Aircra&'Structure'And'System'I

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

General Figure 1: Primary Flight Control Moments

The development of the aeroplane was delayed by two problems: how to achieve Roll
stability and how to achieve control. Before the Wright brothers’ successful flight Moment
in 1903, others had flown, but none had their success in controlling their aircraft.
“Stability” relates to maintaining the desired flight attitude with a minimum of pilot Yawing
effort, and “control” involves rotating the aeroplane about one or more of its three Moment
axes. On Figure 2 on page 3 are most of the control surfaces of an aeroplane
shown.
Balanced aerodynamic forces cause a properly designed and trimmed aeroplane
Pitch
to fly straight and level with hands and feet off of the controls. The lift produced by Moment
the wings is equal.

Principle of Control
More or less all aeroplanes use surfaces, which are deflected from the stream line
to produce a control moment around the CG. Depending on where these control
surfaces are installed cause the aeroplane to rotate around the three axes:
• Elevator causes pitch moment (control moment around lateral axis)
• Rudder causes primarily yaw moment (control moment around vertical axis)
• Aileron causes primarily roll moment (control moment around longitudinal ax-
is)
See sub module 8.3 "Theory of Flight" title "Axes of Rotation"
The principle used to generate this control moment is on all actual transport aero-
planes the same. This moments are generated through forces produced at the sta- + +
bilisers (elevator and rudder) and at the outer wings (aileron). Figure 1 on page 2
shows the change of pressure relation between both faces of a control surface, Force
which produce a force opposite the surface deflection. The lever arm between the _
control surface and the CG determines the resultant control moment.

Control Force Moment

_
+
_ Lever Arm

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Figure 2: Control Surfaces of a Jet Airliner (MD-80)

Primary Trim Tab

Flight controls
Control Tab

Secondary Leading Edge

Flight Controls Slats

Trailing Edge
Flaps

Elevator

Control Tab

Anti Tab

Boost Tab
Trimmable
Horizontal
Spoilers Stabiliser

Rudder

Control Tab
Aileron

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Longitudinal Control (Rotation About the Lateral Axis) Figure 4: Aeroplane with Stabilator
The aeroplane can be rotated nose upward about its lateral axis (pitch up) by in-
creasing the downward tail load, or nose downward (pitch down) by decreasing the
tail load.
The most generally used pitch control for an aeroplane is the fixed horizontal sta-
biliser with a movable elevator hinged to its trailing edge. When the control wheel
or stick is pulled back, the trailing edge of the elevator moves up and increases the
down load on the horizontal tail surface. The tail moves down and rotates the aer-
oplane nose-up about its lateral axis. Stabilator

Figure 3: Conventional Pitch Control

Force
Down

Up

Elevator Any aeroplane that has the equivalent of two lifting surfaces, instead of the con-
ventional horizontal stabiliser that provides a down load, can be classified as a ca-
nard. The canard is the forward surface, and frequently is also a control surface.
Figure 5: Canard Aeroplane
Force

Pitch
Moment

Some aeroplanes use a stabilator for pitch control.(see “Figure 4” on page 4). This
is a single-piece horizontal surface that pivots about a point approximately one
third of the way back from the leading edge. When the control wheel is pulled back,
the leading edge of the stabilator moves down and increases the downward force
produced by the tail. This rotates the nose up. When the wheel is pushed in, the
nose of the stabilator moves up, decreasing the tail load, and the aeroplane rotates
nose down.

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

The CG position influences the pitch controlability of aeroplanes as follows: Lateral Control (Rotation About the Longitudinal Axis)
Table 1: Influence of CG Position on Pitch Control To roll the aeroplane to the left, the control wheel is turn to the left. The aileron on
the left wing moves up, decreasing the camber, or curvature, of the left wing and
CG ahead of CP • bigger deflection of elevator needed decreasing the lift it produces. At the same time, the aileron on the right wing
moves down, increasing the camber of the left wing and increasing the lift it pro-
• high longitudinal stability duces. The difference in lift produced by the two wings rolls the aeroplane to the
left.
• bigger control force needed
Figure 7: Roll Movement with Ailerons

CG behind of CP • smaller deflection of elevator needed

• smaller control force needed Left

Roll
• low longitudinal stability

CP: Centre of Pressure, CG: Centre of Gravity Control Force

Figure 6: CG and Controlability
Lift

Lift

Stabiliser
Force

Roll Moment
CG
CP

Many large jet transport aeroplanes have two ailerons on each wing and flight
spoilers to assist in roll control. The outboard ailerons are locked in their faired, or
Weight
streamline, position when the trailing edge flaps are up. The inboard ailerons and
the flight spoilers provide enough roll control for high-speed flight, but when the
flaps are lowered, the inboard and outboard ailerons work together to provide the
additional roll control needed for low-speed flight.

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Adverse Yawing Control Figure 8: Adverse Yawing Control

Ailerons are used mainly for turns, if the control wheel is turn to the left the aero-
plane rolls to the left and also turns to the left. Due to the increasing induced drag
force on the climbing wing (increased lift), this wing tends to break slightly and pro-
duce a yawing moment in the opposite direction. It is to say, that this effect is seen
only at the beginning and ending of a roll manoeuvre.
To overcome this unwanted effect the following devices are used:
• Differential Ailerons: the rising aileron deflects more than the lowering ailer- Aileron
on. In this way the rising aileron produces a greater amount of drag, which
compensates adverse yawing.
Flight Spoilers
• Roll Spoilers (high speed aeroplanes): these are hinged surfaces located
ahead of the flaps. They are used in conjunction with the ailerons to assist in
roll control. When the ailerons are deflected, the flight spoilers on the wing
with the up-aileron automatically extend to decrease the lift on the wing that
is moving down and to produce additional parasite drag to overcome any ad-
verse yaw. When a large amount of aileron is used, the spoilers account for
about 70% of the roll rate.
• Frise Ailerons (low speed aeroplanes): the lower forward edge of such an ai-
leron looks squarely. This squarely edge is exposed to the airflow when the
aileron is rise to produce drag like the rising wing, to overcome adverse yaw-
ing. Flight Spoiler

• Aileron-Rudder Coupling: this is also a possibility to compensate adverse

yawing. When the pilot turns the control wheel, rudder will deflect in correct
direction to start the turn in the right direction and keep it coordinated. Frise Aileron

+ 25˚

0˚

Differential Aileron
- 15˚

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Directional Control (Rotation About the Vertical Axis) The movement of the rudder is controlled by rudder pedals operated by the feet of
the pilot. When the right pedal is pressed, the rudder swings to the right, thus cre-
The rudder is used on an aeroplane only to rotate it about its vertical axis. An aer- ating an aerodynamic force that pulls the tail to the left.
oplane is turned by tilting the lift vector with the ailerons and not by using the rud-
der. The rudder is used only at the beginning of the turn to overcome the adverse Some aeroplanes have connected the rudder to the aileron controls so that when
yaw and start the nose moving in the correct direction and for such flight conditions a turn is started, the rudder automatically moves in the correct direction. This al-
as crosswind and one engine off operation. lows flight operation without actuation of pedals.

Figure 9: Yaw Movement with Rudder Hybrid Control Surfaces

Ruddervator
Pedals Some aeroplane use two tail surfaces to perform the same functions as that done
Yaw Moment with the three that are more often used. The function of the V-tail is exactly the
same as that of the conventional tail. The two fixed surfaces act as both horizontal
and vertical stabilisers, while the movable surfaces are connected through a mix-
ing-type linkage that allows in and out movement of the control wheel to move both
surfaces together for pitch control and the rudder pedals move the surfaces differ-
entially for yaw control.
Figure 10: Yaw and Pitch Movement with Ruddervators

Elevator Up Elevator down

Control Elevator Up Elevator Down

Force Rudder Left Rudder Right

Rudder

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Elevons
This kind of control surface is used on “tail less” aeroplanes, like the Concorde. It
combines the functions of both aileron and elevator. Movement of the control col-
umn (backward and forward causes the elevons to act as elevator. While rotation
of control wheel causes the elvons to act as ailerons. A kind of mixing unit makes
possible to move the surfaces performing both jobs at the same time.
Figure 11: Roll and Pitch Movement with Elevons

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Trim Systems
In aviation, trimming means maintaining the equilibrium of an aircraft during flight
without having to use steering force. For this reason, the following are installed in
the aircraft:
• an adjustable horizontal stabiliser (stabilizer) for trimming the pitch axis (pitch
trim);
• adjustable trim surfaces in rudders and ailerons;
• electrical actuators which are included in the cable system.
(see “Figure 2” on page 3)
The adjustable trim surfaces and the actuators give trim possibilities for the longi-
tudinal axis and the yaw axis. This section discusses three situations where trim-
ming is necessary:
• with the adjustable stabiliser (at a change of position of the centre of gravity
and the centre of pressure);
• with the rudder (when there is an uneven thrust of the engines);
• when there is a fuel imbalance.

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Figure 12: Example of Trim System Layout

Cockpit

Aileron

Trim Tab

Elevator

Trimmable
Horizontal
Stabiliser

Control Wheel

Pitch Trim
Control

Yaw Trim
Control

Trim Knob
Rudder

Trim Switches
Roll Trim
Control

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Pitch Trimming Figure 13: Balance of Forces

The purpose of the adjustable stabiliser is to maintain a balance of forces to pre-
vent undesired rotation along the pitch axis. The forces that are exerted on the air- Lift
craft are:
• a downward force, caused by the pull of gravity on the aircraft;
• an equal upward force during horizontal flight (lift). Lift Travel
These two forces do not have the same point of application. Gravity is applied to
the center of gravity of the aircraft. The position of the center of gravity is not fixed
and depends on:
• the amount of fuel;
Stabiliser
• the number of passengers;
Travel
• the amount and the distribution of the cargo.
CG CP
The position of the centre of gravity may vary slightly, but not too much. During test Stabiliser
flights and by means of calculations, the manufacturer has determined the maxi- Lift
mum range of the centre of gravity position. During flight, the centre of gravity will
move slowly in the direction of the tail of the aircraft, as a result of fuel consump-
tion.
Weight Travel

Weight

Lift is applied to the wing (CP). Just as with the centre of gravity, the centre of pres-
sure is not a fixed point. Its position depends on the air speed and moves back-
wards when the air speed increases.
Depending on the position of the centre of gravity and the pressure point, a com-
bination is created which will cause an upward or downward movement of the nose
of the aircraft (rotation along the pitch axis). As compensation, the stabiliser will
have to create an opposite force. This force is created by giving the stabiliser an-
other angle of attack. Adjusting the stabiliser is done by means of screw spindles
which are driven hydraulically, electrically or by a combination of both.

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Figure 14: Forces on a Trimmable Stabiliser cy of the aircraft to rotate along the yaw axis as a result of uneven thrust distribu-
tion.
Modern passenger aircraft no longer use this way of trimming. Nowadays, an elec-
+ Drag
+ tric actuator is installed in the cable system between the pedals and the control
valves of the steering units. By operating the trim switch on the flight deck the ca-
ble system will be moved by the actuator without the pilot having to use the pedals.
_ The rudder will then be deflected via the control valves and the steering units. This
way of trimming is much more effective.

Trim Lift Roll Trimming

The last example is trimming as a result of fuel imbalance. The total amount of fuel
+ Drag is distributed uniformly among the fuel tanks in the left and the right wing. During
+ the flight, it will also be consumed evenly. Suppose that an amount of fuel can no
longer be used as a result of a malfunction in the feeding system. After some time,
an imbalance will occur which causes the aircraft to rotate along the longitudinal
_ axis and bank as a result of the centre of gravity. This banking can be prevented
by deflecting the ailerons slightly by means of the control wheel. Just as with the
use of the pedals in the example of uneven thrust, the pilot will have to exert an
Trim Lift
increasing steering force when operating the ailerons by means of the control
wheel during the remaining flight time. This problem can be prevented by installing
Figure 14 on page 12 shows the effect of the application of an adjustable stabiliser adjustable trim tabs on the ailerons. In passenger aircraft, they are operated by
by means of the forces of air on the elevator and the stabiliser. means of electric trim actuators and steering units.

Yaw Trimming
It sometimes happens that one of the engines has to be stopped in flight. This re-
sults in an uneven distribution of thrust. This is especially noticeable in aircraft with
two engines. Because of uneven thrust, a moment is created which causes a ro-
tation of the aeroplane along the yaw axis. This undesired rotation can be prevent-
ed by deflecting the rudder. If this deflection can only be performed via the pedals,
the pilot must keep the pedal depressed during the remaining stretch of the flight
to exert a continuous steering power.
The rudder can also be deflected by means of an adjustable trim tab. It is designed
as part of the rudder and can be operated from the flight deck by means of a sep-
arate cable system. This can deflect the trim tab in relation to the rudder. Via the
forces of air Title "Roll and Yaw Trimmimg" in Sub Module 11.9, the rudder deflects
without the pilot having to use the pedals. By means of the trim tab, the pilot can
trim the rudder until a balance of forces is reached. This will counteract the tenden-

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

High Lift Devices Figure 15: Most Used High Lift Devices

An aeroplane is a series of engineering compromises. We must choose between

stability and manoeuvrability and between high cruising speed and low landing
speed, as well as between high utility and low cost. Lift-modifying devices give us
some good compromises between high cruising speed and low landing speed, be-
cause they may be extended only when they are needed and then tucked away
Plain Flap Split Flap
into the structure when they are no longer needed.

Zap Flap Droop Nose

Fowler Flap Fixed Slot

Slotted Flap Krüger Flap

Double-Slotted Flap Handley Page Slat

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Slots Stalling with Slats

Slots are nozzle-shaped passage through a wing, designed to improve the airflow The effect of the slat at the highest angles of attack is to boost the extent of the low
conditions at high angles of attack and slow speeds. It is normally placed very near pressure area over the wing. At angles of attack of about 25° the low pressure en-
the leading edge and is built into the wing. As the angle of attack of the wing in- velope has been considerably enlarged and a proportionately larger amount of lift
creases, more of the air is deflected through the slot, thus maintaining a streamline is being developed. When the wing reaches a certain angle the slat can no longer
flow around the wing. In normal flight, the slot will cause a slight increase in drag, postpone events and the stall occurs. When the powerful low pressure envelope
due to turbulence around the openings. This is acceptable to slow speed aircraft collapses the sudden loss of lift may result in equally sudden changes in the alti-
but as speeds increase the drag penalty becomes unacceptable. tude of the aircraft. This applies particularly if one wing stalls before the other; in
this case a strong rolling moment or wing dropping motion would be set up.
Slats
Wing Flaps
Since the slot is of use only at high angles of attack, at the normal angles its pres-
ence serves only to increase drag. This disadvantage can be overcome by making A wing flap is defined by the NACA as a hinged, pivoted, or sliding airfoil, usually
the slot movable so that when not in use it lies flush against the leading edge of near the trailing edge of the wing. It is designed to increase the lift and drag, when
the wing. In this case the slat is hinged on its supporting arms so that it can move deflected. Wing flaps are used for both take-off and landing phases of flight. For
to either the operating position at which it gives least drag. This type of slat is fully take-off, an intermediate setting is used. This gives an increase of lift with little in-
automatic in that its action needs no separate control. crease in parasite drag, allowing a shorter take-off run and lower take-off speed.
For landing, the flaps are lowered fully. The increase in camber and in some cases
Uses of the Slat surface area gives an increase of lift for any given speed. This allows a lower ap-
On some high performance aircraft the purpose of slats is not entirely that of aug- proach speed. At the same time parasite drag is increased significantly. This al-
menting the CL max, since the high stalling angle of the wing, with a full span slat lows for a steep approach without an increase in speed. The advantages are that
necessitates an exaggerated and unacceptable landing altitude if the full benefit of obstacles on the approach can be cleared easily and the landing run will be shorter
the slat is to be obtained. When slats are used on these aircraft, their purpose may with less wear on the landing gear.
be as much to improve control at low speeds by curing any tendencies towards
wing tip stalling as it is to augment the lift coefficient.
Types of Flaps
The trailing edge flap has many variations, all of which serve to increase the CL
If the slats are small and the drag negligible they may be fixed, i.e. Non-automatic.
max. Some, however, are more efficient than others. The more efficient flaps are
Large slats are invariably of the automatic type. Slats are often seen on the leading
usually more complex mechanically and their use is restored to, only when the low-
edges of sharply swept back wings; on these aircraft the slats usually extend along
est possible stalling speed is essential. The Fowler flap is of the area increasing
most of the leading edge and, besides relieving the tip stalling characteristics, they
type and so, besides augmenting the CL by increasing the camber, it increases the
do augment CL considerably even though the angle of attack may be well below
wing area and in so doing reduces the wing loading thus lowering the stalling
the stalling angle. speed still further.
Automatic slats are designed so that they open fully some time before the speed
reaches that used for the approach and landing. During this period they still ac- Plain Flap
complish their purpose of making the passage of the boundary layer easier by flat- This flap resembles an aileron in configuration. However, it is linked with the flap
tening the pressure gradient over the front of the wing. Thus, whenever the slat is on the opposite wing so that both flaps move down and up together instead of
open, at even moderate angles of attack, the boundary layer can penetrate further moving in opposite directions as the ailerons do.
aft along the chord thus reducing the thickening effect and delaying separation and
resulting in a stronger pressure distribution than that obtained from a wing without Normally, flaps are installed inboard of the ailerons on a monoplane, although, in
slats. As the angle of attack is increased so the effect becomes more pronounced. some cases, they may be placed both inboard and outboard of the ailerons.

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

When deployed this flap will increase the angle of attack of the airfoil, increase Krüger Flap
wing chamber and increase total drag. This kind of flap is only used on low speed Another method for providing the leading edge flap is to design an extendible sur-
aeroplanes. face that ordinarily fits smoothly into the lower part of the leading edge. When the
flap is required, the surface extends forward and downward.
Split Flap
This flap is usually housed flush with the lower surface of the wing immediately for-
ward of the trailing edge. Deflection of the flap results in the flap being lowered into
the airflow thus allowing a substantial increasing in drag but with a similar increase
in lift to that produced by the plane flap. This kind of flap do not find application in
transport aeroplanes.

Fowler Flap
This flap is constructed so that the lower part of the trailing edge of the wing rolls
back on a track, thus increasing the effective area of the wing and at the same time
lowering the trailing edge. The flap itself is a small airfoil that fits neatly into the
trailing edge of the main wing when retracted. When deployed initially the flap
greatly increases wing area giving move lift without a substantial increase in par-
asite drag. As the flap continues to move rearwards and then downward, the wing
angle of attack, chamber and drag are increased. A disadvantage of this type of
flap is that as the wing area is increasing and the boundary layer thickens becom-
ing turbulent towards the trailing edge and over the flap, with the result of the flap
losses some of its effectiveness.

Slotted Flap
Have been developed to provide even more lift than the flaps described previously.
When such flaps are extended, either partially or completely, one or more slots are
formed near the trailing edge of the wing. The slots allow air from the bottom of the
wing (high-energy air) to flow to the upper portion of the flaps and downward at the
trailing edge of the wing. This aids in preventing the airflow from breaking away
into turbulence. When lowered there is increased lift for similar angles of attack of
the basic airfoil and the maximum lift coefficient is greatly increased.

Droop Nose
One method for providing a wing flap is to design the wing with a leading edge that
can be drooped. This increases the camber of the wing, at the same time reduces
the angle of attack.

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Drag Inducing Devices Figure 17: Use of Drag Inducing Devices

Aerodynamic brakes are devices, which when deployed disturb the patterns of
smooth airflow. This produces an increasment of drag and also decreasment of lift,
depending of the kind of device.
They are two kind of devices mainly in use: Speed Brakes Deployed
• Wing installed (drag increasment and lift decreasment) Speed Brakes Stowed
• Fuselage installed (drag increasment)
Figure 16: Different Aerodynamic Brakes

Wing
Spoilers
Fuselage
Spoilers

Touch Down

Drag inducing devices are used in the following flight manoeuvres:

• Approach (reduction of glide ratio)
• Rapid descent
• Landing (shortening of roll-out distance) Stop Distance
=
• Turning flight (spoilers only)
Ground Spoilers
Stop Distance
OUT
=
Ground Spoilers
IN

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Spoilers Effect of Spoilers on Lift

A spoiler is a control device that destroys lift over a part of the wing. The most com- Fuselage installed spoilers have no effect on lift. Stall speed of aeroplane is not
mon spoilers are used on sailplanes. They are “popped up” to allow a rapid rate of affected.
descent, while still retaining full control. This function of spoilers is normally named Deploying wing spoilers affects airflow. The turbulent flow reduces the resultant lift
“speed-brake”. They can be retracted to regain full lift when the desired altitude and produces drag. Stall speed is increased. Due to this fact flight spoiler use is
is reached. usually inhibited when flaps are fully extended (very slow flight)
On the ground, spoilers can be raised to the maximum to help increase braking
Figure 19: Wing Spoilers Effect on Lift Coefficient
efficiency by increasing contact pressure of the tires with the ground and providing
additional drag, thus becoming aerodynamic ground spoilers.
For aileron assistance, they act on the “down” wing through a mixer system and
move in proportion to the aileron. The spoiler system can also act as a backup ai-

Lift
leron system, should the primary system ever fail. This function of spoilers is
Clean Wing
named “roll spoilers” (see Title “Adverse Yawing Control” on page 6) .
Figure 18: Operation of Spoilers

Lift Wing Spoilers

Reduction OUT

Lift Drag

Angle of Attack

Ground Spoiler
Deflection
> Flight Spoiler
Deflection

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THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Boundary Layer Control Figure 20: Air Flow over a Swept Wing

As it is described in Sub Module 8.2 "Aerodynamics", separator of boundary layer

is the cause of wing stall. Before this happens, it turns turbulent which cause an
unwanted increasment of drag. Much study has been made to find ways of mini-
mizing it.
Not only high angle of attack causes turbulent boundary layers, also shock waves
along the wing upper surface, flying near speed of sound, cause turbulent bound-
ary layers.
To retard separation during high angle of attack flying, slots and slats are used,
which force high-energy air from below the wing into the upper-surface boundary
layer. This allows for a higher angle of attack before the airflow separates. Slotted
and triple-slotted flaps are used to duct high-energy air over the upper surface of
the flaps when they are extended, which prevents the air separating from their sur-
face. Modern transport aeroplanes are capable to fly at angles of attack of more
than 20°.
Swept wing is the most used method to retard shock waves from emerging. The
movement of the air flow parallel to leading edge affects the boundary layer. This
cause the boundary layer to lose energy, grow thicker and turbulent.
Vortex generator may be installed on the upper surface of the wing at the point
where separation is most likely to occur. Vortex generators are low-aspect-ratio
airflows arranged in pairs. The tip vortices of these pull high energy air down into
the boundary layer and prevent the separation.
Fences and other devices like saw-cut or dog-tooth may also be used to prevent
air from flowing toward wing tip (see “Figure 21” on page 19).
Separation of boundary layer results always in growing drag. Using boundary layer
control devices, a drag reduction of up to 50% can be achieved.

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THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Figure 21: Examples of Boundary Layer Control

Fence Saw Cut

Vortex Generator Dog-Tooth

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Stall Strips
It is extremely important that an aeroplane wing stall progressively from the root
out to the tip, so the ailerons will be effective throughout the stall. If a wing does
not naturally have this stall progression characteristic, it is possible for the manu-
facturer to place a small triangular strip of metal on the leading edge of the wing in
the root area. When a high angle of attack is reached, this triangular stall strip will
break the airflow over the root section. and it will stall while the airflow is still
smooth over the aileron.
Figure 22: Stall Strip

Stall Strip

The Ioss of lift caused by the turbulence over the root section will cause the nose
of the aeroplane to drop and restore the smooth flow of air over the entire wing.

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Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Control Aids / Tabs Tabs

An other very popular device of control force aid is the tab. It is a small auxiliary
Balanced Control Surface flap installed at the trailing edge of control surfaces. Depending on its function its
Even on small, light aeroplanes, aerodynamic assistance in the movement of the control rod may be connected either to the control surface or the fixed adjacent air-
controls is used. The simplest form of this assistance is the balanced control sur- frame structure or direct to the flight control system.
face. In the case of the rudder, the balance portion, or overhang, deflects to the The method of working is as follows: when the tab is deflected, down as for exam-
opposite side of the fuselage from the main rudder surface to produce an aerody- ple, the produced suction results in a control force. This force is of considerable
namic force that aids the pilot in moving the surface. See Sub Module 11.3.4 "Bal- magnitude. Because of the relative large lever arm, the resulting moment tends to
ancing". move the control surface up, in this case. In this way the control force applied to
the tab is boosted to move the whole control surface.
Figure 23: Balanced Control Panels
Remember: The control surface moves in the opposite direction to the tab.
Control force loses are small, because of the small dimensions of tab surfac-
es.
Figure 24: Tab Method of working

Wing

Unshielded Shielded

Tab Control
Aileron Force

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Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Control Tabs / Servo Tabs Balance Tabs

On aeroplanes of take off weight between 5T and 30T the control forces are too The control forces may be excessively high in some aeroplanes, and in order to
great for the pilot to manually move the flight control surfaces. They are usually decrease them, the manufacturer may use a balance tab. This tab is located in the
controlled with control tabs. The flight control column moves the tab on the control same place as a trim tab and in many installations one tab serves the function of
surface, and the aerodynamic forces caused by the deflected tab moves the main both. The basic difference is that the control rod for the balance tab is connected
control surface. to the fixed surface on the same side as the horn on the tab. In Figure 26 on
page 22 we see the way a balance tab works. If the control surface is deflected
Figure 25: Control Tab downward, the connecting linkage will pull the tab up, and when the tab moves in
the direction opposite that of the control surface, it will create an aerodynamic
force that aids the movement of the surface.
Figure 26: Balance Tab
Control
Surface

Tab

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Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Anti-Balance Tabs Figure 27: Anti-Balance Tab

Stabilator surfaces do not have fixed stabiliser in front of them, and the location of
their pivot point makes them extremely sensitive. To decrease this sensitivity, a full
length anti-servo tab may be installed on the trailing edge. This tab works in the
same manner as the balance tab except that it moves in the opposite direction.
The fixed end of the linkage is on the opposite side of the surface from the horn on
the tab, and when the trailing edge of the stabilator moves up, the linkage forces
the trailing edge of the tab up. When the stabilator moves down, the tab also
moves down.

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Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Trim Tabs
Trim tabs are small movable portions of the trailing edge of the control surface.
These tabs are controlled from the cockpit to alter the camber of the surface and
create an aerodynamic force that will hold the control surface deflected.
Trim tabs may be installed on any of the primary control surfaces. The tab has a
variable linkage that is adjustable from the cockpit. Movement of the tab in one di-
rection causes a deflection of the control surface in the opposite direction.
The simplest adjustable trim tab has a jackscrew mechanism inside the control
surface by which the length of the actuating rod to the tab horn may be varied in
flight. When the length of this rod is adjusted, the relationship between the tab and
the control surface remains fixed for all the positions of the control surface.
Most of the trim tabs installed on aircraft are mechanically operated from the cock-
pit through an individual cable system. However, some aircraft have trim tabs that
are operated by an electrical actuator.
Figure 28: Trim Tabs

Control Surface
Trim Tab

Adju
in F stable
ligh
t

If the linkage between the tab and the fixed surface is adjustable from the cockpit,
the tab will act as a combination trim and balance tab. It can be adjusted to any
desired deflection to trim the aeroplane for a steady flight condition, and any time
the control surface is deflected, the tab will move in the opposite direction and
ease the load on the pilot.
The fixed end of the linkage may be attached to a jackscrew so the tab may be
used as a trim tab as well as an anti-servo tab.

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Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Spring Tabs Figure 29: Spring Tab

Another device for aiding the pilot of high-speed aircraft is the spring tab. The con-
trol horn is free to pivot on the hinge axis of the surface, but it is restrained by a
spring. For normal operation when the control forces are light, the spring is not
compressed and the horn acts as though it were rigidly attached to the surface. At
high airspeeds when the control forces are too high for the pilot to properly oper- A
ate, the spring collapses and the control horn deflects the tab in the direction to CONTROL SURFACE

produce an aerodynamic force that aids the pilot in moving the surface. NEUTRAL POSITION TAB
In Figure 29 on page 25, three situations are shown:
(A) illustrates no control input which means no deflection of the aileron and tab.
(B) illustrates control input during low speed flight. The spring is not compressed
and therefore no tab deflection takes place.
(C) illustrates control input during high speed flight where the required force to op-
erate the control surface is high. The spring will compress and a deflection of the
tab takes place, assisting the control surface to move in the demanded direction.
CONTROL INPUT

LOW SPEED = NO TAB DEFLECTION B

CONTROL INPUT

HIGH SPEED = TAB DEFLECTION C

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Training Manual 11.1.1 Aerodynamics and Flight Controls

Aerodynamic Balance Panel Control Surface Mass Balancing

The balance panels primary function is to magnify the effect of control tab dis- Most control surfaces are mass balanced. The purpose of this is to prevent control
placement during deflection. These panels are mounted in sealed chambers so surface flutter.
that they act as a moveable diaphragm dividing the balance chamber and restrict- Flutter is an oscillation of the control surface, which can occur due to the bending
ing airflow between the two parts. and twisting of the structure under load.
The panels are hinged to the nose of the control surface and are also hinged to the If the centre of gravity of the control surface is behind the hinge, its inertia causes
forward wall of the balance chamber. it to oscillate about its hinge when the structure distorts.
Seals are provided along panel hinge lines. Each half of the balance chamber is In certain circumstances the oscillations can be divergent, and cause failure of the
vented to atmosphere at the control surface hinge line. structure.
With the surface faired, pressure on opposite sides of the hinge line is approxi- Flutter may be prevented by adding weight to the control surface in front of the
mately equal and balance panels exert no force. hinge line, to bring the centre of gravity closer to the hinge.
As the main surface moves, the airflow on one side of the hinge line is accelerated This reduces the inertia moments about the hinge and prevents flutter developing.
relative to the opposite side, which is decelerated.
The control surfaces for new aircraft are properly balanced at the factory. After the
As velocities vary, pressures also vary, with the result that differential pressures aircraft undergoes overhaul, painting, or repair of the control surfaces, the static
develop on opposite sides of the balance panel. balance may be altered to the extent that flutter will occur in flight.
The balance panel applies a force to the control surface in the same direction as Note: It is necessary that the control surface balance be checked whenever
the original movement. any operation is performed on a control surface, which can change the static
Figure 30: Aerodynamic Balance Panel balance.
Figure 31: Mass Balancing

Pivot Control Surface

Balance
Weight

Center of
Gravity

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Training Manual 11.1.2 High Speed Flight

11.1.2 High Speed Flight

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Training Manual 11.1.2 High Speed Flight

Compressibility Effects Figure 2: Supersonic Venturi

Subsonic aerodynamics deals with the air as though it were an incompressible flu-
id. We vary its velocity and pressure to produce aerodynamic lift, but at speeds be-
low that at which sound travels, we do not appreciably change its density. When
air flows through a restricted tube, as we have in Figure 1 on page 2, the velocity
will increase as the tube converges (becomes smaller) and will decrease as it di-
verges (becomes larger). The pressure will act as it was seen earlier with regard
to Bernoulli’ s principle; it will decrease as the tube converges and increase as it
diverges. In spite of the changes in pressure and velocity, there will be no change
in density of the air.
Figure 1: Subsonic Venturi
Converging Diverging

Converging Diverging

At supersonic velocities of the air flowing through the restricted tube, things are
quite different. As the supersonic flow enters the converging portion of the tube, it
slows down and is compressed. Both its density and its pressure increase. As it
enters the diverging portion of the tube, its density and pressure both decrease,
and its velocity increases.

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
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Training Manual 11.1.2 High Speed Flight

The Speed of Sound Mach Number

High-speed flight is measured in terms of Mach number, which is the ratio of the
When air is disturbed, longitudinal waves are created that cause the air pressure
speed of the aircraft to the speed of sound. An aeroplane flying at a speed of
to increase and decrease. The speed of sound is the speed at which this small
Mach 1 at sea level is flying at the speed of sound, which, according to Table 1 on
pressure disturbances are able to move through the air. these pressure changes
in the sound wave are caused by the movement of the molecules in the air, and as page 3 is 1224 km/h. When it is flying at a speed of Mach 0.75, it is flying at 75%
of the speed of sound at the existing air temperature.
the temperature changes so does the molecular movement, as indicated in the
chart: Mach number is a ratio between airflow and sound speed, it has no units and its
expression is as follows:
Table 1: Standard Atmosphere
v
Altitude Temperature Speed of sound M = ---
a
(m) (°C) (km/h)

Sea level 15.0 1224.1 Where: M(): Mach number, v(m/s): airflow actual speed, a(m/s): actual speed of
sound
1700 5.1 1203.5
Critical Mach Number
3300 -4.8 1181.4 The critical Mach number of an aeroplane is that flight Mach number at which there
5000 -14.7 1159.4 is the first indication of local sonic flow. This means when a normal shock wave
forms somewhere on the wing (see “Figure 3” on page 5).
6700 -24.6 1137.0 Aeroplanes that fly at these speeds have Machmeters in the cockpit that automat-
ically compensate airspeed for the air temperature and show the pilot the Mach
8300 -34.3 1114.1 number at which the aeroplane is flying.
10000 -44.4 1090.7

11700 -54.3 1066.7

13300 -56.5 1061.5

16700 -56.5 1061.5

20000 -56.5 1061.5

Because the air temperature affects the density of the air, density also affects the
speed of sound. Air pressure also has to be considered, as air pressure will effect
the density of the air and have an effect on the speed of sound

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Training Manual 11.1.2 High Speed Flight

Flight Speed Ranges

High-speed flight can be divided into four speed ranges:
• Subsonic - Below Mach 0.75
All airflow is below the speed of sound.
• Transonic - Mach 0.75 to Mach 1.20
Most of the airflow is subsonic, but in some areas, it is supersonic.
• Super-sonic - Mach 1.20 to Mach 5.00
All of the airflow is faster than the speed of sound.
• Hypersonic - Greater than Mach 5.00

Subsonic Flight
In low-speed flight, air is considered to be incompressible, and acts in much the
same way as a liquid. It can undergo changes in pressure without any appreciable
change in its density. But in high-speed flight the air acts as a compressible fluid,
and its density changes with changes in its pressure and velocity. An aeroplane
passing through the air creates pressure disturbances that surround it. When the
aeroplane is flying at a speed below the speed of sound, these disturbances move
out in all directions and the air immediately ahead of the aeroplane is affected and
its direction changes before the air reaches the surface.
At speeds greater than the speed of sound, the disturbances do not spread out
ahead of the aeroplane, and there is no change in flow direction ahead of the lead-
ing edge.

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Training Manual 11.1.2 High Speed Flight

Transonic Flight Figure 3: Transonic Air Flow

When an aeroplane is flying below the speed of sound in the transonic range, M=1
some of the air flowing over the airfoil has accelerated until it is supersonic and a
normal shock wave forms. Air passing through this normal shock wave slows to a
subsonic speed without changing its direction. The shock wave can cause the air
that passes through it to be turbulent, and to separate from the wing surface. M = 0.76
Shock-induced separation can create serious drag and control problems.

Normal
Shock Wave
Supersonic
Region
Subsonic
Subsonic
M = 0.85 Separation

M = 0.9

M = 0.98

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Training Manual 11.1.2 High Speed Flight

Supersonic Airflow Figure 4: Normal shock wave

When air flows over a surface at a supersonic speed, pressure waves form. There
are three types of pressure waves, normal and oblique shock waves, and expan-
sion waves.

Normal Shock Waves

Air flowing over an airfoil acts in the same way it does as it flows through a con-
verging and diverging duct. Figure 4 on page 6 shows that air approaching a rela-
tively blunt-nose subsonic airfoil at a supersonic speed forms a normal shock
wave, which wastes energy. When the supersonic airstream passes through a nor-
mal shock wave: 90˚
• The airstream slows to subsonic.
• The airflow direction immediately behind the wave is unchanged.
• The static pressure of the airstream behind the wave increases greatly. Sub-
• The density of the airstream behind the wave increases greatly. Sonic
• The energy of the airstream is greatly reduced.

Normal
Shock Wave

Oblique Shock Waves

When a supersonic airstream strikes a sharp-edged airfoil, the air is forced to turn,
forming an oblique shock wave(see “Figure 5” on page 7). As the air passes
through an oblique shock wave:
• The airstream is slowed down, but it is still supersonic.
• The flow direction changes to follows the surface.
• The static pressure of the airstream behind the shock wave increases.
• The density of the airstream behind the shock wave increases.
• Some of the energy in the airstream is converted into heat and is wasted.

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Training Manual 11.1.2 High Speed Flight

Expansion Waves
When air flows at a supersonic speed over a double-wedge airfoil like that in
Figure 5 on page 7, the air will turn to follow the surface and an expansion wave
forms.
When supersonic air flows through an expansion wave:
• The airstream accelerates and the air behind the expansion wave has a high-
er supersonic velocity.
• The direction of flow changes to follow the surface.
• The static pressure of the airstream behind the wave decreases.
• The density of the air behind the wave decreases.
• There is no loss of energy in the airstream.
Figure 5: Expansion and Oblique shock wave

Expansion
Oblique Wave Oblique
Shock Wave Shock Wave

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Supercritical Wings Figure 7: Conventional vs Supercritical Airfoil

Shock
Supercritical Airfoils
Supercritical airfoils are designed to delay and reduce the transonic drag rise, due Separated
to both strong normal shock and shock-induced boundary layer separation. Boundary
Layer
M>1 M>1
Figure 6: Transonic Drag
Trans-
Cp Subsonic Sonic Super-Sonic Speed

0.15
Conventional Airfoil Supercritical Airfoil

0.10
CP

0.05

Mcrit
0.01 M
_
0 0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 3.0

As compared with a conventional airfoil a super critical airfoil has reduced amount
of camber (see “Figure 7” on page 8), an increased leading edge radius, small sur-
face curvature on the suction side, and a concavity in the rear part of the pressure +
side. Among these characteristics there is the aft loading and the relatively high
pitching moment. The first super critical airfoils where designed and analysed by L
Whitcomb at NASA Langley in the 1950s.
On the suction side the steep supersonic acceleration of the convetional airfoil is
eliminated. The flow reaches super critical speed, that is maintained over a large
part of the airfoil. Then there is a small pressure plateau behind the shock and a
pressure recovery in the trailing edge region. The reduction in local mach number
also reduced the strength of the shock when the flow decelerates below critical
speed.
On the pressure side the flow is maintained at subcritical speeds, with a flat distri-
bution till a pressure recovery at the trailing edge.

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Training Manual 11.1.2 High Speed Flight

Effect of Sweepback Figure 8: Supersonic Airflow on a swept wing

One of the most common ways to prevent drag rise and control problems with an
aeroplane flying in the transonic range is to sweep the wings back. This will in-
crease the critical Mach number by effectively decreasing the thickness ratio of the
wing. In Figure 8 on page 9, its seen that the air flowing across the wing in the line
of flight travels farther than the distance perpendicular to the leading edge. This
longer travel for the same thickness has the same effect on the effect on the critical
Mach number as making the wing thinner, yet it allows a thicker wing for structural
strength ρ

l
x = cos ρ

ρ
l

d
v

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Training Manual 11.1.2 High Speed Flight

Buffeting Figure 10: Figure: Stall vs Speed Graph

It is the structural response to excitation produced by the shock- induced flow sep-
aration, and related to the vortex formation and breakdown. Buffeting may affect
different parts of the airframe, but the buffeting on the wing is the most important. W
As the speed increases the wing is affected by shock stall, whose appearance sets (1000kg) ll
ta
an upper limit to the speed. This limit is a function of the flight altitude and weight S
ed

High Sp
of aeroplane. Its envelope is called buffeting boundary. 300
pe
S
Figure 9: Buffet Boundary w
Lo

eed Sta
CL Weight or 200

ft

ll
Altitude

00

Coffin Corner
Low Speed

.0
Raising

30
Stall

ft
00
ft

.0
35
100 0
.00
40

High Speed
Stall
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 M

There are several ways to removing or reducing the effect of buffeting, by either
increasing the critical Mach number of minimizing the effects at transonic regimes,
or both. For example: use wings with sweep back; use super critical airfoils; de-
crease the wing loading.
Flight operation manuals express the zones of low and high speed stall as shown
in Figure 10 on page 10. Note the point at low and high speed stall have the same
value, it is named: Coffin Corner

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Training Manual 11.1.2 High Speed Flight

Shock Stall
When flow separation occurs, triggered by a shock wave, the lift coefficient starts
to decrease, while the drag increases sharply (see “Figure 6” on page 8). This
phenomenon is called shock stall. It has some analogies with the airfoil stall, past
the angle of Climax.
Figure 11: CL vs Mach Graph

CL

Shock at Trailing Edge

Shock Stall
Supersonic Flow

M
M=1

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Training Manual 11.1.2 High Speed Flight

Supersonic Engine Inlets Figure 12: Supersonic Engine Inlet

For maximum effectiveness, the air that flows into the inlet of a turbine engine must Normal
be slowed down to a subsonic velocity, even though the aeroplane itself is flying Shock
at a supersonic speed. Wave
It was explained earlier in this sub module, that air flowing at sonic or near sonic
speed forms a shock wave when an obstacle is encountered. Engine inlets gener-
c
ate such shock waves, which slows the air flow down to subsonic speed. oni
Supersonic ubs
Engine inlets are designed to cause one or more weak shock waves to not only S
reduce the airflow speed but to minimise the energy lost and aerodynamic heating.
There are different kind of engine inlets, an aeroplane designed to fly at transonic
speeds will be equipped with an inlet designed to form a normal shock wave.
Faster aeroplanes are equipped with inlets designed to form more than one shock
wave. This allows to slow the airflow down to subsonic speed in a smooth manner,
minimising lost of energy and airflow heating. Divergent

Oblique
Shock
Wave

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Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

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Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Airworthiness Requirements for Structural Strength ements be replaced after a fixed number of flight cycles. These parts cannot be
repaired or refurbished to extend the components life. The basis for safe-life de-
Safety means more than only that the aircraft must be capable to withstand the sign is fatigue analysis.
most severe loadings it will encounter during its service life. It should not be difficult
for the flight crew to control it under all circumstances. This means the aircraft Fatigue
should also show sufficient positive stability during all flight phases and attitudes Soon after the first jet transport aircraft started flying in the early 1950’s, three of
through out the flight envelope. them broke apart in the air under mysterious circumstances, two of them in rela-
CS-25 is based on Part 25 of the Federal Aviation Regulations and is termed 'Cer- tively non-turbulent air. An extremely thorough investigation disclosed that the
tification Specification for Large Aeroplanes with Jet Engines' or 'CS-25'. cause of the break-ups was metal fatigue brought about by the flexing of the struc-
ture during the pressurization and depressurization cycles.
These requirements are applicable for all large aircraft. This means aircraft with a
maximum mass not less than 5700 kg. Excluded are, reciprocating-engine aircraft, When the first jet transports, the British Comets, were put into service with their
seaplanes and skiplanes. pressurization of 8 psi, real problems did arise. The continued flexing of the struc-
ture caused by the pressurization and depressurization cycles fatigued the metal
CS-25 consists of:
to such an extent that a crack developed at a square come of a cutout in the struc-
• Section 1 - regulations ture, and the large amount of pressure differential caused the structure to virtually
– Sub-part A - General explode. When the cause of the structural failure was determined, new emphasis
– Sub-part B - Flight was placed on fail-safe design of aircraft structures. Stress risers, or portions of
– Sub-part BB - Flight - Emergency Power or Thrust the structure where eliminated. Joints and connections are carefully prestressed
to minimize the cyclic stresses from the flight loads.
– Sub-part C - Structure
– Sub-part D - Design and Construction The life of a structure may depend more on how it is loaded than on the total
number of times it is loaded, or on the maximum amount of the loads themselves.
– Sub-part E - Power Plant
This is best shown by loading a 5 cm2 bar of aluminium alloy that breaks at 370kN
– Sub-part F - Equipment when loaded once.
– Sub-part G - Operating Limitations and Information
However, if loads of from 0 to 111kN were applied, it would last about 25'000 cy-
– Sub-part J - Gas Turbine Auxiliary Power Unit Installations cles.
– Appendices A - J.
Loadings from 111kN tension to 111kN compression (commonly called “plus to mi-
• Section 2 - acceptable means of compliance and interpretations nus 111kN”) it would fail the bar in about 4'000 cycles.
• Section 3 - reserved
• Section 4 - the basic code (part 25 of the federal aviation regulations of the
USA, up to and including amendment N°53).
From the structural point of view sub-parts C and D are the most important. They
give the applied loads or the procedures to obtain the applied loads. They also give
requirements for design other than loads.

Safe-Life
The discovery of fatigue cracks, and failures of major structural elements on aer-
oplanes in the late 1930's and early 1940’s, forced the development of the safe-
life design principle. The safe-life design principle requires that major structural el-

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Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Figure 1: Fatigue Demonstration

370 KN

111 KN (tension) 111 KN (tension)

1 cycle 1 cycle

111 KN (compression)

2
5 cm Bar breaks after 25'000 cycles Bar breaks after 4'000 cycles

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Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Fail Safe Design Figure 2: Fail Safe Design

The fail-safe design principle uses multiple load paths to ensure structural integri-
ty. If one load path cracks completely through, or sustains accidental damage, the Stringer Severed
remaining load paths carry the additional load. This type of design is common on
modern jet aeroplanes.
Examples include:
• Multiple stringers and ribs in wings.
• Multiple wing panels.
• Multiple stringers and frames in fuselage construction. This construction also
breaks the fuselage skin into redundant panels.
• Bonded and bolted fittings (often called ‘back-to-back’ fittings), and bonded
and bolted landing gear beams.
The fail-safe principle also requires that any damage will be detected during an in-
spection, and then repaired. Some types of damage produce effects that are ob-
vious, such as flapping fuselage skin panels, or wing tank leaks. This obvious
damage is considered part of the fail-safe inspections.
Fail-safe design is a good philosophy, and worked well for many decades. In fact,
fail-safe design still provides the basis for most new aeroplane designs. However,
operational experience shows that some of the assumptions of fail-safety do not
hold true.
Cracks usually develop in several elements at the same time, making the alternate
load paths weaker. This is called multiple site, cracking. Corrosion weakens alter-
nate load paths, and accelerates crack growth.

To compensate for these deficiencies in fail-safe design, the damage tolerance

philosophy was developed.

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Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Damage Tolerance
The damage tolerance principle requires that any aeroplane damage is detected,
and repaired before the strength is below a minimum level.

Damage Tolerant Design

Fail-safe structure forms the basis for damage tolerant design. Damage tolerance
improves on fail-safety by considering multiple site cracking, and the residual
strength of partially failed structural elements. Damage tolerance also considers
the effects of environmental damage (corrosion), and discrete damage (acciden-
tal).
Figure 3: Damage Tolerant Design

Multiple Site Cracking

Damage Tolerance Concept

Maximum structural strength capability occurs at the beginning of an aeroplane’s
life. The operating loads are much smaller than the ultimate strength. As the aer-
oplane ages, the strength slowly reduces, due to crack growth and/or corrosion
damage.
Before the strength becomes less than the residual requirement, the damage is
detected and repaired back to original capability.
This process continues throughout the life of the aeroplane.

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Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Figure 4: Damage Tolerance Graph

Ultimate Load Requirement

Normal In-Service
Deterioration Damage Detection
and Repair
Residual Strength
Requirement
Structural Strength

Operational Service (Cycles)

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Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Structural Classification
When designing aeroplanes, loads to which the various parts are exposed must
be taken into consideration. These loads are different for each part of the construc-
tion. A difference is made between primary and secondary constructions. When
choosing materials for maintenance work, this must be taken into account.
The primary construction consists of those parts of the aeroplane construction that
bear the loads.

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Figure 5: Structural classification

Vertical
Primary Structure Stabilizer Tip Vertical
Stabilizer Fixed
Secondary Structure Vertical Trailing Edge
Stabilizer Panels
Leading Edge
Horizontal
Dorsal Fin Stabilizer Fixed
Trailing Edge
Panels

Horizontal
Horizontal Stabilizer Tip
Stabilizer
Leading Edge
Wing to Fuselage Fairings
Main Landing Gear Doors
(Exept Attachments)

Wing Trailing Edge

Radome Belly Fairing Wing Tip Fence

Nacelles and
Pylons
Nose
Landing Main Landing Gear Wing Leading Edge
Nose Landing Gear Doors Gear
(Exept Attachments)

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The secondary construction generally gives the aerodynamic shape to the aero-
plane construction. On the basis of the main sections, the difference between pri-
mary and secondary can be clearly illustrated. For example, a wing section
consists of a primary part and a secondary part.
Figure 6: Wing Structural classification

Secondary
Primary

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Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Dimensions and Locations Figure 7: Axle Systems

Lateral Axis Vertical Axis Longitudial Axis
Station identification Systems
Y Z
In order to determine a particular location in an aeroplane, it is divided into three X
(imaginary) planes that are at angle of 90° to each other.

X' Y'
Z'

Z'

Y'

X'

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The first plane cuts the aeroplane horizontally (based on a cross section). These Figure 8: Zero Point of Stations
planes are called water lines or Z stations.
The second plane cuts the aeroplane vertically (based on a cross section). These
planes are called buttock lines or X stations.
The third plane cuts the aeroplane vertically (based on a side view). These are
called body stations or Y (X)w stations. By means of these three planes, any and
every point in the aeroplane can be given an X, a Y and a Z coordinate. Some aer-
oplane manufacturers use abbreviations for these coordinates as follows:
• B.L. (buttock lines) - the X (Y) coordinate;
• Sta. (body stations) - the Y (X) coordinate;
• W.L. (water lines) - the Z coordinate.
Other manufacturers use the following abbreviations:
• X Sta. (X Stations) - the X coordinate;
• Y Sta. (Y Stations) - the Y coordinate;
• Z Sta. (Z Stations) - the Z coordinate.
There is a number behind these abbreviations which indicates the distance of the
part from the zero point. For aeroplanes built by Boeing, these distances are given
in inches. For aeroplanes built by Airbus, in mm.
The zero point of the Sta. (Y Sta.) is in front of, behind or on the point of the fuse-
lage nose. In cases where the station number 0 is behind the point of the nose, the
station number that are in front of the zero point have a minus sign, for instance:
Sta. -60.4.

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Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Figure 9: Station Examples

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The zero point of the W.L. (Z Sta.) depends on the type of airplane.The zero point Figure 10: Major Zones (Example)
of the W.L. in a B-747 is 91 inches below the lowest point of the fuselage. Every
aeroplane has a different zero point.
The zero point of the B.L. (X Sta.) is the centre line of the aeroplane (see “Figure 9”
on page 12). Looking in the direction of flight, there are left-hand and right-hand 800 800 800 800
buttock lines. The left- hand buttock lines are indicated by a minus sign and the 300
right-hand ones with a plus sign.
200
The wings, horizontal and vertical stabilizers, and powerplants of most aeroplane
100
types have their own location identification system.
T

Zonal Identification Systems

800 800 800
The location identification system is used to pinpoint the various locations in an air-
plane. The station numbers make it possible to indicate the location of the centre
of gravity, the distribution of the load, the location of the compartments and of
parts. To localize parts more easily and to localize where work must be done, the
aeroplane is divided into:
• Major zones
600 500
• Major sub-zones
• Unit zones
Major zones are identified by hundred as follows:
• 100 FUSELAGE LOWER SECTION
• 200 FUSELAGE TOP SECTION
• 300 STABILIZERS 700 700 700
• 400 NACELLES 400 400
• 500 LEFT WING
• 600 RIGHT WING Major sub-zones are identified by the ten of the majors zones.
• 700 LANDING GEAR
• 800 DOORS

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Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Figure 11: Major Sub Zones (Example) Figure 12: Unit Zones (Example)

Unit zones are identified by a three digit number. An example of a location identi- Where necessary, the uneven zone number refers to the left-hand zone, and an
fication system is 212: even number indicates a right- hand zone. Large construction sections, including
• 200: upper half of body (major zone) doors and control surfaces, have their own zone numbers.
• 10: Cockpit (major sub-zone)
• 2: zone number on the right-hand side (unit zone)

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Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Aeroplane Symmetry Table 1: Example of Aircraft Dimension Chart (A310)

To check larger types of aircraft, it is usual to chalk the floor locally under the po- Variation
sitions where the dimensions are to be taken, to drop plumb bobs from the check- Point X Y Z Angle
X Y Z Angle
ing points, marking the floor with an 'X' immediately under the point of each plumb
bob and then to measure the distance between the centre of the markings. This
1 6245.9 9289.6
method has the advantages of ensuring more accurate measurement and reduc-
ing the amount of walking necessary on main planes and tail-planes. 2 8861.3 15275.3

Wing
Chapter ATA 05-56 of AMM gives the instructions for the levelling, measurement 3 11139.5 20615.5
and alignment operations of the aircraft. It gives measurement instructions to find 4 3902.7 9280.5
possible structural deformations after hard landings, too much turbulence, after 5 7006.6 14773.8
the replacement or major repair of a part of the structure, etc.
6 10468 20902.6
Tables give information about the measurements recorded on the first three air-
craft at zero flight hours. They can be used as a guide in appraising the structural
and aerodynamic condition of an aircraft after major repairs or after an aircraft has 9 14205.5 0

Fuselage Bottom
been subjected to manoeuvres requiring an alignment check. 11 5880 0
Deviations from given values do not automatically mean that the aircraft is not 12 0 0
serviceable. These deviations must be appraised from the structural and aerody- 14 8946.2 0
namic points of view in order to determine their effects on flight safety. 16 21053.2 0
In the event of important deviations, visually check for presence of the following 17 25580.2 0
failures:
1. Localised structural failures such as:
21 -12816
– Buckled or cracked skins, stiffener, machined parts. Peeled - off paint.
22 -9386
– Tore or torn fasteners.

Fuselage Lateral
23 -4896
2. Structural failures resulting in:
24 -2776
– Fuel leaks in tank areas
25 6774
– After the replacement or major repair of a part of the structure
26 9424
– Air leaks in pressurized areas
– Interference of moving parts of a mechanism 27 12604

– Leaks in air conditioning, hydraulic or fuel systems 28 18854

– Short circuits
– Refusal to closure of doors and access panels due to surrounding struc- 31 22472.4
ture distortion Stabilizer
Vertical
32 24887.5
– Required excessive control surface trim limiting control range. 33 27567.7
34 28683.6

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Figure 13: Example of Aircraft Measurement Points

38R 38L
37L
37R
36R 36L
17
35R 35L
Sight Tube
Set AT
Z -4500/177.16
16 from Fuselage C

3R 3L
14
6R 6L

2R
2L
5R Z´
1R 5L X (CL)
1L
4L
4R Plate
33 34
12 Point 22R Fuselage Horizontal Datum ZO

32 32
Graduated Column
11

X 24 25 26 27 28 17 X´
21 22 23 44 46
9 16
12
11 14
9

Datum
Point 12 - Zero X

Graduated Column Aligned

with Points 11 and 16 Y Z

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System Installation Provision

Consideration needs to be given to the construction of the fuselage where it may
be necessary to increase its structural integrity.
For example:
The installation of brackets for the attachment of system components such as hy-
draulic system reservoirs, fuel filter modules and system shut off valves etc.
Increasing structural strength will be required in areas of high load; landing gear
and engine attachments would be a good example of this.
The installation of firewalls to prevent the spread of fire from hot sections of the
aircraft such as engine nacelles and APU housing.
Some system fluid lines, ducking and controls will have to be routed through the
aircraft structure. This will weaken the structure; the manufacture will keep this in
mind during the design stage and keep this to a minimum.
Control cables are used extensively throughout the aircraft to operate different air-
craft systems, these control cables will be routed through the aircraft structure,
special consideration will need to be given to the routing of these cables to protect
the aircraft structure from the cables. This is accomplished by the use of grom-
mets, fairleads and pressure seals.
Not only is the routing of control cable important, the routing of hydraulic system
fluid lines, electrical cables, fuel lines, pneumatic system ducting and air-condition-
ing distribution must be considered and provisions made for the attachment and
correct routing of these system components.

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Drains and Ventilation Provision

At places in aeroplane structures where collection of fluids may be expected,
drainage points are provided.
To prevent unintended pressure differentials and the accumulation of hazardous
gases, structures are supplied with means of ventilation.

Drainage
External and internal holes and drain paths are provided in aircraft structures to
prevent water and other fluids collecting within the structure. These fluids could
cause a fire or corrosion.
External drain ports are located on exterior surfaces of the fuselage, wing and tail
unit to drain any fluids overboard. These drains are always open.
Drain valves are fitted along the lowest points of the pressure cabin. These drain
valves are open when the aircraft cabin is unpressurised, but close when the cabin
is pressurised to prevent loss of cabin pressure. In the simplest type, a rubber di-
aphragm forms the seal. Other types of drain valve are illustrated.
Sometimes a levelling compound is used to prevent fluid collecting in cavities. The
compound directs fluid to the drains. The internal structure of an aircraft is provid-
ed with tubes, channels, dams and drain holes to direct the flow of fluid towards
external drain points. An example of this is the holes drilled in stringers to allow
fluids to drain down to the bilge area.

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Figure 14: Pressure Zone Drain Valves

Spring
Valve
Levelling Sealant
Compound
Lower
Skin

Drain Hole

Lower Skin

Aircraft Plunger
Bottom Skin

Spring
Retainer
Water
Entry
Housing
Rubber Diaphragm

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Lightning Strike Protection Electrical Bonding

Normally the structure of an aircraft consists of metallic assemblies which ensure
Aircraft require electrical contact between all metallic and composite parts in order
an excellent electric conductibility; however certain insulating intermediate parts
to prevent arcing or fiber damage. Aluminum is used to provide a conductive path
stop the continuity in large zones. The continuity is restored by means of strips,
for the dissipation of the electrical energy. The aluminium may be provided in a
number of ways depending on the manufacture of the aircraft. screws or grounding lugs fitted between metallic assemblies. Hinged parts (control
surfaces, doors, hatches, etc....), removable parts (unhinged inspection doors,
No matter whether an aircraft is aluminum or composite, when lightning hits an air- etc....), are provided with one or several bonding means shunting each part where
craft it needs a path for the electricity to flow through. On an aluminium skin, the conductibility may be interrupted. For particular zones such as fuel tanks, engines
electricity will flow through the skin and discharge out the static wicks. Since com- and APU, the bondings provide an efficient circulation of static potential; bonding
posites do not conduct electricity, lightning protection has to be built into the com- strips and screws are connected to the main structure.
ponent.
External protruding parts, metallic or not, are provided with electrical lead connect-
If there is no lightning protection in the composite and the lightning exits through ed to the main structure. The electrical bonding of the antenna to the aircraft sur-
the composite component, the resins in the composite will evaporate, leaving bare face is extremely important. The conductive skin of an aircraft is an electrical part
cloth. Carbon/graphite composite was at first believed to conduct enough electric- of the antenna system. If an antenna is not properly bonded to the aircraft, its pat-
ity to dissipate the electrical charge, but this was later found not to be true. Alumin- tern may be distorted and nulls in coverage may appear.
ium lightning protection may be found in carbon/graphite parts. A barrier, such as
Different manufacturers use different methods to dissipate the electrical charge on
a layer of fiber glass, should be used to prevent a galvanic potential between the
composite structures. These are a few different methods:
carbon/graphite and aluminium.
• Aluminium wires may be woven into the top layer of composite fabric. This is
Figure 15: Lightning Attachment Zones usually done with fiber glass or Kevlar and not with carbon/graphite.
• A fine aluminium screen may be laminated under the top layer of fabric. If this
method is used on a carbon/graphite component, it is usually sandwiched be-
tween two layers of fiber glass to prevent a galvanic potential.
• A thin aluminium foil sheet may be bonded to the outer layer of composite dur-
ing the manufacturing process.
• Aluminium may be flame sprayed onto the component. This is molten alumin-
ium that is sprayed on like a paint. Some companies will just paint the compo-
nent with an aluminised paint.
• In some structures, a piece of metal is bonded to the composite to allow the
dissipation of the electrical charge out to another metal component or static
wick.

Zone 1, Initial Lightning

Attachment Area
Zone 2, Swept Stroke
Attachment Area
Zone 3, All Remaining Areas

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Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Stresses Acting on an Aeroplane Structure Compression

Compression tries to squeeze the ends of an object together. The rivet in
Aircraft are unique in their structural requirements. They must be lightweight and Figure 17 on page 21 is distorted or strained by a compressive stress between the
at the same time withstand flight loads, landing loads, and a wide range of vibra- rivet gun and the bucking bar.
tion. In this study of all-metal structure, we will consider the five basic stresses that
act on all physical objects: tension, compression, torsion, bending, and shear. Figure 17: Compression
Tension and compression are the basic stresses and the other three are combina-
tions of these two. A stress is a force that is set up within an object that tries to
prevent an outside force changing its shape. A strain is a deformation or a physical
change caused by a stress. A material that is strained within its elastic limit will re-
turn to its original size and shape after the stress is removed, but if it has been Rivet
strained beyond this limit, it will be permanently deformed. Gun

Tension
Tension tries to pull an object apart. Consider the hoist in Figure 16 on page 21.
The chain is under tension, or more properly stated, it has a tensile stress in it.
Figure 16: Tension

Bucking
Bar
Tension

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Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Torsion Bending
Torsion is a combination of tension and compression acting in the same object. Bending is also made up of tension and compression. The wing of the aeroplane
The shaft in Figure 18 on page 22 has a tensile stress and a compressive stress in Figure 19 on page 22 is under a bending stress. When the aeroplane is on the
acting at 90° to each other, and they are both acting at 45° to the shaft. Propeller ground, the top skin of the wing is under a tensile stress and the bottom skin is un-
shafts and helicopter rotor shafts are both subjected to torsional stresses. der a compressive stress. In flight these forces are the opposite. The top skin is
under a compressive stress and the bottom skin is under a tensile stress.
Figure 18: Torsion
Figure 19: Bending

Tensile Stress
Compression
Tension
n
io
ns Bending
Te

Compressive Stress

Bending

Tension
Compression
i on
e ss
pr
m
Co

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Shear
A shear stress tries to slide an object apart. The rivet bolt in Figure 20 on page 23
is subject to a shear stress. The force on one sheet puts a tensile stress in the rivet
toward the right while the fixed other sheet puts a tensile stress into the bolt toward
the left. These two tensile stresses act beside each other rather than opposite
each other, and the result is a force that tries to shear the rivet, or to slide it apart.
Figure 20: Shear

Shear

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Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Construction Methods of Aeroplanes weight streamlined structure was used on some of the most efficient aircraft of the
time. It, however, had the disadvantage of being extremely labor intensive in its
Evolution of Aeroplane Structures construction.

Aircraft structures have evolved fully as much as have their powerplants. The very Figure 22: Plywood Monocoque Aeroplane (Lockheed Orion)
first airframes were made of open trusses of either wood strips or bamboo. The
aerodynamic surfaces were made of lightweight wood covered with cotton or linen
fabric, shrunk and made air tight with a syrup-like collodion product that dried to a
hard film.
Figure 21: Early Truss Type Structure

The next logical step in the evolution of aircraft structure was to replace the wood-
en monocoque with a thin aluminum alloy monocoque. This decreased the de-
pendence upon skilled craftsmen for its construction and made mass production
of interchangeable parts practical and cost effective.
Pure aluminum is weak, but during World War I, the Germans discovered that by
alloying aluminum with copper, manganese, and magnesium, they could increase
its strength without increasing its weight. This new alloy was called Duralumin, and
it was the forerunner of the high-strength and lightweight alloys (7017 aluminum
alloy) that we use in aircraft construction today.
Metal stressed-skin aircraft structure has been the standard since the 1930s, but
The next major development came with the welded steel tube fuselage structure a new era is dawning, that of composites. Composite structure can be made
that replaced the wooden truss. This structure is strong, but it has the disadvan- stronger, lighter in weight, more rigid, and less costly than metal. We have experi-
tage that to give it a streamlined shape, a superstructure must be built around the enced what may be termed a plastics revolution. Early plastic materials such as
load-bearing truss. This adds weight but is needed for aerodynamic smoothness celluloid and Beetleware gave promise of a low-cost, easy-to-manufacture mate-
and aesthetics. rial, but they did not have the strength needed for structural applications. One of
In the late 1920s the Lockheed Company developed a streamlined wooden mono- the first plastic materials used in aviation was a thermosetting phenol-formalde-
coque structure that carried virtually all of the stresses in its outer skin. This light- hyde resin that was reinforced with paperor linen cloth. This phenolic material,

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called Micarta, pioneered in the early 1930s, is still used for control cable pulleys
and fairleads and for electrical insulators.
Glass fibres, both woven into cloth and packed into loose mat and roving, have
been reinforced with polyester resins and used for radomes, wing tips, and wheel
pants since the early 1950s. This material is truly a composite, and may be thought
of as being the ancestor of modern composite structural materials.
Figure 23: First All-Composite Commercial Aircraft (Beech Starship)

Modern composite materials use fibres of graphite and Kevlar as well as glass for
most applications, with boron and ceramic used in some special applications.
These fibres are primarily bonded into an epoxy resin matrix. Composite structural
components have the advantage over metal of being lighter in weight, stronger,
more rigid, and better able to withstand the sonic vibrations that are commonly en-
countered in aircraft structure.
The military forces have been responsible for much of the development in ad-
vanced composite structure because performance and the successful accomplish-
ment of military goals have always been more important than cost. The airlines
have also contributed to its development because every pound of weight saved by
replacing metal with composite materials adds a pound of payload capability for
each flight and reduces the fuel burn.

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Figure 24: Use of Composites on Jet Airliner (Airbus A321)

AFRP  Aramid    Fibre  Reinforced

CFRP  Carbon  Fibre  Reinforced
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Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Maintenance and repairs to aeroplanes must be done well, fast and at the right lo- Stressed Skin Construction Method
cation. That’s why the aeroplane maintenance mechanic must know where the
part to be repaired or replaced is. To take the maximum advantage of metal, most aircraft structure is of the stressed
skin. A type of aircraft structure in which all or most of the stresses are carried in
When constructing an aeroplane, a distinction is made between the main sections the outside skin. A stressed skin structure has a minimum of internal structure.
and the subsections. The main sections are connected to each other in a particular There are two types of metal stressed skin: monocoque and semimonocoque.
order in various ways. The main sections of the aeroplane construction as shown
in Figure 25 on page 27 are: Monocoque Structure
• the fuselage The name monocoque means single shell, and in a true monocoque structure, all
• the wings the strength of the structure is carried in the outside skin. Figure 26 on page 28
• the landing gears shows a view of a monocoque structure. The formers give the structure its shape,
• the empennage (consisting of the vertical and horizontal stabilisers, rudder but the thin metal skin riveted to them carries all the flight loads.
and elevator) A monocoque fuselage is in its strength similar to a tube, its cross section is of high
• the propulsion systems (powerplants, also referred to as engines). bending and torsion strength. There is no need for cross-struts, which would de-
mand to much space from the cabin and cargo compartments.
Figure 25: Main Sections of an Aircraft
The formers are directly attached to the skin.
Engines

Fuselage

Landing
Gear

Landing
Gear

Tail Surfaces

Wings

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Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Figure 26: Monocoque Structure Figure 27: Semi-Monocoque Structure

Former Frame
Skin

Frame

Stringer

Semi-monocoque Structure
Pure monocoque structure has the serious drawback that any dent or deforma-
tion will decrease its ability to carry the flight loads. To overcome this limitation,
semimonocoque structure as seen in Figure 27 is widely used. In this type of struc-
ture, formers not only provide the shape, they carry the majority of the flight loads.

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Structure Assembly Techniques Riveting

Sheets of metal must be fastened together to form the aircraft structure, and this
The information presented in the following chapters relating to assembly tech-
is usually done with solid aluminum alloy rivets.
niques is of a general nature, for a more in-depth understanding of these methods
refer to Module 6.5. There are many locations on an aircraft where it is not possible to reach both sides
There are many different assembly methods used by the manufacture, it should of the structure, and special blind rivets must be installed.
be remembered that it is far easier to remove a nut and bolt than it is to derivet a Rivets and other permanent types of fastener used in aircraft construction may be
component. Those items that are removed on a regular basis are normally secured divided into four classes as follows:
by the nut and bolt method. • Solid
• Tubular
Figure 28: Different Assembly Techniques on a Panel
• Blind
– Cherrylock
Screw • Special Purpose
– Hi-Lok
– Taper-Lock

Bolting
Maintenance accesses, replaceable and movable structural parts are normally at-
tached by bolts.
Boltings are non permanent fasteners. This are necessary in order to perform pe-
riodic inspections and maintenance work. The replacement of parts and system
components also require the use of non permanent fasteners. Some examples
are:
• Bolts and Nuts
Bolt • Screws
Screw • Studs and Inserts
• Pins
Bonded Hi-Lok Bolt • Clamps
Structure • Bayonet Fittings
Solid
Rivet

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Bonding Figure 29: Bonded Structure

On more and more aircraft, bonding is also used to attach stringers, stiffener, etc.
to structure skin.
Adhesive
Lightweight materials can often be used with adhesive bonding rather than with
conventional fastening, simply because the uniform stress distribution in the joint
permits full utilisation of the strength and rigidity of the adherents. Payloads in air-
craft can be increased.
The following are possible advantages of properly designed adhesive bonded
joints: Adhesive
Honey
• Adhesive bonds provide airtight joints.
Comb
• Electrochemical corrosion is reduced or laminated. In a bonded joint adhe-
sives are electrically insulated from each other; there are no holes to expose
base metal, and cladding, anodize and other corrosion protection surfaces
are not destroyed.
• Higher fatigue life of joints may possibly allow reduced sheet gages.
• Residual strength of damaged structure, which is adhesively bonded, can be
large. In a laminated panel, cracks may grow for some time in only one layer;
in stiffened panels, cracks may grow more slowly across a bonded area than
across a rivet line.
• Aerodynamic surface smoothness of adhesively bonded structure is excel- Adhesive
lent.
Adhesively bonded joint may suffer from the following limitations:
Core Splice
• Assembly may be more expensive than for conventional joints.
Adhesive
• Very extensive process control over the entire bonding procedure is required. Adhesive
• Curing temperatures of some adhesives may degrade other components.
• Service degradation of bonds is difficult to check. Bonded joints shall not be
used in any application in which a complete bond failure or obvious partial fail-
ure could cause loss of the aircraft. Bonded joints shall be classified for struc-
tural application as follows as a means for designating levels and types of
inspection and peel strength requirements.

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Surface Protection metal ions are exchanged and transferred to the substrate to be coated; and a
cathode which is the substrate (the negatively charged electrode) to be coated.
Many different surface protection methods are applied on aircraft structures, be- Plating is done in a plating bath which is usually a non-metallic tank (usually plas-
cause of the variety of materials used. tic). The tank is filled with electrolyte which has the metal, to be plated, in ionic
The processes of surface treatments, more formally surface engineering, tailor the form.
surfaces of engineering materials to: Electrolysis
• Control friction and wear
The anode is connected to the positive terminal of the power supply. The anode is
• Improve corrosion resistance usually the metal to be plated (assuming that the metal will corrode in the electro-
• Change physical property, e.g., conductivity, resistivity, and reflection lyte). For ease of operation, the metal is in the form of nuggets and placed in an
• Alter dimension inert metal basket made out non-corroding metal (such as titanium or stainless
• Vary appearance, e.g., colour and roughness steel).
• Ultimately, the functions and/or service lives of the materials can be improved. The cathode is the workpiece, the substrate to be plated. This is connected to the
Common surface treatments can be divided into two major categories: treatments negative terminal of the power supply. The power supply is well regulated to min-
that cover the surfaces and treatments that alter the surfaces. imize ripples as well to deliver a steady predictable current, under varying loads
such as those found in plating tanks.
• Inorganic Coatings: The inorganic coatings perform electroplating, autocata-
lytic platings (electroless platings), conversion coatings, thermal sprayings, As the current is applied, positive metal ions from the solution are attracted to the
hot dippings, hardfacings, furnace fusings, or coat thin films, glass, ceramics negatively charged cathode and deposit on the cathode. As a replenishment for
on the surfaces of the materials. these deposited ions, the metal from the anode is dissolved and goes into the so-
• Organic Coatings: The organic coatings apply paints, cements, laminates, lution and balances the ionic potential.
fused powders, lubricants, or floor toppings on the surfaces of materials. In the case of materials such as gold, the anode is not sacrificial (gold does not
• Water Displacing Fluids: this are wax based Super penetrating, water displac- dissolve easily!), but it is made out of material that does not dissolve in the elec-
ing, heavy-duty, corrosion inhibiting compound. Forms a tack-free, more or trolyte, such as titanium. The deposited gold comes out of the solution. Plating is
less firm film which depends on the type. Some examples are Dinitrol AV8, an oxidation-reduction reaction, where one material gives up electrons (gets oxi-
AV15, AV30, etc. dized) and the other material gains electrons (gets reduced). The anode is the
• Surface Cleaning: the most fundamental and important rule for corrosion con- electrode at which oxidation occurs, and the cathode is the electrode at which re-
trol is to keep the aircraft clean. When it is clean and free of grease and dirt, duction occurs.
there is nothing to hold the corrosion-forming moisture in contact with the alu-
minum alloy surface. Also, a clean aircraft is easy to inspect for the first indi-
cation of corrosion.

Inorganic Coatings
Electroplating
Electroplating is an electrochemical process by which metal is deposited on a sub-
strate by passing a current through the bath.
Usually there is an anode (positively charged electrode), which is the source of the
material to be deposited; the electrochemistry which is the medium through which

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Figure 30: Electrolysis Bath to be uniform compared to electroplating due to the absence of electric fields and
the associated problems in making them uniform.
Power
Typically nickel and copper are used in electroless platings. In the case of nickel,
Supply
the deposits are dense, relatively hard (43 - 55 HRC, increase to ~65 HRC after
2 hr. at 343 ºC (650 ºF) and brittle. Electroless Nickel is not as bright as electro-
plated, easy to solder and braze, but difficult to weld.
Anode Bar Cathode Bar
+v -v For aircraft parts aluminium is extensively used, it forms a porous film, which af-
fords high protection once painted.
Combustion chambers may also be spray coated with aluminium. The metal to be
sprayed is fed into a special spray gun as a wire or powder, and is melted in the
gun. Compressed air is fed into the gun to atomise the metal and to blow it onto
the surface to be treated in the form of tiny globules. Careful control of the spraying
operation ensures thick even plating.
Anode Cathode Thermal Spraying Processes
Popular in the 1990s, thermal spraying processes form a continuous coating by
Electrolyte melting the consumable material (target) into droplets and impinging these drop-
lets on the substrate. The mechanism of bonding to surface in thermal sprayings
is the same as platings, both mechanical interlocking and atomic interaction, with
the shear strength around 7 MPa (10 psi). The thickness of the coatings may
Hydrogen Embrittlement range from 25 µm to 2.5 mm (0.001 -0.1 in). In practice, the thermal sprayings are
Hydrogen is released at the cathode in any electrolysis process, and the cathode capable of competing with platings and paintings for atmospheric corrosion resist-
is the job being plated. ance.
This can lead to a problem called hydrogen embrittlement due to some of the hy- The thickness of the coating can be built up by successive operations. Old coat-
drogen being absorbed into the surface of the metal. This is particularly the case ings can be removed and new ones applied so that worn out components can be
with the very high tensile steels, used in undercarriage parts. As a result the metal recovered.
becomes very brittle after a period in service resulting in the risk of cracking. Used extensively on compressor and impeller blades and on parts of pumps and
Special plating processes and stress relieving heat treatments are required for hydraulic motors.
these steels - or better still processes not involving electrolysis. Some common thermal spraying processes, including Flame Spraying (FLSP),
Plasma Arc Spraying (PSP), Electric Arc Spraying (EASP), Detonation Gun (d-
Electroless Plating Gun), and High-velocity Oxy/Fuel (HVOF), are briefly discussed as follows.
Autocatalytic plating, also known as electroless plating, is a plating process which Flame Spraying (FLSP): FLSP was the first thermal spraying process. It use
involves deposition without any current applied. The process is a chemical reac- 2760 ºC (5000 ºF) oxyacetylene flame to melt the targets which may be powders,
tion and is autocatalytic. rods, or wires.
The deposition rate is normally 12.5 - 25 µm (.0005 -.001 in). Although, it has been Plasma Arc Spraying (PSP): Similar to flame spraying, PSP however produces
done up to 650 µm (.026 in) in thickness, the coating is usually less than 50 µm 16,650 ºC (30,000 ºF) heat for melting powders and yet the surface temperature
(0.002 in) in practice due to the slow deposition rate. The plating thickness tends of the substrate rarely exceeds 150 ºC (300 ºF). PSP is thus more suitable for
spraying ceramics on metals and thermoset plastics for building up dimensions or

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wear resistance. The coatings are usually denser, contain less porosity, and have Anodising
better adhesion than FLSP. Probably the most important treatment for aluminium alloys.
Electric Arc Spraying (EASP): EASP uses electric arc to melt the motor driven tar- It is produced by electrochemical conversion. The anodizing process, usually per-
get wires. The melted droplets are then inject to the substrate surface by gas. formed on aluminum for protection and cosmetic purposes, builds up both on the
Detonation Gun (d-Gun): D-Gun melts target powders in a gun by spark ignition of surface as well as into the metal. Thin coatings, 2 µm to 25 µm (100 µin to 1000
explosive gas. µin) can be coated on most aluminium. Thick coatings from 25 to 75 µm (1000 to
High-velocity Oxy/Fuel (HVOF): Executing in a combustion chamber, HVOF uses 3000 µin) are more durable and abrasion resistant than above chemical conver-
oxygen, hydrogen, and a fuel gas, e.g., methane, to melt the target powder. Re- sion oxide coatings. This oxide layer can be made in different colours depending
sulting the better control in working environment, the HVOF serve the same func- on the post chemistries that are employed. The anodised parts are quite durable
tion as plasma spraying and often have better quality control. and do not tarnish and maintain their cosmetic appearance for a long period of
time. Anodized coatings are usually dielectric in nature.
Dipping
There are three different anodising processes commonly used. They are the sul-
A suitable prepared component is immersed in a bath of molten metal and when phuric acid, chromic acid and hard anodising methods.
withdrawn has a coating of that metal.
Sulphuric Acid Anodising (SAA): is the most common process giving a 'deep',
Applicable mainly to plating low melting temperature metals onto components with almost transparent, film of oxide and a good surface finish.
much higher melting temperatures.
The tank is often lead-lined steel, the lead forming the cathode. The electrolyte, as
Cladding the name implies, is a weak solution of sulphuric acid, which is heated and agitat-
Aluminium alloy sheet is commonly protected by the application of pure aluminium ed.
to both sides of the sheet. The aluminium is pressure rolled on and the heat gen- Chromic Acid Anodising (CAA): process uses a weak chromic acid solution,
erated welds the aluminium to the sheet. Any cut edges need to be protected which is less corrosive than sulphuric acid, and is only used for anodising compo-
against corrosion either by paint or by the jointing compound squeezed out during nents, which involve folded or riveted joints or crevices in which the electrolyte
wet assembly could be trapped. However it produces only a very thin oxide film and is therefore
not recommended very often.
Conversion Coatings
Hard Anodising: is a sulphuric acid process in which the electrolyte is maintained
Common conversion coatings processes are briefly discussed in this section, in- at a low temperature. It produces a hard, abrasion resistant, as well as corrosion
cluding oxide coatings, phosphate coatings, and chromate coatings. resistant surface, but at the expense of some fatigue resistance and an increase
Oxide Coatings: The oxide coatings are in fact corrosion products which is a thin, in dimensions. It leaves a dark grey surface. Incidentally the phenomenon of di-
usually less than 2.5 µm (.00001 in) oxide with good adhesion. The oxide treat- mensional increase is sometimes used to advantage during manufacture in order
ments are done by heat, chemicals, or electrochemical reactions. to recover a component in aluminium alloy which has been machined beyond its
Gun-bluing-type oxidations are done by heating the metals, generally steel, at minimum metal condition. In these cases all other surfaces are masked before
370ºC (700°F) in a steam atmosphere. An oiled gun bluing provides some atmos- treatment.
pheric corrosion resistance, but little protection on wear and other corrosion. Phosphate Coatings
Chemical baths produce coatings similar to a gun bluing coating by immersion Phosphate coatings are processes of chemical conversion on a metal surface to
techniques. produce thin adherent phosphate compound coatings. The phosphate crystals
Black oxide treatments are done by proprietary chemicals. Some pastes can be formed on the surfaces of materials can be iron, zinc, or manganese phosphates.
rubbed on surfaces to produce similar results. Black oxide can be applied on steel, Among these phosphates, manganese phosphate is more suitable for wear appli-
copper, and most stainless steel. cations. Phosphate coatings are usually applied to carbon steel, low-alloy steel,

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

and cast iron. They can also be applied to zinc, cadmium, aluminum, and tin. justable nozzles to vary the spray pattern for large or small jobs. The dust and
Phosphate processes are hard to apply on high alloys for these alloys are likely over-spray that spraying produces requires specially prepared bays or hangers
immune to the phosphoric acid. In short, phosphating is one of the most useful with adequate ventilation. Protective clothing, masks and goggles must be worn.
non-metallic coatings. Rolling
Chromate Coatings Paint rolling is also used on large areas, it is less messy than spraying but as the
Chromate coatings, similar to phosphate coatings, are processes of chemical con- paint is applied more thickly a weight penalty is incurred. The paint is applied using
version. But the chromate coatings are formed by the reaction of water solutions a lamb's wool roller.
of chromic acid or chromium salts. The coatings can be applied to aluminum, zinc, Brushing and Dipping
cadmium, and magnesium. The coatings usually have good atmospheric corro-
sion resistance. Chromate coatings are widely used in protecting common house- Brushing and dipping are used to cover small or inaccessible areas, dipping will
hold products, such as screws, hinges, and many hardware items with the yellow- require the components to be removed from the aircraft.
brown appearance.
Chromates are used extensively as corrosion inhibitors and are generally yellow
in colour. Commercial names of such products are: Alodine 1200, Iridite 14E, etc.

Organic Coatings
Paint Systems for Aeroplane Structure
One painting system uses Chromatin, to protect the base metal then a two pack
epoxy or polyurethane primer and then a top coat of two pack polyurethane or
epoxy finish.
Another painting system uses wash primer (two pack - filiform corrosion resistant),
followed by a two pack polyurethane or epoxy primer and then a two pack poly-
urethane or epoxy top coat.
There are also different types of primer specifications for components that are fer-
rous or contain ferrous elements.
Nowadays high tech. paints are used that are more environmentally friendly, for
example paint containing no solvents, this lowers the VOC (Volatile Organic Com-
ponents) emissions. The newer trial paints are based on two pack water based
paints. However, the latest technology does not include paint at all, rather a film of
self adhesive plastic (similar to placards) that is removable simply with hot soapy
water. It is currently on test on an F-16 fighter in the USA.
There are several methods of applying the paint; spraying, rolling, brushing and
dipping.
Spraying
Would be used to cover a complete aircraft or large panels. Special equipment is
required to blow the paint onto the surfaces. Spray guns are used, they have ad-

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Figure 31: Examples of Painting Systems

Boeing Airbus

Top Coat
PU (Polyurethan)
EP (EPOXY)

Primer
PU (Polyurethan)
EP (EPOXY)

Wash Primer
(FCR) Filiform Corr. Resistent

Pre Treatment
Cromating (Alodine 1200)

2024 or 7075 (CLAD)

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THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.2 Airframe Structures - General Concepts

Water Displacing Fluids from components like bearings and control cables. It will be necessary to re-lubri-
cate these components after cleaning operations.
These can be used in two ways:
• To provide additional protection over protected surfaces. After cleaning particular attention should be paid to the following:
• To protect unprotected surfaces. • Loose, flaking or damaged paint.
• Areas around battery trays and battery vents for evidence of spilt electrolyte.
Although they can be readily removed by the use of solvents some are as durable
and protective as paints and are intended to have a long life. Control cables, for Areas immediately in the vicinity of toilets.
instance, are often protected throughout their life in this way.
This are wax based Super penetrating, water displacing, heavy-duty, corrosion in-
hibiting compound. Forms a tack-free, more or less firm film which depends on the
type. Some examples are Dinitrol AV8, AV15, AV30, etc.
Applied as a coating to protect metals commonly used in airframe structures and
in aerospace components from corrosion.
They can be used in all areas of the airframe on painted and unpainted surfaces.
It combines good penetration properties with excellent corrosion inhibiting charac-
teristics and a low applied film weight.
The viscosity of this products is optimised to ensure an effective protective coating
and to promote penetration into otherwise inaccessible areas of the airframe.
Remember to observe these general precautions:
• None of these should be allowed to come into contact with Perspex or natural
rubber.
• Use the correct type for each application.
• Keep solvents and cleaning fluids away unless it is intended to remove the
protective.

Aircraft Cleaning
In order to clean the aircraft it is necessary to use the approved cleaning solution
recommended by the manufacture. The cleaning solution can be applied using a
soft brush, a spray gun or a special applicator. After the recommended soaking
time the solution and dirt should be removed using clean water. Avoid splashing
windscreens and passenger windows as the cleaning solution can cause unnec-
essary damage to these components.
Grease collect dirt and grit which can cause surface damage; it will also hide dam-
age. Grease should be removed with an approved de-greasing agent. Steam
cleaning of areas such as undercarriage bays can be carried out, but method that
remove grease and dirt from external surfaces also remove the internal lubrication

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

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Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Fuselage Construction
The fuselage is the body of the aircraft, to which the wings, tail, engine and landing
gear attach. Because of the tremendous loads that are imposed upon the fuselage
structure, it must have maximum strength and, as with all of the parts of an aircraft,
it must also have minimum weight. Stressed-skin-type fuselages are used in mod-
ern transport aircraft.(see Title “Stressed Skin Construction Method” on page 27)
The main limitation of a stressed-skin structure is that it cannot tolerate any dents
or deformation in its surface. We have all seen this characteristic demonstrated
with a thin aluminium beverage can. When the can is free of dents, it will withstand
a great amount of force applied to its ends, but if we put only a slight dent in its
side, it can be crushed very easily from top or bottom.
Most fuselage of transport aircraft are semi-monocoque structures. It is shaped by
a number of frames and stringers that keep each other at the correct distance (see
“Figure 1” on page 3). The skin panel is attached to these stringers by means of
rivets or glue. Sheets of different thicknesses are used. The big advantage of
these fuselage constructions is that an area is created that is not blocked any-
where by extra means of strengthening. Extra means of strengthening are only
necessary at those places where large forces are transmitted. This is the case at
places where wings, tail surfaces, engines and landing gears are attached to the
fuselage. In addition, this occurs at those places where weak spots are created in
the construction as a result of missing frames and stringers, as at doors, windows
and hatches. Special strengthening is used at those places in the fuselage where
the area is used for stowing the retracted landing gears.
The fuselage is made of separate assemblies which are riveted together.
The cabin floor structure divides the fuselage into two areas, the main deck and
the lower deck. The main deck includes the cockpit and the cabin. The lower deck
normally includes the avionics compartments, the landing gear bays and the fwd.,
aft and bulk cargo compartments. Support struts and crossbeams support the cab-
in floor structure.

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Figure 1: Typical Sections of a Fuselage (Fokker 100)

Rear Pressure Bulkhead

Forward
Pressure
Bulkhead

Section
III

II
Front Fuselage
Section IV
Radome

Center
Keel Section

Section IA

Tail Section
Section I

Oblique Vertical
Stabilizer Attachment Frames

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Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Figure 2: Cockpit Section

Junction Nose FWD

Fuselage/FWD
Fuselage

Frames
Stringers and
Skin Stiffeners

Skin Plate
Stringer

Skin

Frame

Floor Structure

Bulkhead

Bulkhead

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Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Figure 3: Mid Fuselage

Skin
Stringer

Stringer
Frame
Skin Plate
Junction-Center
Fuselage/Rear Transverse
Frame Fuselage Floor Beam

Seat Track
Beam
Junction-Center
Clip Fuselage/Rear Stringer
Fuselage

Stringers and
Skin Stiffeners
Frame Skin Plate
Skin Plate

Skin Plate

Skin Plate

Skin Plates
Skin Plate
Seat Track

Bulkhead Skin
Plate Keel Beam
Floor Structure

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Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Figure 4: Aft Fuselage

Vert. Stabiliser
Attachment Fittings

APU Attachment
Frames Fittings
Integral Horiz. Stabiliser
Frames Hinge

APU Mounts
Pressure
Bulkhead

Firewall

Tail Cone
Fitting

Firewall

Horizontal Stabiliser Supports

Maintenance Spindle Fitting Struts
Access
Main Attachment
Fittings

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Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Pressure Sealing Figure 5: Example of Butt Joint

To make it possible to use pressurized cabins, the front and rear of the fuselage
construction and the landing gear areas are closed off by a pressure bulkhead. Fillet Seal
The cockpit, the cabin, the avionics compartment and the cargo compartments are Skin Panel Skin Panel
normally pressurized. The radome, the wing center box, the landing gear bays, the
belly fairing and the cone/rear fuselage are normally not pressurized (see
“Figure 7” on page 9).
It would be impractical to build the pressure vessel of an aircraft that is airtight, as
pressurisation is accomplished by flowing more air into the cabin than is needed
and allowing the excess air to leak out. There are two types of leakage in an air-
craft pressure vessel; controlled and uncontrolled. The uncontrolled leakage is
that in which air escapes around door and window seals, control cables and other
openings in the sealed portion of the structure, and the controlled leakage through Butt Strap
the outflow valve and the safety valve. This controlled leakage is far more than the
uncontrolled and it determines the amount of pressure in the cabin. Pressurisation Riveting
control systems can be of the pneumatic or electronic type, with the electronic type
incorporating electrically controlled outflow valves.

Design Features for Pressurised Airframes

Butt Joint
The construction of this type of joint is such that a forward skin panel and aft skin
panel are joined together by an internal butt strap. When this joint is assembled,
there is a gap between the forward skin panel and aft skin panel this gap is filled
with what is commonly referred to as a fillet seal. This type of joint allows for the
expansion and contraction of the fuselage and at the same time providing ade-
quate pressurisation sealing. This kind of connection is used to join the fuselage
sections together.

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Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Lap Joint
The construction of this type of joint is such that the upper skin panel overlaps the
lower skin panel. During the assembly of the joint the upper skin and lower skin
area of contact has a faying surface seal applied to it. The joint is then made while
the sealant is still wet. This kind of connection is used to join the skin panels to-
gether at the longitudinal edge.
Figure 6: Example of Lap Joint

Skin Panel

Doubler
Riveting

Skin Panel
Stringer
Doubler

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Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Figure 7: Typical Pressurized Zone

Pressurized Area

Unpressurized Area

Fwd Pressure Bulkhead

Aft Pressure Bulkhead
Mid Fuselage Pressure Bulkhead
NLG Pressure Bulkhead

B747 A320

A310 A320

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Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Wing to Fuselage Attachment Bolted Wing Attachment

This kind of attachment is mainly used in smaller aeroplanes. The following de-
One method that can be used to support the wing is a simple four-pin attachment
scription belongs to the Saab 2000.
method. However, because of the thrust and drag loads (fore and aft loading) this
simple four-pin design may not be sufficient for big airliners. Another way of over- There are eight wing-to-fuselage attach fittings on the mainframe. They transmit
coming the fore and aft loads imposed by the wing is to attach the fuselage frames the load to the fuselage during flight for multiple load path redundancy. The alumi-
to the wing spars, mainly used for bigger aircrafts. This is known as integral wing num attach fittings are put in position on the front and the rear spar to engage the
attachment. related fuselage attach fittings

Figure 8: Wing to Fuselage Attachment Figure 9: Example of Center Wing Box Attachment (S2000)

Wing to Fuselage
Frame
Floor
Pin Beam Fuselage
Frame
CL

Keel Beam
Neutral
Wing
Spar Rear Drag
Fitting

Rear
Rear Upper Fitting
Beam
Boilted
Wing Box Splice Fitting
Pressure Front Drag
Fitting
Lower Fuselage
Pressure Bulkhead

Link
Rear Lower Front Fitting
Flight Deflection Beam
Wing
Flight

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Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Integral Wing Attachment

Most big aeroplanes are designed with this kind of wing attachment. There are
also some smaler aeroplanes like the Embraer 145, which also use this kind of de-
sign. The following description belongs to airbus aeroplanes.
The wing center box structure extends across the width of the fuselage and is a
continuation of the wing cantilever box. The wing box is usually attached to two
primary frames of the fuselage, they are also part of the wing center-box structure.
This frames are normally made of aluminium alloy and of integral kind (machined
milled). The wing box distributes the wing loads in the fuselage and can form an
optional integral fuel tank.
Figure 10: Example of Center Wing Box Attachment (A330)

Aft Main
Frame Connection Frame
Fittings
Fwd Main Upper Skin
Frame Panel

Rear Spar
Right Rib

Left Rib

Front Spar Center Spar

Lower Skin

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Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Landing Gear Attachment to the Fuselage Figure 12: Example of Nose Landing Gear Support (Saab 2000)

The landing gear loads are the largest loads on the aircraft. For this reason, the
transfer of these loads to the fuselage shell requires extensive local reinforcement.
The wing spars along with additional structural members, support and attach the
main landing gear to the wings on larger transport aircraft. The retractable landing
gear system is required to move, the upper shock strut is supported by trunion fit-
tings. These are shafts that fit to the shock strut and pass through fittings, which
are bolted to the fuselage.
Figure 11: Example of Fuselage Landing Gear Attachment (A340-200)

Center Box Aft

Pressure Bulkhead

Nose Gear
Support

Center Landing
Gear Hinge Points

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Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Horizontal Stabiliser to Fuselage Attachment that are attached to the fuselage structure. The forward section of the stabiliser
has a drive mechanism, which changes the pitch of the stabiliser. Figure 4 on
Modern high-speed transport category aeroplanes have adopted the use of an ad- page 6 shows the attachment fittings at fuselage.
justable stabiliser. The aft portion of the stabiliser incorporates hinge assembles
Figure 13: Example of Horizontal Stabiliser Attachment

Upper and Lower

THS Support
Attach Fitting

THS Support
Fitting

Y-Load Fitting

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Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Vertical Stabiliser to Fuselage Attachment Another method used is to make the vertical stabiliser an integral part of the aft
fuselage. The vertical stabiliser spars enter the fuselage and become part of the
One method of construction is to attach the vertical stabiliser fore and aft spars to aft fuselage frames. The skin panels of the vertical stabiliser tie directly onto the
the fuselage using fittings. These fittings may be permanent or allow for the vertical skin panels of the fuselage.
stabiliser to be removed.
Figure 14: Vertical Stabiliser Attachment

Fwd Left Vert. Fin Fitting

(Longitudinal)
Tappered Joint
Vertical Stabiliser (Bolt + Brushing) A
Front Auxiliary Spar
Vertical Stabiliser
Front Spar Vertical Stabiliser
Rear Auxiliary Spar

Vertical Stabiliser
Rear Spar Vert. Fin Fitting
A (Transverse)

APU Cowling

Frame 81

Frame 80

Frame 79
Fuselage
Fork
Frame 78 Fitting
(Transverse Loads)

Frame 77

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Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Doors Figure 15: Example of Door Seal (Airbus)

There are a number of different kinds of doors in an aeroplane. When talking about
doors that are part of the pressurized cabin, the following are included:
Outer Skin
• cabin doors;
Seal Seal
• cargo compartment doors;
• access doors to equipment compartments that are part of the pressurized
cabin.
These doors should meet the following requirements: Door
• the doors must be opened and closed from the inside and the outside;
Fuselage
• instructions for closing and opening them must be easy to read and simple to
explain; Guide
• there must be an indication on the cockpit as well as a mechanical indication Rollers
near the door itself that the door is properly closed. Section B-B
In addition, cargo doors must:
• be constructed in such a way that, in closed position, they are part of the total
strength of the fuselage construction. Adjustable
The doors in the pressurized cabin can be divided into two groups: Stops
• plug-type doors;
• nonplug-type doors.

Door Safety
Proximity sensors attached to the door for 'Door Closed', 'Door Locked' and 'Girt
Bar Activated' give an indication to the flight crew at time any one of these condi-
tions is not met. B

Door Seals
Usually a sillicon rubber seal is installed around the door. When the door is closed,
the seal is pushed against the door frame of the fuselage. The seal has usually
holes at equal intervals, which let the cabin air to the seal inside and viceversa. B
When the door is closed and the cabin is pressurized, the door seals inflate be-
cause of the pressure difference between inside and outside.

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Plug-type Doors Figure 16: Plug-Type Door with Gates (Boeing)

Doors that close the fuselage from the inside are called plug-type doors. Plug-type
doors are a little bigger than the dimensions of the door jamb in which they fit. For
Hinge Door
this reason, the door in open position is sometimes kept inside the pressurized X
cabin. Another possibility is that the door has what is known as gates. They make Closed
the door smaller while opening or closing so that it can be brought outside the
pressurized cabin when it is in open position.
Door Handle
The advantages of a plug-type door are:
• the total load is distributed over the whole door jamb;
• the doors close better and better as the pressure increases. Door X-2
Opened

Top View
Side View

Upper Gate

Window

Upper Hinge

Door Lock
Lower Hinge

Lower Gate

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Figure 17: Other Plug-Type Doors

Locking Hook Guide Arms

A
A DOOR HANDLE MECHANISM

Spring Strut
Safety Pin Lever Assy
Locking Push Rod
Shaft

Lowering Internal Door

Shaft Outer Control Handle
Handle

Unlocking
A
Gearbox B
Handle
C LOCKING MECHANISM

Locking Shaft Barrel

Inner
Control
Lock
Support
Handle Arm

Lifting Lever
(Lower Push Rod
Connection
Link)
B
Latch Assy
Torsion
Bar
Girt Bar Barrel Spring Unit
Lock Button
External
CABIN DOOR (AIRBUS ) BULK CARGO DOOR (AIRBUS ) Handle

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Figure 18: Emergency Escape Hatches

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Nonplug-Type Doors flight, the door seal is inflated via the inflation holes so that the cargo compartment
is sealed air-tight.
Doors that close the fuselage from the outside, are called nonplug-type doors. The
hinges and the closing mechanism of this type of door must carry all the forces that Door Indication and Warning
are caused by pressure differences. For the above mentioned reasons, the large
cargo compartment doors have heavy locking mechanisms. These locks are at the Electrical switches (micro switches or proximity switches) of the door warning sys-
exact locations where the frames in the fuselage and the cargo door are broken. tem monitor the closed and locked condition of the cargo door. They send a signal
The lock forms the connection between these frames when the door is closed to the cockpit indication system when a cargo door is not locked. Then an indica-
(Figure 19 on page 20). In this way, nonplug-type doors add to the total strength tion warns the pilots about the unlocked condition of the door.
of the fuselage construction.

Operation and Locking

This kind of door is mainly used for cargo compartments. Depending on the dimen-
sions of the doors, they are equipped with counterbalance mechanism for manual
operation, electrical motor actuation or hydraulic actuation.
The locking hooks keep each cargo door in the closed position. To show this con-
dition there are indication windows in the access panel of the cargo door. The
green mark shows that the safety mechanism locks each locking unit in its latched
position. The red marks show that the locking units are not locked and satisfactory.
When the cargo doors are locked, the door seal makes the related cargo compart-
ment pressure-tight. To balance the difference in pressure on the ground and in
the cargo compartments, there is a vent door in each cargo door. This spring-load-
ed vent door opens inboard and remains in this position until the cargo door is cor-
rectly locked.

Drift Pins
The drift pin mechanism is installed in the middle of the cargo door. It decreases
the contour off-set between the fuselage and the door. The drift pin mechanism in-
cludes the linkage assembly and the drift pins with the related bellcranks and the
connection links. The linkage assembly transmit the movement of the safety shaft
to the bellcranks. They operate the connection links which retract or extent the drift
pins. When the cargo door is correctly locked, the extended drift pins engage with
the pockets of the fuselage frame.

Door Seals
The door seal made usually of silicone rubber integrated with fabric is a round
hose-type seal with inflation holes. The door seal is installed in the retainers so that
the inflation holes show to the inner side of the cargo compartment. When the car-
go door is in the closed position, the door seal comes into contact with the fuselage
profile. Due to the higher internal pressure of the cargo compartment during the

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Figure 19: Example of Nonplug-Type Door (A321)

FWD Cargo
Compartment

Piano
Hinges
AFT Cargo
Compartment

Section

Outer Skin
Vent Door

Linkage
2
Door Mechanism
Inflation Hole
Handle
Seal

Drift Pin
Switch Mechanism

Locking Shaft

Bellcrank Locking Unit

Linkage
Bellcrank
Lever Latching Drift Pin
Access
Unit
Locking Shaft Panel
Bell Crank
Latching Indication
Locking Handle Connection
Hook Window Link

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THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Windows Figure 20: Cockpit Windows (A310)

Front Windows
Aeroplane windows are divided into two groups: flight deck windows and cabin (Windshields)
windows. Flight deck windows consist of several layers of glass and plastics. Cab-
in windows are made completely of plastic. They are double windows for those
aeroplane types with a pressurized cabin. AFT Window

Cockpit Windows Sliding Window

The flight deck windows are again divided into two kinds: windshield (front win-
dows) and side windows. The requirements that flight deck windows must meet
are significantly more severe than the requirements for cabin windows. This is un-
derstandable because the safety of the flight crew must be guaranteed under all
circumstances. Windshields consist of layers of toughened glass and plastics. Chemically
There is a heating element between the outside window and the plastic layer. The Strengthened Glass Seal
heating element is made of gold, tin oxide or indium oxide. The outside window Poly-Vinyl-Butyral
(PVB) Layer
has a stiff, hard, scratch resistant layer. The synthetic middle layer keeps splinters

6
Sliding Heating System Airplex
from being spread in the flight deck if the inside window breaks. Heating the wind-
shields is necessary because: and AFT Polyurethane + PVB

6
1.5mm
Windows
• it increases the flexibility of the windshields; Silicone Moulded Seal

4 3
• it keeps the windows free of ice; Semi-Tempered Glass
• it keeps the windows from fogging over. Outside Antistatic Coating
Uneven heating, expansion and shrinkage, careless installation, ultraviolet rays,
pressure differences and seeping in of humidity via leaks in the window seals can
all lead to delamination (the layers come loose), pealing, tearing or breaking. The
side windows consist of layers of toughened glass and plastics just as the wind- Poly-Vinyl-Butyral Seal
shields. (PVB) Layer
Glass Epoxy Packer
In the case that side windows can be heated (against fogging over), the heating Inner Main Ply
element is between the inside window and the synthetic layer. Full Tempered Glass
Aluminium Alloy
Insert

10
Center Main Ply
Front Full Tempered Glass
Windows Silicone Seal

2.03mm
10
Neoprene Seal
Stainless Steel

5.7
Cleats
Polysulphide

5
Weather Seal
Outer Ply
Outer Face Hyviz Heating System Semi-Tempered Glass

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THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Sliding Windows Figure 21: Example of Sliding Window (Airbus)

The cockpit of most transport category aeroplanes include two sliding windows
(left and right) installed at both sides. The flight crew can use these sliding win- Roller
dows as emergency exits. Roller
Locking Pin

Rail

Locking Pin

Connecting Rod
Equipped with
Universal Joint

Control Handle

Catch
Locking Pin Operating Lev
(Unlocking)
Rack Rail
Carriage

Locking Lever

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Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

Cabin Windows In maintenance areas where fumes of solvents occur, all cabin windows within a
radius of five meters from the work spot must be covered. In some types of aero-
Cabin windows really consist of three windows. The outside and the middle win- planes (for example, the Boeing 747) the first few cabin windows are attached
dow are installed in the construction of the fuselage, but are of no importance to
even more securely to lessen the effects of a possible bird strike.
the strength of the fuselage. The protective windows are installed in the wall pan-
els. There is a small ventilation hole in the inside window to allow adjustment for Dummy Window
pressure differences between the inside and the outside window.
In areas of the cabin where equipment and furnishings (e.g. galleys and lavatories
Cabin windows are made of a certain synthetic. The advantages are its extreme etc.) are located, cabin dummy windows are installed. This are made of one layer
clearness and that is weather proof. A disadvantage of this material is that it is sen- of aluminium alloy plate.
sitive to solvents, stripping compounds, ultraviolet rays and air pollution.
Figure 22: Cabin Window

Skin Panel
A Outer Plated
(Aluminium Alloy)

Vent Hole Sealing Ring

A A

Window Frame
A

Eye Bolt
Retainer and Nut
Window
Frame

Sidewall Retainer
Seal
Panel

Outer Window
Pane
Eyebolt
Inner Window Dummy Window
Pane

Third Pane
(Accoustic) Cabin Window Assembly

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THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.1 Fuselage Structures (ATA 52 / 53 / 56)

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.2 Wings Structures (ATA 57)

11.3.2 Wings Structures (ATA 57)

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.2 Wings Structures (ATA 57)

Wing Construction but the lift is produced all along the wing. The wing spars, which are the main span-
wise members of the structure, are designed to carry these bending loads.
The lift, which produced by the wing, must be transmitted into the structure in such
a manner and in such a location that the aeroplane can be balanced in every con- Truss-type Wing Construction
dition of flight. And the structure must be built in such a way that it can support all
Fabric-covered aeroplane wings have a truss-type structure that has changed very
of the loads without any damaging deflection.
little throughout the evolution of the aeroplane.
The wing is mounted on the aeroplane in a location that places its center of pres-
The main lengthwise members in a wing truss are the spars. In the past, these
sure just slightly behind the point at which all of the weight of the aeroplane is con-
were all made of wood, but the more modem construction uses spars of extruded
centrated, the center of gravity.
aluminium alloy.
The center of pressure travel on the wing chord produces some rather large tor-
sional, or twisting, loads on its structure, especially at the point where the wing at- Figure 2: Truss Type Wing
taches to the fuselage.
Figure 1: Wing description

In addition to the twisting loads imposed on the structure in flight, the wing is also
subjected to bending loads. The weight is essentially concentrated at the fuselage,

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.2 Wings Structures (ATA 57)

Stressed-Skin Wing Construction the stresses. Semi-monocoque construction is generally used for the main portion
of the wing.
In the same manner as the fuselage, wings have generally evolved from the truss
form of construction to one in which the outer skin carries the greatest amount of
Figure 3: Semi-monocoque Wing Construction

One of the advantages of an all-metal wing is the ease with which it can be built to quite thick, and the wing has a strong center section built into the fuselage. The
carry all of the flight loads within the structure so it does not need any external engines and landing gear attach to this center section. Rather than using the fa-
struts or braces. Such an internally braced wing is called a cantilever wing. miliar two-spar construction, most of these wings are of the multi-spar construction
This configuration has become standard for transport aircraft, cantilever low wing, in which several spars carry the flight loads, and spanwise stiffeners run between
with retractable landing gear. The airfoil section of a cantilever wing is normally the spars to provide even greater strength.

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Training Manual 11.3.2 Wings Structures (ATA 57)

Wing Skin Wing Spars

The skin is part of the wing structure and carries part of the wing stresses. It is an The spars are the principle structural members of the wing. The spars support all
essential load bearing part of the wing structure. The upper wing surface is usually distributed loads as well as concentrated weights, such as fuselage, landing gear,
made from aluminium alloy 7075, this material has a high resistance to compres- and on multi-engined aircraft, the nacelles or pylons.
sion loads. The lower wing surface is usually made from aluminium alloy 2024 as Most spars are built up from extruded 7075 aluminium alloy sections, with riveted
this material has excellent properties that withstand tension loads. aluminium alloy web sections to provide extra strength. More recent aircraft have
As airspeeds increased with their higher flight loads, it became apparent that not machined spars.
only was more strength needed for the skins of all-metal wings, but more stiffness As a rule, a wing has two spars. One spar is usually located near the front of the
was also needed. And to gain the strength and stiffness needed and yet keep the wing and the other about two thirds of the distance towards the wings trailing edge.
weight down, at first the manufacturers of some of the high-speed military aircraft Regardless of the type the spar is the most important part of the wing. When other
begin the construction of wing skins with thick slabs of aluminium alloy. Then they structural members are placed under load they pass most of the resulting stresses
machine away some of the thickness but leave enough material in the proper plac- on to the wing spars.
es to provide just exactly the strength and stiffness needed.
In general, wing construction is based on one of three fundamental designs:
Figure 4: Milled Wing Skin • Monospar,
• Multi-Spar,
• Box Beam.

Monospar
The monospar wing incorporates only one main longitudinal member in its con-
struction. Ribs or bulkheads supply the necessary contour or shape to the airfoil.
This kind of construction has no application in transport category aeroplane wings,
but is quit often used for flight control surfaces

Multi-Spar
The multi-spar wing incorporates more than one main longitudinal member in its
construction. To give the wing contour, ribs or bulkheads are often included.

Box Beam
The box beam type of wing construction uses two main longitudinal members with
connecting bulkheads to furnish additional strength and to give contour to the
wing. This is the most used construction design for wings with integral wing tanks.

Wing Ribs
Ribs are the structural crosspieces that make up the framework of the wing. They
usually extend from the wing leading edge to the rear spar or to the trailing edge
of the wing and gives the airfoil shape.

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Training Manual 11.3.2 Wings Structures (ATA 57)

Wing ribs may be pressed from sheet aluminium alloy in a hydropress, or they may placed in a short time period. Another factor to consider is if the wing tip should
be built up of sheet metal channels and hat sections riveted to the skin to give it accidentally strike something then damage will be limited to the wing tip and not
both the shape and rigidity it needs. the whole wing.
Figure 5: Ribs

Wing Tips
The wing tip is often a removable unit, bolted to the outboard end of the wing panel.
One reason for this is the vulnerability of the wing tips to damage, especially during
ground handling and taxiing. If damage does occur to the wing tip it can be re-

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Training Manual 11.3.2 Wings Structures (ATA 57)

Figure 6: Example of Wing Tip with Fence

Section B-B

B
A

Bolts
C

Spigot (Guide Pin)

B

Fence
Wing Tip

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Training Manual 11.3.2 Wings Structures (ATA 57)

Wing Attached Components or more auxiliary spars, that are connected to the rear spar and sometimes goes
from the left side to the right side.
For certain types of aircraft with engines attached to the wings, the wing also has Flap/slat tracks or hinges and flight control surfaces are bolted to the spars or re-
a center spar that continues to beyond the outside engine pylon. The connection inforced ribs.
to the main landing gear requires an extra heavy construction. This consists of one
Figure 7: Hinge Points

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Training Manual 11.3.2 Wings Structures (ATA 57)

Landing Gear Attachment ner, a support structure for the landing gear rear trunnion will be necessary, this
may be a gear wing beam or may be an extra wing spar. This spar is called a false
The wing support structure for the landing gear has to be strengthened in order to spar.
accommodate the landing gear loads. The front trunnion of the landing gear can
be attached to the rear spar of the wing. If the landing gear is attached in this man-
Figure 8: Examples of Gear Attachment

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Training Manual 11.3.2 Wings Structures (ATA 57)

Wing Engine Pylon Attachment The engine position can be located further forward without severe structural
weight penalty.
Generally, there are three methods of wing pylon attachment:
• Drag strut installation The disadvantages are:
• Box beam installation • Complicated structural analysis due to its redundant design.
• Upper support arm installation • More rigging problems to ensure the proper structural load distributions.
• Interference with wing leading edge control systems such as control cables,
Drag Strut Installation rods, hydraulic tubes, heating ducts for de-icing, etc.
The wing pylon structure as illustrated in Figure 9 on page 10 is a cantilever box
beam consisting of two upper and two lower longerons. Two side skins transmit
the vertical shears and a lower skin primarily carries the lateral shear loads and
also acts as a firewall. Forward and aft mount bulkheads are included to transfer
the engine loads to the pylon structure and the bulkheads take the pylon loads
onto the wing box structure via lug attachments to the wing front spar of the pylon
upper longerons and utilises a rear drag strut to transfer the pylon lower longeron
loads to a point between the wing front and rear spars.

Box Beam Installation

In Figure 9 the pylon box beam design, which is to extend the box structure be-
yond the wing front spar fitting and ends at the aft pylon fitting, which is attached
between the wing front and rear spars. This design puts more weight on the pylon,
but save weight on the wing box and minimise some potential fatigue problems at
the wing lower surface.
The pylon is attached to the wing, through a fitting on the wing front spar for vertical
and side loads, to a fitting beneath the front spar on the wing lower surface for
thrust loads, and to a fitting attached to wing box structure on the wing lower sur-
face at the end of the pylon for vertical and side bending loads.

Upper Support Arm Installation

This type of structure offers advantages such as:
It is the most efficient structure to react the moment loads due to the overhanged
engine; the moment arm A-D is obviously greater than A-B and, therefore, a lighter
structure is achieved.
The most efficient configuration transfers the engine moment loads into the wing
box structure and therefore further weight saving is obtained.
This benefits the design of engine position closer to the wing lower surface for the
purpose of engine-to-ground clearance.
It inherently has the structural fail-safe feature due to the redundant design.

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Training Manual 11.3.2 Wings Structures (ATA 57)

Figure 9: Engine Pylon Attachment

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Training Manual 11.3.2 Wings Structures (ATA 57)

Flight Control to Wing Attachment modate the nut and bolt assembly that passes through a bearing on the aileron
hinge. The ailerons are usually hinged at three places.
Figure 10 shows an aileron hinge fitting. This fitting is machined from aluminium
alloy and is bolted to the rear spar of the wing. The fitting has a bushing to accom-
Figure 10: Examples of Aileron Attachment

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Training Manual 11.3.2 Wings Structures (ATA 57)

Storage of Fuel
Wings and in some cases also the horizontal stabilizer, are used for the storage of
fuel. The area between the front spars and the rear spars is used. Various con-
structions are possible. The viscosity of the fuel used and the safety requirements
that are set for the storage of the fuel require good sealing (see “Figure 11” on
page 13).
One problem when sealing is that wings and tail surfaces are constantly moving in
flight. In an integral tank construction, the area between spars, ribs, upper and low-
er skin panels is completely sealed off by rivets and all seams are closed with seal-
ant so that no fuel can leak through.

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Training Manual 11.3.2 Wings Structures (ATA 57)

Figure 11: Integral Tank Construction

065

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Training Manual 11.3.2 Wings Structures (ATA 57)

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
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Training Manual 11.3.3 Stabilisers Structures (ATA 55)

11.3.3 Stabilisers Structures (ATA 55)

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Training Manual 11.3.3 Stabilisers Structures (ATA 55)

Empennage turbulence caused by the wing and prevents the rudder being blanketed by the
horizontal surfaces and losing its effectiveness in a spin.
The empennage of an aeroplane is the assembly of tail surfaces that are used both
for control and for stability. Regardless of their location or configuration, they serve
the same functions. Longitudinal stability and control are provided by the horizon-
tal surfaces, while directional stability and control are provided by vertical surfaces.
The location of the horizontal tail surfaces must take into consideration because of
the turbulence produced by the airflow over the wings. Some aeroplanes have
these surfaces located quite low on the fuselage.
Figure 1: Typical Empennage Configuration

The horizontal tail surfaces the turbulence produced by the airflow over the wings.
Some aeroplanes have these surfaces located quite low on the fuselage.
A number of modem aeroplanes use the T-tail configuration. The horizontal tail
surfaces are mounted on top of the vertical surfaces. This keeps them out of the

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Training Manual 11.3.3 Stabilisers Structures (ATA 55)

Figure 2: T-tail Configuration

Bullet Fairing

Ribs Elevator

Ribs

Leading Edge
Sections

Spars Tip
Spars Leading Edge
Sections

Rudder

Dorsal Fin

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.3 Stabilisers Structures (ATA 55)

As far as the construction is concerned, the wings, the stabilizers and the vertical
stabilizers have much in common (see sub module 11.3.2 title "Stressed-Skin
Wing Construction").
The way in which the parts of the stabilizers and the vertical stabilizer to the fuse-
lage can differ. The method of connection depends greatly on the forces that occur
as a result of bending and torsion moments and as a result of shearing forces.
The vertical stabilizer is normally bolted to the top center of special reinforced
frames of the tail fuselage section. The vertical fin is bolted to fitting-brackets to
facilitate removal and installation (see “Figure 2” on page 3).
On modern aircraft such the Airbus A320 primary structural components of the sta-
bilizers (spars, ribs and skin panels) are made of laminations of Carbon Fiber Re-
inforced Plastic (CFRP). All other components are made of the same material, or
Glass-fiber Reinforced Plastic (GFRP) or of light alloy.
The trimmable horizontal stabilizer (THS) is a single-piece structure mounted
through, and supported by the fuselage tail section. The horizontal stabilizer pro-
vides the supporting structure for the LH and the RH elevator. The angle of inci-
dence of the THS can be mechanically adjusted by means of a trim control wheel
located in the flight compartment. The THS is installed at the tail section in a large
cutout, and is attached to the fuselage at three points, by the THS actuator and by
the two hinge points on either side of the fuselage.
The THS comprises of a center spar box, the LH and RH spar boxes, the LH and
RH leading edges, the LH and RH trailing edges, the LH and RH stabilizer tips, the
LH and RH stabilizer aprons and the stabilizer attach fittings. The main structural
component of the THS is the stabilizer spar box, and all loads on the horizontal
stabilizer are transmitted through the center spar box and its attach fittings. The
THS can be removed as a complete unit.

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.3 Stabilisers Structures (ATA 55)

Figure 3: Typical Horizontal Stabilizer

Tip RH

Trailing Edge RH

Spar Box RH

Leading Edge RH

Attach Fittings RH

Apron Assembly
Trailing Edge RH
Attach Fittings LH
A
Tip LH

Center Spar Box

Spar Box LH
Leading Edge RH

The elevators and rudders are hinged to brackets bolted to the rear spar of the sta-
bilizers.

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.3 Stabilisers Structures (ATA 55)

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.4 Flight Control Surfaces

11.3.4 Flight Control Surfaces

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.4 Flight Control Surfaces

Flight Control Surfaces Construction honey comb core and skinning panels. Actuators and hinge brackets on all primary
control are normally attached to the spar.
The Monocoque construction form is often used for the control surfaces. Static dischargers are installed near the tip of the trailing edge. They let static elec-
Considering the primary flight controls, the elevator normally consists of a spar, tricity discharge from the aircraft.
ribs and skinning panels. While the rudder and aileron normally consist of a spar,
Figure 1: All Metal Control Surface

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.4 Flight Control Surfaces

Secondary control surfaces are normally constructed like rudders.

Figure 2: Honey Comb Core Type Control Surface

All-metal, riveted or bonded, control surfaces were traditionally used in transport

aircraft. While resin-fiber composite materials have become more popular in mod-
ern transport aircraft.

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.4 Flight Control Surfaces

Figure 3: Composite Control Surface

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.4 Flight Control Surfaces

Balancing
To lessen the force required to operate the primary control surfaces control surfac-
es are usually balanced statically and dynamically.
Control surface flutter is one of the more serious problems high-speed aeroplanes
have had in their design evolution. To eliminate flutter, it is extremely important
that the control surfaces be balanced so that their center of gravity does not fall
behind their hinge line. For this reason, some controls have a portion of the surface
extending out ahead of the hinge line, like the overhang rudder in Figure 4 on
page 6. When the rudder is deflected, air strikes the portion ahead of the hinge line
and assists in deflecting it and holding it deflected.
A balance panel is used on some large aeroplanes to assist the pilot in moving the
ailerons. The hinged balance panel forms a movable partition for the sealed space
ahead of the aileron. When the aileron is deflected upward, as seen here, the air
over its bottom surface speeds up and produces a low pressure below the balance
panel. This low pressure pulls the balance panel down and puts a force on the
leading edge of the aileron in such a direction that it assists the pilot in holding the
aileron deflected upward.(see “Figure 4” on page 6)

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.4 Flight Control Surfaces

Figure 4: Dynamic Balancing

Hinge Line

Overhang

Handley-Page

Friese

Balanced
Hinge Panel
Vent Gap
Control Tab

Aileron

Wing
Alieron Hinge Point

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.5 Nacelles and Pylons (ATA 54)

11.3.5 Nacelles and Pylons (ATA 54)

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.5 Nacelles and Pylons (ATA 54)

Nacelles
On turbo-jet engine installations, cowl panels are designed to provide a smooth
airflow over the engines and to protect them from damage.The entire engine cowl-
ing system includes a nose cowl, hinged removable cowl panels, exhaust nacelle
and trust reverser.
The primary functions of the nacelle are to:
• Cause a smooth airflow both around and into the engine to decrease drag and
give better engine performance.
• Prevent damage to the external surface of the engine and its accessories.
• Give additional strength to the engine structure so it is more resistant to the
forces that can cause it to bend (cowl load sharing).
• Permit service door access to the engine and its components.

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.5 Nacelles and Pylons (ATA 54)

Figure 1: Nacelle Configuration

Upper Cowl Door

Thrust
Reverser
LH Fan
Cowl Door
LH Thrust
Reverser Door

Pylon Apron
Nose Cowl

AFT Lower
Cowl Door

Inlet Cowl

Exhaust
Nozzle
Ground Safety
Latch

Forward Lower
Cowl Door

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.5 Nacelles and Pylons (ATA 54)

All the skin-panels of nacelles made of composite are provided with lightning pro-
tection strips.

Nose Cowl
The Nose cowl is the foremost section of the engine nacelle and provides maxi-
mum airflow into the engine compressor. It is normally bolted to the engine inlet
case and its leading edge is supplied with anti-icing air.
The main structure of nose cowls is normally made of conventional sheet metal
structure, riveted or bonded. The skinning panels are usually made of composite
sandwich acoustic structure.
Figure 2: Nose Cowl Configuration

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.5 Nacelles and Pylons (ATA 54)

Hinged Cowling Figure 3: Cold Section Door

The Hinged cowling (cowl doors) designed as large opening doors, usually provid-
ed with quick-release latches, facilitate access to the engine built up equipment.
From structural point of view they can be divided into two categories:
A
• Cold section doors (fan case)
• Hot section doors (core engine)
Cold section doors are normally a sandwich construction with a Honey comb core
and composite skin panels. A

Aluminium
Honeycomb
Skins
(Graphite)

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.5 Nacelles and Pylons (ATA 54)

Hot section doors structure provides fire protection and support capability for aer- Very modern engine hot section doors are rather of composite than of metal sheet
odynamic, inertial and engine loads that occur in flight and ground operation. construction, but to provide fire protection are covered with stainless steel blankets
and titanium alloys heat shields.
Figure 4: Hot Section Cowl Door

Beaver Tail
Upper Corner (Kevlar Epoxy)
Precooler Scoop External Panel
(Glass Poly IM ID) (Graphite Skins/
AFT Ring
Nomex Honeycomb)
Hinge (2024) (Graphite Skins/
Nomex Honeycomb)

Upper Sidewall Access Door

52024 Skins/ (Graphite Epoxy)
5056 Honeycomb
Upper Blocker Door
External Panel

Inner Barrel
52024 Skins/ Side Beam Ext. Panel
5052 Honeycomb (Graphite/Epoxy)

Lower Blocker Door

External Panel
Actuator (Graphite Skins/
Nomex Honeycomb)

Lower Corner
Internal Panel
Forward Frame (Graphite Acoutsic Skin/
(2024 Forging) 5052 Honeycomb)
Latches

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.5 Nacelles and Pylons (ATA 54)

Pylons The function of the engine pylons is:

• to support the engine
Jets and turbofans, if not buried in the fuselage, or wing-roots, need to be pylon • to transmit the engine thrust to the aircraft
mounted underwing or rear fuselage. The side pylons for rear fuselage mounting
• to enable the routing and attachment of all the systems connected with the en-
are sometimes called "stub-wings". Both must support the weight of the power-
gine (electrical wiring, hydraulic, bleed air and fuel lines).
plant and transmit its thrust into the adjacent airframe.
• to serve as fire-barrier between engine and aircraft structure
Figure 5: Pylon Configurations Pylon structure, like whole aircraft structure, is divided into primary and secondary
sections.
Figure 6: Pylon Sections

Pylon

Tail-Mounted Engines

Wing-Mounted Engines

Since the box (primary structure) must carry all the loads and serve as firewall, it
As turbo-jet engines develop very little torque, their mountings can be less robust is normally a titanium and steel alloy riveted sheet construction.
than those required for turbo-prop engines. The latter have to be mounted in tubu-
lar sub-frames out in front of either the fuselage or wing, allowing plenty of vertical Secondary section of pylon which is not part of the firewall is normally made of
clearance between the propeller and the ground. composite panels.

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.5 Nacelles and Pylons (ATA 54)

Firewalls The general function of fire seal are as follows:

• prevent entry of combustible matter into areas where auto-ignition may occur
Powerplants together with their pylons are often divided into zones by fireproof and avoids propagation of fire.
bulkheads, usually made of stainless steel, titanium or thermoplastics. Fire barri- • confines effects of pneumatic duct and turbine rupture or major leaks.
ers divide the cavities located between the engine and nacelle into compartments
• prevents air from the hot section of the engine core from circulating in the fan
in order to limit the propagation of fire.
case area.
Figure 7: Firewall Configuration • facilitates the effective use of the fire detection system by containing the fire
in one area

Normally the hinged cowlings are also part of the firewall, but only effective when
the doors are closed. Hinged cowlings are surrounded by airtight fire seals. (see
“Figure 8” on page 9)

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.5 Nacelles and Pylons (ATA 54)

Figure 8: Fire Seal

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.5 Nacelles and Pylons (ATA 54)

Engine Mounts
The engine mount system serve as interface between the engine and the pylon. It
is a fail-safe damage tolerant design capable to transmit all the loads from the en-
gine to the aircraft structure.
There are basically three engine attachment configurations used for transport air-
craft:
• wing mounted
• tail-side mounted
• tail mounted (inside or on top of it)
Not depending on the engine position the most engines are attached to its pylon
by two or three mounts. As the engine develops great heat while working the
mounting system must allow expansion in all directions. Because of this one of the
mounts normally do not take thrust and allows the engine to expand in the longi-
tudinal direction.

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 Basic Maintenance Module 11 Aircraft Structures and Systems
THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.5 Nacelles and Pylons (ATA 54)

Figure 9: Engine Mounts Configuration

11.03.04Figure mounts1.jpg 145

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THAI%AUSTRIAN*TECHNICAL*(Aircra3*Maintenance*Technician*Course)
Training Manual 11.3.5 Nacelles and Pylons (ATA 54)

Loads
The engine mount system must be capable to carry side, vertical, thrust and torque
loads. The system also provides vibration-dampening to soften engine vibrations.
Figure 10: Engine Mount Loads

11.03.04Figure mounts2.jpg 150

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