL>=V1 AND COL<=V2)

WHERE COLNAME NOT BETWEEN V1 AND V2

=> employees earning between 5000 and 10000 ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal BETWEEN 5000 AND 10000

=> employees whose age between 30 and 40 ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE age BETWEEN 30 AND 40

=> employees not joined in 2021 year ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE hiredate NOT BETWEEN '2021-01-01' AND '2021-12-31'

scenario :-

TRANSACTIONS
TRID TTYPE TDATE TAMT ACCNO
1 W 28- 2000 100
2 D 29- 1000 101

=> display last one week transactions of customer 100 ?

SELECT *
FROM TRANSACTIONS
WHERE TDATE BETWEEN GETDATE()-7 AND GETDATE()
AND
ACCNO=100

Question :-

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal BETWEEN 10000 AND 5000

A ERROR
B RETURNS NO ROWS
C RETURN ROWS
D NONE

ANS :- B

WHERE SAL BETWEEN 5000 AND 10000 (SAL>=5000 AND SAL<=10000)

WHERE SAL BETWEEN 10000 AND 5000 (SAL>=10000 AND SAL<=5000)

NOTE :- use BETWEEN operator with lower and upper but not with upper and lower

=> display employees working as clerk,manager and earing between 5000 and 10000
and age between 30 and 40 and joined in 2021 year
 SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE job IN ('clerk','manager')
AND
sal BETWEEN 5000 AND 10000
AND
age BETWEEN 30 AND 40
AND
hiredate BETWEEN '2021-01-01' AND '2021-12-31'

scenario :-

PRODUCTS
prodid pname price category brand

=> display mobiles price between 10000 and 20000 and brand =
samsung,realme,redmi ?

SELECT *
FROM products
WHERE category='mobiles'
AND
price between 10000 and 20000
AND
brand IN ('samsung','redmi','realme')

2
CUSTOMERS
cid name addr gender age city state

=> list of customers male living in hyd,mum,del,blr age between 25 and 40 ?

SELECT *
FROM customers
WHERE gender='male'
AND
city in ('hyd','del','mum','blr')
AND
age BETWEEN 25 AND 40

LIKE operator :-
-----------------

=> use LIKE operator for pattern comparision.

WHERE COLNAME LIKE 'PATTERN'

WHERE COLNAME NOT LIKE 'PATTERN'

=> pattern contains alphabets (a-z),digits (0-9),wildcard characters

 wildcard chars :-
-----------------

% => 0 or many chars

_ => exactly 1 char

=> display employee list name starts with 's' ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE 's%'

=> display employee list name ends with 'd' ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE '%d'

=> display employee list name contains 'a' ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE '%a%'

=> display employee list where 'a' is 3rd char in their name ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE '__a%'

=> display employee list where 'a' is 3rd char from last ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE '%a__'

=> display employee list name contains 4 chars ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE '____'

=> display employee joined in oct month ?

yyyy-mm-dd

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE hiredate LIKE '_____10___'

=> display employees joined in 2020 year ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE hiredate LIKE '2020%'

Question :-

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job IN ('clerk','%man%')

A ERROR
B RETURNS ONLY CLERK RECORDS
C RETURNS CLERK & MANAGER RECORDS
D NONE

ANS :- B

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job IN ('clerk','%man%')

or
job LIKE '%man%'

ANS :- C
IS operator :-
--------------
IS NULL : This Operator is used to Test for NULL values(whether column having Null
values or Not)

=> use IS operato for NULL comparision

WHERE COLNAME IS NULL

WHERE COLNAME IS NOT NULL

=> display employees whose age = null ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE age = NULL => no rows

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE age IS NULL

=> display employees whose age <> null ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE age IS NOT NULL

summary :-

WHERE COL IN (V1,V2,V3,--)

WHERE COL BETWEEN V1 AND V2
WHERE COL LIKE 'PATTERN'
WHERE COL IS NULL

-------------------------------------------------------------
***************************************--------------------------------------------
----------------------

ORDER BY clause :-
------------------

=> ORDER BY clause is used to sort data based on one or more columns either in
ascending order or in descending order.

=> We can apply one_column or Multiple Columns.

syn :- SELECT columns

FROM tabname
[WHERE condition]
ORDER BY <col> [ASC/DESC]

ASC => ascending

DESC => descending

=> default order is ascending

Examples :-

=> arrange employee list name wise ascending order ?

 SELECT *
FROM emp
ORDER BY ename ASC

=> arrange employee list sal wise desc order ?

SELECT *
FROM emp
ORDER BY sal DESC

1 A 3000 5 E 6000
2 B 2000 3 C 5000
3 C 5000 -----------> 4 D 4000
4 D 4000 1 A 3000
5 E 6000 2 B 2000

NOTE :-

=> in ORDER BY clause we can use column name or column number

SELECT *
FROM emp
ORDER BY 6 DESC

=> ORDER BY number should not be based on table , it should be based on select
list

SELECT empno,ename,hiredate,sal,deptno
FROM emp
ORDER BY 6 DESC => ERROR

SELECT empno,ename,hiredate,sal,deptno
FROM emp
ORDER BY 4 DESC

=> above query sorts based on 4th column in select list i.e. sal.

=> arrange employee list dept wise asc and with in dept sal wise desc ?

SELECT empno,ename,hiredate,sal,deptno
FROM emp
ORDER BY 5 ASC,4 DESC

1 A 3000 20 5 E 7000 10
2 B 4000 10 2 B 4000 10
3 C 6000 30 ----------> 4 D 5000 20
4 D 5000 20 1 A 3000 20
5 E 7000 10 3 C 6000 30
6 F 5000 30 6 F 5000 30

scenario :-

STUDENTS
SID SNAME M P C
1 A 80 90 70
2 B 60 50 70
3 C 90 80 70
4 D 90 70 80
 => arrange student list total marks wise desc ,m desc,p desc ?

SELECT *
FROM student
ORDER BY (M+P+C) DESC,M DESC,P DESC

3 C 90 80 70
4 D 90 70 80
1 A 80 90 70
2 B 60 50 70

=> display employees working as clerk,manager and arrange output sal wise desc
order ?

SELECT empno,ename,job,sal
FROM emp
WHERE job IN ('clerk','manager')
ORDER BY 4 DESC

FROM emp :-

EMPNO ENAME SAL JOB

1 A 5000 MANAGER
2 B 3000 CLERK
3 C 4000 SALESMAN
4 D 3000 CLERK
5 E 8000 MANAGER

WHERE job IN ('clerk','manager') :-

1 A 5000 MANAGER
2 B 3000 CLERK
4 D 3000 CLERK
5 E 8000 MANAGER

ORDER BY 4 DESC :-

5 E 8000 MANAGER
1 A 5000 MANAGER
2 B 3000 CLERK
4 D 3000 CLERK

--------------------------------------------------------------
*********************************--------------------------------------------------
-------------------

GROUP BY clause :-
------------------

=> GROUP BY clause is used to group rows based on one or more columns to calculate
min,max,sum,avg,count for each group

EMP
 EMPNO ENAME SAL DEPTNO
1 A 5000 10 10 13000
2 B 6000 20 ----------GROUP BY-------------> 20 15000
3 C 7000 30 30 7000
4 D 8000 10
5 E 9000 20

detailed data summarized data

=> GROUP BY clause converts detailed into summarized data which is useful for
analysis

syntax :-

SELECT columns
FROM tabname
[WHERE cond]
GROUP BY <column>
[HAVING <cond>]
[ORDER BY <col> ASC/DESC]

Execution :-

FROM
WHERE
GROUP BY
HAVING
SELECT
ORDER BY

=> display dept wise total salary ?

SELECT deptno,SUM(sal)
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno

FROM emp :-

EMPNO ENAME SAL DEPTNO

1 A 5000 10
2 B 6000 20
3 C 7000 30
4 D 8000 10
5 E 9000 20

GROUP BY deptno :-

10

1 A 5000
4 D 8000

20

2 B 6000
5 E 9000

30
 3 C 7000

SELECT deptno,SUM(sal) :-

10 13000
20 15000
30 7000

=> display job wise no of employees ?

SELECT job,COUNT(*)
FROM emp
GROUP BY job

=> display no of employees joined in each year ?

SELECT datepart(yy,hiredate) as year,count(*) as cnt

FROM emp
GROUP BY datepart(yy,hiredate)

=> display the departments where more than 4 employees working ?

SELECT deptno,COUNT(*)
FROM emp
WHERE COUNT(*) > 4
GROUP BY deptno => ERROR

=> sql server calculates dept wise count after group by and it cannot calculate
before group by so apply the condition COUNT(*) > 4 after group by using
having clause.

SELECT deptno,COUNT(*) AS CNT

FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno
HAVING COUNT(*) > 4

16-aug-21

display job wise no of employees where job=clerk,manager and no of employees > 3 ?

SELECT job,COUNT(*)
FROM emp
WHERE job IN ('CLERK','MANAGER')
GROUP BY job
HAVING COUNT(*)>3

WHERE VS HAVING :-
------------------

WHERE HAVING

1 selects specific rows selects specific groups

2 condition can be cannot be applied without group by

applied without group by

3 conditions applied conditions applied after group by

 before group by

4 use where clause if use having clause if condition contains

cond doesn't contain group function
group function

5can be used with can be used with only select stmt

select,update,delete and cannot be used with update,delete
commands
commands

Grouping based on multiple columns :-

-------------------------------------

=> display dept wise and with in dept job wise total salaries ?

SELECT deptno,job,SUM(sal)
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno,job
ORDER BY 1 ASC

10 CLERK 1300
MANAGER 2500
PRESIDENT 5000

20 ANALYST 6000
CLERK 1900
MANAGER 3000

30 CLERK 1000
MANAGER 2900
SALESMAN 5700

Assignment :-

=> display year wise and with in year quarter wise no of employees joined ?

----------------------------------------------------------
******************************************-----------------------------------------
------------------------

Integrity Constraints
----------------------

=> Integrity Constraints are the rules to maintain data integrity i.e. data
quality.
=> Integrity Constraints are used to prevent users from entering invalid data.
=> Integrity Constraints are used to enforce rules like min sal must be 3000.
=> different integrity constraints in sql server

1 NOT NULL
2 UNIQUE
3 PRIMARY KEY
4 CHECK
5 FOREIGN KEY
6 DEFAULT
 => above constraints can be declared in two ways

1 column level
2 table level

column level :-
---------------

=> if constraints are declared immediately after declaring column then it is

called
column level

CREATE TABLE <tabname>

(
colname datatype(size) constraint,
colname datatype(size) constraint,
-------------------
)

NOT NULL :-
-----------

=> NOT NULL constraint doesn't accept null values

=> a column declared with NOT NULL is called mandatory column

ex :-

CREATE TABLE emp11

(
empid INT,
ename VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL
)

Testing :-
---------

INSERT INTO emp11 VALUES(100,'A') => accepted

INSERT INTO emp11 VALUES(101,NULL) => ERROR

UNIQUE :-
-------

=> UNIQUE constraint doesn't accept duplicates

ex :-

CREATE TABLE emp12

(
empid INT,
ename VARCHAR(10),
emailid VARCHAR(20) UNIQUE
)

Testing :-
-----------

INSERT INTO emp12 VALUES(100,'A','[email protected]') => accepted

 INSERT INTO emp12 VALUES(101,'B','[email protected]') => ERROR
INSERT INTO emp12 VALUES(102,'C',NULL) => accepted
INSERT INTO emp12 VALUES(103,'D',NULL) => ERROR

PRIMARY KEY :-
-------------

=> primary key doesn't accept duplicates and nulls

=> primary key is the combination of unique & not null

primary key = unique + not null

=> table may contains no of columns but one column should be used to uniquely
identify
the records in table and that column should be declared with primary key.

Ex :-

CREATE TABLE emp13

(
empid INT PRIMARY KEY,
ename VARCHAR(10)
)

Testing :-

INSERT INTO emp13 VALUES(100,'A') => accepted

INSERT INTO emp13 VALUES(100,'B') => ERROR
INSERT INTO emp13 VALUES(null,'C') => ERROR

=> PRIMARY KEY column can be used to uniquely identify the records.

=> only one primary key is allowed per table , if we want two primary keys then
declare one column with primary key and another columns with unique & not null.

CREATE TABLE cust

(
custid INT PRIMARY KEY ,
cname VARCHAR(10) ,
aadharno BIGINT UNIQUE NOT NULL,
panno CHAR(10) UNIQUE NOT NULL
)

19-aug-21

CHECK constraint :-
-------------------

=> use check constraint when rule based on condition.

ex :- CHECK(condition)

Example 1 :- SAL must be min 3000 ?

CREATE TABLE emp13

(
empno int,
sal money CHECK(sal>=3000)
)
 INSERT INTO emp13 VALUES(100,5000)
INSERT INTO emp13 VALUES(101,1000) => ERROR
INSERT INTO emp13 VALUES(102,NULL) => ACCEPTED

Example 2 :- GENDER must be 'M','F' ?

GENDER CHAR(1) CHECK(GENDER IN ('M','F'))

Example 3 :- amt must be multiple of 100

AMT MONEY CHECK(AMT%100=0)

Example 4 :- pwd must be min 8 chars

PWD VARCHAR(12) CHECK(LEN(PWD)>=8)

Example 5 :- emailid should contain '@'

emailid should end with '.com' or '.co' or '.in'

emailid VARCHAR(30) CHECK(emailid LIKE '%@%'

AND
(
emailid LIKE '%.com'
OR
emailid LIKE '%.co'
OR
emailid LIKE '%.in'
))

FOREIGN KEY :-
---------------

=> foreign key is used to establish relationship between two tables

PROJECTS
projid name duration cost client
100 A 5 YEARS 100 TATA MOTORS
101 B 3 YEARS 80 DBS
102 C 4 YEARS 120 L&T INFRA

EMP
EMPID ENAME SAL PROJID REFERENCES PROJECTS(PROJID)
1 A 5000 100
2 B 4000 101
3 C 6000 100
4 D 4000 999 => NOT ACCEPTED
5 E 3000 NULL => ACCEPTED

=> values entered in foreign key column should match with values entered in pk
column.
=> foreign key allows duplicates and nulls.
=> after declaring foreign key a relationship is established between two tables
called parent/child relationship.
=> pk table is parent and fk table is child.
=> by default sql server creates one to many (1:m) relationship between two tables,
to establish one to one (1:1) relationship declare foreign key with unique
constraint.
 CREATE TABLE projects
(
projid int PRIMARY KEY,
pname VARCHAR(10),
duration VARCHAR(10)
)

INSERT INTO projects VALUES(100,'A','5 YEARS'),(101,'B','3 YEARS')

CREATE TABLE emp_proj

(
empid int PRIMARY KEY,
ename varchar(10) NOT NULL,
sal money CHECK(sal>=3000),
projid int references projects(projid)
)

INSERT INTO emp_proj VALUES(1,'A',5000,100)

INSERT INTO emp_proj VALUES(2,'B',4000,999) => ERROR
INSERT INTO emp_proj VALUES(3,'C',6000,100)
INSERT INTO emp_proj VALUES(4,'D',3000,NULL)

Assignment :-

ACCOUNTS
ACCNO ACTYPE BAL

rules :-

1 accno should not be duplicate and null

2 actype must be 's' or 'c'
3 bal must be min 1000

TRANSACTIONS
TRID TTYPE TDATE TAMT ACCNO

rules :-

1 trid must be automatically generated

2 ttype must be 'w' or 'd'
3 tdate must be equal to getdate
4 tamt must be multiple of 100
5 accno should present in accounts table

Example for one to one relationship :-

--------------------------------------

PROJECTS
projid name client
100
101
102

MANAGER
MGRNO MNAME PROJID
1 A 100
2 B 101
3 C 102
=> in the above example one project is managed by one manager and one manager
manages
one project so the relationship between two tables is one to one.

CREATE TABLE projects

(
projid int PRIMARY KEY,
pname VARCHAR(10),
client VARCHAR(20)
)

INSERT INTO projects VALUES(100,'A','TATA MOTORS'),(101,'B','DBS BANK')

CREATE TABLE managers

(
mgrno int PRIMARY KEY,
mname VARCHAR(10),
projid int REFERENCES PROJECTS(PROJID) UNIQUE)
)

DEFAULT :-
-----------

=> a column can be declared with default value as follows

ex :- hiredate date default getdate()

=> while inserting if we skip hiredate then sql server inserts default value.

EX :- CREATE TABLE emp22

(
empno int ,
hiredate date default GETDATE()
)

INSERT INTO emp22(empno) VALUES(100)

INSERT INTO emp22 VALUES(101,'2021-01-01')
INSERT INTO emp22 VALUES(102,null)

SELECT * FROM emp22

empno hiredate
100 2021-08-20
101 2021-01-01
102 null

TABLE LEVEL :-
--------------

=> if constraints are declared after declaring all columns then it is called table
level
=> use table level to declare constraints for multiple columns or combination of
columns

CREATE TABLE <tabname>

(
COLNAME DATATYPE(size),
 COLNAME DATATYPE(size),
-------------------------,
CONSTRAINT(COL1,COL2,---)
)

Declaring check constraint at table level :-

---------------------------------------------

products
prodid pname mfd_dt exp_dt
100 A 2021-08-20 2021-01-01 => INVALID

rule :- exp_dt > mfd_dt

CREATE TABLE products

(
prodid int PRIMARY KEY,
pname varchar(10),
mfd_dt date ,
exp_dt date,
CHECK(exp_dt>mfd_dt)
)

INSERT INTO products VALUES(100,'A',GETDATE(),'2021-01-01') => ERROR

INSERT INTO products VALUES(101,'B','2021-01-01',GETDATE())

21-aug-21

composite primary key :-

------------------------

=> if combination of columns uniquely identifies the records then that combination
should be declared as primary key , if combination of columns declared primary
key
then it is called composite primary key.

=> in composite primary key combination should not be duplicate.

=> composite primary key declared at table level.

Example :-

ORDERS PRODUCTS
ORDID ORD_DT DEL_DT CID PRODID PNAME PRICE
1000 100 A 1000
1001 101 B 2000
1002 102 C 3000

=> to establish relationship (m:n) between orders & products then create third
table
in third table take primary keys of both tables as foreign keys

ORDER_DETAILS
ORDID PRODID QTY
1000 100 1
1000 101 1
1001 100 1
1001 101 1
=> in the above table ordid + prodid combination uniquely identifies the records so
declare this combination as primary key at table level.

CREATE TABLE orders

(
ordid int PRIMARY KEY,
ord_dt date,
del_dt date,
cid int
)

INSERT INTO orders VALUES(1000,getdate(),getdate()+10,10)

INSERT INTO orders VALUES(1001,getdate(),getdate()+10,11)

CREATE TABLE products

(
prodid int PRIMARY KEY,
pname varchar(10),
price smallmoney
)

INSERT INTO products VALUES(100,'A',1000),(101,'B',1500)

CREATE TABLE order_details

(
ordid int REFERENCES orders(ordid),
prodid int REFERENCES products(prodid),
qty int,
PRIMARY KEY(ordid,prodid)
)

INSERT INTO order_details VALUES(1000,100,1)

INSERT INTO order_details VALUES(1001,100,1)
INSERT INTO order_details VALUES(1000,100,1) => ERROR

Which of the following constraint cannot be declared at table level ?

A UNIQUE
B CHECK
C PRIMARY KEY
D NOT NULL
E FOREIGN KEY

ANS :- D

23-aug-21

Adding constraints to existing tables :-

----------------------------------------

=> "ALTER" command is used to add constraints to existing table.

CREATE TABLE emp88

(
eno int,
ename varchar(10),
sal money,
 dno int
)

Adding primary key :-

---------------------

=> we cannot add primary key to nullable column , to add pk first change the column
to not null then add primary key.

STEP 1 :- ALTER TABLE emp88

ALTER COLUMN eno INT NOT NULL

STEP 2 :- ALTER TABLE emp88

ADD PRIMARY KEY(eno)

Adding check constraint :-

--------------------------

=> add check constraint with condition sal>=3000 ?

ALTER TABLE emp88

ADD CHECK(sal>=3000)

ALTER TABLE emp

ADD CHECK(sal>=3000) => ERROR

=> while adding constraint sql server also validates existing data. The above
command
returns error because in table some of the employee salaries are less than 3000
so constraint cannot be added.

WITH NOCHECK :-
---------------

=> if constraint is added with "WITH NOCHECK" option then sql server will not
validate
existing data it validates only new data.

ALTER TABLE emp

WITH NOCHECK ADD CHECK(sal>=3000)

Adding foreign key :-

----------------------

=> add foreign key to dno that should refer dept table primary key i.e. deptno

ALTER TABLE emp88

ADD FOREIGN KEY(dno) REFERENCES DEPT(deptno)

Droping constraints :-
-----------------------

ALTER TABLE <TABNAME>

DROP CONSTRAINT <NAME>

=> drop check constraint in emp88 table ?

ALTER TABLE emp88

DROP CONSTRAINT CK__emp88__sal__19DFD96B
=> drop primary key in dept table ?

ALTER TABLE DEPT

DROP PK__DEPT__E0EB08D77A86050F => ERROR

DROP TABLE DEPT => ERROR

TRUNCATE TABLE DEPT => ERROR

NOTE :-

=> primary key constraint cannot be dropped if referenced by some fk

=> primary key table cannot be dropped if referenced by some fk
=> primary key table cannot be truncated if referenced by some fk

DELETE RULES :-
----------------

1 ON DELETE NO ACTION (DEFAULT)

2 ON DELETE CASCADE
3 ON DELETE SET NULL
4 ON DELETE SET DEFAULT

=> these rules are declared with foreign key.

=> DELETE rules specifies how childs are affected if parent is deleted.

ON DELETE NO ACTION :-
----------------------

=> parent row cannot be deleted if associated with child rows.

CREATE TABLE dept99

(
dno int primary key,
dname varchar(10)
)

INSERT INTO dept99 VALUES(10,'HR'),(20,'IT')

CREATE TABLE emp99

(
empno int PRIMARY KEY,
dno int REFERENCES dept99(dno)
)

INSERT INTO emp99 VALUES(1,10),(2,10)

DELETE FROM dept99 WHERE dno=10 => ERROR

DELETE FROM dept99 WHERE dno=20 => 1 row affected

scenario :-

ACCOUNTS
ACCNO ACTYPE BAL
100
101
 LOANS
ID TYPE AMT ACCNO
1 H 30 100
2 C 10 100

Rule :- account closing is not possible if associated with loans

ON DELETE CASCADE :-
--------------------

=> if parent row is deleted then it is deleted along with child rows.

CREATE TABLE dept99

(
dno int primary key,
dname varchar(10)
)

INSERT INTO dept99 VALUES(10,'HR'),(20,'IT')

CREATE TABLE emp99

(
empno int PRIMARY KEY,
dno int REFERENCES dept99(dno)
ON DELETE CASCADE
)

INSERT INTO emp99 VALUES(1,10),(2,10)

DELETE FROM DEPT99 WHERE DNO=10 => 1 ROW AFFECTED

SELECT * FROM EMP99 => NO ROWS

scenario :-

ACCOUNTS
ACCNO ACTYPE BAL
100
101

TRANSACTIONS
TRID TTYPE TDATE TAMT ACCNO
1 100
2 100

RULE :- after closing account along with account delete transactions also

ON DELETE SET NULL :-

---------------------

=> parent row can be deleted without deleting child rows but fk will be set to
null

CREATE TABLE dept99

(
dno int primary key,
dname varchar(10)
)
 INSERT INTO dept99 VALUES(10,'HR'),(20,'IT')

CREATE TABLE emp99

(
empno int PRIMARY KEY,
dno int REFERENCES dept99(dno)
ON DELETE SET NULL
)

INSERT INTO emp99 VALUES(1,10),(2,10)

delete from dept99 where dno=10 => 1 row affected

SELECT * FROM emp99

eno dno
1 NULL
2 NULL

scenario :-

PROJECTS
projid name duration
100
101
102

EMP
empid ename projid
1 100
2 101
3 102

ON DELETE SET DEFAULT :-

---------------------

=> parent row can be deleted without deleting child rows but fk will be set to
default

CREATE TABLE dept99

(
dno int primary key,
dname varchar(10)
)

INSERT INTO dept99 VALUES(10,'HR'),(20,'IT')

CREATE TABLE emp99

(
empno int PRIMARY KEY,
dno int DEFAULT 20
REFERENCES dept99(dno)
ON DELETE SET DEFAULT
)
 INSERT INTO emp99 VALUES(1,10),(2,10)

delete from dept99 where dno=10 => 1 row affected

SELECT * FROM emp99

eno dno
1 20
2 20

------------------------------------------------------------
***********************************************------------------------------------
-----------------------

Aliases:
--------
1.Aliases are used to give a Table or a Column in a Table,a Temporary Name.
2.An aliases only exist for the Duration of That Query.
3.An Aliases is Created with the 'AS' Keyword.

Aliases Column :
---------------

Syntax:
Select Column_name AS Aliases_Name from table_name.

Ex:
select CID as ID from Customer.
select CID as ID,CName as Name from Customer.

Aliases TAble:
--------------

Syntax:
select Column_Name(s) from Table_Name AS Aliases_Name

EX:
Select o.rderid,c.CustomerName from order as o,customer as c.

-----------------------------------------------------------
****************************************************-------------------------------
------------------------

Coalesce():
-----------
it returns the first non-Null Values

id first Middle Last

1 sam NULL NULL

2 NULL ram chandra
3 NULL NULL sara
4 Raja Shaker NULL
5 siva Krishna Prasad

select id,coalesec(first,middle,last )as Name from EMP;

------------------------------------------------------------
******************************************************-----------------------------
------------------------

24-aug-21 JOINS
-----
=> join is an operation performed to fetch data from two or more tables. -To fetch
data from two tables we need to join those two tables.

=> in DB tables are normalized i.e. related data stored in multiple tables , to
gather
or to combine data stored in multiple tables we need to join those tables.

Example :-

ORDERS CUSTOMERS
ordid ord_dt del_dt cid cid cname caddr
1000 10- 20- 10 10 a hyd
1001 11- 21- 11 11 b hyd

output :-

ordid ord_dt del_dt cname caddr

1000 10- 20- a hyd

Types of joins :-
-----------------

1 Equi Join / Inner Join

2 Outer join
left join
right join
full join
3 Non Equi Join
4 Self join
5 Cross join / Cartesian join

Equi Join :-
------------

=> to perform equi join between the tables there must be a common field and name
of
the common field need not to be same and pk-fk relationship is not compulsory.

=> equi join is performed between the tables sharing common field with same
datatype.

SELECT columns
 FROM tabname
WHERE join condition

join condition :-
-----------------

=> based on the given join condition sql server joins the records of two tables.

=> join condition decides which record of 1st table should be joined with which
record
of second table.

table1.commonfield = table2.commonfield

=> this join is equi join because here join condition based on "=" operator

Example :-

EMP DEPT
EMPNO ENAME SAL DEPTNO DEPTNO DNAME LOC
7369 smith 920.00 20 10 ACCOUNTS NEW YORK
7499 allen 1920.00 30 20 RESEARCH
7521 ward 1500.00 30 30 SALES
7566 jones 3421.25 20 40 OPERATIONS
7654 martin 1500.00 30
7698 blake 3420.00 30
7782 clark 2695.00 10

display EMPNO ENAME SAL DNAME LOC ?

----------------- -------------
EMP DEPT

SELECT empno,ename,sal,dname,loc
FROM emp,dept
WHERE emp.deptno = dept.deptno

display EMPNO ENAME SAL DEPTNO DNAME LOC ?

----------------- -------------
EMP DEPT

SELECT empno,ename,sal,
deptno,dname,loc
FROM emp,dept
WHERE emp.deptno = dept.deptno => ERROR

=> in join queries declare table alias and prefix column names with table alias for
two reasons

1 to avoid ambiguity
2 for faster execution

SELECT e.empno,e.ename,e.sal,
d.deptno,d.dname,d.loc
FROM emp as e,dept as d
WHERE e.deptno = d.deptno

25-aug-21
=> display employee details with dept details working at NEW YORK loc ?

SELECT e.empno,e.ename,e.sal,
d.deptno,d.dname,d.loc
FROM emp as e,dept as d
WHERE e.deptno = d.deptno /* join cond */
AND
d.loc='NEW YORK' /* fiter cond */

joining more than 2 tables :-

------------------------------

=> when no of tables increases no of join conditions also increases

=> to join N tables N-1 join conditions required.

SELECT columns
FROM tab1,
tab2,
tab3,
-----
WHERE cond1
AND
cond2
AND
------
Example :-

EMP DEPT LOCATIONS COUNTRIES

empno deptno locid country_id
ename dname city country_name
sal locid state
deptno country_id

=> Display ENAME DNAME CITY STATE COUNTRY_NAME ?

----- ----- ------------ -------------
EMP DEPT LOCATIONS COUNTRIES

SELECT e.ename,
d.dname,
l.city,l.state,
c.country_name
FROM emp e,
dept d,
locations l,
countries c
WHERE e.deptno = d.deptno
AND
d.locid = l.locid
AND
l.country_id = c.country_id

=> we can write join queries in 2 styles

1 NATIVE STYLE (SQL SERVER)

2 ANSI STYLE

ANSI style :-
------------
 => Advantage of ANSI style is portability.
=> join queries becomes portable i.e. queries can migrated from one db to another
db.
=> in ANSI style tablenames are seperated by keywords
=> use ON clause for join conditions instead of WHERE clause

display ENAME DNAME ?

SELECT e.ename,d.dname
FROM emp e INNER JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno = d.deptno

display ENAME DNAME working at NEW YORK loc ?

SELECT e.ename,d.dname
FROM emp e INNER JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno = d.deptno
WHERE d.loc='NEW YORK'

NOTE :- use ON clause for join conditions

use WHERE clause for filter conditions

how to join multiple tables in ANSI style :-

---------------------------------------------

SELECT columns
FROM tab1 INNER JOIN tab2
ON condition
INNER JOIN tab3
ON condition
--------------

EMP DEPT LOCATIONS COUNTRIES

empno deptno locid country_id
ename dname city country_name
sal locid state
deptno country_id

DISPLAY ENAME COUNTRY_NAME ?

SELECT e.ename,
c.country_name
FROM emp e INNER JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno = d.deptno
INNER JOIN locations l
ON d.locid = l.locid
INNER JOIN countries c
ON l.country_id = c.country_id

27-aug-21

OUTER JOIN :-
-------------

=> equi join returns only matching rows but cannot return unmatched rows but to
get
 unmatched rows also perform outer join.

Example :-

EMP DEPT
EMPNO ENAME SAL DEPTNO DEPTNO DNAME LOC
1 A 5000 10 10 ACCOUNTS
2 B 3000 20 20 RESEARCH
3 C 4000 30 30 SALES
4 D 2000 20 40 OPERATIONS => unmatched row
5 E 3000 NULL => unmatched row

=> outer join is possible in ANSI style.

=> outer join is 3 types

1 left join
2 right join
3 full join

left join :-
-----------

=> returns all rows (matched + unmatched) from left side table and matching rows
from
right side table.

SELECT e.ename,d.dname
FROM emp e LEFT JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno = d.deptno

=> above query returns all rows from emp table and matching rows from dept table.

A ACCOUNTS
B RESEARCH
C SALES
D RESEARCH
E NULL => unmatched row from emp

RIGHT JOIN :-
--------------

=> returns all rows from right side table and matching rows from left side table.

SELECT e.ename,d.dname
FROM emp e RIGHT JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno = d.deptno

A ACCOUNTS
B RESEARCH
C SALES
D RESEARCH
NULL OPERATIONS => unmatched from dept table

FULL JOIN :-
--------------

=> returns all rows from both tables

 SELECT e.ename,d.dname
FROM emp e FULL JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno = d.deptno

A ACCOUNTS
B RESEARCH
C SALES
D RESEARCH
E NULL => unmatched row from emp
NULL OPERATIONS => unmatched row from dept

scenario :-

PROJECTS
projid name duration cost client
100
101
102

EMP
empid ename sal projid
1 100
2 101
3 100
4 null

=> display employee details with project details and also display employees not
assigned to any project ?

SELECT e.*,p.*
FROM emp e LEFT JOIN projects p
ON e.projid = p.projid

=> display employee details with project details and also display projects where
no employee assigned to it ?

SELECT e.*,p.*
FROM emp e RIGHT JOIN projects p
ON e.projid = p.projid

Displaying unmatched rows :-

----------------------------

display unmatched row from left side table ?

SELECT e.ename,d.dname
FROM emp e LEFT JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno = d.deptno
WHERE d.dname IS NULL

display unmatched row from right side table ?

SELECT e.ename,d.dname
FROM emp e RIGHT JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno = d.deptno
WHERE e.ename IS NULL

display unmatched rows from both tables ?

 SELECT e.ename,d.dname
FROM emp e FULL JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno = d.deptno
WHERE e.ename IS NULL OR d.dname IS NULL

28-AUG-21

NON EQUI JOIN :-

-----------------

=> non equi join is performed between the two tables not sharing a common field.

=> this join is called non equi join because here join condition is not based "="
operator and it is based on > < between operators.

Example :-

EMP SALGRADE
EMPNO ENAME SAL GRADE LOSAL HISAL
1 A 5000 1 700 1000
2 B 2500 2 1001 2000
3 C 1000 3 2001 3000
4 D 3000 4 3001 4000
5 E 1500 5 4001 9999

=> display EMPNO ENAME SAL GRADE ?

SELECT e.empno,e.ename,e.sal,s.grade
FROM emp e,salgrade s
WHERE e.sal BETWEEN s.losal and s.hisal

1 A 5000 5
2 B 2500 3
3 C 1000 1
4 D 3000 3
5 E 1500 2

ANSI style :-
-------------

SELECT e.empno,e.ename,e.sal,s.grade
FROM emp e JOIN salgrade s
ON e.sal BETWEEN s.losal and s.hisal

=> display grade 3 employee list ?

SELECT e.empno,e.ename,e.sal,s.grade
FROM emp e JOIN salgrade s
ON e.sal BETWEEN s.losal and s.hisal
WHERE s.grade = 3

=> display ENAME DNAME GRADE ?

------ ----- ------
EMP DEPT SALGRADE

SELECT e.ename,d.dname,s.grade
FROM emp e INNER JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno = d.deptno
 JOIN salgrade s
ON e.sal BETWEEN s.losal and s.hisal

SELF JOIN :-
-------------

=> joining a table to itself is called self join.

=> in self join a record in one table joined with another record of same table.

Example :-

EMP
EMPNO ENAME MGR
7369 SMITH 7902
7499 ALLEN 7698
7521 WARD 7698
7566 JONES 7839
7654 MARTIN 7698
7698 BLAKE 7839
7782 CLARK 7839
7788 SCOTT 7566
7839 KING NULL
7902 FORD 7566

=> above table contains MGR but to display manager name we need to perform self
join.

=> to perform self join the same table must be declared two times different alias

FROM emp X,emp Y

EMP X EMP Y

EMPNO ENAME MGR EMPNO ENAME MGR

7369 SMITH 7902 7369 SMITH 7902
7499 ALLEN 7698 7499 ALLEN 7698
7521 WARD 7698 7521 WARD 7698
7566 JONES 7839 7566 JONES 7839
7654 MARTIN 7698 7654 MARTIN 7698
7698 BLAKE 7839 7698 BLAKE 7839
7782 CLARK 7839 7782 CLARK 7839
7788 SCOTT 7566 7788 SCOTT 7566
7839 KING NULL 7839 KING NULL
7902 FORD 7566 7902 FORD 7566

=> display ENAME MGRNAME ?

SELECT X.ENAME,Y.ENAME AS MANAGER

FROM emp X,emp Y
WHERE X.MGR = Y.EMPNO

ANSI style :-

SELECT X.ENAME,Y.ENAME AS MANAGER

FROM emp X JOIN emp Y
ON X.MGR = Y.EMPNO

=> display employees reporting to blake ?

 SELECT X.ENAME,Y.ENAME AS MANAGER
FROM emp X JOIN emp Y
ON X.MGR = Y.EMPNO
WHERE Y.ENAME='BLAKE'

=> display blake's manager name ?

SELECT X.ENAME,Y.ENAME AS MANAGER

FROM emp X JOIN emp Y
ON X.MGR = Y.EMPNO
WHERE X.ENAME='BLAKE'

=> display employees earning more than their managers ?

SELECT X.ENAME,Y.ENAME AS MANAGER

FROM emp X JOIN emp Y
ON X.MGR = Y.EMPNO
WHERE X.SAL > Y.SAL

30-AUG-21

Question :-

TEAMS
ID COUNTRY
1 IND
2 AUS
3 RSA

=> write a query to display following output ?

IND VS AUS
IND VS RSA
AUS VS RSA

CROSS JOIN :-
-------------

=> cross join returns cross product of two tables

A=1,2
B=3,4

AXB = (1,3 ) (1,4) (2,3) (2,4)

=>if we perform cross join between two tables then each record of 1st table joined
with each and every record of second table.

=> to perform cross join submit the join query without join condition

SELECT e.ename,d.dname
FROM emp e,dept d

ANSI STYLE :-

SELECT e.ename,d.dname
FROM emp e CROSS JOIN dept d
 CREATING NEW FROM THE QUERY OUTPUT :-
-------------------------------------

SELECT E.EMPNO,E.ENAME,E.SAL,
D.DEPTNO,D.DNAME,D.LOC INTO EMP_DEPT
FROM EMP E INNER JOIN DEPT D
ON E.DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO

GROUP BY & JOIN :-

-------------------

=> display dept wise total sal ? display dept names in output ?

SELECT d.dname,SUM(e.sal) as totsal

FROM emp e INNER JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno = d.deptno
GROUP BY d.dname

scenario :-

SALES
DATEID PRODID CUSTID QTY AMOUNT
2021-08-30 100 10 1 3000

PRODUCTS
PRODID PNAME PRICE CATEGORY
100 ELECTRONICS

CUSTOMERS
CUSTID NAME ADDR CITY STATE COUNTRY

=> display year wise total sales amount ?

=> display category wise total sales amount ?
=> display country wise total sales amount ?
=> display year wise,country wise,category wise total sales amount ?

SELECT datepart(yy,s.dateid) as year,

c.country ,
p.category,SUM(s.amount) as total
FROM sales s INNER JOIN customers c
ON s.custid = c.custid
INNER JOIN products p
ON s.prodid = p.prodid
GROUP BY datepart(yy,s.dateid),
c.country ,
p.category

UPDATE command & join :-

-------------------------

CUST1 CUST2
CID NAME CITY CID NAME CITY
1 A HYD 1 A HYD
2 B CHE 2 B DEL
3 C BLR 3 C MUM

=> update cust2 city field with cust1 table city field ?
 UPDATE CUST2
SET CUST2.city = cust1.city
FROM cust2 INNER JOIN cust1
ON cust2.cid = cust1.cid

---------------------------------------------------
*************************************----------------------------------------------
------------------------------

SET operators :-
----------------

=> in SQL SERVER set operations are performed between output of two select
statements
=> these operations are performed between set of rows return by two select
statement

Rules :-
---------
1 no of columns return by both queries must be same
2 corresponding columns datatype must be same

UNION
UNION ALL
INTERSECT
EXCEPT

A=1,2,3,4
B=1,2,5,6

A UNION B = 1,2,3,4,5,6
A UNION ALL B = 1,2,3,4,1,2,5,6
A INTERSECT B = 1,2
A EXCEPT B = 3,4
B EXCEPT A = 5,6

SELECT STATEMENT 1
UNION / UNION ALL / INTERSECT / EXCEPT
SELECT STATEMENT 2

SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=20

CLERK
MANAGER
ANALYST
CLERK
ANALYST

SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=30

SALESMAN
SALESMAN
SALESMAN
MANAGER
SALESMAN
CLERK

UNION :-
---------

=> combines rows return by two select statements

=> eliminates duplicates
=> sorts result

SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=20

UNION
SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=30

ANALYST
CLERK
MANAGER
SALESMAN

SELECT job,sal FROM emp WHERE deptno=20

UNION
SELECT job,sal FROM emp WHERE deptno=30

ANALYST 3000.00
CLERK 950.00
CLERK 1100.00
CLERK 2000.00
MANAGER 2850.00
MANAGER 2975.00
SALESMAN 1250.00
SALESMAN 1500.00
SALESMAN 1600.00

union vs join :-
----------------

union join

1 horizontal merge vertical merge

2 combines rows combines columns

3 performed between two performed between two dissimilar

structures
similar structures

T1 T2
F1 C1
1 10
2 20
3 30

T1 U T2 :-

1
2
3
 10
20
30

T1 JOIN T2 :-

1 10
2 20
3 30

scenario :-
-----------

EMP_US
ENO ENAME SAL DNO

DEPT
EMP_IND DNO DNAME LOC
ENO ENAME SAL DNO

=> display total employee list ?

SELECT * FROM EMP_US

UNION
SELECT * FROM EMP_IND
UNION
SELECT * FROM DEPT

=> dsiplay employees working at US loc with dept details ?

SELECT E.*,D.*
FROM EMP_US E INNER JOIN DEPT D
ON E.DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO

=> display total employee with dept details ?

SELECT E.*,D.*
FROM EMP_US E INNER JOIN DEPT D
ON E.DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO
UNION
SELECT E.*,D.*
FROM EMP_IND E INNER JOIN DEPT D
ON E.DEPTNO = D.DEPTNO

UNION ALL :-
-------------

=> combines rows return by two select statements

=> duplicates are not eliminated
=> result is not sorted

SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=20

UNION ALL
SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=30
CLERK
MANAGER
ANALYST
CLERK
ANALYST
SALESMAN
SALESMAN
SALESMAN
MANAGER
SALESMAN
CLERK

=> diff b/w UNION & UNION ALL ?

UNION UNION ALL

1 eliminates duplicates includes duplicates

2 sorts result doesn't sort result

3 slower faster

INTERSECT :-
-------------

=> returns common values from the output of two select statements

SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=20

INTERSECT
SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=30

CLERK
MANAGER

EXCEPT :-
---------

=> returns values present in 1st query output and not present in 2nd query output

SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=20

EXCEPT
SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=30

ANALYST

SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=30

EXCEPT
SELECT job FROM emp WHERE deptno=20

SALESMAN

Question :-

T1 T2
F1 C1
1 1
2 2
3 3
10 40
20 50
30 60

=> write the output for the following operations ?

1 INNER JOIN
2 LEFT JOIN
3 RIGHT JOIN
4 FULL JOIN
5 UNION
6 UNION ALL
7 INTERSECT
8 EXCEPT

----------------------------------------------------
*****************************************************************------------------
--------------------------------

IDENTITY :-
-----------

=> used to generate sequence numbers

=> used to auto increment column values

syn :- IDENTITY(SEED,INCR)

SEED => start

optional
default 1

INCR => increment

optional
default 1

Example :-

CREATE TABLE cust

(
cid int IDENTITY(100,1),
cname varchar(10)
)

INSERT INTO cust(cname) VALUES('A')

INSERT INTO cust(cname) VALUES('B')
INSERT INTO cust(cname) VALUES('C')
INSERT INTO cust(cname) VALUES('D')

SELECT * FROM cust

cid cname
 100 A
101 B
102 C
103 D

05-AUG-21

SELECT * FROM cust SELECT * FROM cust

cid cname cid cname

100 A 100 A
101 B 101 B
102 C 102 C
103 D 103 D
DELETE FROM cust TRUNCATE TABLE cust
104 E 100 E

How to reset identity after delete ?

DBCC CHECKIDENT(tablename,reseed,value)

DBCC CHECKIDENT('cust',reseed,99)

DBCC => db consistency check

providing explicit value for identity column :-

----------------------------------------------

=> by default sql server will not allow explicit value into identity column

INSERT INTO cust(cid,cname) VALUES(200,'K') => ERROR

=> to insert explicit value into identity column execute the following command

SET IDENTITY_INSERT CUST ON

INSERT INTO cust(cid,cname) VALUES(200,'K') => 1 ROW AFFECTED

Q can we declare identity for char fields ?

ANS :- no

CREATE TABLE student

(
SID INT,
SNAME VARCHAR(10) IDENTITY
)

output :- ERROR

Q can we have multiple columns declared with identity in table ?

ANS :- no

CREATE TABLE student

(
SID INT IDENTITY,
 CID INT IDENTITY
)

output :- ERROR

-------------------------------------------------------
************************************************-----------------------------------
-----------------------------

CREATING NEW TABLE FROM EXISTING TABLE :-

-----------------------------------------

SELECT <columns>/* INTO <new-tabname> FROM <old-tabname>

Ex :- SELECT * INTO emp10 FROM emp

COPYING SPECIFIC COLUMNS AND SPECIFIC ROWS :-

---------------------------------------------

SELECT empno,ename,job,sal INTO emp11 FROM emp WHERE job IN ('clerk','manager')

COPYING ONLY STRUCTURE BUT NOT DATA :-

--------------------------------------

SELECT * INTO emp12 FROM emp WHERE 1=2

COPYING DATA FROM ONE TABLE TO ANOTHER TABLE

--------------------------------------------

INSERT INTO <TARGET_TABLE>

SELECT COLUMNS/* FROM <SOURCE-TABLE>

ex :- copy data from emp to emp12

INSERT INTO emp12

SELECT * FROM emp

COPYING TABLE FROM ONE DB TO ANOTHER DB :-

-----------------------------------------

select * into db8pm.dbo.cust from db7pm.dbo.cust

------------------------------------------------------------------
****************-------------------------------------------------------------------
------------------

SUB-QUERIES / NESTED QUERIES :-

-------------------------------

=> a query in another another query is called sub-query or nested query

=> one query is called inner/child/sub-query
=> other query is called outer/parent/main query
=> first sql server executes inner query and output of inner query is input to
outer query
=> use subquery when where condition based on unknown value.

Types of Subqueries :-
 -----------------------

1 single row subqueries

2 multi row subqueries
3 co-related subqueries
4 Derived tables
5 Scalar subquereis

single row subqueries :-

------------------------

=> if inner query returns one value then subquery is called single row subquery

syntax :-

SELECT columns
FROM tabname
WHERE colname OP (SELECT statement)

=> display employees earning more than blake ?

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE sal > (SELECT sal FROM emp WHERE ename='blake')

=> display employees who are senior to king ?

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE hiredate < (SELECT hiredate FROM emp WHERE ename='king')

=> display employee name earning max salary ?

SELECT ename
FROM emp
WHERE sal = MAX(sal) => ERROR

=> aggregates like min,max,sum,avg,count are not allowed in where clause and they
are allowed only in select,having clause.

SELECT ename
FROM emp
WHERE sal = (SELECT MAX(sal) FROM emp)

=> display employee name having max experience ?

SELECT ename
FROM emp
WHERE hiredate = (SELECT MIN(hiredate) FROM emp)

NOTE :- outer query can be SELECT/INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE but inner query must be

always
SELECT.

=> increment sal by 10% having max experience ?

UPDATE emp
SET sal=sal+(sal*0.1)
WHERE hiredate = (SELECT MIN(hiredate) FROM emp)
 => delete the employee having max experience ?

DELETE FROM emp WHERE hiredate = (SELECT MIN(hiredate) FROM emp)

02-sep-21

multi-row subqueries :-
-----------------------

=> if subquery returns more than one value then it is called multirow subquery

SELECT columns
FROM tabname
WHERE colname OP (SELECT STATEMENT)

=> OP must be IN,NOT IN,ANY,ALL

Example :-

=> display list of employees whose job=job of smith,blake ?

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE job IN (
SELECT job
FROM emp
WHERE ename IN ('smith','blake')
)

ANY operator :-
---------------

=> used for comparision with any value i.e. atleast one

WHERE X > ANY(1000,2000,3000)

IF X=800 FALSE
X=1500 TRUE
X=4500 TRUE

WHERE X < ANY(1000,2000,3000)

IF X=800 TRUE
X=1500 TRUE
X=4500 FALSE

ALL operator :-
-----------------

=> used for comparision with all values.

WHERE X>ALL(1000,2000,3000)

IF X=800 FALSE
X=1500 FALSE
X=4500 TRUE

WHERE X<ALL(1000,2000,3000)
 IF X=800 TRUE
X=1500 FALSE
X=4500 FALSE

single multi

= IN

> >ANY >ALL

< <ANY <ALL

=> display employees earning more than all managers ?

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE sal > ALL (SELECT sal
FROM emp
WHERE job='MANAGER')

=> display employees earning more than atleast one managers ?

SELECT *
FROM emp
WHERE sal > ALL (SELECT sal
FROM emp
WHERE job='MANAGER')

co-related subqueries :-
------------------------

=> if inner query refers values of outer query then it is called co-related
subquery.

=> here execution starts from outer query and inner query is executed for each row
return by outer query.

=> use co-related subquery to execute subquery for each row return by outer query

1 returns a row from outer query

2 pass value to inner query
3 executes inner query
4 returns value to outer query
5 executes outer query where cond

03-sep-21

Example :-

EMP
EMPNO ENAME SAL DEPTNO
1 A 5000 10
2 B 4000 20
3 C 7000 30
4 D 8000 20
5 E 4000 10
=> display employee list earning more than avg(sal) of their dept ?

SELECT *
FROM emp x
WHERE sal > (SELECT AVG(sal)
FROM emp
WHERE deptno = x.deptno)

1 A 5000 10 5000 > (SELECT AVG(sal) FROM emp WHERE deptno=10) 4500 T
2 B 4000 20 4000 > (SELECT AVG(sal) FROM emp WHERE deptno=20) 6000 F
3 C 7000 30 7000 > (SELECT AVG(sal) FROM emp WHERE deptno=30) 7000 F
4 D 8000 20 8000 > (SELECT AVG(sal) FROM emp WHERE deptno=20) 6000 T
5 E 4000 10 4000 > (SELECT AVG(sal) FROM emp WHERE deptno=10) 4500 F

=> display employees earning maximum sal in their dept ?

SELECT *
FROM emp x
WHERE sal = (SELECT MAX(sal)
FROM emp
WHERE deptno = x.deptno)

=> display top 3 maximum salaries ?

SELECT DISTINCT a.sal

FROM emp a
WHERE 3 > (SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT b.sal)
FROM emp b
WHERE a.sal < b.sal)
ORDER BY sal DESC

emp a emp b
SAL SAL
5000 5000 3 > (0) TRUE
1000 1000 3 > (4) FALSE
3000 3000 3 > (2) TRUE
2000 2000 3 > (3) FALSE
4000 4000 3 > (1) TRUE

=> display 5th max salary ?

SELECT DISTINCT a.sal

FROM emp a
WHERE (5-1) = (SELECT COUNT(DISTINCT b.sal)
FROM emp b
WHERE a.sal < b.sal)
ORDER BY sal DESC

EXISTS operator :-
-----------------

=> use EXISTS operator to check whether record exists in the table or not

SELECT
FROM tabname
 WHERE EXISTS (SELECT STATEMENT)

=> EXISTS returns

TRUE => if subquery returns atleast one row

FALSE => if subquery returns 0 rows

Example :-

PRODUCTS
PRODID PNAME PRICE CATEGORY
100
101
102

ORDERS
ORDID PRODID QTY
1000 100 1
1000 101 2
1001 100 1

=> display list of products which are ordered by customer ?

method 1 :-

SELECT *
FROM products p
WHERE EXISTS (SELECT * FROM orders WHERE prodid = p.prodid)

method 2 :-

SELECT *
FROM products
WHERE prodid IN (SELECT prodid FROM orders)

=> SQL SERVER recommends EXISTS operator instead of IN operator because EXISTS
gives
good performance than IN operator.

05-sep-21

Derived Tables :-
-----------------

=> subqueries in FROM clause are called derived tables.

SELECT columns/*
FROM (SELECT STATEMENT) <ALIAS>
[WHERE COND]

=> subquery output acts like a table for outer query

=> derived tables are used in the following scenarios

1 to control order of execution of clauses

2 to join query output with a table
3 to use the result of one operation in another operation
=> by default sql server executes the clauses in the following order

FROM
WHERE
GROUP BY
HAVING
SELECT
ORDER BY

=> use derived tables to control this order of execution

Example 1 :-

=> display ENAME ANNUAL SALARY ?

SELECT ename,sal*12 as annsal

FROM emp

=> above query displays annual salaries of all the employees but to display
employees
whose annual sal > 30000

SELECT ename,sal*12 as annsal

FROM emp
WHERE annsal > 30000 => ERROR

=> column alias cannot be referenced in where clause because where clause is
executed
before select , to overcome this proble use derived tables.

SELECT *
FROM (SELECT ename,sal*12 as annsal
FROM emp) E
WHERE annsal>30000

Example 2 :-

SELECT empno,ename,sal,
DENSE_RANK() OVER (ORDER BY SAL DESC) AS RNK
FROM EMP

=> above query display ranks of all the employees but to display top 5 employees

SELECT empno,ename,sal,
DENSE_RANK() OVER (ORDER BY SAL DESC) AS RNK
FROM EMP
WHERE rnk <= 5 => ERROR

SELECT *
FROM (SELECT empno,ename,sal,
DENSE_RANK() OVER (ORDER BY SAL DESC) AS RNK
FROM EMP) E
WHERE rnk <= 5

=> to display top 5 max salaries

SELECT DISTINCT sal

 FROM (SELECT empno,ename,sal,
DENSE_RANK() OVER (ORDER BY SAL DESC) AS RNK
FROM EMP) E
WHERE rnk <= 5
ORDER BY sal DESC

Example 3 :-

=> display first 5 rows from emp table ?

SELECT *
FROM (SELECT empno,ename,sal,deptno ,
row_number() over (order by empno asc) as rno
FROM emp) E
WHERE rno<=5

=> display 5th row ?

SELECT *
FROM (SELECT empno,ename,sal,deptno ,
row_number() over (order by empno asc) as rno
FROM emp) E
WHERE rno=5

=> display 5th record to 10th record ?

SELECT *
FROM (SELECT empno,ename,sal,deptno ,
row_number() over (order by empno asc) as rno
FROM emp) E
WHERE rno BETWEEN 5 AND 10

=> display even no rows ?

SELECT *
FROM (SELECT empno,ename,sal,deptno ,
row_number() over (order by empno asc) as rno
FROM emp) E
WHERE rno%2=0

06-sep-21

=> delete first 5 rows from emp table ?

DELETE
FROM (SELECT empno,ename,sal,deptno ,
row_number() over (order by empno asc) as rno
FROM emp) E
WHERE rno<=5 => ERROR

----------------------------------------------------------------------
**************************************---------------------------------------------
--------------

CTE :-
-------

=> CTE stands for common table expression which is a named result which we can
refer
in another query like SELECT/INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE.

=> CTEs are used to simplify complex processing

=> using CTEs we can use result of one operation in another operation.

syntax :-

WITH <name>
AS
(SELECT STATEMENT) ,
<name>
AS
(SELECT STATEMENT)

SELECT/INSERT/UPDATE/DELET STATEMENT

Example 1 :- delete first 5 rows from emp table ?

WITH E
AS
(SELECT empno,ename,sal,deptno ,
row_number() over (order by empno asc) as rno
FROM emp)
DELETE FROM E WHERE rno<=5

Example 2 :- delete duplicate rows ?

EMP33
ENO ENAME SAL
1 A 5000
2 B 6000
1 A 5000 => duplicate
2 B 6000 => duplicate
3 C 7000

SELECT eno,ename,sal,
ROW_NUMBER() OVER (PARTITION BY eno,ename,sal ORDER BY eno ASC) as rno
FROM emp33

1 A 5000 1
1 A 5000 2

2 B 6000 1
2 B 6000 2

3 C 7000 1

=> to delete duplicates delete the records whose rno > 1 ?

WITH E
AS
(SELECT eno,ename,sal,
ROW_NUMBER() OVER (PARTITION BY eno,ename,sal ORDER BY eno ASC) as rno
FROM emp33)
DELETE FROM E WHERE RNO>1
method 2 :-
-----------

EMP33
ENO ENAME SAL
1 A 5000
2 B 6000
1 A 5000 => duplicate
2 B 6000 => duplicate
3 C 7000

step 1 : - create temp table and copy distinct rows to temp table

SELECT DISTINCT * INTO temp FROM emp33

temp
1 A 5000
2 B 6000
3 C 7000

step 2 :- truncate original table

TRUNCATE TABLE emp33

step 3 :- copy data from temp to emp33

INSERT INTO emp33

SELECT * FROM temp

Assignment :-

increment top 5 employee salaries by 10%

07-SEP-21

scalar subqueries :-
--------------------

=> subqueries in SELECT clause are called scalar subqueries

syn :- SELECT (subquery1),(subquery2),(subquery3)----- FROM tabname

=> subquery output acts like a column

Example 1 :-

SELECT (SELECT COUNT(*) FROM emp) as emp,

(SELECT COUNT(*) FROM dept) as dept

emp dept
14 4

Example 2 :-

=> display dept wise total sal ?

SELECT deptno,SUM(sal) as dept_totsal

FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno
 deptno dept_totsal
10 8750.00
20 7100.00
30 5300.00

=> display DEPTNO DEPT_TOTSAL TOTSAL ?

SELECT deptno,SUM(sal) as dept_totsal,

(SELECT SUM(sal) FROM emp) as totsal
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno

10 8750.00 21150.00
20 7100.00 21150.00
30 5300.00 21150.00

=> display DEPTNO DEPT_TOTSAL TOTSAL PCT ?

PCT = (dept_totsal/totsal)*100

SELECT deptno,SUM(sal) as dept_totsal,

(SELECT SUM(sal) FROM emp) as totsal,
(SUM(sal)/(SELECT SUM(sal) FROM emp))*100 as pct
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno

OR

SELECT deptno,dept_totsal,totsal,(dept_totsal/totsal)*100 as pct

FROM (SELECT deptno,SUM(sal) as dept_totsal,
(SELECT SUM(sal) FROM emp) as totsal
FROM emp
GROUP BY deptno) AS E

select
where clause
order by
functions
group by
joins
set operators
subqueries

-----------------------------------------------------------------------------
**************************************---------------------------------------------
-----

BUILT-IN FUNCTIONS IN SQL SERVER :-

------------------------------------
 => a function accepts some input performs some calculation and returns one value

Types of functions :-
----------------------

1 date
2 string
3 mathematical
4 conversion
5 special
6 analytical
7 aggregate

DATE functions :-
-----------------

1 GETDATE() :- returns current date & time

SELECT GETDATE() => 2021-08-08 19:43:39.947

2 DATEPART() :- used to extract part of the date

DATEPART(interval,date)

SELECT DATEPART(yy,GETDATE()) => 2021

mm => 08
dd => 05
hh => 19
mi => 50
ss => 20
dw => 05 (day of the week)

01 sunday
02 monday
03 tuesday

07 saturday
dayofyear => 217 out of 365 days
qq => 3 (quarter)

01 jan-mar
02 apr-jun
03 jul-sep
04 oct-dec

ww => 32 week of the year

w => 5 week of the month

06-aug-21

=> display list of employees joined in 1980,1983,1985 ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE DATEPART(yy,hiredate) IN (1980,1983,1985)

=> display list of employees joined on sunday ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE DATEPART(dw,hiredate)=1

 => display employees joined in leap year ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE DATEPART(yy,hiredate)%4=0

=> display employees joined in 2nd quarter of 1981 year ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE DATEPART(qq,hiredate)=2

AND
DATEPART(yy,hiredate)=1981

DATENAME() :-
-------------

=> similar to datepart used to extract part of the date

MM DW

DATEPART 08 6

DATENAME August Friday

=> write a query to display on which day india got independence ?

SELECT DATENAME(dw,'1947-08-15') => Friday

=> display employees joined in jan,apr,dec months ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE DATENAME(mm,hiredate) IN ('january','april','december')

DATEDIFF() :- used to find difference between two dates

-------------

syn:- DATEDIFF(interval,start date,end date)

SELECT DATEDIFF(yy,'2020-08-06',GETDATE()) => 1

SELECT DATEDIFF(mm,'2020-08-06',GETDATE()) => 12
SELECT DATEDIFF(dd,'2020-08-06',GETDATE()) => 365

=> display ENAME,EXPERIENCE in years ?

SELECT ENAME,DATEDIFF(yy,hiredate,GETDATE()) as EXPR FROM emp

=> display ENAME,EXPERIENCE ?

M years N months

experience = 42 months = 3 years 6 months

years = months/12 = 42/12 = 3

months = months%12 = 42%12 = 6

SELECT ENAME,
DATEDIFF(mm,hiredate,GETDATE())/12 AS YEARS,
DATEDIFF(mm,hiredate,GETDATE())%12 AS MONTHS
FROM EMP
 SMITH 40 8

SELECT ENAME,
CAST(DATEDIFF(mm,hiredate,GETDATE())/12 AS VARCHAR) + ' YEARS '
+ CAST(DATEDIFF(mm,hiredate,GETDATE())%12 AS VARCHAR) + ' MONTHS '
FROM EMP

SMITH 40 YEARS 8 MONTHS

=> display employees having more than 40 years experience ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE DATEDIFF(yy,hiredate,GETDATE()) > 40

07-aug-21

DATEADD() :-

=> used to add/subtract days,months,years to/from a date.

DATEADD(interval,int,date)

SELECT DATEADD(dd,10,GETDATE()) => 2021-08-17

SELECT DATEADD(dd,-10,GETDATE()) => 2021-07-28
SELECT DATEADD(mm,2,GETDATE()) => 2021-10-7
SELECT DATEADD(yy,1,GETDATE()) => 2022-08-7

NOTE :-

INSERT INTO emp(empno,ename,sal,hiredate) VALUES(9999,'SACHIN',5000,GETDATE())

=> display list of employees joined today ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE hiredate = GETDATE() => NO ROWS

2021-08-07 = 2021-08-07 19:27:42.450

=> "=" comparision with GETDATE() always fails to overcome this problem use
FORMAT function

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE hiredate = FORMAT(GETDATE(),'yyyy-MM-dd')

2021-08-07 = 2021-08-07

scenario :-

GOLD_RATES
DATEID RATE
2015-01-01 ????
2015-01-02 ????

2021-08-7 ????

=> display todays gold rate ?

SELECT RATE FROM GOLD_RATES WHERE DATEID= format(GETDATE(),'yyyy-MM-dd')

=> display yesterday's gold rate ?

 SELECT RATE FROM GOLD_RATES
WHERE DATEID = format(DATEADD(dd,-1,GETDATE()),'yyyy-MM-dd')

=> display last month same day gold rate ?

SELECT RATE FROM GOLD_RATES

WHERE DATEID = format(DATEADD(mm,-1,GETDATE()),'yyyy-MM-dd')

=> display last year same day gold rate ?

SELECT RATE FROM GOLD_RATES

WHERE DATEID = format(DATEADD(yy,-1,GETDATE()),'yyyy-MM-dd')

=> display list of employees joined in last 15 days ?

SELECT * FROM emp

WHERE hiredate BETWEEN DATEADD(dd,-15,GETDATE()) AND GETDATE()

EOMONTH() :- returns last day of the month

EOMONTH(date,int)

SELECT EOMONTH(GETDATE(),0) => 2021-08-31

SELECT EOMONTH(GETDATE(),1) => 2021-09-30
SELECT EOMONTH(GETDATE(),2) => 2021-10-31
SELECT EOMONTH(GETDATE(),-1) => 2021-07-31

Assignment :-

1 display next month first day ?

2 display current month first day ?

3 display current year first day ?

SELECT DATEADD(YY,DATEDIFF(yy,0,GETDATE()),0)

4 display next year first day ?

SELECT DATEADD(YY,DATEDIFF(yy,0,GETDATE())+1,0)

STRING functions :-

UPPER() :- converts string to uppercase

UPPER(arg)
string
colname

SELECT UPPER('hello') => HELLO

LOWER() :- converts string to lowercase

LOWER(arg)
string
colname
 SELECT LOWER('HELLO') => hello

=> display EMPNO,ENAME,SAL ? display names in lowercase ?

SELECT empno,LOWER(ename) as ename,sal FROM emp

=> convert names to lowercase table ?

UPDATE emp SET ename = LOWER(ename)

09-AUG-21

LEN() :- returns string length i.e. no of chars

LEN(string/colname)

SELECT LEN('hello') => 5

SELECT LEN('hello welcome') => 13

=> display employees name contains 5 chars ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE '_____'

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE LEN(ename)=5

LEFT() :- used to extract part of the string starting from left .

LEFT(string,len)

SELECT LEFT('hello welcome',5) => hello

=> display employees name starts with 's' ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE 's%'

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE LEFT(ename,1)='s'

scenario :-

=> generate emailids for employees ?

empno ename emailid

7369 smith [email protected]
7499 allen [email protected]

SELECT empno,ename,
LEFT(ename,3) + LEFT(empno,3) + '@microsoft.com' as emailid
FROM emp

=> store emailids in db ?

STEP 1 :- add emailid column to emp table ?

ALTER TABLE emp

ADD emailid VARCHAR(30)

STEP 2 :- update the column with emailids ?

UPDATE emp SET emailid = LEFT(ename,3) + LEFT(empno,3) + '@microsoft.com'

 RIGHT() :- used to extract part of the string starting from right side.

RIGHT(string,len)

SELECT RIGHT('hello welcome',7) => welcome

=> display employees name starts and ends with same char ?

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE ename LIKE 'a%a'

OR
ename LIKE 'b%b'
OR
ename LIKE 'c%c'

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE LEFT(ename,1)=RIGHT(ename,1)

SUBSTRING() :- used to extract part of the string starting from specific position

SUBSTRING(string,start,len)

SELECT SUBSTRING('hello welcome',7,4) => welc

CHARINDEX() :-

=> returns position of a char in a string

=> if char found returns position , if not found returns 0

CHARINDEX(char,string,[start])

SELECT CHARINDEX('o','hello welcome') => 5

SELECT CHARINDEX('x','hello welcome') => 0
SELECT CHARINDEX('o','hello welcome',6) => 11
SELECT CHARINDEX('e','hello welcome',10) => 13

Assignment :-

CUST
CID CNAME
10 sachin tendulkar
11 virat kohli

display CID FNAME LNAME ?

10 sachin tendulkar

SELECT CID,
SUBSTRING(cname,1,CHARINDEX(' ',CNAME)-1) AS FIRSTNAME,
SUBSTRING(cname,CHARINDEX(' ',CNAME)+1,LEN(CNAME)) AS LASTNAME
FROM CUST

REPLACE() :- used to replace one string with another string

REPLACE(str1,str2,str3)

=> in str1 , str2 replaced with str3

SELECT REPLACE('hello','ell','abc') => habco

 SELECT REPLACE('hello','l','abc') => heabcabco
SELECT REPLACE('hello','elo','abc') => hello
SELECT REPLACE('hello','ell','') => ho

TRANSLATE() :- used to translate one char to another char

TRANSLATE(str1,str2,str3)

SELECT TRANSLATE('hello','elo','abc') => habbc

e => a
l => b
o => c

=> TRANSLATE function can be used to encrypt data

SELECT empno,ename,
TRANSLATE(sal,'0123456789','$Kp*G%B^Q@') as sal
FROM emp

jones 2975 p@^%

=> remove all special characters from '@#he*&ll%^o$@' ?

10-aug-21

Mathematical Functions :-
--------------------------

1 abs() :- returns absolute value

abs(-10) => 10

2 power() :- return power of two numbers

power(3,2) => 9

3 sqrt() :- returns square root

sqrt(16) => 4

4 square() :- returns square

square(5) => 25

5 sign() :- used to check whether number is positive or negative

sign(10) => 1
sign(-10) => -1
sign(0) => 0

6 ROUND() :- used to round numbers to integer or to decimal places based on avg.

ROUND(number,decimal places)

SELECT ROUND(38.384675,0) => 38

38------------------38.5--------------------39
 number < avg => rounded to lowest
number >= avg => rounded to highest

SELECT ROUND(38.5432,0) => 39

SELECT ROUND(38.5462,2) => 38.55

SELECT ROUND(38.5432,2) => 38.54

SELECT ROUND(383.456,-2) => 400

300----------------------350----------------------400

SELECT ROUND(383.456,-1) => 380

380----------------------385-------------------------390

SELECT ROUND(383.456,-3) => 0

0-------------------------500---------------------------1000

=> round employee salaries to nearest hundred in table ?

UPDATE emp SET sal = ROUND(sal,-2)

CEILING() :- rounds number always to highest

CEILING(3.1) => 4

FLOOR() :- rounded number always to lowest

FLOOR(3.9) => 3

Analytical functions :-
-----------------------

RANK & DENSE_RANK :-

--------------------

=> both functions are used to calculate ranks

=> ranking is based on some column
=> for rank functions input must be sorted

RANK() OVER (ORDER BY COLNAME ASC/DESC)

DENSE_RANK() OVER (ORDER BY COLNAME ASC/DESC)

Example :-

=> display ranks of the employees based on sal and highest paid employee should
get 1st rank ?

SELECT empno,ename,sal,
RANK() OVER (ORDER BY sal DESC) as rnk
FROM emp

SELECT empno,ename,sal,
DENSE_RANK() OVER (ORDER BY sal DESC) as rnk
FROM emp
 => diff b/w rank & dense_rank ?

1 rank function generates gaps but dense_rank will not generate gaps
2 rank function ranks may not be in sequence but in dense_rank ranks will be
always in sequence

SAL RNK DRNK

5000 1 1
4000 2 2
3000 3 3
3000 3 3
3000 3 3
2000 6 4
2000 6 4
1000 8 5

11-aug-21

=> display ranks of the employees based on sal ? if salarie are same then ranking
should be based on experience ?

SELECT empno,ename,hiredate,sal,
DENSE_RANK() OVER (ORDER BY sal DESC,hiredate ASC) as rnk
FROM emp

PARTITION BY clause :-
-----------------------

=> used to find ranks with in group , for example to find ranks with in dept first
we need divide the table dept wise using PARTITION BY clause and apply
dense_rank
function on each partition instead of applying it on whole table.

SELECT deptno,empno,ename,sal,
dense_rank() over (partition by deptno order by sal desc) as rnk
FROM emp

10 7839 king 5000.00 1

10 7782 clark 2450.00 2
10 7934 miller 1300.00 3

20 7902 ford 3000.00 1

20 7788 scott 3000.00 1
20 7566 jones 2975.00 2
20 7876 adams 1100.00 3
20 7369 smith 800.00 4

30 7698 blake 2850.00 1

30 7499 allen 1600.00 2
30 7844 turner 1500.00 3
30 7521 ward 1250.00 4
30 7654 martin 1250.00 4
30 7900 james 950.00 5

ROW_NUMBER() :-
---------------

=> returns record numbers for the records return by select query
 => row_number is also based on some column
=> row_number also accepts sorted input

SELECT empno,ename,sal,
ROW_NUMBER() over (ORDER BY empno ASC) as rno
FROM emp

conversion functions :-
------------------------

=> used to convert one datatype to another datatype

1 CAST
2 CONVERT

CAST() :-

CAST(source-expr as target-type)

select cast(10.5 as int) => 10

display smith earns 800 ?

allen earns 1600

SELECT ename + ' earns ' + CAST(sal AS VARCHAR) FROM emp

CONVERT() :-

CONVERT(target-type,source-expr)

SELECT CONVERT(INT,10.5) => 10

=> using convert function we can display dates in different formats but not
possible
using cast function.

displaying dates in different formats :-

------------------------------------------

CONVERT(varchar,date,style-number)

Without century With century (yyyy) Standard Input/Output (3)

1 101 U.S. 1 = mm/dd/yy
101 = mm/dd/yyyy

2 102 ANSI 2 = yy.mm.dd

102 = yyyy.mm.dd

3 103 British/French 3 = dd/mm/yy

103 = dd/mm/yyyy

4 104 German 4 = dd.mm.yy

104 = dd.mm.yyyy

5 105 Italian 5 = dd-mm-yy

105 = dd-mm-yyyy

6 106 - 6 = dd mon yy
106 = dd mon yyyy
 7 107 7 = Mon dd, yy
107 = Mon dd, yyyy

8 108 - hh:mi:ss

9 109 Default + milliseconds mon dd yyyy

hh:mi:ss:mmmAM (or PM)

10 110 USA 10 = mm-dd-yy

110 = mm-dd-yyyy

11 111 JAPAN 11 = yy/mm/dd

111 = yyyy/mm/dd

12 112 ISO 12 = yymmdd

112 = yyyymmdd

13 113 Europe default + milliseconds dd mon

yyyy hh:mi:ss:mmm (24h)

14 114 - hh:mi:ss:mmm (24h)

- 20 or 120 (2) ODBC canonical yyyy-mm-dd hh:mi:ss (24h)
- 21 or 25 or 121 (2) ODBC canonical (with milliseconds) default for time,
date, datetime2, and datetimeoffset yyyy-mm-dd hh:mi:ss.mmm (24h)
22 - U.S. mm/dd/yy hh:mi:ss AM (or PM)
- 23 ISO8601 yyyy-mm-dd
- 126 (4) ISO8601 yyyy-mm-ddThh:mi:ss.mmm (no spaces)

Note: For a milliseconds (mmm) value of 0, the millisecond decimal fraction value
will not display. For example, the value '2012-11-07T18:26:20.000 displays as
'2012-11-07T18:26:20'.
- 127(6, 7) ISO8601 with time zone Z. yyyy-MM-ddThh:mm:ss.fffZ (no
spaces)

Note: For a milliseconds (mmm) value of 0, the millisecond decimal value will not
display. For example, the value '2012-11-07T18:26:20.000 will display as '2012-11-
07T18:26:20'.
- 130 (1,2) Hijri (5) dd mon yyyy hh:mi:ss:mmmAM

In this style, mon represents a multi-token Hijri unicode representation of the

full month name. This value does not render correctly on a default US installation
of SSMS.
- 131 (2) Hijri (5) dd/mm/yyyy hh:mi:ss:mmmAM

Money & Smallmoney formats :-

------------------------------

CONVERT(varchar,number,style-number)

0 => 2 decimal places

1 => thousand seperator
2 => 4 decimal places

SELECT empno,ename,CONVERT(varchar,sal,1) as sal from emp

CREATE TABLE T(T MONEY)

INSERT INTO T VALUES(CONVERT(MONEY,'1,500.00',1))
SELECT * FROM T
12-aug-21

special functions :-

ISNULL() :- used to convert null values

---------

ISNULL(arg1,arg2)

if arg1=null returns arg2

if arg1<>null returns arg1 only

SELECT ISNULL(100,200) => 100

SELECT ISNULL(NULL,200) => 200

display ENAME,SAL,COMM,TOTSAL ?

TOTSAL = SAL+COMM

SELECT ENAME,SAL,COMM,SAL+COMM AS TOTSAL FROM EMP

smith 800 null null

allen 1600 300 1900

SELECT ENAME,SAL,COMM,SAL+ISNULL(COMM,0) AS TOTSAL FROM EMP

smith 800.00 NULL 800.00

allen 1600.00 300.00 1900.00

display ENAME,SAL,COMM ? if COMM=NULL display N/A ?

SELECT ENAME,SAL,ISNULL(CAST(COMM AS VARCHAR),'N/A') AS COMM FROM EMP

Aggregate Functions :-
-----------------------

=> Aggregate functions process group of rows and returns one value

MAX() :- returns maximum value

MAX(arg)

SELECT MAX(sal) FROM emp => 5000

SELECT MAX(hiredate) FROM emp => 2021-08-07

MIN() :- returns minimum value

MIN(arg)

SELECT MIN(sal) FROM emp => 800

SUM() :- returns total

SUM(arg)

SELECT SUM(sal) FROM emp => 39300

 => round total sal to thousands and display with thousand seperator ?

SELECT CONVERT(VARCHAR,ROUND(SUM(SAL),-3),1) FROM EMP => 39,000.00

39000-----------39500--------------40000

AVG() :- returns average value

AVG(arg)

SELECT AVG(sal) FROM emp => 2456.25

=> round avg(sal) to highest integer ?

SELECT CEILING(AVG(SAL)) FROM EMP => 2457

COUNT() :- returns no of values present in a column

SELECT COUNT(empno) FROM emp => 16

SELECT COUNT(comm) FROM emp => 4

note :- count function ignores nulls

COUNT(*) :- returns no of rows in a table

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM emp => 16

T1
F1
10
NULL
20
NULL
30

COUNT(F1) = 3
COUNT(*) = 5

=> display how many employees joined in 1981 year ?

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM emp WHERE DATEPART(yy,hiredate)=1981

=> display no of employees joined on sunday ?

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM emp WHERE DATENAME(dw,hiredate)='sunday'

=> display no of employees joined in 2nd quarter of 1981 year ?

SELECT COUNT(*) FROM emp WHERE DATEPART(yy,hiredate)=1981

AND
DATEPART(qq,hiredate)=2

NOTE :- GROUP functions are not allowed in where clause they are allowed only in
SELECT,HAVING clauses .

SELECT ename FROM emp WHERE sal= MAX(sal) ; => ERROR

-----------------------------------------------------------------
****************************************-------------------------------------------
-----------

ROLLUP & CUBE :-

----------------

=> rollup & cube are used to display subtotals and grand totals.

GROUP BY ROLLUP(col1,col2,--)
GROUP BY CUBE(col1,col2,----)

ROLLUP :-
----------

=> ROLLUP displays subtotals for each group and also displays grand total

SELECT deptno,job,SUM(sal) as totsal

FROM emp
GROUP BY ROLLUP(deptno,job)
ORDER BY ISNULL(DEPTNO,99) ASC

10 CLERK 1300.00
10 MANAGER 2500.00
10 PRESIDENT 5000.00
10 NULL 8800.00 => DEPT SUBTOTAL
20 ANALYST 6000.00
20 CLERK 1900.00
20 MANAGER 3000.00
20 NULL 10900.00 => DEPT SUBTOTAL
30 CLERK 1000.00
30 MANAGER 2900.00
30 SALESMAN 5700.00
30 NULL 9600.00 => DEPT SUBTOTAL
NULL NULL 29300.00 => GRAND TOTAL

CUBE :-

=> cube displays subtotal for each group by column(deptno,job) and also displays
grand total.

10 CLERK 1300.00
10 MANAGER 2500.00
10 PRESIDENT 5000.00
10 NULL 8800.00 => dept subtotal
20 ANALYST 6000.00
20 CLERK 1900.00
20 MANAGER 3000.00
20 NULL 10900.00 => dept subtotal
30 CLERK 1000.00
30 MANAGER 2900.00
30 SALESMAN 5700.00
30 NULL 9600.00 => dept subtotal
NULL ANALYST 6000.00 => job subtotal
NULL CLERK 4200.00 => job subtotal
NULL MANAGER 8400.00 => job subtotal
NULL PRESIDENT 5000.00 => job subtotal
NULL SALESMAN 5700.00 => job subtotal
NULL NULL 29300.00 => grand total

Assignment :-

SALES
DATEID PRODID CUSTID QTY AMOUNT

=> display year wise and with in year quarter wise total amount ? display year wise
subtotals ?

PERSONS
AADHARNO NAME GENDER AGE ADDR CITY STATE

=> display state wise and with in state gender wise population ? display state
wise and gender wise subtotals ?
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------
-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------

08-sep-21

Database Transactions :-
-------------------------

=> a transaction is a unit of work that contains one or more dmls and must be
saved
as a whole or must be cancelled as a whole.

ex :- money transfer

acct1-----------------1000------------------->acct2

update1 update2
(bal=bal-1000) (bal=bal+1000)

successful failed invalid

failed successful invalid

successful successful valid

failed failed valid

=> every db transaction must gurantee a property called atomocity i.e. all or none
 if transaction contains multiple operations , if all are successful then it
must be saved , if one of the operation fails then entire transaction must be
cancelled.

=> the following commands provided by sql server called TCL (transaction control
language)
commands to handle transactions

1 COMMIT => to save transaction

2 ROLLBACK => to cancel transaction
3 SAVE TRANSACTION => to cancle transaction upto some point

=> every transaction has a begin point and an end point.

=> in sql server a txn begins implicitly with DML/DDL commands and ends implicitly
with COMMIT.

=> we can also start transaction explicitly with "BEGIN TRANSACTION" command and
ends explicitly with COMMIT/ROLLBACK.

Example 1 :-

BEGIN TRANSACTION => txn begins T1

update1
insert1
update2
insert2
COMMIT => txn ends

=> if txn ends with commit then it is called successful transaction and operations
are saved

Example 2 :-

BEGIN TRANSACTION => txn begins T1

update1
insert1
update2
insert2
ROLLBACK => txn ends

=> if txn ends with rollbck then it is called aborted transaction and operations
are cancelled

Example 3 :-

create table a(a int)

begin transaction
insert into a values(10)
insert into a values(20)
insert into a values(30)
insert into a values(40)
rollback

output :-

create table a => saved

inserts => cancelled
Example 4 :-

create table a(a int)

begin transaction
insert into a values(10)
insert into a values(20)
commit
insert into a values(30)
insert into a values(40)
rollback

output :- create table a => saved

insert 10,20 => saved (commit)
insert 30,40 => saved (implicit commit)

Example 5 :-

create table a(a int)

begin transaction
insert into a values(10)
insert into a values(20)
rollback
insert into a values(30)
insert into a values(40)
rollback

output :-

create table => saved

insert 10,20 => cancelled
insert 30,40 => saved

SAVE TRANSACTION :-
--------------------

=> we can declare save transaction and we can rollback upto the save transaction.
=> using save transaction we can cancel part of the transaction.

create table a(a int)

begin transaction
insert into a values(10)
insert into a values(20)
SAVE TRANSACTION ST1
insert into a values(30)
insert into a values(40)
SAVE TRANSACTION ST2
insert into a values(50)
insert into a values(60)
ROLLBACK TRANSACTION ST1
COMMIT

SELECT * FROM a

10
20

11-SEP-21
 Database Security :-
--------------------

1 logins => provides security at server level

2 users => provides security at db level
3 privileges => provides security at table level
4 views => provides security at row & col level

---------------------------------------------------------
**************************************************************---------------------
---------------------------

DB objects / SCHEMA objects :-

-------------------------------

TABLES
VIEWS
SYNONYMS
SEQUENCES
INDEXES

VIEWS :-
---------

=> a view is a subset of a table

=> a view is a virtual table
=> a view is a representation of a query
=> views are created

1 to provide security
2 to reduce complexity

=> view provides another level of security by granting specific rows & columns to
users

=> views are 2 types

1 simple views
2 complex views

1 simple views :-
----------------

=> a view is called simple if it is based on single table

CREATE VIEW <NAME>

AS
SELECT STATEMENT

Example :-

CREATE VIEW V1
AS
SELECT empno,ename,job,deptno
FROM emp
=> when the above command is executed then sql server creates view v1 and stores
query
but not query output (data).

=> a view is called virtual because it doesn't store data and doesn't occupy memory
and it always derives data from base table

SELECT * FROM V1

=> when above query submitted to sql sever it executes the query as follows

SELECT * FROM (SELECT empno,ename,job,deptno FROM emp)

Granting permissions on view to user :-

----------------------------------------

GRANT SELECT,INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE ON V1 TO VIJAY

=> after granting permission on view to vijay , vijay can access emp table through
view

VIJAY :-
---------

1 SELECT * FROM V1

2 INSERT INTO V1 VALUES(6666,'ABC','CLERK',20)

=> above insert command inserts row into emp table and fields which are not
included
in view are filled with nulls.

3 UPDATE V1 SET JOB='MANAGER' WHERE EMPNO=6666

4 UPDATE V1 SET SAL=3000 WHERE EMPNO=6666 => ERROR

ROW LEVEL SECURITY :-

---------------------

CREATE VIEW V2
AS
SELECT empno,ename,job,deptno
FROM emp
WHERE deptno=20

GRANT SELECT,INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE ON V2 TO VIJAY

VIJAY :-

INSERT INTO V2 VALUES(5555,'XYZ','CLERK',30) => 1 ROW AFFECTED

=> above insert command executed successfully even though it is violating where
condition

WITH CHECK OPTION :-

--------------------

=> if view created with "WITH CHECK OPTION" then any dml command through view
violates
 where condition that dml is not accepted.

CREATE VIEW V3
AS
SELECT empno,ename,job,deptno
FROM emp
WHERE deptno=20
WITH CHECK OPTION

GRANT SELECT,INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE ON V3 TO VIJAY

VIJAY :-

INSERT INTO V3 VALUES(4444,'KLM','CLERK',30) => ERROR

14-sep-21

complex views :-
-----------------

=> a view said to be complex view

1 if it is based on multiple tables

2 if query contains group by clause
having clause
distinct clause
aggregate functions
subqueries
set operators

=> with the help of views complex queries can be converted into simple queries

Example 1 :-

CREATE VIEW CV1

AS
SELECT e.empno,e.ename,e.sal,
d.deptno,d.dname,d.loc
FROM emp e INNER JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno = d.deptno

=> after creating view , whenever we want emp & dept details instead of writing
join query write the simple query as follows

SELECT * FROM CV1

Example 2 :-

CREATE VIEW CV2

AS
SELECT d.dname,MIN(e.sal) as minsal,
MAX(e.sal) as maxsal,
SUM(e.sal) as totsal,
COUNT(e.empno) as cnt
FROM emp e INNER JOIN dept d
ON e.deptno = d.deptno
GROUP BY d.dname
=> after creating view whenever we want dept wise summary then execute the
following query

select * from cv2

=> diff b/w simple and complex views ?

simple complex

1 based on single table based on multiple tables

2 query performs simple query performs complex operations like joins

operations group by etc

3 always updatable not updatable i.e. doesn't allow dmls

i.e. allows dmls

Question :-

CREATE VIEW V10

AS
SELECT * FROM EMP

ALTER TABLE EMP

ADD GENDER CHAR(1)

=> is this new column is added to view or not ?

ans :- by default column is not added , to add this column to view it must be
recreated

CREATE OR ALTER VIEW V10

AS
SELECT * FROM EMP

=> display list of views created by user ?

SELECT * FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.VIEWS

Droping view :-
----------------

DROP VIEW V1

=> if we drop table what about views created on table ?

ANS :- not dropped but views cannot be queried

WITH SCHEMABINDING :-
---------------------

=> if view created with "WITH SCHEMABINDING" then sql server will not allow users
to
drop table if any view exists on the table , To drop table first we need to drop
view.

Rules ;-

1 "*" is not allowed in SELECT clause

 2 tablename should be prefixed with schema name

CREATE VIEW V20

WITH SCHEMABINDING
AS
SELECT DEPTNO,DNAME,LOC FROM DBO.DEPT

DROP TABLE DEPT => ERROR

-------------------------------------------------------------------
********************************************---------------------------------------
---------------

SEQUENCES :-
------------

=> sequences are created to generate sequence numbers

=> sequences are created to auto increment column values

syn :-

CREATE SEQUENCE <NAME>

START WITH <value>
INCREMENT BY <value>
MAXVALUE <value>
MINVALUE <value>
CYCLE/NOCYCLE

Example:-

CREATE SEQUENCE S1
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
MAXVALUE 5

CREATE TABLE student

(
sid int,
sname varchar(10)
)

INSERT INTO student values(next value for s1,'A')

INSERT INTO student values(next value for s1,'B')
INSERT INTO student values(next value for s1,'C')
INSERT INTO student values(next value for s1,'D')
INSERT INTO student values(next value for s1,'E')
INSERT INTO student values(next value for s1,'F') => ERROR

calling sequence in update command :-

--------------------------------------

CREATE SEQUENCE S2
START WITH 100
INCREMENT BY 1
MAXVALUE 1000

=> use above sequence update empno ?

 UPDATE emp SET empno = next value for s2

calling sequence in expressions :-

------------------------------------

CREATE TABLE INVOICE

(
INVNO VARCHAR(30),
INV_DT DATETIME
)

CREATE SEQUENCE S3
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
MAXVALUE 1000

INSERT INTO INVOICE VALUES('KLM/' + FORMAT(getdate(),'MMdd') + '/' + CAST(NEXT

VALUE FOR S3 AS VARCHAR),getdate())
INSERT INTO INVOICE VALUES('KLM/' + FORMAT(getdate(),'MMdd') + '/' + CAST(NEXT
VALUE FOR S3 AS VARCHAR),getdate())
INSERT INTO INVOICE VALUES('KLM/' + FORMAT(getdate(),'MMdd') + '/' + CAST(NEXT
VALUE FOR S3 AS VARCHAR),getdate())

SELECT * FROM invoice

INVNO INV_DT
KLM/0915/1
KLM/0915/2

CYCLE / NOCYCLE :-

=> default is NOCYCLE , if sequence created with NOCYCLE then it starts from start
with and generates
upto max and after reaching max then it stops.

=> if sequence created with CYCLE then it starts from start with and generates upto
to max and
after reaching max then it will be reset to min.

CREATE SEQUENCE S4
START WITH 1
INCRMENT BY 1
MAXVALUE 5
MINVALUE 1
CYCLE

INSERT INTO STUDENT VALUES(NEXT VALUE FOR S4,'A')

--------------------------------
-------------------------------
-----------------------------

SELECT * FROM STUDENT

1 A
2 B
3 C
4 D
5 E
1 F
2 G
3 H
4 I
5 J

How to reset sequence manually :-

----------------------------------

CREATE SEQUENCE S5
START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
MAXVALUE 1000

=> after reaching 50 reset to 1 ?

ALTER SEQUENCE S5 RESTART WITH 1

How to alter sequence :-

-------------------------

ALTER SEQUENCE S2 MAXVALUE 5000

=> display list of sequences created by user ?

SELECT * FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.SEQUENCES

Droping sequence :-
-------------------

DROP SEQUENCE S1

-------------------------------------------------------
************************************************-----------------------------------
----------------------------

INDEXES :-
----------

=> index is also a db object created to improve performance of data accessing.

=> index in db is similar to index is textbook , in textbook using index a

particular topic can be
located fastly and in db using index a particular record can be located fastly.

=> when user submits a query , sql server goes through following steps to execute
the query

1 parsing
2 optimization
3 execution

parsing :-
----------

1 checks syntax
2 checks semantics
 checks table exists in the db or not
checks columns belongs to the table or not
user has permission to access table or not

optimization :-
----------------

=> sql server prepares plans to execute the query

=> sql server prepares mainly two plans

1 table scan
2 index scan

=> estimate the cost of each plan and selects best plan i.e. plan that takes less
cost
=> in table scan sql server scans whole table
=> in index scan on avg sql server scans half of the table

execution :-
--------------

=> sql server executes the query according to plan selected by optimizer.

=> indexes are created on columns and that column is called index key

=> indexes are created on columns

1 which are frequently accessed in where clause

2 which are used in join operation

Types of indexes :-
-------------------

1 Non clustered Index

simple
composite
unique
2 Clustered Index

Simple Non Clustered Index :-

------------------------------

=> if index created on single column then index is called simple index.

syn :- CREATE INDEX <NAME> ON <TABNAME>(COLNAME)

Ex :- CREATE INDEX I1 ON EMP(SAL)

EMP 3000
SAL
5000
1000 2000 4000
3000
2000 1000 * 2500 * 4000 * 5000 *
4000 1500 * 3000 *,*
1500 2000 *
3000
2500
=> SQL SERVER uses above index for the queries where condition based on sal column

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal=3000 ;

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal>=3000 ;
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE sal<=3000 ;

17-sep-21

composite index :-
-----------------

=> if index created on multiple columns then index is called composite index

CREATE INDEX I2 ON EMP(DEPTNO,JOB)

=> sql server uses above index when where condition based on leading column of the
index i.e. deptno

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno=20; (index)

SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno=20 and job='clerk' (index)
SELECT * FROM emp WHERE job='clerk' (table)

unique index :-
---------------

=> unqiue index doesn't allow duplicate values into the column on which index is
created

ex :- CREATE UNIQUE INDEX I3 ON EMP(ENAME)

G Q

ADAMS * JAMES * MARTIN * SCOTT *

ALLEN * JONES * MILLER * SMITH *
BLAKE * KING *

INSERT INTO emp(empno,ename,sal) VALUES(100,'BLAKE',5000) => ERROR because

unique index
doesn't allow
duplicates

=> what are the different methods to enforce unqiueness ?

1 declare primary key / unique constraint

2 create unique index

=> primary key / unique columns are implicitly indexed by sql server , sql sever
creates a unique
index on primary key / unique columns and unique index doesn't allow
duplicates so primary key/
unique also doesn't allow duplicates .

CLUSTERED INDEX :-
------------------
 => a non clustered index stores pointers to actual records where as clustered
index stores actual records

=> in non clustered index order of the records in index and order of the records
in table is not same
where as in clustered index this order will be same.

ex :- CREATE TABLE cust

(
cid int,
cname varchar(10)
)

CREATE CLUSTERED INDEX I5 ON CUST(cid)

INSERT INTO CUST VALUES(10,'A')

INSERT INTO CUST VALUES(80,'B')
INSERT INTO CUST VALUES(40,'C')
INSERT INTO CUST VALUES(60,'D')
INSERT INTO CUST VALUES(20,'E')

50

30 70

10 A 40 C 60 D 80 B
20 E

SELECT * FROM CUST => sql server goes to clustered index and reads nodes
from left to right

10 A
20 E
40 C
60 D
80 B

=> only one clustered index is allowed per table and sql server creates
clustered index on priamry key column

diff b/w non clustered and clustered index ?

non clustered clustered

1 stores pointers to actual records stores actual records

2 order of the records in table order of the records in

tablea and index
and index will not be same will be same

3 requires extra storage doesn't need extra storage

4 requires two lookups requires single lookup

 5 sql server 999 non clustered only one clustered index
is allowed per table
indexes per table

6 created explicitly created implicitly on

primary key column

=> display list of indexes ?

sp_helpindex emp

Droping index :-
------------------

DROP INDEX I1

=> if we drop table what about indexes created on table ?

ans :- indexes are also dropped

------------------------------------------------
***********************************************************------------------------
---------------------------------

synonyms :-
-----------

=> a synonym is another name or alternative name to table or view.

=> when tablename is lengthy or complex then we can give a simple and short name
to the table
and instead of using tablename we can use that simple and short name called
synonym.

syn :- CREATE SYNONYM <NAME> FOR <TABNAME>

ex :- CREATE SYNONYM E FOR EMP

=> after creating synonym instead of using tablename we can use synonym name in
SELECT/INSERT/UPDATE/DELETE queries

1 SELECT * FROM E

2 UPDATE E SET COMM=500 WHERE EMPNO=7499

MERGE command :-
-----------------

=> merge command is used to merge data into a table.

=> merge command is the combination of insert,update,delete
=> used to apply changes made to one table to another table
=> used to manage replicas (duplicate copy)

scenario :-

17th sep
 CUSTS
CID CNAME ADDR
1 A HYD
2 B MUM

=> create replica for custs ?

SELECT * INTO CUSTT FROM CUSTS

CUSTT
CID CNAME ADDR
1 A HYD
2 B MUM

18th sep

CUSTS
CID CNAME ADDR
1 A BLR => updated
2 B MUM
3 C DEL => inserted

=> whatever changes (insert,update) made to custs we need to apply these changes
to custt ,
instead of executing insert & update seperately we can combine these two
commands into
one command called merge

syntax :- MERGE INTO <TARGET-TABLE> <ALIAS>

USING <SOURCE-TABLE> <ALIAS>
ON (COND)
WHEN MATCHED THEN
UPDATE
WHEN NOT MATCHED BY TARGET THEN
INSERT
WHEN NOT MATCHED BY SOURCE THEN
DELETE

Example 1 :- replicating inserts,updates

MERGE INTO CUSTT T

USING CUSTS S
ON (S.CID=T.CID)
WHEN MATCHED THEN
UPDATE SET T.CADDR = S.CADDR
WHEN NOT MATCHED THEN
INSERT VALUES(S.CID,S.CNAME,S.CADDR);

20-sep-21

Example 2 :- replicating inserts,updates,deletes

CUSTS
CID CNAME ADDR
1 A BLR => updated
2 B MUM
3 C DEL => delete
 4 D CHE => inserted

CUSTT
CID CNAME ADDR
1 A HYD
2 B MUM
3 C DEL

MERGE INTO CUSTT T

USING CUSTS S
ON (S.CID=T.CID)
WHEN MATCHED THEN
UPDATE SET T.CADDR = S.CADDR
WHEN NOT MATCHED THEN
INSERT VALUES(S.CID,S.CNAME,S.CADDR)
WHEN NOT MATCHED BY SOURCE THEN
DELETE

PIVOT operator :-
-------------------

=> used for cross tabulation or matrix report

=> used for converting rows into columns

SELECT columns
FROM (SELECT required data) AS <ALIAS>
PIVOT
(
aggr-expr FOR colname IN (V1,V2,V3,--)
) AS <PIVOT-TABLE-NAME>
ORDER BY col ASC/DESC

Example 1 :-

10 20 30

ANALYST ?? ??? ???

CLERK ?? ??? ???

MANAGER ??? ??? ???

SALESMAN ??? ??? ???

SELECT *
FROM (SELECT deptno,job,sal FROM emp) AS E
PIVOT
(
SUM(sal) FOR deptno IN ([10],[20],[30])
) AS PIVOT_TBL
ORDER BY job ASC

Example 2 :-

1 2 3 4
 1980 ? ? ? ?

1981 ? ? ? ?

1982 ? ? ? ?

1983 ? ? ? ?

SELECT *
FROM (SELECT DATEPART(yy,hiredate) as year,
DATEPART(qq,hiredate) as qrt,
empno
FROM emp) AS E
PIVOT
(
COUNT(empno) FOR qrt IN ([1],[2],[3],[4])
) AS PIVOT_TBL
ORDER BY year ASC

Example 3 :- converting rows into columns

STUDENT
SNO SNAME SUBJECT MARKS
1 A MAT 90
1 A PHY 80
1 A CHE 60
2 B MAT 50
2 B PHY 40
2 B CHE 60

OUTPUT :-

SNO SNAME MAT PHY CHE

1 A 90 80 60
2 B 50 40 60

SELECT *
FROM STUDENT
PIVOT
(
SUM(MARKS) FOR SUBJECT IN ([MAT],[PHY],[CHE])
) AS PIVOT_TBL
ORDER BY SNO ASC

----------------------------------------------------
******************************************************-----------------------------
-----------------------------

TSQL programming
----------------

Features :-
-----------

1 improves performance :-
-------------------------
 => using TSQL programming we can group sql commands into one program and we submit
that program to
sql server , so in TSQL programming no of requests and response between user and
sql server are
reduced and performance is improved.

2 supports conditional statements :-

------------------------------------

=> TSQL supports conditional statements like if-then-else and using this we can
execute commands
based on conditions

3 supports loop :-
-------------------

=> loops are used to execute statements repeatedly multiple times

4 supports error handling :-

-----------------------------

=> in tsql , if any statement causes runtime error then sql server displays error
message , using
error handling we can replace system generated message with our own simple and
user friendly message

5 supports reusability :-
------------------------

=> TSQL programs can be centralized i.e. stored in db and applications which are
connected to db can
reuse these programs.

6 supports security :-
-----------------------

=> because these programs are stored in db and only authorized users can execute
these programs but
not unauthorized users.

=> TSQL blocks are 2 types

1 anonymous blocks
2 named blocks
stored procedures
stored functions
triggers

Anonymous Blocks :-
--------------------

=> TSQL blocks without name are called anonymous blocks

=> the following statments are used in TSQL programming

1 DECLARE
2 SET
3 PRINT

DECLARE statement :-
--------------------

=> used to declare variables

syn :- DECLARE @var datatype(size)

ex :- DECLARE @x int
DECLARE @s varchar(10)
DECLARE @d date

DECLARE @x int,@s varchar(10),@d date

SET statement :-
------------------

=> used to assign value to variable

SET @var = value

SET @x=100
SET @s='abc'
SET @d=GETDATE()

PRINT statement :-
------------------

=> used to print messages or variable values

PRINT @x
PRINT @s
PRINT @d

=> write a prog to add two numbers ?

DECLARE @a int,@b int,@c int

SET @a=100
SET @b=200
SET @c=@a+@b
PRINT @c

=> write a prog to input date and print day of the week ?

DECLARE @d date
SET @d='2021-10-15'
PRINT DATENAME(dw,@d)

DB programming with TSQL :-

---------------------------

=> to perform operations over db execute SQL commands from tsql program
=> the following commands can be executed from tsql program

1 DML (insert,update,delete,merge)
2 DQL (select)
3 TCL (commit,rollback,save transaction)

SELECT stmt syntax :-

----------------------
 SELECT @var1=col1,
@var2=col2,
@var3=col3,--------
FROM tabname
WHERE condition

22-sep-21

=> write a prog to input empno and print name & salary ?

DECLARE @eno int,@name varchar(10),@sal money

SET @eno=7844
SELECT @name=ename,@sal=sal FROM emp WHERE empno=@eno
PRINT @name + ' earns ' + CAST(@sal AS varchar)

=> write a prog to input empno and calculate experience ?

DECLARE @eno int,@hire date,@expr tinyint

SET @eno=7369
SELECT @hire=hiredate FROM emp WHERE empno=@eno
SET @expr = DATEDIFF(yy,@hire,getdate())
PRINT CAST(@expr as varchar) + ' years'

=> write a prog to input empno and calculate total sal ?

total sal = sal + comm

DECLARE @eno int,@sal money,@comm money,@totsal money

SET @eno=7566
SELECT @sal=sal,@comm=comm FROM emp WHERE empno=@eno
SET @totsal = @sal+ISNULL(@comm,0)
PRINT 'Total Sal = ' + CAST(@totsal as varchar)

23-sep-21

conditional statements :-
-------------------------

1 if-else
2 multi if
3 nested if

1 if-else :-
------------

if cond
begin
statements
end
else
begin
statements
end

2 multi if :-
-------------

if cond1
begin
 statements
end
else if cond2
begin
statements
end
else if cond3
begin
statements
end
else
begin
statements
end

3 nested if :-
---------------

if cond
begin
if cond
begin
statements
end
else
begin
statements
end
end
else
begin
statements
end

Example 1 :-

=> Write a prog to input empno and calculate experience , if expr > 40 the
delete record from table ?

DECLARE @eno int,@hire date,@expr int

SET @eno=7369
SELECT @hire=hiredate FROM emp WHERE empno=@eno
SET @expr=DATEDIFF(yy,@hire,GETDATE())
IF @expr>40
DELETE FROM emp WHERE empno=@eno

=> write a prog to increment specific employee sal by specific amount and
after increment if sal exceeds 5000 then cancel that increment ?

DECLARE @eno int,@amt money,@sal money

SET @eno=7788
SET @amt=2500
BEGIN TRANSACTION
UPDATE emp SET sal=sal+@amt WHERE empno=@eno
SELECT @sal=sal FROM emp WHERE empno = @eno
IF @sal>5000
ROLLBACK
ELSE
COMMIT
=> write a prog to input empno and increment employee salary as follows ?

if job=CLERK incr sal by 10%

SALESMAN 15%
MANAGER 20%
others 5%

DECLARE @eno int,@job varchar(10),@pct

SET @eno-7844
SELECT @job=job FROM emp WHERE empno=@eno
IF @job='CLERK'
SET @pct=10
ELSE IF @job='SALESMAN'
SET @pct=15
ELSE IF @job='MANAGER'
SET @pct=20
ELSE
SET @pct=5
UPDATE emp SET sal=sal+(sal*@pct/100) WHERE empno=@eno

24-sep-21

ACCOUNTS
ACCNO NAME BAL
100 A 10000
101 B 20000

=> write a prog to process bank transaction (w/d) ?

DECLARE @acno int,@type char(1),@amt money,@bal money

SET @acno=100
SET @type='W'
SET @amt=1000
IF @type='W'
BEGIN
SELECT @bal=bal FROM accounts WHERE accno=@acno
IF @amt > @bal
PRINT 'insufficient balance'
ELSE
UPDATE accounts SET bal=bal-@amt WHERE accno=@acno
END
ELSE IF @type='D'
UPDATE accounts SET bal=bal+@amt WHERE accno=@acno
ELSE
PRINT 'invalid transaction'

=> write a prog for money transfer ?

=> write a prog to calculate particular student total,avg,result and insert into
result table ?

STUDENT
SNO SNAME S1 S2 S3
1 A 80 90 70
2 B 50 60 30
 RESULT
SNO STOT SAVG SRES

DECLARE @sno int,@s1 int,@s2 int,@s3 int,@total int,@avg decimal(5,2),@res char(4)

SET @sno=1
SELECT @s1=s1,@s2=s2,@s3=s3 FROM student WHERE sno=@sno
SET @total=@s1+@s2+@s3
SET @avg=@total/3
IF @s1>=35 AND @s2>=35 AND @s3>=35
SET @res='pass'
ELSE
SET @res='fail'
INSERT INTO result VALUES(@sno,@total,@avg,@res)

WHILE LOOP :-
--------------

=> loops are used to execute statements repeatedly multiple times

WHILE(cond)
BEGIN
statements
END

if cond=true loop continues

if cond=false loop terminates

27-sep-21

=> write a prog to print nos from 1 to 20 ?

DECLARE @x tinyint=1
WHILE(@x<=20)
BEGIN
PRINT @x
SET @x = @x+1
END

=> write a prog to print 2022 calendar ?

2022-01-01 ?
2022-01-02 ?

2022-12-31 ?

DECLARE @d1 date,@d2 date

SET @d1 = '2022-01-01'
SET @d2 = '2022-12-31'
WHILE(@d1<=@d2)
BEGIN
PRINT CAST(@d1 AS VARCHAR) + ' ' + DATENAME(dw,@d1)
SET @d1 = DATEADD(dd,1,@d1)
END

=> write a prog to sundays between two given dates ?

DECLARE @d1 date,@d2 date

 SET @d1 = '2022-01-01'
SET @d2 = '2022-12-31'
WHILE(@d1<=@d2)
BEGIN
IF DATENAME(dw,@d1)='sunday'
PRINT CAST(@d1 AS VARCHAR) + ' ' + DATENAME(dw,@d1)
SET @d1 = DATEADD(dd,1,@d1)
END

=> prog to print tables upto 5 ?

DECLARE @i int=2,@j int

WHILE(@i<=5)
BEGIN
SET @j=1
WHILE(@j<=10)
BEGIN
PRINT CAST(@i AS VARCHAR) + 'X' + CAST(@j AS VARCHAR) + ' = ' + CAST(@i*@j
AS VARCHAR)
SET @j=@j+1
END
SET @i = @i+1
END

=> write a prog to input string and print it in following pattern ?

input :- BHARAT

output :-
B
H
A
R
A
T

DECLARE @s varchar(10),@x int=1

SET @s='BHARAT'
WHILE(@x<=LEN(@s))
BEGIN
PRINT SUBSTRING(@s,@x,1)
SET @x=@x+1
END

=> write a prog to input string and print in following pattern ?

INPUT :- INDIA
OUTPUT :-

I
IN
IND
INDI
INDIA

DECLARE @s varchar(10),@x int=1

SET @s='INDIA'
 WHILE(@x<=LEN(@s))
BEGIN
PRINT SUBSTRING(@s,1,@x)
SET @x=@x+1
END

--------------------------------------------------------------------
*************************************----------------------------------------------
--------------

CURSORS :-
-----------

=> CURSORS are used to access row-by-row into tsql program.

=> from tsql program if we submit a query to sql server , it goes to db and and
fetch the data
and copies that data into temporary memory and using cursor we can give name to
that memory
and access row-by-row into tsql program and process the row.

=> follow below steps to use cursor

1 declare cursor
2 open cursor
3 fetch records from cursor
4 close cursor
5 deallocate cursor

declaring cursor :-
--------------------

SYN :- DECLARE <CURSOR-NAME> CURSOR FOR SELECT STATEMENT

EX :- DECLARE C1 CURSOR FOR SELECT * FROM emp

opening cursor :-
-----------------

open <cursor-name>

OPEN C1

=> select statement submitted to sql server

=> data returned by query is copied to temporary storage
=> cursor c1 points to temporary storage

fetching records from cursor :-

--------------------------------

=> "FETCH" statement is used to fetch record from cursor to program

FETCH NEXT FROM <CURSOR-NAME> INTO VARIABLES ;

FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @a,@b,@c

=> a fetch statement fetches one row at a time but to process multiple rows fetch
stmt should be
executed multiple times so fetch stmt should be inside a loop.
 closing cursor :-
-----------------

close c1;

deallocating cursor :-
-----------------------

deallocate c1

@@FETCH_STATUS :-
------------------

=> used to find whether fetch is successful or not

0 => fetch successful

-1 => fetch unsuccessful

=> write a prog to print all employee names and salaries ?

DECLARE C1 CURSOR FOR SELECT ename,sal FROM emp

DECLARE @name varchar(10),@sal money
OPEN C1
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @name,@sal
WHILE(@@FETCH_STATUS=0)
BEGIN
PRINT @name + ' ' + CAST(@sal as varchar)
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @name,@sal
END
CLOSE C1
DEALLOCATE C1

=> write a prog to calculate total salary without using SUM function ?

DECLARE C1 CURSOR FOR SELECT sal FROM emp

DECLARE @sal MONEY,@total MONEY = 0
OPEN C1
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @sal
WHILE(@@FETCH_STATUS=0)
BEGIN
SET @total = @total + @sal
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @sal
END
PRINT @total
CLOSE C1
DEALLOCATE C1

=> write a prog to calculate max salary ?

=> write a prog to calculate min salary ?

=> write a prog to calculate all the students total,avg,result and insert into
result table ?

STUDENT
SNO SNAME S1 S2 S3
1 A 80 90 70
2 B 50 60 30
 RESULT
SNO STOT SAVG SRES

DECLARE C1 CURSOR FOR SELECT SNO,S1,S2,S3 FROM STUDENT

DECLARE @sno int,@s1 int,@s2 int,@s3 int,@total int,@avg decimal(5,2),@res char(4)
OPEN C1
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @sno,@s1,@s2,@s3
WHILE(@@FETCH_STATUS=0)
BEGIN
SET @total=@s1+@s2+@s3
SET @avg=@total/3
IF @s1>=35 AND @s2>=35 AND @s3>=35
SET @res='pass'
ELSE
SET @res='fail'
INSERT INTO result VALUES(@sno,@total,@avg,@res)
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @sno,@s1,@s2,@s3
END
CLOSE C1
DEALLOCATE C1

29-sep-21

raise_salary
empno pct
7369 15
7499 10
7521 12
7566 20
7654 15

=> write a prog to increment employee salaries based on pct in raise_salary table ?

DECLARE C1 CURSOR FOR SELECT * FROM raise_salary

DECLARE @eno int,@pct int
OPEN C1
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @eno,@pct
WHILE(@@FETCH_STATUS=0)
BEGIN
UPDATE emp SET sal=sal+(sal*@pct/100) WHERE empno=@eno
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @eno,@pct
END
CLOSE C1
DEALLOCATE C1

SCROLLABLE CURSOR :-
---------------------

=> by default cursor is forward only cursor and forward only cursor supports only
forward navigation
but doesn't support backward navigation.

=> if cursor declared with SCROLL then it is called scrollable cursor and a
scorllable cursor supports
both forward and backward navigation.

=> forward only cursor supports only FETCH NEXT statement but SCROLLABLE cursor
supports the following
 fetch statements

FETCH FIRST => fetches first record

FETCH NEXT => fetches next record
FETCH PRIOR => fetches previous record
FETCH LAST => fetches last record
FETCH ABSOLUTE N => fetches Nth record from first record
FETCH RELATIVE N => fetches Nth record from current record

Example 1 :-

DECLARE C1 CURSOR SCROLL FOR SELECT ename FROM emp

DECLARE @name VARCHAR(10)
OPEN C1
FETCH FIRST FROM C1 INTO @name
PRINT @name
FETCH ABSOLUTE 5 FROM C1 INTO @name
PRINT @name
FETCH RELATIVE 5 FROM C1 INTO @name
PRINT @name
FETCH LAST FROM C1 INTO @name
PRINT @name
FETCH PRIOR FROM C1 INTO @name
PRINT @name
CLOSE C1
DEALLOCATE C1

Example 2 :- write a prog to print evern 5th record ?

DECLARE C1 CURSOR SCROLL FOR SELECT ename FROM emp

DECLARE @name VARCHAR(10)
OPEN C1
FETCH RELATIVE 5 FROM C1 INTO @name
WHILE(@@FETCH_STATUS=0)
BEGIN
PRINT @name
FETCH RELATIVE 5 FROM C1 INTO @name
END
CLOSE C1
DEALLOCATE C1

Example 3 :- write a prog to print names last to first ?

------------------------------------------------------------
*************************************************----------------------------------
---------------------

ERROR HANDLING / EXCEPTION HANDLING :-

--------------------------------------

1 syntax errors
2 logical errors
3 runtime errors

=> errors that are raised during program execution are called runtime errors

ex :- declare @x tinyint
 set @x=1000 => runtime error

=> in TSQL programming if any statement causes runtime error then sql server
displays error message.
To replace system generated message with our own simple and user friendly
message then
we need to handle that runtime error

=> to handle runtime error include a block TRY---CATCH block

BEGIN TRY
statemens => causes runtime error
END TRY
BEGIN CATCH
statements => handles runtime error
END CATCH

=> in try block if any statement causes runtime error then control will be
transferred to catch block
and executes statements in catch block.

Example 1 :-

declare @a tinyint,@b tinyint,@c tinyint

begin try
set @a=100
set @b=0
set @c=@a/@b
print @c
end try
begin catch
print 'ERROR'
end catch

ERROR HANDLING FUNCTIONS :-

---------------------------

1 ERROR_NUMBER => returns error number

2 ERROR_MESSAGE => returns error message
3 ERROR_SEVERITY => returns error severity level
4 ERROR_STATE => returns error state
5 ERROR_LINE => returns line number

Example 2 :-

declare @a tinyint,@b tinyint,@c tinyint

begin try
set @a=100
set @b=0
set @c=@a/@b
print @c
end try
begin catch
if error_number()=220
print 'value exceeding limit'
else if error_number()=8134
print 'divisor cannot be zero'
 end catch

Example 3 :-

CREATE TABLE emp44

(
empno int PRIMARY KEY,
ename VARCHAR(10) NOT NULL,
sal MONEY CHECK(sal>=3000)
)

=> write a prog to insert record into above table

DECLARE @eno int,@name varchar(10),@sal money

BEGIN TRY
SET @eno=100
SET @name='abc'
SET @sal=4000
INSERT INTO emp44 VALUES(@eno,@name,@sal)
END TRY
BEGIN CATCH
IF ERROR_NUMBER()=2627
PRINT 'empno should not be duplicate'
ELSE IF ERROR_NUMBER()=515
PRINT 'name should not be null'
ELSE IF ERROR_NUMBER()=547
PRINT 'sal >=3000'
END CATCH

USER DEFINE ERRORS :-

---------------------

=> errors raised by user are called user defined errors

=> user define errors are raised by using by using

RAISERROR(error msg,error severity level,error state)

Example 1 :-
--------------

=> write a prog to increment specific employee sal by specific amount but sunday
updates are not allowed

DECLARE @eno int,@amt money

SET @eno=7788
SET @amt=1000
IF DATENAME(dw,GETDATE())='SUNDAY'
RAISERROR('sunday not allowed',15,1)
ELSE
UPDATE emp SET sal=sal+@amt WHERE empno=@eno

Example 2 :-

CREATE TABLE emp44

(
empno int primary key,
ename varchar(10) not null,
sal money check(sal>=3000)
 )

DECLARE @eno int,@name varchar(10),@sal money

DECLARE @msg VARCHAR(100)
BEGIN TRY
SET @eno=100
SET @name='abc'
SET @sal=4000
INSERT INTO emp44 VALUES(@eno,@name,@sal)
END TRY
BEGIN CATCH
IF ERROR_NUMBER()=2627
SET @msg='empno should not be duplicate'
ELSE IF ERROR_NUMBER()=515
SET @msg='name should not be null'
ELSE IF ERROR_NUMBER()=547
SET @msg='sal >= 3000'
RAISERROR(@msg,16,1)
END CATCH

01-oct-21

=> display list of errors

SELECT * FROM sys.messages

how to add user define error to sys.messages table ?

sp_addmessage error code,severity level,error message

error code => should start from 50001

sp_addmessage 50001,15,'sunday not allowed'

DECLARE @eno int,@amt money

SET @eno=7788
SET @amt=1000
IF DATENAME(dw,GETDATE())='SUNDAY'
RAISERROR(50001,15,1)
ELSE
UPDATE emp SET sal=sal+@amt WHERE empno=@eno

-----------------------------------------------------------------
*************************************----------------------------------------------
---------------

NAMED TSQL BLOCKS :-

-------------------

STORED PROCEDURES
STORED FUNCTIONS
TRIGGERS

SUB-PROGRAMS :-
--------------

STORED PROCEDURES
STORED FUNCTIONS
Advantages :-
--------------

1 modular programming :-

=> with the help of procedures & function a big tsql program can be divided into
small modules

2 reusability :-

=> procedures & function can be stored in db and application which are connected to
db can reuse
these programs.

3 security :-

=> procedures and functions are stored in db and they are secured , only
authorized users can execute
these programs

4 invoked from front-end applications :-

=> procedures & functions can be called from front-end applications like
java,.net,php etc.

5 improves performance :-

=> procedures improves performance because they are precompiled i.e. compiled
already and ready
for exectuion . when we create a procedure program is compiled and stored in db
and whenever
we call procedure only execution is repeated but not compilation.

STORED PROCEDURES :-
---------------------

=> a procedure is a named TSQL block that accepts some input perform some action
on db and may
or may not returns a value.

=> procedures are created to perform one or dml operations on db.

syntax :-

CREATE OR ALTER PROCEDURE <NAME>

parameters if any
AS
STATEMENTS

To Drop Procedure:
------------------
To delete the SP

Ex: Drop proc 'spname'

or

Drop Procedure 'spname'

parameters :-
-------------

=> we can declare parameters and we can pass values to parameters

=> parameters are 2 types

1 INPUT
2 OUTPUT

INPUT :-
--------

=> always recieves value

=> default
=> read only

OUTPUT :-
-----------

=> always sends value

=> write only

Example 1 :-

=> create procedure to increment specific employee sal by specific amount ?

CREATE OR ALTER PROCEDURE update_salary

@eno int,
@amt money
AS
UPDATE emp SET sal=sal+@amt WHERE empno=@eno

Execution :-

1 ssms
2 another program
3 front-end application

executing from ssms :-

method 1 :- (positional)

EXECUTE update_salary 7499,1000

method 2 :- (named)

EXECUTE update_salary @eno=7369,@amt=1000

02-oct-21

OUTPUT parameter :-
-------------------

=> create a procedure to increment specific employee sal by specific amount and
after increment
 send the updated sal to calling program ?

CREATE OR ALTER PROCEDURE update_salary

@eno int,
@amt money,
@newsal money OUTPUT
AS
UPDATE emp SET sal=sal+@amt WHERE empno=@eno
SELECT @newsal=sal FROM emp WHERE empno=@eno

Execution :-

DECLARE @s money
EXECUTE update_salary 7499,1000,@s OUTPUT
PRINT @s

DECLARE @s money
EXECUTE update_salary @eno=7499,@amt=1000,@newsal=@s OUTPUT
PRINT @s

Example 3 :-

ACCOUNTS
ACCNO ACTYPE BAL
100 S 10000
100 S 20000

TRANSACTIONS
TRID TTYPE TDATE TAMT ACCNO

CREATE SEQUENCE S10

START WITH 1
INCREMENT BY 1
MAXVALUE 9999

create a procedure for money withdrawl ?

CREATE OR ALTER PROCEDURE debit

@acno int,
@amt money,
@newbal money OUTPUT
AS
DECLARE @bal money
SELECT @bal=bal FROM accounts WHERE accno=@acno
IF @amt > @bal
RAISERROR('insufficient balance',15,1)
ELSE
BEGIN
UPDATE accounts SET bal=bal-@amt WHERE accno=@acno
INSERT INTO transactions VALUES(NEXT VALUE FOR
S10,'W',GETDATE(),@amt,@acno)
SELECT @newbal=bal FROM accounts WHERE accno=@acno
END
 create a procedure for money deposit ?

04-oct-21

create a procedure for money transfer ?

CREATE OR ALTER PROCEDURE transfer

@sacno int,
@tacno int,
@amt money
AS
DECLARE @bal money,@cnt1 int,@cnt2 int
SELECT @bal=bal FROM accounts WHERE accno=@sacno
IF @amt > @bal
RAISERROR('insufficient balance',15,1)
ELSE
BEGIN
BEGIN TRANSACTION
UPDATE accounts SET bal=bal-@amt WHERE accno=@sacno
SET @cnt1=@@ROWCOUNT
UPDATE accounts SET bal=bal+@amt WHERE accno=@tacno
SET @cnt2=@@ROWCOUNT
IF @cnt1=1 AND @cnt2=1
COMMIT
ELSE
ROLLBACK
END

Execution :-

EXECUTE transfer 100,101,1000

=> create procedure to insert record into emp44 table ?

CREATE TABLE emp44

(
empno int primary key,
ename varchar(10) not null,
sal money check(sal>=3000)
)

CREATE OR ALTER PROCEDURE insert_emp44

@eno int,
@name varchar(10),
@sal money
AS
DECLARE @msg VARCHAR(100)
BEGIN TRY
INSERT INTO emp44 VALUES(@eno,@name,@sal)
END TRY
BEGIN CATCH
IF ERROR_NUMBER()=2627
SET @msg='empno should not be duplicate'
ELSE IF ERROR_NUMBER()=515
SET @msg='name should not be null'
ELSE IF ERROR_NUMBER()=547
SET @msg='sal >= 3000'
 RAISERROR(@msg,16,1)
END CATCH

USER DEFINE FUNCTIONS :-

------------------------

=> functions created by user are called user define functions.

=> when predefin functions not meeting our requirements then we create our own
functions called user define function
=> a function is also a named tsql block that accepts some input perform some
calculation
and must return a value.
=> function are created

1 for calculation
2 to fetch value from db

=> functions are 2 types

1 scalar valued functions

2 table valued functions

scalar valued functions :-

--------------------------

=> if function returns one value then it is called scalar valued function
=> return type of these function must be scalar types like int,varchar,date etc
=> return expression must be scalar variable.

CREATE OR ALTER FUNCTION <NAME>(parameters if any) RETURN <type>

AS
BEGIN
STATEMENTS
RETURN <expr>
END

Modification:
-------------

ALTER FUNCTION <NAME>(parameters if any) RETURN <type>

AS
BEGIN
STATEMENTS
RETURN <expr>
END

Removeing:
----------

Syntax: drop function Schema_name.Function_name

EX : drop function dbo.addition();

Example 1 :-

CREATE OR ALTER
FUNCTION CALC(@a int,@b int,@op char(1)) RETURNS int
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @c int
IF @op='+'
SET @c=@a+@b
ELSE IF @op='-'
SET @c=@a-@b
ELSE IF @op='*'
SET @c=@a*@b
ELSE
SET @c=@a/@b
RETURN @c
END

Execution :-

1 sql commands
2 another pl/sql block
3 front-end applications

executing from sql commands :-

-------------------------------

SELECT DBO.CALC(10,20,'*') => 200

DECLARE @X INT
SET @X = DBO.CALC(10,20,'*')
PRINT @X

05-oct-21

=> create a function to calculate experience of particular employee ?

CREATE OR ALTER FUNCTION expr(@eno int) RETURNS int

AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @x int
SELECT @x=DATEDIFF(yy,hiredate,GETDATE()) FROM emp WHERE empno=@eno
RETURN @x
END

Execution :-
-------------

SELECT DBO.EXPR(7369) => 41

SELECT EMPNO,ENAME,DBO.EXPR(EMPNO) AS EXPR FROM EMP

Assignment :-

1 create function to calculate tax ?

2 create function to calculate order amount of particular order ?

 input :- ordid = 1000
output amount = 7000

PRODUCTS
PRODID NAME PRICE
100 1000
101 2000
102 1500

ORDERS
ORDID PRODID QTY
1000 100 2
1000 101 1
1000 102 2
1001 100 2

TABLE VALUED FUNCTIONS :-

--------------------------

=> table valued functions returns records

=> return type must be TABLE
=> return expression must be select statement
=> table valued functions allows only one statement and it must be return statement

=> table valued functions are invoked in from clause.

syn :-

CREATE OR ALTER FUNCTION <NAME>(parameters if any) RETURNS TABLE

AS
RETURN (SELECT STATEMENT)

Example 1 :-

create function to return list of employees working for specific dept ?

CREATE OR ALTER FUNCTION getEmpList(@d int) RETURNS TABLE

AS
RETURN (SELECT * FROM emp WHERE deptno = @d)

Execution :-

SELECT * FROM DBO.getEmpList(20)

Example 2 :-

create function to return top n employees list based on sal ?

CREATE OR ALTER FUNCTION getTopNEmpList(@n int) RETURNS TABLE

AS
RETURN (SELECT *
FROM (SELECT empno,ename,sal,
DENSE_RANK() over (ORDER BY sal DESC) as rnk
FROM emp) AS E
WHERE rnk<=@n)

SELECT * FROM DBO.getTopNEmpList(5)

 system defined table valued function :-
---------------------------------------

SELECT * FROM STRING_SPLIT('sachin ramesh tendulkar',' ')

sachin
ramesh
tendulkar

=> difference between procedures & functions ?

procedures functions

1 may or may not returns a value must return a value

2 can return multiple values always returns one value

3 returns values using OUTPUT parameter returns value using

return statement

4 cannot be executed from sql commands can be executed from sql

commands

5 created to perform dml opertions can't execute dml commands

6 created to perform some action on db created for calculations

7 create procedure to update balance create function to get

balance

=> difference between scalar valued and table valued functions ?

scalar table

1 returns one value returns records

2 return type must be scalar types return type must be table

3 return expression must a scalar variable returns expression must be

select stmt

4 invoked in select clause invoked in FROM clause

Assignment :-

ACCOUNTS
ACCNO NAME ACTYPE BAL

TRANSACTIONS
TRID TTYPE TDATE TAMT ACCNO

CREATE SEQUENCE S10

START WITH 1
 INCREMENT BY 1
MAXVALUE 9999

create procedures & functions to implement following bank transactions ?

1 account opening
2 account closing
3 money deposit
4 money withdrawl
5 money transfer
6 balance enquiry
7 particular customer statement between two given dates
8 latest N transaction of particular customer

-----------------------------------------------------------------------
*************************************----------------------------------------------
------------

TRIGGERS :-
-------------

=> a trigger is also a named TSQL block like procedure but executed implicitly by
sql server
whenever user submits DML/DDL commands.

=> triggers are created

1 to control DMLs
2 to enforce complex rules and validations
3 to audit tables
3 to manage replicas
4 to generate values for primary key columns

syn :-

CREATE OR ALTER TRIGGER <NAME>

ON <TABNAME>
AFTER / INSTEAD OF INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE
AS
BEGIN
STATEMENTS
END

AFTER triggers :-
----------------

=> if trigger is AFTER then sql server will execute the trigger after executing
DML

INSTEAD OF trigger :-
--------------------

=> if trigger is INSTEAD OF then sql server executes the trigger instead of
executing DML.

Example 1 :- create trigger to not to allo dmls on emp on sunday ?

 CREATE OR ALTER TRIGGER T1
ON EMP
AFTER INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE
AS
BEGIN
IF DATENAME(dw,GETDATE())='sunday'
BEGIN
ROLLBACK
RAISERROR('sunday not allowed',15,1)
END
END

Testing :- (getdate()=sunday)

update emp set comm=500 where empno=7369 => ERROR

Example 2 :-

create trigger to not to allow dmls on emp table as follows ?

mon - fri <10am and >4pm

sat <10am and >2pm
sun --------------

CREATE OR ALTER TRIGGER T2

ON EMP
AFTER INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE
AS
BEGIN
IF DATEPART(dw,GETDATE()) BETWEEN 2 AND 6
AND
DATEPART(hh,GETDATE()) NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 15
BEGIN
ROLLBACK
RAISERROR('only between 10am and 4pm',15,1)
END
ELSE IF DATEPART(dw,GETDATE())=7
AND
DATEPART(hh,GETDATE()) NOT BETWEEN 10 AND 13
BEGIN
ROLLBACK
RAISERROR('only between 10am and 2pm',15,1)
END
ELSE IF DATEPART(dw,GETDATE())=1
BEGIN
ROLLBAK
RAISERROR('sunday not allowed',15,1)
END
END

Example 3 :-

create trigger to not to allow to update employee number and hiredate ?

CREATE OR ALTER TRIGGER T3

ON EMP
AFTER UPDATE
AS
BEGIN
 IF update(empno) OR update(hiredate)
BEGIN
ROLLBACK
RAISERROR('empno,hiredate cannot be updated',15,1)
END
END

08-oct-21

Magic Tables :-
----------------

1 INSERTED
2 DELETED

=> with the help of magic tables in triggers we can access data affected by dml
=> the record user is trying to insert is copied to inserted table
=> the record user is trying to delete is copied to deleted table
=> the record user is trying to update is copied to both inserted & deleted tables

INSERT INTO emp(empno,ename,sal) VALUES(100,'A',4000) => INSERTED

empno ename sal
100 A 4000

DELETE FROM emp WHERE empno = 7499 => DELETED

empno ename job
sal
7499 allen
salesman 1600

UPDATE emp SET sal=2000 WHERE empno=7499 => DELETED

empno sal
7499 1600

INSERTED
empno sal
7499 2000

=> create trigger to not to allow to decrement salary ?

CREATE OR ALTER TRIGGER T4

ON EMP
AFTER UPDATE
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @OLDSAL MONEY,@NEWSAL MONEY
SELECT @OLDSAL=SAL FROM DELETED
SELECT @NEWSAL=SAL FROM INSERTED
IF @OLDSAL > @NEWSAL
BEGIN
ROLLBACK
RAISERROR('sal cannot be decremented',15,1)
END
END

Testing :-
----------
 UPDATE emp SET sal=1000 WHERE empno=7499 => ERROR

=> create trigger to insert details into emp_resign table when employee resigns
from organization ?

EMP_RESIGN
EMPNO ENAME HIREDATE DOR

CREATE TABLE emp_resign

(
empno int,
ename varchar(10),
hiredate date,
dor date
)

CREATE OR ALTER TRIGGER T5

ON EMP
AFTER DELETE
AS
BEGIN
INSERT INTO emp_resign
SELECT empno,ename,hriedate,getdate() FROM DELETED
END

Testing :-

DELETE FROM emp WHERE empno=7902

SELECT * FROM EMP_RESIGN

7902 FORD 1981-12-03 2021-10-08

INSTEAD OF trigger :-
------------------------

=> if trigger is instead of then sql server executes the trigger instead of
executing dml

EMP88
ENO ENAME SAL COMM HIREDATE

CREATE TABLE EMP88

(
eno int,
ename varchar(10),
sal money,
comm money,
hiredate date
)

CREATE OR ALTER TRIGGER T6

ON EMP88
INSTEAD OF INSERT
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @ENO INT,@NAME VARCHAR(10),@SAL MONEY,@COMM MONEY
SELECT @NAME=ENAME,@SAL=SAL FROM INSERTED
SELECT @ENO = ISNULL(MAX(ENO),0)+1 FROM EMP88
SET @COMM=@SAL*0.1
INSERT INTO EMP88 VALUES(@ENO,@NAME,@SAL,@COMM,GETDATE())
END

TESTING :-
-----------

INSERT INTO EMP88(ENAME,SAL) VALUES('A',5000)

SELECT * FROM EMP88

ENO ENAME SAL COMM HIREDATE

1 A 5000 500 2021-10-08

10-oct-21

Auditing :-
------------

=> Auditing means capturing changes made to table

=> Auditing means monitoring day-to-day actitivies on tables
=> changes are captured in some tables called audit tables
=> triggers are created to audit tables.

EMP_AUDIT
UNAME OPERATION OPTIME NEW_ENO NEW_ENAME NEW_SAL
OLD_ENO OLD_ENAME OLD_SAL
dbo INSERT ??? 100 A 5000 NULL
NULL NULL
dbo UPDATE ??? 100 A 6000 100
A 5000
dbo DELETE ??? NULL NULL NULL 100
A 6000

CREATE TABLE emp_audit

(
uname varchar(10),
operation varchar(10),
optime datetime,
new_eno int,
new_ename varchar(10),
new_sal money,
old_eno int,
old_ename varchar(10),
old_sal money
)

create trigger to capture changes made to emp table ?

 CREATE OR ALTER TRIGGER T7
ON EMP
AFTER INSERT,UPDATE,DELETE
AS
BEGIN
DECLARE @oldeno int,@oldename varchar(10),@oldsal money
DECLARE @neweno int,@newename varchar(10),@newsal money
DECLARE @cnt1 int,@cnt2 int,@op varchar(10)
SELECT @oldeno=empno,@oldename=ename,@oldsal=sal FROM DELETED
SELECT @neweno=empno,@newename=ename,@newsal=sal FROM INSERTED
SELECT @cnt1=COUNT(*) FROM INSERTED
SELECT @cnt2=COUNT(*) FROM DELETED
IF @cnt1=1 AND @cnt2=0
SET @op='INSERT'
ELSE IF @cnt1=0 AND @cnt2=1
SET @op='DELETE'
ELSE
SET @op='UPDATE'
INSERT INTO emp_audit
VALUES(USER_NAME(),@op,GETDATE(),@neweno,@newename,@newsal,
@oldeno,@oldename,@oldsal)
END

Droping Trigger :-
-------------------

DROP TRIGGER T2

Dynamic SQL :-
--------------

=> SQL commands build at runtime are called dynamic SQL commands

ex :- DROP TABLE emp (static sql command)

DECLARE @TNAME VARCHAR(20)

SET @TNAME='EMP'
DROP TABLE @TNAME (dynamic sql command)

=> Dynamic SQL is useful when we don't know tablenames and columnnames until
runtime.

=> Dynamic SQL commands are executed by using

1 EXEC procedure
2 SP_EXECUTESQL procedure

using EXEC :-
--------------

=> dynamic sql command that you want to execute should be passed as a string to
EXEC

EXEC (' dynamic sql command ')

Example 1 :- create a procedure to drop table from db ?

 CREATE OR ALTER PROCEDURE drop_table
@tname VARCHAR(20)
AS
DECLARE @str VARCHAR(100)
SET @str = 'DROP TABLE ' + @TNAME
EXEC(@str)

Example 2 :- create procedure to drop all tables from db ?

CREATE OR ALTER PROCEDURE DROP_ALL_TABLES

AS
DECLARE C1 CURSOR FOR SELECT TABLE_NAME FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.TABLES
DECLARE @TNAME VARCHAR(30),@STR VARCHAR(30)
OPEN C1
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @TNAME
WHILE(@@FETCH_STATUS=0)
BEGIN
SET @STR = 'DROP TABLE ' + @TNAME
EXEC(@STR)
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @TNAME
END
CLOSE C1
DEALLOCATE C1

using SP_EXECUTESQL :-

Example 3 :-

=> write a prog to display no of rows in each and every table ?

EMP 14
DEPT 4
CUST 10

DECLARE C1 CURSOR FOR SELECT TABLE_NAME FROM INFORMATION_SCHEMA.TABLES

DECLARE @TNAME VARCHAR(30), @Sqlcmd NVARCHAR(1000) ,@cnt INT
OPEN C1
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @TNAME
WHILE(@@FETCH_STATUS=0)
BEGIN
SET @Sqlcmd='SELECT @CNT=COUNT(*) FROM ' + @TNAME
EXEC sp_executesql @Sqlcmd , N'@cnt INT OUTPUT' ,@cnt=@cnt OUTPUT
PRINT @TNAME + ' ' + CAST(@cnt AS VARCHAR)
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @TNAME
END
CLOSE C1
DEALLOCATE C1

11-oct-21

BACKUP & RESTORE :-

------------------

backup command :-
-----------------

USE MASTER
BACKUP DATABASE [DB7PM] TO DISK = 'C:\DATA\DB7PM.BAK'
restore command :-
-----------------

USE MASTER
RESTORE DATABASE [DB7PM] FROM DISK = 'C:\DATA\DB7PM.BAK'

procedure to take backup of all database :-

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CREATE OR ALTER PROCEDURE backup_dbs

AS
DECLARE C1 CURSOR FOR select name from sys.databases
where database_id > 4
DECLARE @name varchar(100),@fname varchar(100)
OPEN C1
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @name
WHILE(@@FETCH_STATUS=0)
BEGIN
SET @fname = 'C:\DATA\' + @name + CONVERT(VARCHAR,GETDATE(),112) + '.bak"
BACKUP DATABASE @name TO DISK = @fname
FETCH NEXT FROM C1 INTO @name
END
CLOSE C1
DEALLOCATE C1