Analog Communication

Systems I
2. Signals & Systems
Assistant Professor
Dr. Ali Yousif Fattah
Communication Engineering Department
University of Technology

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2. Signals & Systems
Signals are time-varying quantities such as voltages or current .
A system is a mathematical model that relates the output signal to the input
signal of a physical process, and it is a combination of devices and
networks (subsystems) chosen to perform a desired function .

2.1 Classification of Signals

1. Continuous-time and discrete-time signals
2 .Analogue and digital signals
3. Deterministic and random signals
4. Periodic and nonperiodic signals
5. Even and Odd signals
6. Power and energy signals 2
1. Continuous-time and discrete-time signals :

By the term continuous-time signal we mean a real or

complex function of time s(t) , where the independent
variable t is continuous .

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If t is a discrete variable , i.e. , s(t) is defined at discrete
times , then the signal s(t) is a discrete-time signal .
A discrete-time signal is defined at discrete times . A
discrete-time signal is often identified as a sequence of
numbers , denoted by {x(n)} , where n is an integer .

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 2. Analogue and digital signals :

A continuous-time signal , also called an analog signal .

A discrete-time signal is called a digital signal if its amplitude

is quantized to a series of discrete levels .

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3. Deterministic and random signals :

Deterministic signals are those signals whose values are

completely specified for any given time .

Ex. x(t ) = A cos ω0t with A and ω0 are fixed .

Random signals are those signals that take random values

at any given times .

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4. Periodic and Nonperiodic signals :

A signal s(t ) is a periodic signal if it repeats itself after a

fixed period T0 i.e :

s (t ) = s (t + nT0) , where the integer n > 0 .

Ex. s(t ) = 30 sin (2000πt ) is periodic .

If s (t ) ≠ s (t + T0) for all t and any T0 , then s (t ) is a

nonperiodic or aperiodic signal .

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Note:
(1)The result of combining periodic CT signals may not be
periodic.
If any of the ratios of the fundamental periods of the
individual signals is irrational, then the signal may not be
periodic. If those ratios are all rational, then the period is the
lowest common multiple (LCM) of the periods of the
individual signals.
(2) In CT , it is possible that the fundamental period of the
overall signal is smaller than the LCM of the fundamental
periods of the individual signals.

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 5. Even and Odd signals :

A signal is even if x (-t ) = x (t ) i.e. it can be reflected in

the axis at zero , Ex. cos ωt .
A signal is odd if x (-t ) = -x (t ) , Ex. Sin ωt .
Any signal x(t) can be expressed as a sum of two signals , one
of which is even and one of which is odd. That is,
x(t ) = xe (t ) + xo (t )
Where ,

xe (t ) = {x(t ) + x(−t )}
1
even part of x(t )
2
xo (t ) = {x(t ) − x(−t )}
1
odd part of x(t )
2 9
Example 1: Determine the even and odd parts of the signal x (t) given
by :

 Ae −αt t > 0
x(t ) = 
0 t<0

Solution :
Assumption : α > 0 , A > 0 ,
− ∞ < t < ∞
x(t ) + x(−t )
Even part xe (t ) =
2
x(t ) − x(−t )
Odd part xo (t ) =
2
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6. Power and energy signals

Energy of a signal is defined as the area under the square of

the magnitude of the signal .
The energy of a signal x(t) is :

∫ x ( t ) dt
2
Ex =
−∞

The units of signal energy depends on the unit of the signal .

If the signal unit is volt (V) , the energy of that signal is
expressed in V2.s .

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Some signals have infinite signal energy . In that case it is
more convenient to deal with average signal power .

The average power of a signal x(t) is :

T /2
1
T →∞ T ∫
( )
2
Px = lim x t dt
−T / 2

For a periodic signal x(t) , the average signal power is :

1
Px = ∫ x ( t ) dt
2

T T
where T is any period of the signal .
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A signal with finite energy is called an energy signal .

0 < E < ∞ ( P = 0)
A signal with infinite energy and finite average signal power
is called a power signal .

0 < P < ∞ ( E = ∞)

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Example 2: Determine whether the signal x (t) described by :

x (t) = e-at u (t) , a > 0 is a power signal or energy signal or

neither .
Ans.

x(t) is a non-periodic signal .

∞ ∞ − 2 at ∞
e 1
∫x (t ) dt = ∫ e − 2 at
E= 2
dt = = ( finite , positive)
−∞ 0
− 2a 0
2a

The energy is finite and deterministic .

Hence , x(t) is an energy signal .

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2.2 Classification of Systems
1. Linear and non-linear systems
2. Causal and non-causal systems
3. Time-invariant and time-varying systems
1. Linear and non-linear systems
Let xi(t) and yi(t), i > 1, be input and output signals of a system,
respectively. A system is called a linear system if the input x1(t) + x2(t) + ...
+ xi(t) + ...
produces a response y1 (t) + y2 (t) + ... + yi(t) + ..., and axi(t) produces
ayi(t) for all input signals xi(t) and scalar a. This is known as the
superposition theorem and a linear system obeys this principle.

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2. Causal and non-causal systems
Let x(t) and y(t) be the input and output signals of a system. A causal
(physically realizable) system produces an output response at time t1 for an
input at time t0, where

In other words, a causal system is one whose response does not begin
before the input signal is applied.
A non-causal system response will begin before the input signal is applied.
It can be made realizable by introducing a positive time delay into the
system .

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 3. Time-invariant and time-varying systems

If the input x(t – t0) produces a response y(t – t0) where t0 is any real
constant, the system is called a time-invariant system.
If the above condition is not satisfied, the system is called a time-varying
system.

A system is called a linear time-invariant (LTI) system if the system is

linear and time-invariant.

Classification of signals and systems will help us in finding a suitable

mathematical model for a given physical process that is to be analyzed.

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2.3 The Time-Frequency Concept
Consider the following set of time functions :
s (t ) = {3A sin ω0 t , A sin 2ω0 t }
We can represent these functions in different ways by plotting
the amplitude versus time t , amplitude versus angular
frequency ω , or amplitude versus frequency f .

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 ω0 = 2π /T0 is called the fundamental angular frequency
and ω2 = 2ω0 is called the second harmonic of the
fundamental .
In general , ωn = nω0 is said to be the nth harmonic of the
fundamental , where n > 1 .
The Fourier series provides a useful model for analyzing
the frequency content and the steady-state network response
for periodic input signals .

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 2.4 Fourier Series
Joseph Fourier 1768 to 1830
Fourier proposed in 1807 that a periodic waveform
f (t ) could be broken down into an infinite series of simple
sinusoids which , when added together , would construct the
exact form of the original waveform .

Definition :
A Fourier Series is an accurate representation of a periodic
signal and consists of the sum of sinusoids at the fundamental
and harmonic frequencies .

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2.4.1 Trigonometric (Quadrature) Fourier Series
A periodic time function f (t ) over the interval :

-T/2 < t < T/2

may be represented by an infinite sum of sinusoidal waveforms :

∞ ∞
f (t ) = a0 + ∑ an cos nω 0 t + ∑ bn sin nω 0 t
n =1 n =1

where T is the period of the fundamental frequency f0 and f0 = 1/T . This

is called the trigonometric (quadrature) Fourier series representation of
the time function f (t).
a0 , an , and bn are real and are called
Fourier Trigonometric Coefficients
2π
and ω0 = 22
T
Hence ,
Fourier Series = an infinite sum of harmonically related sinusoids .

For approximation :
N N
a0 + ∑ an cos nω 0t + ∑ bn sin nω0t
f (t ) =
=n 1=n 1

The Fourier Trigonometric Coefficients can be obtained from :

1 t0 +T
a0 = ∫ f (t ) dt
T t0
2 t0 +T
an = ∫ f (t ) cos nω0t dt
T 0t

2 t0 +T
bn = ∫ f (t )sin nω 0t dt
T t0 23
The Effects of Symmetry on the Fourier Coefficients

1. Even function symmetry :

f (t=
) f ( −t )

All bn = 0

4 T /2
an = ∫ f (t ) cos nω 0t dt
T 0
(No sine components present in Fourier Series )
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2. Odd function symmetry :

f (t ) =− f ( −t )

All an = 0

4 T /2
bn = ∫ f (t )sin nω 0t dt
T 0
(No cosine components present in Fourier Series )
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 3. Half-wave symmetry :
If the function is shifted one half period and inverted and
look identical to the original then it is half-wave symmetric . A half-wave
symmetric function can be even, odd or neither.

T
f (t ) =
− f (t − )
2

an and bn = 0 for even values of n and a0 = 0

(No d.c. term and no even-harmonics present in Fourier Series )

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4. Quarter-wave symmetry :
An expression that has both half-wave symmetry and odd or
even symmetry .
 For Half-wave & Odd symmetry :

All an = 0 , and bn = 0 for even values of n and a0 = 0 .

8 T /4
bn =
T ∫0
f (t )sin nω 0t dt ; for odd n
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 For Half-wave & Even symmetry :

All bn = 0 , and an = 0 for even values of n and a0 = 0.

8 T /4
an =
T ∫0
f (t ) cos nω0t dt ; for odd n
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Example 3 : Find the trigonometric Fourier series for the periodic
rectangular waveform s (t ) shown below :

Solution :

and ,

Therefore ,

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 2.4.2 Exponential Form of the Fourier Series

∞ ∞
C0 + ∑ Cn e jnω0t =
f (t ) = ∑ n
C e jnω0t

n = −∞ n = −∞
n ≠0
where the complex coefficients are defined as :

1 t0 +T
∫
− jnω0t jθ n
Cn = f (t )e dt Cn e
T t0
and , the coefficients for negative n are the
complex conjugates of the coefficients for positive n .

Cn = C*− n
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 2.4.3 The Fourier Spectrum

The complex Fourier coefficients :

=
C n Cn ∠θ n
Cn θn

ω
ω
Amplitude spectrum Phase spectrum

The Fourier Spectrum is a graphical display of the amplitude and phase

of the complex Fourier Coefficient at the fundamental and harmonic 31
frequencies .
Example 4 : Find the complex Fourier series for the following
periodic time function .

( A periodic sequence of pulses each of width δ )

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The Fourier coefficients are :

1 T /2
∫
− jnω0t
Cn = Ae dt
T −T / 2
For
n≠0
A δ / 2 − jnω0t
Cn = ∫ e dt
T −δ / 2
−A
=
jnω 0T
( e − jnω0δ / 2
− e jnω0δ / 2
)
2A  nω 0δ 
= sin  
nω 0T  2 
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 Aδ sin( nω 0δ / 2)
Cn =
T ( nω 0δ / 2)
Aδ sin x
=
T x
where x = nω 0δ / 2
and sin x
=1 for x = 0
x
sin nπ
=0 for n = 1,2,3,....
nπ
1 δ /2 Aδ
For
n=
= 0 C0 =∫
T −δ / 2
Adt
T 34
 The amplitude spectrum

If the bandwidth B is specified as the width of the frequency band

of a waveform from zero frequency to the first zero crossing ,
then B = 1/δ Hz .
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The phase spectrum

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 2.4.4 Parseval’s Theorem

Parseval’s Theorem for the Fourier series states that , if s(t )

is a periodic signal with period T , then the average
normalized power (across a 1Ω resistor) of s(t ) is :

T /2 ∞ 2
1 cn
P= ∫ s(t ) dt = ∑
2

T −T / 2 n = −∞ T
If s(t) is real , |s(t)| is simply replaced by s(t).

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2.5 Fourier Transform
In communication systems, we often deal with non-periodic signals. An
extension of the time-frequency relationship to a non-periodic signal s(t)
requires the introduction of the Fourier Integral. A nonperiodic signal can
be viewed as a limiting case of a periodic signal, where the period T0
approaches infinity.As T0 approaches infinity, the periodic signal will
eventually become a single non-periodic signal.
If T0 approaches infinity, ω0 goes to 0. The harmonics get closer and
closer together. In the limit, the Fourier series summation representation
of x(t) becomes an integral , Cn becomes a continuous function X(jω) ,
and we have a continuous frequency spectrum.

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 We define : ∞

∫
− j ωt
X ( jω ) = x (t ) e dt
−∞
which is called the Fourier Transform of non - periodic signal x(t ). In general ,
X(jω) is a complex function of angular frequency ω .
To recover the signal x(t) from X(jω) :
∞
1
∫
j ωt
x(t ) = X ( j ω ) e dω
2π −∞
which is called the Inverse Fourier Transform.
Usually, we use the following shorthand notation for Fourier transform pair :

∞
X ( jω ) = F {x(t )} = ∫ x (t ) e − j ωt
dt
−∞
∞
x(t ) = F {X ( jω )} =
1
∫
j ωt
−1
X ( j ω ) e dω
2π −∞
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Example 5 :

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Example 6 :

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The Fourier transform for this example is real at all frequencies .
The time signal and its Fourier transform are :

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Example 7 :

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 Problems
(1) Sketch and label the even and odd components of the signals shown in the
following figure :

4e-0.5t

(2) Determine whether or not each of the following signals is periodic .

If a signal is Periodic , determine its fundamental period .
 π 2π
(a ) x(t ) = cos t +  (b) x(t ) = sin t
 4 3
π π
(c) x(t ) = cos t + sin t (d ) x(t ) = cos t + sin 2 t
3 4
(e) x(t ) = sin 2 t ( f ) x(t ) = e j [(π / 2 )t −1]
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(3) Sketch each of the following signals and determine whether they
are energy signals ,power signals , or neither .
(a ) x1 (t ) = e − at u (t ) , a > 0 (b) x2 (t ) = A cos(ω0t + θ )
−t
(c) x3 (t ) = t u (t ) (d ) x4 (t ) = e cos 3t
−2 t
(e) x5 (t ) = e (e) x6 (t ) = e − 2t

(4) Find the F.S. expansion of the signal defined by :

V , 0≤ω t ≤π
f (t ) = 
− V , π ≤ ω t ≤ 2π
and plot its amplitude spectrum .
(5) What is the F.S. expansion of the periodic signal whose definition in
one period is :

0 , − π ≤ ωt ≤ 0
s (t ) = 
sin ωt , 0 ≤ ωt ≤ π
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(6) What percentage of the total power is contained within the first zero
crossing of the spectrum envelope for s(t) as shown in the following figure.
Assume that : Am= 1 v , T0= 0.25 ms. , and τ = 0.05 ms.

(7) Plot the frequency spectrum of the signal shown in the following figure :

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(8) Find the Fourier transform of the impulse signal δ(t) and
sketch its amplitude spectrum .

∞ , t = 0 , 
δ (t ) =  
0 , t ≠ 0 
0
(9) Find the Fourier transform of the unit step u(t) signal and sketch its
amplitude and phase spectra .

1 , t > 0 , 
u (t ) =  
0 , t < 0 

(10) Find a time signal x(t) whose Fourier transform is given by:

1 ω <W
X ( jω ) = 

0 ω >W 49